2009 Ganga Geomorphology

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Geomorphology 113 (2009) 173188
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Geomorphology
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / g e o m o r p h
Climate-induced variability in the Late PleistoceneHolocene uvial and uvio-deltaic successions in the Ganga plains, India: A synthesis
Rajiv Sinha , Sujit Sarkar
Engineering Geosciences Group, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur 208016, India
a r t i c l e
i n f o
a b s t r a c t
The present knowledge of climate variability in the Indian sub-continent from terrestrial records is extremely widespread. Very few studies, backed by sound chronological database, extend to the full duration of even Late Quaternary. A critical evaluation of the available stratigraphic as well as chronological data needs to be undertaken to establish secure proxy-climatic indicators in the Indian-sub-continent. This paper presents a synthesis of the available uvial and uvio-deltaic successions for the Late PleistoceneHolocene period from the Ganga basin. The Ganga basin, trending parallel to the strike of the Himalayan foreland, shows a clear expression of variability of modern climate as precipitation doubles in a west to east transect from east of Delhi to east of Kolkata. This has resulted in complex spatial response of river systems because of variable stream power and sediment discharges that result in present-day degradational and aggradational regimes across the plains. We believe that such geomorphic diversity has existed over most of the Late Quaternary as is manifested in signicant spatial variability in the alluvial architecture developed below the plains. We have analyzed the uvial and uvio-deltaic sedimentary successions in the Ganga basin and highlighted the inuence of climatic variability in the generation of these successions. 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Article history: Accepted 20 December 2008 Available online 27 March 2009 Keywords: Himalayan foreland Alluvial stratigraphy Quaternary Climate change
1. Introduction Most parts of India belong to a monsoonal system that has been inuenced considerably by the Himalayan orogeny in Early Miocene. This SW monsoon system, generally known as the Indian monsoon, has evolved continuously since then, and presently, strong precipitation gradients exist from the arid regions of the Thar Desert towards the Himalaya in the northeast, and towards the western Indian Ocean in the southwest. The 250 million people living in the Ganga plains depend on agriculture which in turn is driven by the monsoonal precipitation. Climate variability in monsoonal settings demonstrates that much of the considerable variability over the past 150,000 years occurs at orbital periodicities and all of the paleoclimate time series show four monsoon maxima during this period that occur during interglacial conditions and coincide with the precession maxima and minima of the northern hemisphere summer radiation (Prell and Kutzbach, 1987). High-resolution climatic records from oceans for the Late-Pliestocene Holocene period for the Indian sub-continent are available (Overpeck
Corresponding author. E-mail address: rsinha@iitk.ac.in (R. Sinha). 0169-555X/$ see front matter 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2009.03.011
et al., 1996; Anderson et al., 2002; Gupta et al., 2003; Rao et al., 2008). Similar records from continental settings for accurate and precise reconstruction of paleoclimate are relatively rare. Particularly lacking is the response of large river systems to monsoonal uctuations in terms of hydrological response as well as sedimentation history. It is well established that major climatic shifts driven by insolation changes have occurred in the last 20 ka and several studies have demonstrated that tropical rivers respond to these climate changes (Goodbred, 2003; Jain and Tandon, 2003; Latrubesse, 2003; Gibling et al., 2005). The sensitivity of the response to climate change, however, is a function of the size of the system. The response of large river systems to climatic shifts is very complex because of either the variety of geotectonic settings of the drainage basins and/or the oodplain styles that large tropical rivers exhibit (Latrubesse et al., 2005; Tandon and Sinha, 2007). For example, Latrubesse and Franzinelli (2002) recorded non-linear response of the Amazon river to Holocene climatic uctuations manifested as oodplain impedence (detachment) in Middle Holocene followed by a more dynamic regime in Late Holocene. In contrast, the Negro river, a tributary to the Amazon, showed a more dramatic response during the same time primarily because of a sharp reduction in sediment supply from upstream and mid-stream reaches (Latrubesse and Franzinelli, 2005). In the Ganga system, a tight coupling of sedimentary responses from source area to catchment basin to coastal and marine depocenters in the Ganga system has been suggested (Goodbred, 2003); however, given the geomorphic diversity of the Ganga, it is not understood

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as to how the different components of the system have responded. Whereas hydrology largely explains variability in the Ganga system, it does not fully explain close source-to-sink linkages. This paper presents a synthesis of the available climatic records from the Ganga basin for the Late PleistoceneHolocene period and discusses the inuence of these controls on the alluvial architecture that developed below the plains vis--vis the inuence of tectonics and sea-level changes. This synthesis is not intended to be comprehensive but we have taken some representative studies from the region to demonstrate the spatial variability in uvial successions in response to climate change during the Late PleistoceneHolocene period, particularly in the post-LGM period. 2. Continental records of Late PleistoceneHolocene climate in India For the Late Pleistocene period, continental records from northern and western India have been studied extensively and intensively as response systems to shifts in the monsoonal regimes, both in terms of magnitude and in the zone of inuence. Major areas of interest include the Himalaya, the Ganga Basin, the Thar Desert, and the southwestern (Gujarat) and northeastern margin (Haryana) of the Thar Desert. A variety of archives such as peat, loess, alluvial sediments, playas, lake sediments, dunes, tree-rings, calcretes, and speleothems have been used to generate climate proxy data. In a regional appraisal of the response of the Ganga river system, Goodbred (2003) demonstrated that climate related signals propagate downstream and show tight coupling between source area, catchment basin and coastal and marine depocenters. Detailed evaluation of Late Pleistocene interuve stratigraphic development in the Ganga plains showed that interuve areas near the major rivers aggraded periodically between 27 and 90 ka (MIS 35) (Gibling et al., 2005). They subsequently degraded or accumulated sediment only locally, probably reecting decreased monsoonal precipitation around the LGM (MIS 2). Increased precipitation during the 155 ka period of monsoon recovery probably increased discharge and promoted incision and widespread badland formation. Calcrete records from Ganga plains, spanning over 60 ka, suggest monsoon-induced vegetational shifts from C3- to C4-dominated types (Srivastava, 2001; Sinha et al., 2006a). Fluvial successions in western India record systematic variations of the sedimentation pattern in response to the late Quaternary climate changes. Synchronous phases of aggradation and incision occurred in the lower reaches of the three river basins, the Luni, Mahi and Sabarmati (Jain and Tandon, 2003) and it has been inferred that variations in uvial styles in different regions are apparently a function of precipitation gradient which is observed even today. Quaternary calcretes of Rajasthan have also been used as an important climatic archive and signicant enrichment of oxygen isotopes in carbonates (up to 4.4) have been interpreted to represent phases of weak monsoons (Andrews et al., 1998; Dhir et al., 2004). Among the non-uvial records, aeolian successions from the Thar Desert go back to over N150 ka, and various phases of expansion and contraction of the desert have been recorded on multi-millennial time scales (102 ka) in response to monsoonal uctuations (Singhvi and Kar, 2004). Further, high resolution lake records from western Rajasthan suggest maximum lake level in the Lunkaransar at 6300 14C years B. P and complete desiccation around 4800 14C years B.P. (Enzel et al., 1999). Sinha et al. (2006b) extended the paleoclimate record of the Sambhar playa to ~30,000 years and concluded that the Sambhar did not show any desiccation phase throughout its history unlike Didwana and Lunkaransar which desiccated completely between 3 and 4 ka. Although the LGM aridity is recorded at Sambhar, a shallow lake was maintained during this period. AMS 14C dates of N15 ka BP on pollen from the Bap-Malar playa also reveal that it possibly existed during
