DRAFT July 98: Note: Figure numbering to be fixed.

Some figures are too light

MODELING GUIDELINES FOR LOW FREQUENCY TRANSIENTS Report Prepared by the Low-Frequency Transients Task Force of the IEEE Modeling and Analysis of System Transients Working Group Contributing Authors: R. Iravani (Chair)A.K.S. Chandhury I.D. Hassan, J.A. Martinez, A.S. Morched, B.A. Mork, M. Parniani, D. Shirmohammadi, R.A. Walling
Abstract: The objective of this report is to provide guidelines for modeling and analyses of low-frequency (approximately 5 to 1000 Hz) transients of electric power systems, based on the use of digital time-domain simulation methods. For the ease of reference, the low-frequency transients are divided in seven distinct phenomena. This report (1) briefly describes the physical nature of each phenomenon, (2) identifies those power system components/apparatus which either contribute to or are affected by the phenomenon, (3) provides guidelines for digital time-domain simulation and analyses of the phenomenon and (4) provides sample study-system and typical digital timedomain simulation results corresponding to each phenomenon. A comprehensive list of reference is also included in this report to provide further in-depth information to the readers.

1.Torsional oscillations (5 to 120 Hz) 2.Transient torsional torques (5 to 120 Hz) 3.Turbine blade vibrations (90 to 250 Hz) 4.Fast bus transfer (1 to 1000 Hz) 5.Controller interactions (10 to 30 Hz) 6.Harmonic interactions and resonances (60 to 600 Hz) 7.Ferroresonance (1 to 1000 Hz)

Keywords: Low-Frequency Transients, Electromechanical Transients, Modeling, Time-Domain Analysis, Torsional Dynamics, Turbine Vibrations, Bus-Transfer, Controller Interactions, Harmonic Interactions, Ferroresonance 1. INTRODUCTION An interconnected power system can experience undesirable oscillations and transients as a result of small-signal perturbations, large-signal disturbances, and nonlinear characteristics of the system components. The oscillations cover a wide frequency range approximately from 0.01 Hz to 50 MHz. Oscillations in the frequency range of 0.01 to 1000 Hz are defined in this report as low-frequency (slow) transients. We interchangeably use the terms slow transients, low frequency(LF) dynamics, and LF oscillations throughout this report. All the issues relevant to low-frequency inter-area electromechanical oscillations (approximately 0.1 to 1 Hz) and classical turbine-generator swing modes (approximately 1 to 2.5 Hz) are discussed by other IEEE working groups, and are not discussed here. A general guideline for representation of network elements for electromagnetic transient studies have been previously published [1.1]. The mandate of the IEEE Low-Frequency Transients Task Force is to provide modelling guidelines for time-domain analysis of LF oscillations within the frequency range of 5 to 1000 Hz. Low frequency dynamics are of concern with respect to power system stability issues and/or temporary overvoltages. phenomena of 60 Hz power systems in the LF range are divided into the following categories:

For each of the above phenomenon this report provides (1) a brief explanation of the physical phenomenon, (2) modeling guidelines for time-domain simulation and analyses, and (3) typical sample systems and simulation results.

This report is intended for practicing power system engineers who are involved in system analysis, system control, and system planning. To use the report efficiently, adequate understanding of the physical phenomenon of interest and familiarity with the concepts and techniques of digital computer simulation approaches are necessary.

Section 2 of the report deals with low-frequency transients which involve both electrical and mechanical dynamics, i.e., torsional oscillations, transient torsional torques, turbineblade vibrations and fast bus-transfer. Section 3 discusses low-frequency electrical dynamics, as a result of control systems interactions. Section 4 provides analysis guidelines for harmonic interactions and resonance phenomena. The phenomenon of ferroresonance is discussed in Section 5.

2. LOW-FREQUENCY ELECTROMECHANICAL DYNAMICS This section provides modeling and analysis guidelines for low-frequency dynamics which involve electromechanical oscillations. The phenomena which are covered in this section are torsional oscillations, transient torques, tur-

3-1

bine-blade vibrations, and bus-transfer. 2.1 DEFINITIONS 2.1.1 Torsional Oscillations [2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5] Shaft system of a steam turbine-generator experiences torsional oscillations when one or more of its natural oscillatory modes, usually at subsynchronous frequencies, are excited. Sustained or negatively damped torsional oscillations occur when a turbine-generator shaft system exchanges energy with an electrical system at the shaft oscillatory modes. This exchange of energy can exist if the electrical system is equipped with either series capacitors or HVDC converter stations. The phenomenon of torsional oscillations can also exist as a result of interaction between the shaft system of a steam turbinegenerator and

the natural frequencies of the shaft torsional oscillatory modes. Usually, the oscillatory mode at the first torsional frequency dominates the shaft transient oscillations. The major incidents which result in severe shaft stresses are: line-to-line faults, three-phase faults, fault clearing, automatic reclosures, and out-of-phase synchronization. The amplitudes of the shaft transient stresses can be particularly large when the network is equipped with series capacitors.

the generator excitation systems through either AVR or PSS control loops, electronically controlled governor system, voltage control loop of an electrically close static VAR. compensator (SVC) large electric arc furnaces.

