Lesson 7

(from Nilsson and Riedel, Ch. 3)

Voltage division Adding a load Example 3.2 (resistor tolerances) Current division Example 3.3 Assessment Problems 3.2, 3.3

The Voltage-Divider Circuit

At times (especially in electronic circuits) developing more than one voltage level from a single voltage supply is necessary. One way to do this is to use a voltage-divider circuit, which consists of two resistors in series:

Note that the essential function of the two resistors is to divide the voltage from the voltage source (vs) into two voltages: the voltage v1 across resistor R1 and voltage v2 across resistor R2 (where, of course, vs = v1 + v2 by KVL). By putting in different resistors for R1 and R2, we can adjust the values of v1 and v2.

The Voltage-Divider Circuit, cont.

We want to figure out the values of v1 and v2 (assuming that vs, R1, and R2 are given): 1. Apply KVL and OL:

vs vs = v1 + v2 = iR1 + iR2 , or i = R1 + R2

2. Use OL for R1 and then substitute the result for i from #1:

vs R1 v1 = iR1 = R + R R1 = vs R + R 2 1 2 1

The Voltage-Divider Circuit, cont.

We have found:

R1 v1 = vs R1 + R2

Similarly, use Ohms law for v2:

vs R2 v2 = iR2 = R + R R2 = vs R + R 2 1 2 1
We see that v1 and v2 are fractions of vs, i.e., they will always be less than vs. Note that if R1 > R2, then v1 > v2, and vice versa. In other words, the bigger R1 is compared to R2, the more voltage it will have across it (and vice versa). Also note that if we want a specific value for v2, there are an infinite number of possibilities for R1 and R2. For example, if vs = 15 V and we want v2 to be 5 V, then (R2)/(R1+R2) = 1/3, which is satisfied whenever R2 = 0.5*R1. (Although other factors, such as power-loss considerations, may further restrict the best choices for R1 and R2.)

Adding a Load
Consider taking the voltage divider circuit and adding a resistor RL in parallel with it, as below. The resistor acts as a load on the voltage divider circuit. A load on any circuit consists of one or more circuit elements that draw power from the circuit.

Given the situation above, wed like to know what the output voltage vo will be.

Adding a Load, cont.

To find the output voltage vo, first note that R2 and RL are parallel, so we can combine them into a single, equivalent resistor Req. Then we are left with the basic voltage divider circuit, with R1 as the top resistor and Req as the bottom resistor. So we have:

R2 RL vo = vs , where Req = R1 + Req R2 + RL R2 = vs R1 [1 + ( R2 / RL )] + R2

Note that as long as RL R2, the voltage ratio vo/vs is essentially undisturbed by the addition of the load.

Req

Example 3.2
Real resistors usually arent manufactured to exact values, but have certain tolerances. For the voltage divider circuit below, assume that the resistors have a tolerance of 10% in their values. Find the maximum and minimum values of vo (the voltage across R2), given the possible variations in the resistors. (Answer on next slide.)

R2 vo = vs R1 + R2

Example 3.2, cont.

R2 vo = vs R1 + R2

From the voltage divider equation (above), we see that vo will be largest when R2 has its largest value (10% high in this case, or 110 k ) and R1 its smallest value (10% low in this case, or 22.5 k ). And vo will be smallest when R2 is smallest (10% low, or 90 k ) and R1 is largest (10% high, or 27.5 k ). Running the numbers gives the minimum vo = 76.60 V and the maximum vo = 83.02 V.

The Current-Divider Circuit

A current-divider circuit uses two resistors in parallel to divide the current flow into two branches (i.e., in the diagram below, the current is from the current source on the left divides into current i1 through R1 and current i2 through R2):

We want to find v, i1, and i2. First we apply OL to R1 and R2:

v = i1R1 and v = i2 R2
Then we note that because R1 and R2 are parallel, we can replace them with a single Req. The voltage across Req will still be v, and the current through it has to be is, so we apply OL to Req to get:

R1R2 v = is Req , where Req = R1 + R2

The Current-Divider Circuit, cont.

So far we have found three equations for v:

R1R2 v = i1R1 , v = i2 R2 , v = is Req , where Req = R1 + R2

Combining the first and third equations, and the second and third equations, respectively, we get:

R2 R1 i1 = is , i2 = is R1 + R2 R1 + R2

The Current-Divider Circuit, cont.

We have found:

R2 R1 i1 = is , i2 = is R1 + R2 R1 + R2

Note the physical intuition behind these equations: We expect that when R1 is larger than R2, more current will flow through R2 than R1 (because R2 is the path of lesser resistance). On the other hand, when R2 is larger than R1, we expect more current will flow through R1. And thats what the equations tell us.

Example 3.3
Find the power dissipated in the 6 resistor.

Strategy: 1. To find the power well need to know the current through the 6 resistor. 2. If we can find the current through the 1.6 resistor, then we can use current division to find how much of that current flows through the 6 resistor. 3. To find the current through the 1.6 resistor, well try simplifying the right side of the circuit using series-parallel simplifications.

Example 3.3, cont.

We start by simplifying the parallel 4 and 6 resistors into an equivalent 2.4 resistor (from the formula for two parallel resistors). Then we see that we have a 1.6 series, which is equivalent to a 4 the circuit to the following: resistor and a 2.4 resistor in resistor. We thus have simplified

Using the current-division formula (the 10 A is divided between the 16 and 4 resistors) gives us the labeled io:

R1 16 io = is = (10) = 8 A R1 + R2 16 + 4

Example 3.3, cont.