the LGM and millennial scale differences are recognized in spatially separated playas in the Thar (Deotare et al., 2004). In a recent compilation of Holocene climatic records of India, Prasad and Enzel (2006) showed that a marked positive shift in the hydrological balance in NW India occurred at ~ 6 ka followed by an arid phase and intense dune formation at ~ 5.2 ka. Subsequently, some occasional wet events of short duration and smaller magnitude occurred. Lake records in the Ganga plains suggest a dry phase between 11,50010,500 14C years BP and a climatic optimum (~ 10,000 5800 14C yr BP) during Early to Mid-Holocene, based on the pollen data and stable isotope analysis of gastropod shells from the Sanai Tal (Sharma et al., 2004a). An arid phase and reduced monsoon activity was interpreted between 5000 and 2000 14C years BP from a considerable reduction in aquatic elements and simultaneous increase in marshy plantssynchronous with mid-Holocene dry phase in NW India. A climatic amelioration has been interpreted in the Ganga plains from 1700 14C years BP onwards (Sharma et al., 2004a). In a more recent work, Kale (2007) synthesized the available radiocarbon dates from the Ganga basin and identied phases of alluviation and incision in response to monsoonal intensity during Late Pleistocene Holocene. The cluster analysis of radiocarbon dates shows periods of alluviation just before the monsoon optimum viz. deglacialearly Holocene humid phase and Late Holocene enhanced monsoon phase. This paper describes the uvial successions in the Ganga plains as a function of climate based on the studies available in different reaches. We follow a useful scheme of regional classication of the Ganga plains into Upper, Middle and Lower Ganga plains (Fig. 1) based primarily on physiography and secondly on climate (Singh, 1994). The sub-humid Upper Ganga Plains (UGP) and humid Middle and Lower Ganga Plains (MGP and LGP) fall in a continuum of climatic setting and are not separated by any rigid boundary. One contrasting characteristic, however, is the crop patternwheatrice in sub-humid but irrigated UGP, rice and wheatbarley in MGP, and ricejute in per humid LGP (Singh, 1994) which are manifestations of climatic as well as soil variability. 3. Upper Ganga plains The Upper Ganga Plains lie between the Yamuna River in the west and 100 m contour in the east covering parts of Uttar Pradesh (Fig. 1). One important tributary of the Ganga namely, the Ramganga joins in this region while several other rivers, such as the Ghaghra, the Sharda, and the Gomati, drain the plains. Four distinct physiographic units were identied by Singh (1994): (a) the sub-montane belt, (b) the GangaGhaghra interuve, (c) the GangaYamuna interuve and (d) the badlands close to the Yamuna River to the south. The following sections discuss some of the windows from the UGP for shallow subsurface stratigraphy and climatic interpretations. 3.1. Upper reaches and piedmont areas The upper reaches of the Ganga River, immediately downstream of the mountain front, are characterized by four zones of distinct sedimentation pattern from upstream to downstream (Shukla et al., 2001). The most upstream zone 1, 1520 km wide, was described as gravelly braided zone with inter-layered gravel and sand bars. The downstream zone of sandy braid plain of shallow channels has preserved 45 m thick bar sequences and records frequent avulsion events. The next zone is made up of an anastomosing channel plain with large vegetated interchannel areas with muddy sediments. The most downstream zone is the meandering channel zone where broad interuve areas are recognized. Although Shukla et al. (2001) described this as megafan sedimentation, the geomorphic signatures of the Ganga River in this reach do not conform to megafan morphology and there is not enough data to decipher its sub-surface expression (Tandon et al., 2008). This

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Fig. 1. Location of the Ganga basin and division of the plains into Upper, Middle and Lower plains after Singh (1994) based primarily on physiography and secondly on climate.
variation can at best be considered as the downstream longitudinal variation of a trunk system (Fig. 2). An intermontane valley ll from HaldwaniPantnagar area, east of the Ganga River and directly overlying the Lower Siwalik succession consists of a gravelly coarsening-upward megacycle (~200 m thick), and is divisible into ve ning-upward mesocycles (2050 m thick) separated by mud intervals 510 m thick (Shukla and Bora, 2003).
These mesocycles were interpreted as fan building events (fan expansion cycles), each terminating with a debris-ow. The mud content in the sequence increases from the mountain front and, sand layers alternate with 212 m thick mud intervals. Some gravels appear in the upper part of the ll, perhaps in response to progradation of fans. Tthese successions, which are tentatively assigned a PleistoceneHolocene age by the authors and no absolute age data is available.
Fig. 2. Longitudinal variation in alluvial architecture in the Upper Ganga plains downstream of the Mountain Front (MF); see box in Fig. 1 for location. Distinct zones of sedimentation pattern are noted by Shukla et al. (2001) namely, gravelly braided zone, sandy braided plain, anastomosing channel plain and meandering channel zone from upstream to downstream.

Tandon et al. (2006) reported 1020 m high cliffs along the SW margins of the Ganga and Ramganga rivers. The Ganga and the Ramganga are braided in this region and maximum channel width is as high as 3 km bordered by narrow active oodplains. The stratigraphic data from this region shows uvial sands, 20 m thick, yielding ages of 26 6 and 22 4 ka from the exposures along the Ganga between Moradabad and Haridwar (Tandon et al., 2006). Interuve areas consist of elevated, vegetated oodplain surfaces which are beyond the reach of modern oods. A progressive westward shift of the active channel of the Ganga by more than 15 km is suggested by eastward convexity of the meanders on older oodplain unit. The Ramganga has also shifted towards west as evident from abandoned channel belts east of the present course. The interuve region between the Ganga and Ramganga is characterized by aeolian sand ridges, discontinuous and running broadly parallel to the drainage lines. A quartz OSL date of 12.3 1.1 ka obtained from the aeolian sand ridge near Amroha suggests this to be of pre-Holocene arid phase (Tandon et al., 2006). 3.2. Ganga and Yamuna valley ll successions The Ganga and Yamuna rivers have generated thick valley lls in the upper Ganga plains which are separated by wide interuves. The Ganga valley has been in its present position for at least 30 ka as revealed from the luminescence age data on two valley ll cores
analyzed by Sinha et al. (2007). These cores reect two distinct phases of channel activity during pre-LGM time (N26 ka) and early Holocene (116 ka). The upper and lower channel sands are 910 m thick, and are separated by ~7 m of intra-valley oodplain muds (Fig. 3a, b) which are moderately pedogenized and bounded at both ends by prominent kankar layers that mark discontinuities. The channel sands are similar in petrographic features to modern Ganga sand, and age data suggests that the Ganga has been close to its present site for at least the past 30 ka and then a southward migration to its present position occurred between 11 and 6 ka (Sinha et al., 2007). The present course of the Ganga at Bithur, is located ~1015 km southwest of the locations from where these cores were raised, and is deeply incised (~ 13 m) forming a 1.3 km long cliff line along the southern bank. The stratigraphic succession at Bithur (Fig. 3c) consists of a lower oodplain sequence overlain by repeated cycles of lacustrine and aeolian units marking a major discontinuity in uvial sedimentation around LGM (Gibling et al., 2005). The onset of the incision occurred after 11 ka in response to early Holocene monsoonal intensication (Gibling et al., 2005; Sinha et al., 2007). South of the Ganga River, the Yamuna river at Kalpi is deeply incised (~33 m) and forms a prominent cliff line for ~1.4 km along the southern bank. The entire cliff section at kalpi represents a preHolocene interuve succession and has been studied earlier by us (Sinha et al., 2002; Gibling et al., 2005). The northern bank is at and
Fig. 3. Valley lls and valley margin successions in the Ganga plains (see box in Fig. 1 for location). (a, b) Two valley ll cores, JP and FP, are characterized by two ning upward sequences corresponding to channel activity in Pre-LGM and early Holocene times. (c) Cliff section at Bithur forms the valley margin and is characterized by a lower oodplain unit followed by a series of lacustrine and eolian units which mark a discontinuity corresponding to LGM. (d) A valley ll core at the bank of the Yamuna river marks the rapid lling of the valley during the last 23 ka.