High amplitude shaft mechanical stress can induce significant fatigue in the shaft segments and result in noticeable shaft life-time reduction during each oscillatory cycle. Such oscillations may even result in catastrophic shaft failure. The primary purpose of time-domain investigation of turbinegenerator shaft mechanical stresses is to identify the peak torques imposed on the shaft segments, after system disturbances. Transient shaft mechanical stresses calculated based on time-domain simulation methods also can be used to estimate shaft loss of life as a result of system disturbances. 2.1.3 Turbine-Blade Vibrations [2.6] Frequencies of turbine-blade vibrational modes are usually within 90 to 250 Hz, and constitute supersynchronous frequency modes. Identification of supersynchronous frequency modes and their corresponding frequencies is best carried out by solving elasticity equation of the shaft system as a continuum, based on the use of finite element methods. This approach is beyond the scope of this report and usually carried out by turbine manufacturers.

Although AVR, PSS and governor system can excite torsional oscillations, the excitation is primarily due to inadequate control design considerations and can be avoided by introducing filters in the control circuitry. Thus, this report does not consider the generator controls as the main contributors to the phenomenon of torsional oscillations (Table 2.1).

The phenomenon of torsional oscillation is referred to as subsynchronous resonance (SSR) when it is a result of interaction between a shaft system and a series capacitor compensated transmission line. The problems associated with the phenomenon of small-signal torsional oscillations are: i ) Sustained or even negatively damped oscillations which are considered as small-signal instability problems, and ii ) (loss of life of turbine-generator shaft segment(s) due to the fatigue induced in the shaft segment(s) as a result of each oscillatory cycle. 2.1.2 Transient Torsional Torques [2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5] The shaft segments of turbine-generator units are exposed to large-amplitude, oscillatory, mechanical stresses as a result of electric network faults, and planned and unplanned switching incidents. Frequencies of the shaft mechanical stresses are

In this report, the objective is to investigate the impact of large-signal disturbances on those supersynchronous frequency natural modes which are the reason for turbine-blade vibrations. Thus the required model is tailored to represent particular supersynchronous modes and not all of them.
The concern with turbine-blade vibrations is fracture and loss-of-life of the blades due to the fatigue induced in the blades by repetitive or sustained oscillations. Vibrations of turbine-blades can be excited by large-signal electrical disturbances, e.g. faults, fault clearing, line switching, reclosure, and out-of-phase synchronization.

2.1.4 Fast Bus Transfer [2.7, 2.8, 2.9] Motors and other loads in utility and heavy industrial applications are supplied during normal operation from a preferred power source. An alternate power source is normally provided to supply such motors and other loads during planned shutdowns and upon loss of normal power from the preferred power source. The process of disconnecting the motors and other loads from one source and reconnecting to an alternate source is commonly defined as bus transfer. Manual transfer 3-2

means are normally provided to allow transferring the motors and other loads from one power source to the other. However, upon loss of the preferred power source, the motors and other loads are automatically transferred to the alternate power source. This automatic transfer is necessary to allow uninterrupted operation of the motors and other loads important to personnel safety and process operation. This report does not address the concept of bus transfer by means of semi-conductor switches [2.23].

The normal and alternate power source connections are always selected such that they are in phase. Therefore, manual transfers can be accomplished in a make-before-break, i.e., the motors and loads are connected to the second power source before the first power source is disconnected. In this overlapping transfer, the power supply is not interrupted and the motors are not subjected to transients. However, during automatic transfers, the motors may be disconnected from both power sources for a short duration depending on the type of transfer and the associated circuit breakers operating times. The time during which the motors are disconnected from both power sources is termed the dead time. Dead time is usually between two cycles to 12 cycles. If the relative angle between the motor residual voltage and the power source voltage becomes large enough at the time of reconnection with significant residual voltage remaining, the resultant voltage between the power source and the motor will produce an inrush current. The inrush current may be significantly largely than the normal full voltage staging current. Such high inrush currents cause high winding stresses and transient shaft torques which can damage the motor and/or the driven equipment.

mode which propagates almost through the entire of an interconnected electric network, the phenomena described in Section 2.1 are experienced only within a limited part of the network. The section of the network which experiences the phenomenon of interest, and must be represented in adequate detail for the study of the phenomenon, is referred to as the Study Zone The rest of the network is referred to as the external system The external system is represented by an equivalent model. Identification of border nodes of the study zone for a meshed network requires significant familiarity with the network, as well as engineering judgment. As of now, there is no straightforward and systematic approach to identify the border nodes. One approach involves multiple harmonic analyses of the system under investigation as boundaries are extended to identify if new resonant frequencies (at the frequency range of interest) with low dampings exist.

Proper determination of the study zone can exert a major impact on the investigations of torsional dynamics and transient torques. Comparatively, the impact of the study zone on the vibrations of turbine blades is less significant. Identification of the study zone for bus transfer studies is relatively straightforward. 2.2.2 Component Model Table 1 identifies the study zone components and their equivalent models for investigations of slow transient phenomena. Further explanation of the system components are given in the following sections.

