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Bandwidth-Limited Signals
A binary signal and its root-mean-square Fourier amplitudes. (b) (c) Successive approximations to the original signal.
If b is bit rate (bps) then bit duration is 1/b s Time to send 8 bits T = 8/b s. Therefore for b = 300 Bps T = 8/300 = 0.02667 s = 26.67 ms. Since T is the period the first harmonic has frequency 1/T = 300/8 = 37.5 Hz. Within the bandwidth of 3000 Hz you can send 3000/37.5 = 80 harmonics.
If b is bit rate (bps) then bit duration is 1/b s Time to send 8 bits T = 8/b s. Therefore for b = 300 Bps T = 8/300 = 0.02667 s = 26.67 ms. Since T is the period the first harmonic has frequency 1/T = 300/8 = 37.5 Hz. Within the bandwidth of 3000 Hz you can send 3000/37.5 = 80 harmonics.
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.00
0.16
0.32
0.48
0.64
0.79
0.95
1.11
1.27
1.43
1.59
1.75
1.91
2.07
2.23
2.38
2.54
2.70
2.86
3.02
t (m s)
3.18
-0 .2
Telephone example
Subscriber loop has a bandwidth over 1 MHz. However, switching office filters every signal to 4000 Hz. Therefore, after entering a switch the analog voice is limited to 4000 Hz. Minimum sampling rate is then 8000 samples (pulses) per sec. Inversely Nyquist theorem also says that maximum sample (pulse) rate going through the filter H that can be recovered is 2H. Pulse per sec = baud. Since the value of every sample is represented by 8 bits, bit rate required for digital transport of voice is: 8000 bauds * 8 bits/baud = 64000 bps = 64 kbps. In addition if max amplitude pulse is divided into V levels then the bit rate carried with 2H baud is 2H*log2V. For example modem with 2400 bauds and V = 64 has bit rate of 2400*log264=2400*6=14,400 bps. Is there any limit on V?
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If a signal is sampled at regular intervals at a rate higher than twice the highest signal frequency, the samples contain all the information of the original signal (Proof - Stallings appendix 4A) Voice data limited to below 4000Hz Require 8000 sample per second Analog samples (Pulse Amplitude Modulation, PAM) Each sample assigned digital value
4 bit system gives 16 levels Quantized Quantizing error or noise Approximations mean it is impossible to recover original exactly 8 bit sample gives 256 levels Quality comparable with analog transmission 8000 samples per second of 8 bits each gives 64kbps
Nonlinear Encoding
Quantization levels not evenly spaced Reduces overall signal distortion Can also be done by companding
Delta Modulation
Analog input is approximated by a staircase function Move up or down one level () at each sample interval Binary behavior Function moves up or down at each sample interval
Nonreturn-to-Zero-Inverted (NRZI)
0 = no transition at beginning of interval (one bit time) 1 = transition at beginning of interval
Pseudoternary
0 = positive or negative level, alternating for successive zeros 1 = no line signal
Manchester Encodings
Manchester
Transition in middle of each bit period Transition serves as clock and data Low to high represents one High to low represents zero Used by IEEE 802.3
Differential Manchester
Middle of bit transition is clocking only Transition at start of a bit period represents zero No transition at start of a bit period represents one Note: this is a differential encoding scheme Used by IEEE 802.5
Comparison of encodings
Cons
dc component Lack of synchronization capability
Used for magnetic recording Not often used for signal transmission
Twisted Pair
Coaxial Cable
A coaxial cable.
Fiber Optics
(a) Three examples of a light ray from inside a silica fiber impinging on the air/silica boundary at different angles. (b) Light trapped by total internal reflection.
Fiber Cables
(a) Side view of a single fiber. (b) End view of a sheath with three fibers.
Wireless Transmission
The Electromagnetic Spectrum Radio Transmission Microwave Transmission Infrared and Millimeter Waves Lightwave Transmission
Radio Transmission
(a) In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow the curvature of the earth. (b) In the HF band, they bounce off the ionosphere.
Lightwave Transmission
Convection currents can interfere with laser communication systems. A bidirectional system with two lasers is pictured here.
Communication Satellites
Geostationary Satellites Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites Low-Earth Orbit Satellites Satellites versus Fiber
Communication Satellites
Communication satellites and some of their properties, including altitude above the earth, round-trip delay time and number of satellites needed for global coverage.
(a) The Iridium satellites from six necklaces around the earth. (b) 1628 moving cells cover the earth.
Globalstar
Local loops
Analog twisted pairs going to houses and businesses
Trunks
Digital fiber optics connecting the switching offices
Switching offices
Where calls are moved from one trunk to another
The relationship of LATAs, LECs, and IXCs. All the circles are LEC switching offices. Each hexagon belongs to the IXC whose number is on it.
LATA
Local Access and Transport Area
IXC
Intermediate Exchange POP: point of presence
LEC
Local Exchange carriers
The use of both analog and digital transmissions for a computer to computer call. Conversion is done by the modems and codecs.
Analog Modulation
Modems
Modems (2)
Modems (3)
(a) (a) V.32 for 9600 bps. (b) V32 bis for 14,400 bps.
(b)
(a) The original bandwidths. (b) The bandwidths raised in frequency. (b) The multiplexed channel.
Circuit Switching
Message Switching
Packet Switching
(a) Frequencies are not reused in adjacent cells. (b) To add more users, smaller cells can be used.
Channel Allocation
FCC initially allocated two slots for cellular telephone use in the 800 MHz band, one at 825 MHz to 845 MHz, and the other from 870 MHz to 890 MHz. These two 20 MHz slots are divided into 30 kHz wide channels, numbered from 1 to 666. Channels are paired in each of the slots, so a 30 kHz channel in the lower slot corresponds to a 30 kHz channel in the upper slot. The A Band carrier, was granted use of channels 1 to 333, and the B Band carrier, was given use of channels 334 to 666. In 1985 the FCC allocated another 10 MHz of spectrum, providing an additional 166 channels, which gave cellular networks a total of 832 channels.
Channel Categories
The 832 channels are divided into four categories:
Control (base to mobile) to manage the system Paging (base to mobile) to alert users to calls for them Access (bidirectional) for call setup and channel assignment Data (bidirectional) for voice, fax, or data
Frequency range (832 channel system) Direction Reverse (MT) Forward (T M) Lower (MHz) 824.040 869.040 Upper (MHz) 848.970 893.970
(a) A D-AMPS channel with three users. (b) A D-AMPS channel with six users.
GSM uses 124 frequency channels, each of which uses an eight-slot TDM system
GSM (2)
(a) Binary chip sequences for four stations (b) Bipolar chip sequences (c) Six examples of transmissions (d) Recovery of station Cs signal
Cable Television
Community Antenna Television Internet over Cable Spectrum Allocation Cable Modems ADSL versus Cable
Cable television
Spectrum Allocation
Cable Modems