gradually merges with the oodplain. A core raised from the Yamuna valley on the northern bank shows a feldspathic coarse sand unit at the bottom (base not reached), in contrast to ne micaceous sand of the modern Yamuna river. The coarse sand unit is overlain by a channel margin sequence (levee?), about 12 m thick, consisting of interbedded very ne sand and silty clay (Sinha et al., 2005a) (Fig. 3d). The sand layers are micaceous with thin patches of white silt, and petrographic data suggest a predominant Himalayan source (Sinha et al., 2009). The silty clay layers have few soft dark mottles but kankars are absent. The core is capped by a micaceous ne sand layer with some pink feldspar grains and a few kankars and rhizocretions, perhaps representing inchannel bar deposits. Age dates from this core suggest a very rapid lling of the valley during the last 2 ka and may be attributed to the eastward avulsion of the Yamuna river to its present course in Mid to Late Holocene period (Wilhelmy, 1969; Yashpal et al., 1980; Sahai, 1999). Our recent work (Sinha et al., 2009) lends some support to this hypothesis of a young Yamuna but more detailed sub-surface investigations may be necessary to test this idea. 3.3. GangaGomati and GangaYamuna interuves Fluvial successions in the GangaGomati and GangaYamuna interuve have been studied for over three decades now and the controls of Holocene landforms and stratigraphy have been intensely debated. Early work on Holocene stratigraphy in the GangaGomati interuve by Singh and Bajpai (1989) and Singh et al. (1990a) identied regional geomorphic surfaces (T0, T1 and T2) in this region, correlatable across the entire Ganga plains and related them to Quaternary sea-level uctuations. These surfaces were conceptually assigned ages from 30 ka to modern but no absolute age data were provided. The most important implication of these studies was the notion of spatial homogeneity in geomorphic and stratigraphic development over vast regions of the Ganga plains. These myths and misconceptions about the Ganga plains persisted in the literature for some time but have now been negated by various workers (Sinha et al., 2002; Jain and Sinha, 2003a; Gibling et al., 2005; Chandra et al., 2007; Tandon et al., 2008). In the GangaYamuna interuve, the Sengar River exposes a 120 m long and 10.7 m deep Holocene section at Mawar (Fig. 4a). The upper parts of this succession record oodplain degradation and formation of gully ll channels in the early Holocene period which corresponds broadly with a period of increasing precipitation and probable increased transport capacity of rivers (Gibling et al., 2005). The Sengar is a tributary to the major Yamuna River, and incision of the Yamuna could have led to gullying in the Sengar in Holocene. Srivastava et al. (2003a) discussed Late PleistoceneHolocene hydrologic changes in the GangaGomati interuve, based on geomorphic mapping supported by OSL chronology. They suggested strong uvial activity in the region between 13 and 8 ka, after which reduced channel activity resulted in the formation of small ponds, followed by a period of aeolian aggradation forming alluvial ridges. One such alluvial ridge at Gahira pass near Kanpur is about 6 m high (Fig. 4b) and starts with a cross-bedded ne sand unit and parallel ne sand unit (dating 6.4 0.7 ka) which were interpreted to be of uvial origin by Srivastava et al. (2003a). The upper parts of the sequence is ~ 3 m thick aeolian sand unit that dates between 5.5 to 5.8 ka and indicates a decline of uvial activity in mid-Holocene time and reworking of uvial sand by aeolian processes. The Gomati River is an example of a plains-fed river (Sinha and Friend, 1994) in a humid, sub-tropical climate and is characterized by ne-grained muddy sediments throughout its course. Based on mineralogical criteria, it was inferred that local redistribution of sediments is the main geomorphic process generating thick muddy successions (Kumar and Singh, 1978). In a more recent work, Singh et al. (2005) studied the weathering dynamics of the Gomati river sediments and reafrmed that recycling of sediments by the smaller interuve rivers is an important process of sediment redistribution in
the Ganga plains. The authors inferred two cycles of weathering; the rst one producing illite as the major clay mineral and the second cycle resulting in smectite as the dominant weathering product. These weathering processes are strongly inuenced by the prevailing climatic conditions and can, therefore, preserve important signatures of Late PliestoceneHolocene climate changea potential that is yet to be realized fully in the Ganga plains. Another interesting approach to establish climatic control on alluvial stratigraphic development during Late PliestoceneHolocene in the upper Ganga plains has been to use clay minerals and soil micromorphology as proxies for climate change and pedo-sedimentary environments (Srivastava et al., 1994, 1998). These studies utilized and demonstrated some of the pathways of formation of clay minerals in response to specic climatic conditions: (a) during warm and wet climate, ne-grained micas weather to 2:1 expanding clay minerals; (b) Trioctehedral vermiculite and smectite can form at the expense of biotite mica in an arid climate; and (c) Formation of intrastratied smectitekaolinite (Sm/K) in soils occurs in a humid climate and is not possible in arid conditions (Pal et al., 1989). Using their data from the GangaRamganga interuve in the upper Ganga plains, Srivastava et al. (1998) interpreted three distinct phases in Late PleistoceneHolocene which were later supported by petrography and stable isotope data of pedogenic carbonates as well (Srivastava, 2001): (a) An arid climate between 12,920 and 7390 cal yr BP characterized by trioctahedral vermiculite and smectite and septaric, irregular nodules of dense micrite and diffused needles (Type I carbonates) associated with illuvial clay features; (b) A warm and wet climate between 5730 and 4150 cal yr BP characterized by Sm/K and dissolution and precipitation of calcretes and formation of blocky calcite and needles in voids (Type II carbonates). (c) Another arid to sub-humid phase after 4150 cal yr BP which again was manifested as trioctahedral vermiculite and smectite in soils and secondary carbonate accumulation in voids interpreted to be groundwater related, formed because of capillary rise in alternating moist and dry conditions with incomplete leaching (Srivastava, 2001). Types I and II carbonates showed similar values of oxygen isotopes but signicantly different carbon isotope composition. Type I calcretes are generally depleted in 13C (0.6 to 6.9% which was attributed to sparse vegetation and low rate of soil respiration in arid climate. Type II calcretes showed enrichment in 13C (+ 0.6 to + 1.8%) because of extensive dissolutionreprecipitation in humid to sub-humid climate (Srivastava, 2001). Some recent work in the upper Ganga plains has used magnetic mineralogy as a useful proxy to interpret sediment supply, postdepositional weathering and pedogenic processes in uvial sediments (Sangode et al., 2007; Sinha et al., 2007). These analyses are based on the oxides of iron being sensitive to climate with a short response time, but once formed, they can preserve stable records over longer geological times (Thompson and Oldeld,1986; Evans and Heller, 2003). A number of environmental magnetic techniques, rapid and inexpensive, have been developed in recent years for qualitative and quantitative estimates of magnetic mineralogy for discrimination and quantication of different modes of authigenic and detrital iron oxides (Op. cit.). The presence of diamagnetic and paramagnetic silicate and carbonate minerals signicantly dilutes the concentration of magnetic minerals in sediments under different depositional environments and these needs careful consideration in the interpretation of the magnetic data. Sangode et al. (2007) characterized the Quaternary sediments of varied depositional setting (uvial, uvio-lacustrine and marine) from the Indian Sub-continent in terms of magnetic susceptibility, high eld hysteresis parameters and the ratios and bivariate plots. They demonstrated that the sediments from the Ganga basin show distinctly

Fig. 4. Late PleistoceneHolocene sequences in the interuve; (a) Cliff section at Sengar river in the GangaYamuna interuve shows oodplain degradation and gully erosion event in early Holocene inset in an older oodplain sequence; (b) An alluvial ridge section at Gahira pass (near Kanpur) described by Srivastava et al. (2003a) shows that uvial activity declined around mid-Holocene facilitating the deposition of aeolian sand.