2.2.2.1 Synchronous Generator Electrical System [2.10] The most common bus transfer scheme is the fast bus transfer scheme. In this scheme, opening of the normal power source breaker initiates closing of the alternate power source breaker without intentional time delay. Fast bus transfer operations result in the motors being disconnected from both power sources for a duration of as short as two cycles to as long as 12 or more cycles. Presently, there are no generic criteria to ensure acceptable fast bus transfer operations. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze the transient behavior of motors during fast bus transfer operations. The analysis should be on a case by case basis to ensure that the motors will not be subjected to excessive inrush currents and/or shaft transient torques. 2.2 MODELING GUIDELINES 2.2.1 Study Zone In contrast to an inter-area, electromechanical, oscillatory 3-3 Figure 2.1 shows a second-order and a third-order models of a synchronous machine. Inclusion of the differential leakage inductance Lf1d in the second-order model is recommended. The differential leakage inductance has noticeable influence on the damping, and the range of instability of each torsional mode, (with respect to series compensation level), particularly for a salient pole machine. However, Lf1d does not influence the phenomenon of blade vibrations.
Representation of machine electrical system based on the third-order model, Fig. 2.1, is more accurate. Inclusion of the differential leakage inductance Lf12d in the third-order model has the same impact as that of Lf1d for the second-order model. Magnetic saturation of a synchronous machine, both on d-axis and q-axis, does not have any significant impact on the phenomenon of small-signal torsional oscillations, but has pro-

Component

Synchronous Generators Electrical System

Turbine-Generator Shaft System Power Transfor mer

To rsion al Oscillatio ns Second-Order Model and Preferably ThirdOrder Model (d-q-o Model) Mass-SpringDashpot Model

T ra nsient Torques Third-Order Model (d-q-o Model) Including Saturation Mass-SpringDashpot Model

T urbine-B lade Vibrations Third-Order Model (d-q-o Model) Including Saturation

Fast Bus Trans fer Not applicable

Conventional Low-Frequency Model including Saturation Characteristic Equivalent-  Model Ideal Capacitor Series R-L Fixed I mpedance Load d-q-o Model of Electrical System, Mass-SpringDashpot Model of Shaft System

C onventional Low-Frequency Model including Saturation Characteristic Equivalent-  Model Ideal Capacitor Series R-L Fixed Impedance Load Voltage Source Behind Fixed Impedance

Detail Mass-SpringDashpot Model Conventional Low-Frequency Model including Saturation Characteristic Equivalent- Model Ideal Capacitor Series R-L Fixed I mpedance Load Voltage Source Behind Fixed Impedance

Not Applicable Conventional LowFrequency Model including Saturation C haracterist ic Not Applicable Ideal Capacitor Series R-L Fixed Impedance Load d-q-o Model of Electrical System, Mass-SpringDashpot Model of Shaft System Not Applicable

Transmiss ion Line Series/Shunt Capacitor Series/Shunt Reactor Static Load

Large Motor L oad

HVDC Converter Stat ion

SVC

C ircuit Breaker Generator Controls Protection System`

Detailed Model of C onverter and Linearized (Simplified) Model of C ontrols Detailed Model of Power C ircuitry and Linearized (Simplified) Model of C ontrols Ideal Switch Unimportant Unimportant

Detailed Models of Converter and Controls

Detailed Models of C onverter and Controls

Detailed Model of Power C ircuitry and Controls

Detailed Model of Power C ircuitry and C ontrols

Not Applicable

Ideal Sw itch Unimportant Series Capacitor Overvoltages Protection System

Ideal Switch Unimportant Ser ies Capacitor Overvoltages Protection System

Ideal Switch Not Applicable Not Applicable

Table 1: Component Model

nounced impact on transient torques and blade vibrations.

erator unit must be separately represented.

In most studies, the power plant under consideration is composed of more than one turbine-generator unit. If all the turbine-generator units are nominally identical, and under almost equal loading conditions, they can be represented by a single, equivalent turbine-generator unit. Otherwise, each turbinegenerator unit must be separately represented.

Fig. 2.1. Turbine-generator shaft system and its mass-spring-dashpot mode

Fig. 2.1. Synchronous machine 2nd-order and 3rd-order models

2.2.2.2 Turbine-Generator Mechanical System [2.11, 2.12, 2.13] Figure 2.2 shows a six-mass shaft system and its equivalent mass-spring-dashpot model. The mass-spring-dashpot model of Fig. 2.2 assumes that (1) the high-pressure turbine (HP), the intermediate-pressure turbine (IP), the low-pressure turbines (LPA and LPB), the generator rotor (G), and the excitor (EXC) are rigid masses, and (2) each shaft section is composed of a spring constant (Kij) and a cyclic damping (Dij). The main shortcoming of the model is that neither the shaft cyclic dampings (Dijs) nor the viscous dampings (Dis) can be directly measured or calculated. Neglecting the dampings provides the most pessimistic dynamic response, which is often the objective of an investigation. The discussion of [2.11] provides further description of the mass-spring-dashpot model. Figure 2.3 shows a mass-spring-dashpot model of the turbine-generator set of Fig. 2.2 for investigation of turbineblade vibrations. This model represents blades of turbine sections as lumped masses [2.6].
In most studies, the power plant under consideration is composed of more than one turbine-generator unit. If all the turbine-generator units are nominally identical, and under almost equal loading conditions, they can be represented by a single, equivalent turbine-generator unit. Otherwise, each turbine-genFig. 2.2. Mass-spring dashpot model of the turbine-generator for turbineblade vibrational studies (mechanical damping is neglected)