So far we have simplified the original circuit on the left to the circuit on the right (replacing the 1.6 , 4 , and 6 resistors with an equivalent 4 resistor) and have found that io = 8 A. Next we note that the 10 A in the left (original) circuit is divided between the 16 resistor and the 1.6 resistor. The equivalent circuit on the right has to act the same way. In other words, the 10 A current will divide into the 16 and 4 resistors, with the 16 resistor current being the same as in the original circuit. Therefore the current through the 4 resistor in the right circuit must be the same as the current through the 1.6 resistor in the original circuit (i.e., 8 A).

Example 3.3, cont.

We have found that the current through the 4 resistor in the right circuit must be the same as the current through the 1.6 resistor in the original circuit. And we have calculated it to be 8 A. In the original circuit, this 8 A flowing through the 1.6 resistor gets divided between the 4 and 6 resistors. The current through the 6 resistor is then as follows (by current division) and the corresponding power is:

i6 =

4 (8 ) = 3 .2 A, and p = ( 3 . 2 ) 2 ( 6 ) = 61 . 44 W 6+4

Summary of Voltage-Divider and Current-Divider Equations

(Note the similarities and differences.) Voltage divider:

R1 v1 = vs R1 + R2
R2 v2 = vs R1 + R2

Current divider:

R2 i1 = is R1 + R2
R1 i2 = is R1 + R2

Assessment 3.2

Consider the circuit above for a practice exercise. We will outline the methods that we would use to answer various questions about it. (Its recommended that you try to answer them yourself before moving to the next slide, where the answer is. Then, once you check the method of solution, try to work through it to get the numeric value. Numeric answers are given in the textbook.) (a) Find the no-load value of vo (the value when RL is not there, i.e., when its an open circuit).

Assessment 3.2, cont.

(a) Find the no-load value of vo. Solution: Simply use voltage division.

Assessment 3.2, cont.

(a) Find the no-load value of vo. Solution: Use voltage division. (b) Find vo when RL is 150 k .

Assessment 3.2, cont.

(a) Find the no-load value of vo. Solution: Use voltage division. (b) Find vo when RL is 150 k . Solution: First calculate the equivalent resistance of the parallel 75 k resistor and RL. Then use voltage division to find the voltage across the equivalent resistance (which will be v0).

Assessment 3.2, cont.

(a) Find the no-load value of vo. Solution: Use voltage division. (b) Find vo when RL is 150 k . Solution: First calculate the equivalent resistance of the 75 k resistor and RL. Then use voltage division. (c) How much power is dissipated in the 25 k resistor if the load terminals are accidentally short-circuited (i.e., RL becomes 0).

Assessment 3.2, cont.

(a) Find the no-load value of vo. Solution: Use voltage division. (b) Find vo when RL is 150 k . Solution: First calculate the equivalent resistance of the 75 k resistor and RL. Then use voltage division. (c) How much power is dissipated in the 25 k resistor if the load terminals are accidentally short-circuited? Solution: Short-circuiting the load terminals effectively removes the 75 k resistor, i.e., the voltage across the 25 k resistor is the full 200 V from the source. (That is, all the current will bypass the 75 k resistor and take the short-circuit path. If theres no current in the 75 k resistor, then by OL the voltage across it is 0.) So we can use OL for the 25 k resistor to find the current through it and then p = i2R for the power.

Assessment 3.2, cont.

(d) What is the max power dissipated in the 75 k resistor? (Tip: Think about the conditions under which max power will occur.)

Assessment 3.2, cont.

(d) What is the max power dissipated in the 75 k resistor? Solution: Max power occurs with max current (i2R) through the resistor, or equivalently with max voltage (v2/R) across it. Both occur when RL is infinite (i.e., open circuit or no load). So use p = v2/R where the value of v is the vo value calculated in part (a).

Assessment 3.3

Heres another good practice problem. We will outline the solution as with the previous problem. (a) Find the value of R that will cause 4 A of current to flow through the 80 resistor above.

Assessment 3.3, cont.

(a) Find the value of R that will cause 4 A of current to flow through the 80 resistor above. Solution: Use the current division formula (with the 40 and 80 resistors in series equivalent to a 120 resistor).

Assessment 3.3, cont.

(a) Find the value of R that will cause 4 A of current to flow through the 80 resistor above. Solution: Use current division (with the 40 and 80 resistors equiv. to 120 ). (b) How much power will the resistor from part (a) be dissipating?

Assessment 3.3, cont.

(a) Find the value of R that will cause 4 A of current to flow through the 80 resistor above. Solution: Use current division (with the 40 and 80 resistors equiv. to 120 ). (b) How much power will the resistor from part (a) be dissipating? Solution: First calculate the current through R using current division. Then use p = i2R.

Assessment 3.3, cont.

(a) Find the value of R that will cause 4 A of current to flow through the 80 resistor above. Solution: Use current division (with the 40 and 80 resistors equiv. to 120 ). (b) How much power will the resistor from part (a) be dissipating? Solution: First calculate the current through R using current division. Then use p = i2R. (c) How much power will the current source generate, given the value of R from part (a)?

Assessment 3.3, cont.

(a) Find the value of R that will cause 4 A of current to flow through the 80 resistor above. Solution: Use current division (with the 40 and 80 resistors equiv. to 120 ). (b) How much power will the resistor from part (a) need to dissipate? Solution: First calculate the current through R using current division. Then use p = i2R. (c) How much power will the current source generate, given the value of R from part (a)? Solution: Use KVL around the outer loop to solve for the unknown voltage across the current source, and then use p = -vi to find the power (the minus sign assumes that we assign + polarity to the top of the current source and polarity to the bottom, i.e., the PSC).

End of Lesson 7