different Magnetic Mineral Assemblage (MMA) in comparison to the Late Quaternary sediments from other areas in the Himalayan foreland, such as piedmont areas or upper Siwaliks, even though they fall in similar hinterland setup and climate zones. Such variations are attributed to diverse energy conditions because of varied basin morphology, climate and the source to sink proximity. In the Ganga basin, contrasting channel to overbank MMA relations is discernible during the glacial and interglacial periods. The authors concluded a strong detrital control on MMA governed by the energy conditions of the transporting media that in turn is controlled by catchment morphology, regional tectonics and climatic uctuations. Sinha et al. (2007), from analysis of four cores and outcrop sections to 50 m sub-surface in Kanpur region of the upper Ganga plains, demonstrated signicant differences in magnetic signatures of channel, oodplain and lacustrine facies from valley and interuve
sediments. The lake deposits showed marked magnetic enhancement, probably reecting bacterial action and the availability of organic matter. The interuve sediments consisting of the near-continuous activity of small plains-fed rivers generated cycles of alluviation and pedogenesis, the latter yielding strong magnetic signatures. Enhanced magnetic signatures are apparent in the valley and interuve Holocene records, possibly linked to increased monsoonal strength and warmer conditions and enhanced rates of pedogenesis. 4. Middle Ganga plains The Middle Ganga Plains covers the Bihar plains and eastern Uttar Pradesh lying on either side of the Ganga River. Several major drainage lines, namely the Ghaghra, the Gandak and the Kosi, join the northern bank of the Ganga whereas the Son joins from the south.

Geomorphologically, the northern part of the middle Ganga plains is divisible into a series of megafans, e.g. Gandak (Mohindra et al., 1992) and Kosi (Gohain and Parkash, 1990), and interfan areas that themselves contain dynamic rivers. Geddes (1960) had earlier described these areas as cone and intercone. Sinha and Friend (1994) proposed a source area-based classication of river systems using examples from this area. The Kosi and the Gandak were classied as mountain-fed systems with a large upland catchment area and high discharges from the snow-fed mountains, with large contributions from monsoonal rainfall. The interfan rivers, the Baghmati and Burhi Gandak, were classied as foothills-fed and plains-fed river systems respectively. The foothills-fed systems draw water and sediments from the Himalayan foothills with an annual precipitation of over 1600 mm, whereas the plains-fed rivers are essentially groundwater-fed systems that receive large runoffs during the monsoon. Few natural exposures exist in the eastern Ganga plains; the channels are not deeply incised in this area, and exposed bank sediments are those of the aggrading oodplain system of the modern and Late Holocene (Sinha et al., 1996, 2005b), rather than those of earlier Holocene or Late Pleistocene systems. 4.1. Megafan successions The sub-surface stratigraphy of the fan areas is characterized by a dominance of sandy facies in the plains and the gravels are restricted to areas near the mountain front. Based on a series of short cores, Singh et al. (1993) reported that a gravelly-sandy facies (N60 m thick) dominate in the proximal zone which was interpreted as braided river deposits. Further downstream, sandy and sand-mud mixtures (typically up to 10 m thick but locally up to 40 m) in the distal parts are present upto the conuence with the Ganga which is primarily a manifestation of megafan sweep succession in an east west direction. While some information exists about the historical channels across the megafan surface (Gole and Chitale, 1966; Wells and Dorr, 1987), there is no information available till date on the long-term avulsion histories of the Kosi megafan responsible for the generation of these sand sheets below the surface (Fig. 5d; Jain and Sinha, 2003a). The multi-storied sand sheets are 1620 thick and are interbedded with overbank muddy layers (Fig. 5a, d) (Singh et al., 1993). A progressive decrease from upstream to downstream in particle size, bed thickness, and scale of cross-bedded sets has also been reported (Singh and Bhardwaj, 1991). 4.2. GandakKosi interuve (interfan) In contrast to the megafan areas, the interfan areas are generally considered to be inactive regions with subdued uvial activity, in which mud accumulates through overbank sedimentation. The GandakKosi interfan area in north Bihar plains is, however, characterized by rapid, frequent channel movements (Phillip et al., 1989; Sinha, 1996; Jain and Sinha, 2003b, 2004) of sediment-charged channels (Sinha and Jain, 1998), resulting in rapid sedimentation on the oodplain. Consequently, near-surface (23 m) sediments of the interfan area predominantly consist of muds, with narrow sand bodies (Fig. 5b, c, d) representing minor channels or crevasse splays (Sinha, 1995; Jain and Sinha, 2003b). Radiocarbon dating of these deposits is restricted to the upper few meters but suggests that these deposits are of late Holocene age (b2400 years; Sinha et al., 1996) and accumulated rapidly (0.71.5 mm/year). Although the dated record represents only a few thousand years, these rates are much higher than those documented for other near-surface parts of the Ganga plains, e.g. 0.2 mm/year from 14C dates from eastern Uttar Pradesh (Joshi and Bhartiya, 1991) and 0.20.05 mm/year from the middle Ganga plains (Chandra et al., 2007) both representing a period of 104 years. The eastern UP plains also show mature soils, 34 m thick, with welldeveloped carbonate horizons, estimated to be as old as 13,500 years
BP (Srivastava et al., 1994) in line with lower sedimentation rates in this region. Sinha et al. (2005b) analysed the groundwater borehole data from the Baghmati alluvial plains in north Bihar extending to ~ 300 m. Muddy successions, 3050 m thick, were reported intercalated with thin sands representing short-lived channels or crevassing events. In the top 50 m of succession, several large sand bodies (up to 25 m thick and ~10 km long) were revealed and suggested major channel activity in the past. It was interpreted, therefore, that the preset-day depositional setting characterizing avulsive channels and rapid aggradation has dominated this region for tens of thousands of years. 4.3. ShardaGandak interuve In the ShardaGandak interuve area, the top 1020 m of sediments are characterized by muddy successions with a basal coarse sand horizon at ~ 3035 m depth (Chandra, 1993). The coarse sand layer was interpreted as a possible marker for the Rapti palaeochannel with a higher stream power. Chandra et al. (2007) documented two geomorphic surfaces (terraces?) in the GhaghraRapti interuve dating from 11.5 ka and 5.5 ka, and they suggested a uvial history inuenced by rapid deposition and avulsion, rather than one dominated by lateral migration, environmentally-controlled incision, and terrace formation, as suggested by earlier workers (Singh et al., 1990a). Relatively young depositional ages for these surfaces do not support the hypothesis of glacial-stage regional surfaces (T1, T2; Singh et al., 1990a,b). The authors concluded that aggradational phases were periodically characteristic of the Rapti River during 11.55.5 ka, and again after 5.5 ka years ago. These periods were presumably separated by a brief degradational phase during which incision occurred, separating the two geomorphic surfaces. This history is also at variance with oodplain detachment and attachment in the western Ganga plains where long periods of hiatus in sedimentation has generated discontinuity-bounded sequences (Gibling et al., 2005). 4.4. SonBelan valley The SonBelan successions in southern Ganga plains have provided Paleolithic to Neolithic archeological sites and the rst known evidence for rice cultivation also comes from this region. Williams and Clarke (1984, 1995), Williams et al. (2006) described alluvial sequences in the Belan and Son valleys ranging in age from Middle Pleistocene to Holocene. Apart from reporting discontinuity bounded sequences, an important discovery was the reporting of Toba ash, attributed to the eruption at 7374 ka of the Toba volcano in Indonesia, from these successions (Williams and Clarke, 1984). The most recent work in this region has presented a sedimentological and paleoclimatic analysis for Belan sections, incorporating new luminescence and radiocarbon dates (Gibling et al., 2008). This work, based on ~20 m of strata exposed in uvial terraces, established sustained uvial activity during Marine Isotope Stage 5 and later. The Late Pleistocene Holocene part of this succession shows thin reworked gravels with Upper Paleolithic artifacts (~2131 ka B.P.), and may represent declining alluviation and oodplain gully erosion during reduced monsoonal activity around the Last Glacial Maximum (Gibling et al., 2008). Younger channel lls contain shell-rich aeolian sand, and mounds of shelly sand lie inland from the river. Luminescence chronology of sands (14 to 7 ka B.P.), suggests that they were deposited during the period of climatic instability that includes the Younger Dryas as the monsoon intensied following the Last Glacial Maximum. A small volume of source-bordering aeolian material in the sequence, earlier interpreted as loess by Williams and Clarke (1984, 1995), was probably deposited by local wind action during more arid phases (Gibling et al., 2008). The overlying oodplain muds reect renewed alluviation, after which the river incised during peak monsoon ow.