2.2.2.3 Power Transformer Classical low frequency transformer model with proper connections at both HV and LV sides is adequate for representation of each power transformer within the Study Zone. Figure 2.4 shows the classical model of a single-phase transformer for simulation of low frequency dynamics. No-load V-I magnetic saturation characteristic can be used as a fair approximation of core saturation for the phenomena of interest. A threephase transformer model is developed based on proper connections of primary and secondary windings of the singlephase model of Fig. 2.4.

3-5

Fig. 2.1. Low frequency model of a single-phase transformer.

2.2.2.8 HVDC Converter Station Shaft dynamics of a turbine-generator can be excited as a result of interaction between the turbine-generator and either rectifier current-control or the inverter extinction angle (voltage) control of an HVDC link. Thus, if both the rectifier and the inverter stations are within the study zone, both converter stations, dc line, and the associated controls, with adequate level of sophistication, must be represented in the system model.

2.2.2.4 Transmission Line Equivalent- is an accurate model for representation of a long or medium length transmission line for the phenomena under investigation. In many reported studies, the shunt capacitive branches of the line model are also neglected. Shunt capacitive branches of the line model do not have any major impact on the system subsynchronous frequency resonant modes, but their effect on supersynchronous oscillatory modes can be noticeable. Shunt capacitive branches, particularly in the case of long lines, have a significant effect on the system steady-state conditions, e.g. the magnitude of generator power angle. Therefore, depending on the operating conditions, they may have a noticeable impact on the dampings of low frequency oscillatory modes. 2.2.2.5 Series and Shunt Capacitor Banks Series capacitors are the main cause of severe shaft torsional oscillations and their presence in each transmission section is accurately represented by three lumped, ideal, capacitor banks. Similar to the shunt capacitive branches of a transmission line, shunt capacitor banks do not have any direct impact on the shaft dynamics. However, since shunt capacitors alter the voltage profile of the system, they may noticeable impact on the dampings of the oscillatory modes depending on the operating condition. Thus, representation of shunt capacitors in the system model, particularly under heavy loading conditions, is recommended. 2.2.2.6 Shunt Reactor Shunt reactors can have a noticeable impact on the steadystate operating conditions, e.g. voltage profile, which can impact the dampings of the low frequency dynamics. Thus, representation of shunt reactors, particularly under light loading conditions, is recommended. 2.2.2.7 Loads
Fixed Impedance model is an adequate load representation when turbine-generator shaft dynamics are of concern. However, if an induction motor load or a synchronous motor load is comparable to the MVA rating of the turbine-generator under consideration, fixed impedance representation of the load may result in erroneous conclusions. Under such conditions, the load is best represented by either an equivalent induction motor or an equivalent synchronous motor.

Each arm of a six-pulse converter is modelled by an ideal switch including series and parallel snubber circuits. The switch represents a group of series/parallel connected diodes or thyristor valves. The three-phase transformer model of Section 2.2.2.3 can adequately represent converter transformer of a six-pulse HVDC converter for low frequency studies. Connection of two six-pulse converter models with proper transformer models constitutes a 12-pulse HVDC converter model. The model of each pole of an HVDC converter station is realized by assembling an adequate number of 12-pulse converter models. If small-signal dynamics are of concern, e.g. torsional oscillations, a bipole HVDC link can be approximated by an equivalent monopolar link. Otherwise, e.g. for investigation of transient torques, bipolar representation is necessary. Models of smoothing reactors and ac/dc filters are developed by proper connections of lumped RLC elements. Multiple -sections is the recommended model of an HVDC line.

Block diagram of the controls of a bipole Hvdc system for time-domain simulation is given [2.14]. Further details of the control blocks are available in Chapter 8 of [2.15]. When the inverter station is not within the Study Zone, the inverter station and the dc line can be represented by an equivalent controlled voltage source, and only the rectifier station and its controls must be modelled in details. Similarly, the rectifier station and the dc line can be modelled as an equivalent controlled current source and only the inverter station and its control system be represented in detail, if the rectifier station is not within the Study Zone.

Motor loads must be represented in details for fast bus transfer phenomenon. For these studies, parallel identical motor loads can be lumped in an equivalent motor load.