Fig. 5. Megafan and interfan successions in the Middle Ganga Plains; (a) Kosi megafan, (b) Interfan succession near Muzaffarpur, north Bihar, (c) Interfan succession near Samastipur, north Bihar, and (d) 3-D alluvial architecture of the fan-interfan areas proposed by Jain and Sinha (2003a).

5. Lower Ganga plains and deltaic plains (Bengal basin) A large part of the Bengal basin is covered by uvio-deltaic deposits formed by the Ganga and the Brahmaputra rivers. After draining through the alluvial plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, the Ganga River enters the lower plains area and nally meets the sea in the Bay of Bengal. The Brahmaputra River joins the Ganga from the northeast, and together they have built the largest delta in the world. The combined GangaBrahmaputra system transports ~1 109 tonnes/yr of sediments, making it the second largest sediment dispersal system in the world (Hovius, 1998). The Bengal basin acts as a large sink for this large sediment delivery, about 80% of which is delivered during the monsoon (Goodbred and Kuehl, 2000). Both rivers have avulsed on a time scale of hundreds of years and, have generated a thick (up to 100 m) and complex Holocene succession of alluvial deposits beginning at about 1011 ka (Coleman, 1969; Umitsu, 1993; Goodbred and Kuehl, 2000; Allison et al., 2003). Several studies suggest that the timing of maximum transgression differed by at least 1000 years (7 ka and 6 ka in the western and eastern parts, respectively) followed by progradation. The channel courses of the Ganga and the Brahmaputra rivers were separate until about 200 years ago; the Brahmaputra rst occupied its present position as late as 1830 and has switched between the present course and an eastern course (Meghna River) more than once in the historical time period. The seaward extent of the GangaBramhaputra deltaic deposits is marked by the base of the sub-aqueous delta foresets (Kuehl et al., 1997). A number of stratigraphic and geochronological studies in the Bengal Basin have helped to dene the depth and timing of the late Quaternary uvio-deltaic successions (Banerjee and Sen, 1988; Goodbred and Kuehl, 2000). Most of these investigations were on the Bangladesh side of the Bengal basin, and the information available from the Indian side is rather fragmentary. In the following sections, we attempt to summarize the stratigraphy of the Bengal basin for four distinct geomorphic units: (a) the lower Ganga valley, (b) the lowland oodplain and delta margin, (c) the upper delta plain, and (d) the lower delta plain. 5.1. Lower Ganga valley The geomorphology of the lower Ganga valley, between the Rajmahal Hills and Farakka, was studied by several workers (Niyogi, 1975; Bhattacharya and Banerjee, 1979; Singh et al., 1998) and three major landformsuplands, old uvial/deltaic plains, and young uvial plains have been described. Because of reactivation of basement faults and tectonic subsidence, the eastern and western sub-units of the shelf were sites of active transgression during the early Pleistocene and between 7 and 6 ka (Banerjee and Sen, 1988; Singh et al., 1998). Uplift of these sub-units at different times triggered regression in the Holocene, which controlled the timing of pedogenesis of the sub-units (Singh et al., 1998). Little is known about the surface and sub-surface deposits. Shallow archaeological excavations in the GangaMahananda interuve near Malda by Dr. S. Panja (Vishwabharti University, West Bengal) were logged by us which reveal three major stratigraphic units in ~8 m section located ~ 3.5 m above the modern river bed of the Kalindri (Fig. 6a). The lowest oodplain unit (~2 m thick) consists of clayey silt or silty clay with minor pedogenesis. This deposit is associated with 5th7th Century (AD) pottery, which is fragmented and weathered, indicating sub-aerial exposure. The overlying unit (~2 m thick) is a layer of mottled silty sand that contains thin sheets of ne sand with FeMn concretions and hearth, pit, pottery, bones and other cultural material corresponding to 8th12th Century (AD). This unit is siltier in its upper part, and characterizes a channel margin sequence; the ne sand units representing crevasse splay deposits, some of which preserve thin cross-laminae. The upper ~ 1 m thick ne massive sand unit may represent a minor low energy channel ll which
is overlain by mud with abundant pottery, bones and a hearth from the medieval period (1215th Century AD). Such successions are probably typical of alluvial settings with frequent channel migration, similar to the GandakKosi interuve in north Bihar plains, where immature oodplain muds develop because of rapid overbank deposition (described earlier). Although no dates are available, most of the upper 10 m of the strata can be assigned to the late Holocene (b23 ka) based on the archaeological evidence. 5.2. Lowland oodplain and delta margin Several investigations, during the last two decades, have focused on the delta plains, but little information exists regarding the alluvial stratigraphy of the lowland oodplain at the delta margin, downstream of Farakka down to the Kolkata area. Cores described by Stanley and Hait (2000) are from this region, although facies description and interpretation are limited. Two cores near Kolkata (Dankuni and Salt Lake cores) down to ~ 30 m depth show three major stratigraphic units (Fig. 6b). The lower oxidized, poorly sorted sandy facies, interpreted as Late Pleistocene deposits, was probably derived from the older weathered deposits and laid down by rivers during low stands. This succession also contains stiff, oxidized mud in the upper parts at some locations, and may represent channel lls. In contrast, the overlying Holocene mud strata, lying unconformably on the lower oxidized succession, are much softer and rich in organic matter. The intervening sand layers are ner grained than the Pleistocene sands and also contain organic matter and shell fragments. This succession was interpreted as deltaic mud formed during the transgressive phase prior to 8.5 ka (Stanley and Hait, 2000). The Tangail borehole section in Bangladesh, described by Umitsu (1993), represents a delta margin succession in which a 10 m sandy gravel unit (Unit 1) at a depth of N100 m below the surface was recorded and a fossil wood sample was dated to be ~28 ka. This unit was, therefore, attributed to deposition by rivers draining the region during the global low stand at the Last Glacial Maximum. The overlying layer of thin sandy sediments with gravel (Unit 2) was deposited at ~12 ka, presumably as oodplain deposits. Unit 3 (1012 ka) is medium sand, and silty sand essentially formed in a shallow valley plain along the Ganga river, where incision of the upper delta surface was caused by a short-lived(?) regression (Umitsu, 1993). A rather thick layer of silty sand (clayey and peaty in the coastal region such as Khulna) was marked as Unit 4 which was apparently deposited under strong marine inuence during the middle Holocene, and was capped by silty oodplain sediments (Unit 5) when the rate of transgression slowed down in Late Holocene. 5.3. Upper delta plain The upper delta plain extends 200 km landward of the salinityinuenced lower delta plain and comprises almost half of the delta plain (Kuehl et al., 2005). The Madhupur Terrace and Barind Tract are elevated alluvial deposits of Pleistocene age (13070 ka; Kuehl et al., 2005) in the upper delta plain which has traditionally been ascribed to tectonic uplift (Morgan and McIntyre, 1959; Johnson and Alam, 1991). Growing evidence exists that these deposits may be relict geomorphic features (Kuehl et al., 2005). Other younger terraces are also present in the upper delta plain. Even though the origin and age of these elevated surfaces are uncertain, they form important geomorphic units and divide the plains into discrete sub-basins which act as major depocenters (Kuehl et al., 2005). In general, shallow sub-surface stratigraphy of the upper delta plain consists of a ning upward succession starting with coarse channel sand deposits (320 m thick) capped by thin oodplain muds (0.53 m). Strong spatial variability in stratigraphic development, however, has been reported. For example, a core raised from Diamond Harbour by Stanley and Hait (2000) showed a Pleistocene uvial sand
182 R. Sinha, S. Sarkar / Geomorphology 113 (2009) 173188 Fig. 6. Fluvio-deltaic successions in (a) Lower Ganga plains, (b) delta margin, (c) upper delta plain, (d, e, f) Lower delta plain (Location DH is Diamond Harbour; Facies symbols: FFluvial, DDeltaic, TTidal, EEstuarine; numbers 1, 2,3.indicate stratigraphic units; all ages are calibrated radiocarbon dates).