An HVDC installation may have multiple auxiliary controls for various purposes, e.g. damping inter-area oscillations, frequency control, and reactive power/voltage modulations. It is recommended to represent such auxiliary controls in the system model to identify their possible adverse impacts on the torsional oscillatory modes. 2.2.2.9 Static VAr Compensator (SVC) Field experience and theoretical studies indicate that possible

3-6

adverse effect of an SVC on the shaft torsional dynamics are not as severe when compared with that of an HVDC converter station [2.16]. However SVCs have been recognized as effective countermeasures for shaft torsional dynamics. A conventional SVC is composed of thyristor-switched capacitors (TSCs) and thyristor-controlled reactors (TCRs) [2.17]. During small-signal dynamics, e.g. torsional oscillations, an SVC can be approximated as fixed capacitors (FCs) and TCRs.thyristor valves in each arm of either the TCR or the TSC are modelled as two equivalent ideal switches including the parallel snubber branch. The three-phase transformer model of Section 2.2.2.3 can adequately represent an SVC transformer for low frequency studies. Controlled reactor, switched capacitor and the SVC filter components are represented in the time-domain simulation model by proper combinations of lumped RLC elements. Chapter 9 of [2.15] and reference [2.18] provide details of the controls of an SVC for time-domain simulation. Similar to an HVDC converter station, an SVC may be equipped with auxiliary controls, e.g. supplemental SSR damping control. Thus, all the closed-loop controls must be represented in the simulation model to attain a realistic time-response of an SVC. 2.2.2.10 Generator Controls Conventional generator controls, i.e. automatic voltage regulator (AVR), power system stabilizer (PSS), and governor system generally do not have major (positive or negative) effects on turbine-generator shaft dynamics. Although there are reports of torsional excitation as a result of PSSs and electronically controlled governors, the adverse effect can be prevented by introducing filters in the control circuitry. Thus, the dynamics of excitation and governor systems are neglected, and the input mechanical power and the generator field voltage are considered as constant values for time-domain investigation of shaft dynamics. For those particular cases where either AVR, PSS or governor may aggravate torsional oscillations [2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5], they can be represented by their linearized models in the system model. 2.2.2.11 Protection System Overvoltage protection system of series capacitor can have a significant impact on large-signal torsional torques and turbine-blade vibrations following network transients. Thus, for the simulation of these two phenomena, the series capacitor overvoltage protection scheme including Zn0 varistor and the associated bypass logic and power circuitry must be represented in the system model. 2.3 TEST SYSTEMS 2.3.1 Torsional Oscillations The IEEE Working Group on Subsynchronous Resonance has introduced two benchmark models for time-domain simulation of turbogenerator torsional oscillations [2.12, 2.13]. The 3-7

benchmark models have been extensively used for time-domain as well as frequency-domain investigation of the phenomenon of torsional oscillations. Numerous study results, using the benchmark model, have been published in the IEEE PES Transactions [2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5].

Time-domain simulation and frequency-domain eigen analysis are widely used as complementary approaches for reciprocal verification of torsional studies. 2.3.2 Transient Torques The first and the second IEEE benchmark models for SmallSignal torsional studies introduced in Section 2.3.1 also have been extensively used for transient torque studies. Due to the nonlinear nature of large-signal torsional oscillations, digital time-domain simulation is the only approach to investigate the phenomenon. There are no measurement results regarding transient torques in the widely circulated technical literature. Thus, simulation results cannot be readily compared with actual field tests. At this stage, a general verification rule is to ensure that the simulation results satisfy the well understood behavioral patterns and immediately after switching incidents. 2.3.3 Turbine-Blade Vibrations The radial power system of [2.6] is recommended as the test system. The system is composed of a multi-mass tubine-generator which is connected to an infinite bus through two parallel lines. The system can be used to study blade vibrations of low-pressure turbine sections. It should be noted that in contrast to the shaft torsional oscillations (either small-signal or large-signal), the blade vibrations are not readily quantifiable from time-domain responses. Thus, a frequency spectrum analysis, e.g. FFT should be conducted on the time response to obtain the relative amplitudes and frequencies of the blade dominant oscillatory modes.

A qualitative verification of the simulation results can be obtained based on the comparison of the frequencies of the blade vibrations, deduced from FFT of the simulation results, with those provided by the turbine manufacturer. 2.3.4 Bus-Transfer The simplified system introduced in [2.7], is recommended as the test system for bus transfer studies. Typical motor load data for simulation studies are available in [2.19].