(N5 m thick) followed by Holocene mud and sand facies (~25 m thick) (Fig. 6c). Another exception is the Sylhet basin where ~ 80 m of negrained Holocene deposits have accumulated, presumably in response to enhanced subsidence (Goodbred, 2003). Thin oodplain facies on the surface of the upper delta plain are bioturbated and moderately pedogenized, in contrast to the deeper oodplain facies which are thicker (b5 m) and well-preserved (Kuehl et al., 2005). It has been suggested that most of the surface oodplain deposits have been removed by the migrating channels of the Ganga and Brahmaputra over a period of 1000 years (Goodbred, 2003). Kuehl et al. (2005) also described the organic-rich facies formed in local depressions as discrete layers (520 cm thick), although their origin is not well understood. 5.4. Lower delta plain The inland limit of the lower delta plain is taken as 70100 km from the present shoreline close to the maximum transgression point, and is also the limit of saline penetration during periods of low river discharge (Goodbred and Kuehl, 2000). Boreholes down to ~ 100 m depth were studied by Umitsu (1993) and Goodbred and Kuehl (2000). The lowermost (~ 510 m thick) Unit 1 is a weathered Late Pleistocene low stand paleosol (Oxidized facies) possibly derived from the old lateritic surfaces in the upper plains (Fig. 6d,e). The overlying Sandy Facies (Unit 2) with variable thickness (1580 m) formed as channel lls in alluvial valleys during low stand (prior to ~14 ka; Umitsu, 1993). The Lower Delta Mud Facies (Unit 3, 127.5 ka: Umitsu, 1993; 9.58 ka: Goodbred and Kuehl, 2000) is 1530 m thick containing wood and shell fragments, and has been attributed to early Holocene sea-level rise and marine transgression. The overlying Muddy Sand Facies (Unit 4) is about 1040 m thick and formed in a low energy depositional environment (possibly an estuary or distributary mouth) during 83.5 ka. The succession is capped by a widespread Thin Mud facies (Unit 5), which represents oodplain and overbank deposits of modern rivers formed during the last 5 ka, and comprises a ning-upward sequence from muddy sand to interbedded mud to mottled mud (Allison et al., 2003). Unit 5 marks the Late Holocene delta progradation (Banerjee and Sen, 1988; Umitsu, 1993; Goodbred and Kuehl, 2000; Allison et al., 2003) when the onshore sediment ux was high and the shoal surfaces rose above the normal tides. A 5.4 m deep pit section from Ektara, located ~ 80 km inland from the present shoreline in the upper part of the Lower Delta plain, was examined by us which shows alternating tidal and oodplain units (Fig. 6f). In addition, eight sites were also examined through auger holes for unraveling near-surface stratigraphy. The succession at Ektara starts with a delta mud facies (Unit 1, base not reached) with tiny rootlets. The overlying oodplain mud (Unit 2) with numerous tiny rootlets, dark brown to rusty brown mottles and bioturbations along with plane parallel laminations at the base. A radiocarbon AMS date from the base of this unit (4742 years BP) suggests this to be of midHolocene age. Tidal facies (Unit 3) are characterized by clayey silt sediments with abundant remains of mangrove roots, many of them coated with ferruginous carbonates. Two sub-environments were recognised: (3a) tidal inlet marked by the presence of tidal bundles and (3b) tidal ats which are massive clays. A radiocarbon date (984 years BP) from the lower parts (Unit 3a) assign this unit to be ~ 1 ka old. The upper 1.7 m thick oodplain mud (Unit 4) is greenish yellowish with dark brown to rusty brown mottles. The upper 0.5 m is devoid of bioturbation but it is abundant in lower part where planeparallel laminations are common and suggest deposition in rapid ow condition. Further south of the Ektara site, the other sites were relatively shallow (23 m) spread across the Sagar island in a roughly NS transect. These sites displayed four major facies, beach sand, channel margin, oodplain and tidal facies. The sites farther from the shoreline
correlate very well with the Ektara site and they all show that upper ~ 3 m of the sequence is composed of oodplain facies overlain by tidal facies. The sites closer to the Hugli river also show tidal facies at the base followed by oodplain facies and capped by channel margin facies. The sites located on the seaward side show a tidal facies at the base followed by oodplain facies and capped by beach sand. The near-surface stratigraphy of these sites provides insight to the sedimentary processes in the last 5.5 ka. Repetitive phases of tidal sedimentation interrupted by uvial processes mark the near-surface stratigraphy. The lower tidal sediments prior to 5 ka correspond to the early to mid-Holocene rise of sea-level. Dominant oodplain facies between 5 and 1.5 ka corresponds to the mid-Holocene slowing of the marine transgression and an eastward shift of deltaplain accretion related to the Ganga, starting ~5 ka (Allison et al., 2003; Kuehl et al., 2005). A minor marine transgression around 1 ka is suggested by thin tidal unit and has been reported by earlier workers also. The uppermost ~ 1.5 m of the sequence represents oodplain and over bank deposits of modern rivers during the last ~ 1 ka. The present inland limit of tidal processes, ~ 50 km inland from the modern shoreline, is demarcated by the boundary of upper Fluvio-tidal delta unit and lower Tidal complex unit. Our study suggests that the inland tidal limit has shifted southward by ~ 30 km in last 1 ka as recorded in the near-surface stratigraphy. A tidal facies underlies the upper oodplain/ beach/channel margin sequence at all locations and as inland as ~80 km from the present-day shoreline (Ektara location). The nal southward movement of inland tidal limit may be linked to the late Holocene delta progradation (Umitsu, 1993; Goodbred and Kuehl, 2000; Allison et al., 2003) when the onshore sediment ux was high and the shoal surfaces rose above the normal tides. 6. Discussion 6.1. Stratigraphic development and regional correlation The available data suggest that the Holocene alluvial architecture is extremely variable across the Ganga plains as a function of geomorphic diversity, variable rainfall and differential sensitivity of the river systems to monsoonal uctuations. In the frontal parts of the upper Ganga plains, the successions are predominantly coarse grained and even gravelly at depth. They also show frequent ning upward cycles in response to variability in sediment ux from the proximal hinterland. In the lower reaches of the upper Ganga plains, very little stratigraphic information is available but a distinctive signature reported from the DelhiMoradabad area is the presence of thick uvial sand corresponding to pre-LGM period (2226 ka) and aeolian ridges of pre-Holocene period (~12 ka). Further, no megafans have developed in the western Ganga plains, in sharp contrast to the eastern Ganga plains (Fig. 5d). Most rivers of the western Ganga plains are deeply incised, probably because of low sediment yields and high unit stream power (Sinha et al., 2005c). It has been suggested that such hydrological differences in the river system have resulted in a marked geomorphic diversity across the plains (Sinha et al., 2005c), and this contrast may have existed for a fairly long time because it probably reects long-term precipitation gradients and tectonic patterns. The Early Holocene monsoonal rise is recorded as oodplain degradation and gully lls (Gibling et al., 2005) and is followed by reduction in water budget during a weakened monsoon in the period 86 ka. This is manifested as abandonment of channels, development of ponds and local aeolian accumulations during enhanced wind activity (~ 5 ka), leading to the development of source-bordering dunes. Similar climatic trends have been observed by Sharma et al. (2004a) in the adjoining Sanai Tal area, where a dry spell was reported between 5 and 2 ka. Regional-scale climate models from the Thar Desert in western India reported lake desiccation at about 4.8 ka

(Swain et al., 1983; Singh et al., 1990b) and enhanced dune building activity at about 5 ka (Thomas et al., 1999). A signicant implication of such spatial inhomogeneity in geomorphic development exists in understanding uvial response to climate change. Spatial or geographical differences in uvial response because of global change in circulation patterns result in widespread changes in discharge regimes (Blum and Trnquist, 2000). It is also recognized, however, that signicant local inhomogeneities may also occur in areas separated by less than 1000 km in large river systems, from spatial differences in sediment supply governed by rainfall and tectonics (Sinha et al., 2005c). Given such inherent inhomogeneities, these areas would respond in different ways and degrees to any change in global circulation pattern. In other words, they would have a differential sensitivity (Blum and Trnquist, 2000) to climate change. In other tropical regions such as the Amazon basin, similar differential responses of the river systems as a function of catchment size, rainfall variability and sediment supply have also been reported (Latrubesse and Franzinelli, 2002). We believe that such intra-basinal differential sensitivity has characterized the Ganga plains throughout the Late Quaternary, and that this sensitivity has resulted in varied alluvial architectural styles in different parts of the plains. In the Bengal basin, stratigraphic development has been controlled by an interplay of sediment supply and active tectonics (Morgan, 1970) manifested as diverse stratigraphic development within the delta system (Goodbred, 2003) as well as the delta margin. In the northeast part of the GangaBrahmaputra delta, where tectonic processes are most active, the presence of sub-basins has resulted in dominance of ne-grained oodplain deposits (Umitsu, 1993). In the western part, sandy alluvial deposits constitute a large part of the stratigraphy because of the dominance of uvial processes, and channel migration and avulsion tend to erode the ne-grained oodplain deposits (Stanley and Hait, 2000). In the southern delta coastal plain, because of the presence of an estuary, a mix of ne- and coarse-grained facies with muddy deposits was preserved during early Holocene sea-level rise. Overall, such diverse stratigraphic development across the delta system emphasizes the importance of local geomorphic factors in generating alluvial architecture. Additional controls from riverine processes, such as avulsion, and episodic earthquakes (Goswami, 1985) also play a signicant role. An eastward delta switching in the Bengal basin has been documented by several workers (Goodbred and Kuehl, 2000; Allison et al., 2003) and has been related to channel avulsion in the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers. Heroy et al. (2003) used mineralogical signatures in clay and dense mineral fractions of sands to establish a sequence of river switching in the delta deposits. Two major differences between the sand fractions of the Ganga and Brahmaputra are (a) low (b1) epidote to garnet (E/G) ratio and (b) relative abundance of smectite in the Ganges alluvium (Heroy et al., 2003). Proximity to the Himalaya and catchment basin tectonics has had a direct effect on the delta system, including controls on river course, avulsion, sediment dispersal, and facies preservation (Alam, 1989; Goodbred, 2003). 6.2. Clay mineralogy and carbonate proxies of climate change in the Ganga plains Independent proxies are available to decipher the late Pliestocene Holocene climate change in the Ganga plains. Several workers (Pal et al., 1989; Srivastava et al., 1994, 1998) used soil mineralogy and pedogenic carbonates and demonstrated that clay minerals, such as smectite and Sm/K, appear in the older soils. The authors recorded a systematic change in clay mineralogy from trioctahedral vermiculite and smectite in older soils (~13.5 ka) to a Sm/K rich assemblage in younger soils (~2.55 ka), which was attributed to transition from a cold and dry climate to a warm and wet climate between 5730 and 4150 cal yr BP. Such climatic transitions have also been recorded in the
Thar Desert, where increased salinity and drying of lakes has been inferred after 5.6 ka (Singh et al., 1972; Bryson and Swain, 1981; Swain et al., 1983; Enzel et al., 1999). Pedogenic carbonates in the uvial successions provide a useful proxy for interpreting precipitation and vegetational changes. Alam et al. (1997) and Srivastava (2001) demonstrated that the isotope composition of Pleistocene and Holocene pedogenic carbonates is a useful paleoclimate indicator for the Ganga plains. A major shift in vegetation type from C3 to C4 dominated plants was recognized from the 13C values of pedogenic carbonate from MiddleUpper Pleistocene strata of northwestern Bangladesh (Alam et al., 1997). Srivastava (2001) analyzed the Holocene strata in the RamgangaRapti interuve in the Ganga plains, and showed that Type 1 calcretes associated with old soils (650013 500 years BP) have large variations in 13C value from + 1.6 to 6.9. The youngest Type 3 calcrete 13C values, however, cluster in a narrow range between +0.3 and +1.8. The 18O values for these two groups of calcrete vary from 6.1 to 10.5 (Srivastava, 2001). The available data suggest that strong monsoon-induced vegetational shifts from C3-dominated to C4-dominated are apparent for the Ganga plains and the Ganga Brahmaputra delta during the Holocene and Pleistocene, respectively. Variation in the oxygen isotopic compositions of pedogenic carbonates for these data subsets is typically ~2, except for the Type 2 calcrete of the RamgangaRapti area. Stable isotopes in shells and organic matter (coupled with elemental geochemistry and pollen analysis) from a sediment prole (spanning ~ 15 ka) from Sanai Tal (lake) in the central Ganga plain recorded millennium-scale climate oscillations which correlated well with records from other parts of the Indian sub-continent (Sharma et al., 2004a). It was suggested, therefore, that these oscillations were caused by regional-scale climatic uctuations. Monsoonal seasonality has also been considered to have a signicant effect on a shorter time scale of 3600 years BP as reected in isotopic analysis of mammalian teeth from the Sanai Tal (Sharma et al., 2004b). 6.3. Magnetic mineralogy as a proxy for sediment supply and post-depositional changes Magnetic susceptibility and mineralogy have also provided important proxies for picking out subtle variations in sediment supply and post-depositional alteration of sediments under oxidative or reducing conditions during Late-PleistoceneHolocene period. In Ganga plains sediments, a general predominance of ferrimagnetic minerals (magnetite and/or maghemite) has been noted (Sangode et al., 2007; Sinha et al., 2007) characterized by low Bocr (b40 mT) and very low S-ratio. Whereas the detrital magnetites are mostly in the Multi-domain (MD) and Single-domain (SD) size range, the biogenic (in-situ) magnetites are ne-grained (superparamagnetic, SP). It has been demonstrated that such ultrane SP magnetitite graines are generally produced by dissimilatory bacterial action in anerobic conditions (Lovley et al., 1987), which are commonly generated by periodic ooding in the muddy alluvium of the Ganga plains. Sinha et al. (2007) have additionally demonstrated that magnetic enhancement in channel and oodplain facies, therefore, reects different processes; channel deposits in valley ll cores around Kanpur showed magnetic enhancement in the SDMD domain at ~ 10 ka which was interpreted as a detrital ux of ferrimagnetic minerals during early Holocene monsoonal intensication. In contrast, the oodplain facies at all sites show a rise in SP-domain magnetite at certain levels, which was generally attributed to pedogenic enhancement during breaks in sedimentation and prolonged sub-aerial exposure (Sangode et al., 1999; Sangode and Bloemendal, 2005). The environmental magnetic approach has opened new vistas for differentiating subtle variation in lithofacies in a vertical prole in late Quaternary sediments of the Ganga basin. Different magnetic minerals and the variability in grain sizes have been recognized and even

quantied using the combination of different environmental magnetic parameters without the need for physical separation. The detrital processes are governed by the climate or tectonically induced sediment inux from catchment to basin. On the other hand, in-situ modication of magnetic mineralogy is a function of pedogenic processes under the prevailing climate. Future attempts should focus on linking the magnetic signatures within a prole to sampling the lithology in a catchment to investigate the climate proxies and for the regional comparison with other basins. This is likely to make the environmental magnetism a robust approach for characterization of the Quaternary sediments in the region and to establish spatial correlations.