Ideally, validating a model of a fast bus transfer operation should include validating the individual motor models and the circuit breakers operating times. Individual motor models can

be validated by simulating motor starting and running conditions and comparison of other simulation results to data recorded during an actual motor instantaneous current, power, apparent power (VA), and speed. However, since a typical bus transfer model may include 15 or more motors, it may not be practical to validate individual motor models.

loop control system and a natural oscillatory mode of an apparatus. One practical case of controller interaction phenomenon is that of multiple SVCs [3.1]. The problem of controller interactions attracts more attention as the number of power electronic based devices increases. 3.2 STUDY ZONE

To establish the dead time and a range of the expected accuracy, it is recommended to perform a fast bus transfer test with a few motors connected and simulating the test conditions using motor models based on the manufacturer supplied data. Since measuring the transient variations in the motor shaft torque is a complex task, it is suggested to monitor, simulate and compare the following parameters:

When two or more interacting controls are identified, the study zone encompasses those system components which must be represented with adequate details to investigate the interaction phenomenon. Since the frequencies of interest are in the subsynchronous frequency range, the study zone is usually identified based on the criteria used for the study zone of torsional oscillations, Section 2.2.1. 3.3 DEVICE MODELS

bus instantaneous voltage individual motors instantaneous currents total instantaneous currents through the alternate source circuit breaker individual motors instantaneous power and apparent power motor speed

3.3.1 Generator Electrical System If a turbine-generator controls system, i.e. governor system, AVR, PSS, and its torsional mechanical modes do not participate in the interaction phenomenon, then the generator electrical system can be modelled as an ideal, fixed-frequency, three-phase, voltage source behind a three-phase inductance. Otherwise, the second-order model or the third-order model for Section 2.2.2.1 should be used.

errors can then be determined by comparison of the test data with simulation results. A statistical measure of the expected model accuracy may be based on the method of the root of the sum of the squares of the individual errors (RSS). The expected error in the actual bus transfer analysis would be less than the RSS of the errors derived due to the larger number of motors included. References [2.7, 2.8, 2.9] provide some test results which can be used as general guidelines to verify the pattern of behaviour of the system variables due to the bus transfer phenomenon.

3.3.2 Turbine-Generator Mechanical System When the generator electrical system is represented either by the second-order model or the third-order model, the shaft system should be represented by the mass-spring-dashpot model of Section 2.2.2.2. Otherwise, the shaft dynamics and consequently its oscillatory modes can be ignored. 3.3.3 Power Transformer

Appendix A provides further information regarding fast bustransfer and typical time-domain simulation results. 3. CONTROL SYSTEM INTERACTIONS 3.1 DEFINITION Closed-loop controls associated with various power system apparatus, e.g. SVC controls, HVDC converter controls, controls of adjustable series capacitors, generator automatic voltage regulators (AVRs), and generator power system stabilizers (PSSs) have natural oscillatory modes at frequencies in the subsynchronous frequency range of 1 to 35 Hz. Depending upon the electrical distance between the apparatus, the associated closed-loop controls can interact and result in either unsatisfactory operation of the device(s), sustained oscillations, or even small-signal instability. Another type of controller interactions is the interaction between a closed3-8

When a generator is represented by a voltage source behind an inductance, the generator step-up transformer is represented by a series RL branch in each phase. Otherwise, the low-frequency transformer model of Section 2.2.2.3 should be used to represent the transformer in the overall system model. In general, the low-frequency transformer model is an adequate representation of a power transformer for investigation of controller interaction phenomenon. The harmonics generated as a result of transformer saturation have much higher frequencies than those of controller interactions. Thus the saturation does not have any major role in the controller interaction phenomenon.Transmission Line Per-phase equivalent- model is an adequate representation of a line for investigation of the phenomenon of control interactions.

3.3.4 Series and Shunt Capacitor Banks Presence of series capacitors in a transmission line can alter the level of controller interactions or even excite the interaction mode(s) [3.2]. Impacts of parallel (shunt) capacitors on the controller interactions is significantly less than that of a series capacitor. Both series and shunt capacitors can be adequately represented by three-phase lumped capacitor banks for investigation of controller interactions. 3.3.5 Shunt Reactor Similar to shunt capacitors, fixed, shunt inductors do not have a major impact on controller interactions. Nevertheless, shunt reactors are adequately represented by three-phase lumped inductances for investigation of controller interactions. 3.3.6 Loads

trolled current source and only the inverter station and its control system be represented in details, if the rectifier station is not within the Study Zone. 3.3.8 Static VAR Compensator (SVC) A conventional SVC, which is composed of thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR) and fixed capacitor (FC), can interact with an HVDC converter station or other SVCs through their closed-loop controls and excite the phenomenon of controller interaction. An SVC model for control interaction studies should accurately represent the SVC and its control system in the frequency range of 5 to about 45 Hz. The steady-state continuous controls including all the auxiliary loops, e.g. SVC voltage control and SSR damping control, must be represented in the simulation model. Further details of an SVC smallsignal model are available in Section 4.3.9. 3.3.9 Generator Controls

Fixed Impedance model of loads within the study zone provides accurate representation of the loads for investigation of controller interaction phenomenon. Very large load areas can also be represented by an infinite bus with proper phase angle to draw the required power at the fundamental frequency. The impacts of various load models on the phenomenon of controller interactions have been neither adequately investigated nor reported in the literature. 3.3.7 HVDC Converter Station Rectifier or inverter firing angle controls can interact with other system controllers, e.g. SVC controls, and excite control interaction phenomenon. Contribution of an HVDC converter station to the controller interaction phenomenon is primarily as a result of the natural oscillatory modes of its control loop(s) and not due to the harmonics generated by the valve switchings. If both inverter and rectifier are within the study zone, both converter stations, the connecting dc link, and all the associated controls must be represented in the study model. Further details on representation of each 12-pulse converter are given in Section 4.3.8.

Conventional synchronous generator controls, i.e. governor system, AVR, and PSS are designed to perform corresponding tasks at very low frequencies (0.1 to 2.5 Hz), and are not the prime cause of controller interactions. Thus the dynamics of the generator controls often can be neglected for the investigation of controller interaction phenomenon. However, if their presence in the overall system model is required, their conventional low-frequency, linearized models would suffice. 3.3.10 Harmonic Filters Harmonic filters of SVCs are adequately represented by lumped RLC circuits. Similarly, ac side and dc side harmonic filters of HVDC converter stations are represented by lumped RLC circuits. 3.4 TEST SYSTEM Figure 3.1 shows the recommended test system for the investigation of controller interactions [3.1] of multiple SVCs. Depending upon the operating conditions and parameters, the voltage control loops of the SVCs can interact and exhibit small-signal instability. Inclusion of control limits in the model is not necessary since the control interaction constitutes a linear phenomenon and nonlinearities are not involved. icomp in Fig. 3.1 is the total current of each TCR and the associated capacitor bank. The systems data and initial conditions are given in [3.3, 3.4].

All the steady-state continuous controls of rectifier and inverter stations, e.g. DC current control, DC voltage control, AC voltage control or reactive power control, real power control, and frequency control must be represented in the model. The control model must adequately represent firing and synchronization schemes used for the converter values.

When the inverter station is not within the Study Zone, the inverter station and the dc line can be represented by an equivalent controlled voltage source, and only the rectifier station and its controls be modelled in detail. Similarly, the rectifier station and the dc line can be modelled as an equivalent con-

3-9

4.2 STUDY ZONE Those system apparatus which either generate or interact with the frequencies of interest must be represented in adequate details, and they identify the study zone. Also transmission lines which connect the apparatus within the study zone must be represented with adequate accuracy in the frequency range of interest in the system model. The remainder of the system which neither generates nor interacts with the harmonics can be simplified and represented by its frequency dependent equivalent model [4.3]. 4.3 DEVICE MODEL
Fig. 3.1. Test systems for investigation of controller interaction phenomena

4.3.1 Generator Electrical Model Rotating machines within the study zone do not contribute to the harmonic interaction phenomenon and can be represented by equivalent voltage sources behind fixed RL elements. 4.3.2 Turbine-Generator Mechanical System dynamics do not play any noticeable role in the harmonic interaction phenomenon. Thus, the shaft model can be readily discarded from the overall system model. 4.3.3 Power Transformer

3.5 VERIFICATION OF SIMULATION RESULTS Small-signal controller interactions also can be investigated based on the linearized model of the system under investigation, using eigen analysis approaches [3.6, 3.7. 3.8]. Both time-domain simulation and the eigen analysis of controller interactions are conducted for qualitative comparison of the results and their mutual verifications.

4. HARMONIC INTERACTION AND RESONANCE 4.1 DEFINITION Operation of power electronic converters, e.g. an HVDC converter station, is characterized by generation of current and/or voltage harmonics. These harmonics are classified as characteristic and noncharacteristic harmonics. In contrast to characteristic harmonics, amplitudes and orders of noncharacteristic harmonics cannot be accurately predicted by conventional analytical techniques, e.g. Fourier analysis. Time-domain simulation methods provide an alternative approach for the analysis of noncharacteristic harmonics. References [4.1] and [4.2] provide a comprehensive description of the physical phenomena resulting in harmonic interactions.

Both stray capacitances and magnetic saturation characteristics of power transformers within the study zone can have significant impact on power system harmonics. The magnetic saturation characteristic has a deterministic impact on the second harmonic instability and can be fairly represented by the no-load V-I characteristic in the magnetization branch of the transformer. The winding stray capacitances to the tank have a noticeable effect on the interference phenomenon [4.2]. The stray capacitance can be adequately modelled by a single capacitance from the winding terminal to the ground [4.2]. 4.3.4 Transmission Lines Transmission lines within the study zone are best represented as distributed parameter lines including parameter frequency dependency. However, if the frequency range of interest does not cover high frequencies (more than 300 Hz), each transmission line can be represented by multiple sections. 4.3.5 Series and Shunt Capacitor Banks Series and shunt capacitors have deterministic impacts on series and parallel resonant frequencies of the system and must be represented in the overall system model for harmonic studies. Both series and shunt capacitors are adequately represented by lumped three-phase capacitor banks.

The main concerns with the presence of noncharacteristic harmonics are (1) harmonic interactions and/or resonance [4.1], and (2) the interference phenomenon [4.2].

Radio and telephone interference as a result of dc side harmonics of HVDC converters is a well known phenomenon. Also, second and third harmonic instability of ac systems due to harmonic modulation characteristic of HVDC converter has been encountered in the existing installations [4.1].