more than ~ 200 km from the modern shorelines (Banerjee and Sen, 1988; Banerjee, 2003). 6.5. Role of tectonics in river incision and stratigraphic development Another important debate in this region has concerned the role of tectonics in valley incision during the Holocene. Initial workers attributed the preferential cliff incision along the southern bank near Kanpur to tectonically-controlled lineaments (Singh and Rastogi, 1973; Srivastava and Singh, 1999; Srivastava et al., 2003b) but no support was provided for this argument from sub-surface data. Shallow sections below geomorphic surfaces near Kanpur were dated by Srivastava et al. (2003b) and yielded early Holocene ages, although these surfaces are separated vertically by ~10 m. In view of these dates, the suggestion of major tectonic activity at ~ 6 ka to trigger valley incision (Srivastava et al., 2003b) does not seem plausible on several accounts: (a) The cliffs along the southern bank of the Ganga river are discontinuous and have different orientation depending upon the ow direction of the river. (b) Our recent investigations of digital elevation models (N.G. Roy, pers. Comm.) indicate that the northern bank of the Ganga also has cliffs and oriented differently. (c) Apart from the Ganga, the Yamuna and other rivers draining the interuve also show incision (along both banks) and limited chronological data suggest that incision events are fairly synchronous (1411 ka) and even coincide with the incision events in western Indian (Srivastava et al., 2003c). It is very unlikely that all these cliffs are related to tectonically controlled lineaments. On the contrary, a climatic control is strongly supported by the regional distribution of incision events at sites across the Ganga plains and in western India, as well as by a general correlation with the available climatic proxy records for the region (Sinha et al., 2002; Gibling et al., 2005; Tandon et al., 2006). The early to mid-Holocene is marked by high precipitation, and our own further work in this region using shallow drill cores suggests signicant valley aggradation during these times (Sinha et al., 2007), as well as southward migration of the Ganga river. It is argued that major phases of valley incision took place during transitions between humid and less humid conditions (for example, following the Last Glacial Maximum and during the mid-Holocene). Conditions during such transitions are especially able to trigger incision because of changes in runoff intensity, as suggested by recent modelling (Rinaldo et al., 1995; Tucker and Slingerland, 1997). 7. Concluding remarks A synthesis of the available uvial and uvio-deltaic records in the Ganga plains presented in this paper highlights that this region exhibits a variety of sub-environments ranging from piedmont fans and megafans to large valley lls and interuves. Further, modern climatic conditions across the Ganga plains are extremely variable and an eastward increase in precipitation as well as variable hinterland tectonics have resulted in signicant spatial variability in river hydrology, sediment transport characteristics and sedimentation pattern. Presumably, such variations along the EW transect have existed over most of Late Quaternary and hence have resulted in variable response to climatic uctuations over Late Pliestocene Holocene period manifested as diverse stratigraphic development across the plains. We emphasize that most of the modern landscape in this region is climatically controlled and very little evidence of any tectonic controls as hypothesized by earlier workers exists. The inuence of sea-level induced changes on alluvial architecture is also
6.4. Sea-level rise vis-a-vis monsoonal intensication: implications for sediment ux and stratigraphic development In contrast to the upper reaches of the Ganga basin, the rise and fall of sea-level has greatly affected the lower Ganga plains and the deltaic plains area, with the creation of well-marked valleys and low stand surfaces. The role of sediment supply, in addition to the rate of sea-level rise, has been strongly emphasized by different workers (Stanley and Warne, 1994; Goodbred, 2003) in the initiation and stabilization of delta development. The GangaBrahmaputra delta activity was initiated with very large uvial ux in the Bengal basin around 11 ka (Goodbred, 2003; Chauhan et al., 2004), and climatic uctuations have played an important role in controlling this inux from the source, in addition to the effect of sea-level uctuations. Thick estuarine deposits and the persistence of intertidal facies indicate that sediment supply to the delta system has been sufcient to inll accommodation created by the rapid sea-level rise. Sediment discharge has probably varied signicantly under different climatic regimes since ~ 11 ka. Goodbred and Kuehl (2000) estimated a 2.3 times increase in the mean sediment ux during the period 117 ka, which coincides with the intensication of the SW Indian Monsoon (Sirocko et al., 1993) and increased river discharge (Cullen, 1981). Mineralogical data from the late Quaternary Bengal Basin sediments support this interpretation, as high smectitekaolinite concentration in the concentrations characterize the 107 ka period, which also indicates enhanced chemical weathering under warmer and more humid conditions (Heroy et al., 2003). Widespread river incision in Himalayan valleys (Pratt et al., 2002), Ganga plains (Williams and Clarke, 1984; Gibling et al., 2005; Sinha et al., 2007), and Gujarat plains (Srivastava et al., 2001) during 116 ka also suggests increased discharge because of monsoonal intensication. The overall stratigraphic development in the delta has also been strongly inuenced by tectonics, manifested as delta switching and subsidence. The landward limit of sea-level inuence on the Ganga system has been debated. Some workers (Kumar and Singh, 1978; Singh et al., 1990a; Singh, 1996) persistently suggest dominant control of sea-level changes on the geomorphic development of the Ganga Plains, perhaps following the early work on the Mississippi river (Fisk, 1944), postulating eustatic control for more than 1000 km upstream from the modern shorelines. Research from different parts of the world (Schumm, 1993; Shanley and McCabe,1993, Saucier,1994) suggest that the inuence of sea-level changes on uvial incision and aggradation, although variable, may not extend for more than 300400 km landward for low-gradient, high-sediment supply systems such as the Ganga. The upper and middle Ganga Plains are located ~1500 km and ~ 800 km, respectively, from the present shorelines and, therefore, the propagation of sea-level induced changes in river systems to such inland regions is quite unlikely (Goodbred, 2003; Sinha et al., 2005c; Tandon et al., 2008). Data from palynological studies and biological remains recovered from near-surface sediments in Lower Ganga plains and delta region also suggest that the maximum limit of marine transgression during Late PliestoceneHolocene period could not be

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limited to lower parts of the Lower Ganga valley and it certainly never extended upstream of the Rajmahal hills. Climatic interpretations from the alluvial sequences in the Ganga plains have relied upon several proxy data that range from facies distribution, clay mineralogy, stable isotopes, and magnetic mineralogy. A multi-proxy approach favoured by recent workers has been very rewarding. One of the most serious constraints in these studies has been the lack of a sound chronological data base. Given the size of the Ganga plains, the available radiocarbon and OSL dates are too few and very scattered to make a sensible synthesis. Another issue is the reliability and precision of the available dates. The older radiocarbon dates have a much lower precision and many of the feldspar dates using IRSL are without any fading corrections which may be highly erroneous. A strong need exists to lter the chronological data before a more serious synthesis is attempted. Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to the editor of this special issue, Edgardo Latrubesse, for inviting us to write this paper. RS thanks several of his students, Anandasanker Dasgupta, Nonigopal Roy, and Santosh Ghosh who contributed indirectly to this paper through their thesis work. A large part of this research reported in this paper was supported by the Department of Science and Technology, Government of India through several research grants and all nancial contributions are sincerely acknowledged. Steven Goodbred is thanked for lively discussions in the eld in Bengal delta and for providing two AMS dates for the Ektara section. We thank S.K. Tandon at Delhi University and Martin Gibling at Dalhousie University for their inspirational support and several intense discussions which greatly helped to develop this paper through time. Special thanks are due to John Vitek for editorial corrections which improved the readability of the paper signicantly. References
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