3-10

4.3.6 Shunt Reactor Similar to series and shunt capacitors, shunt reactors also influence the system natural resonant frequencies and must be represented in the system model. A shunt reactor is adequately represented by a three-phase lumped reactor bank. 4.3.7 Loads Fixed Impedance model is a valid representation for loads within the study zone, unless the load is known to have particular resonant frequency or generates particular harmonic(s) which can affect the harmonic phenomenon of interest. 4.3.8 HVDC Converter Station
The HVDC converter station is one of the major sources for generation of harmonics which cause interference and/or instability of electrical power networks [4.1]. The required model of an HVDC converter station for studying interference and harmonic interaction phenomena is the same as the model described in Section 3.3.8.

capacitors, Fig. 4.2. Magnetic saturation characteristics of converter transformers must be included in the model [4.4].

4.3.9 Static VAR Compensator (SVC) Static VAR compensators have not been reported as a source of interference phenomenon and harmonic interactions. However, in the vicinity of HVDC converter stations and FACTS devices, a static VAR compensator can aggravate harmonic related issues [4.4]. The required SVC model for time-domain investigation of harmonic problems is the same as the model described in Section 3.3.9, except for the following differences: Snubber circuits of each valve chain must be included in the simulation model. The model of valve firing circuitry must be capable of generating exact firing instants. Operating point and parameter values of a SVC can readily influence series/parallel resonant frequencies of a network and consequently tune the system for resonant conditions, e.g. second harmonic resonance [4.4]. The above model can also be used for this class of resonant conditions which normally occur at noncharacteristic harmonics generated by power electronic circuits. 4.3.10 Generator Control Automatic voltage regulator, power system stabilizer, and governor system do not influence harmonic related problem. Thus, their model can be excluded from the system model for time-domain harmonic studies. 4.3.11 Harmonic Filters SVC and HVDC harmonic filters must be modelled as described in Section 3.3.11. 4.4 TEST SYSTEM

Fig. 4.1. Lumped equivalent of the stray capacitances of a 12-pulse HVDC

converter and the converter transformers

Exact parameters of the snubber circuits of each valve chain should be included in the model [4.2]. It should be noted that in some transients programs, the exact parameters of snubber circuits cannot be used. Unrealistic snubber circuits are required by these programs to avoid numerical problems. The model used for the valve firing circuitry should generate actual firing instants. Otherwise, the amplitudes and orders of noncharacteristic harmonics will be noticeably distorted as a result of improper firing instants [4.4]. Stray capacitances of the converter transformers, valve structure, and smoothing reactor must be adequately represented in the system model [4.2]. The impact of stray capacitances can be represented by a set of lumped

The HVDC-AC system of Fig. 4.3 is proposed as the test system for the investigation of harmonic interactions phenomena and the second harmonic instability issues.

Fig. 4.1. HVDC-AC test systems for time-domain simulation of harmonic interaction phenomena, and the second harmonic instability

3-11

The HVDC link is a 450-kV, 936-km, 2000-MW, 12-pulse, bipole configuration. Each pole is equipped with ac side and dc side filters. The inverter neutral is equipped with a neutral filter. The rectifier neutral is solidly grounded close to the station. Parameters and control system of the Manitoba Hydros Bipole-2 HVDC system [4.5, 4.6] are adopted for the test system of Fig. 4.3.

The rectifier ac system, Fig. 4.3, is composed of an equivalent 26-kV source which is connected to the rectifier ac bus through a 26/235-kV transformer and a short 230-kV line. The effective short circuit ratio (ESCR) of the rectifier ac system is 3.6.

modelling approach of [4.15] are reported in [4.14]. References [4.16, 4.17, 4.18] provide a comprehensive and fundamental description of the harmonic interaction phenomenon. However, there are not that many measurements and investigation of the harmonic interaction phenomenon to establish a method for verification of time-domain simulation studies. Reference [4.19] introduces an alternative approach based on frequency scanning method for identification of harmonic instabilities in HVDC systems. This approach may be used for qualitative verification of digital time-domain simulation approach.

5. FERRORESONANCE The inverter ac system consists of a 230-kV ac source which is connected to the inverter station through a 500-kV, 832-km transmission system. The transmission line is equipped with 240/525-kV Y - Y connected transformer at the source side. The ac line is divided in three sections, Fig. 4.3. Each intermediate station is equipped with a 400 MVA capacitor bank for voltage profile improvement. Loads #1, #2, and #3 are rated at 920-MVA, 400-MVA and 360-MVA respectively. The inverter station is also equipped with an SVC which can adjust its reactive power from 180-MVAR inductive to 510MVAR capacitive. Electrical parameters of the inverter ac system are given in [4.7]. The ESCR of the inverter ac side is 2.2.

References [4.8] and [4.9] provide various HVDC/ac benchmark models that also can be used for the analyses of harmonic interactions and resonance phenomena. The first HVDC benchmark model [4.8] proposed by CIGRE WG 14-02 also exhibits second harmonic resonance and can be adopted for investigation of harmonic instability phenomenon. This system is less complicated as compared with that of Fig. 4.3. Reference [4.10] provides a very simple circuit configuration which exhibits instability due to switching characteristic of thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR). A set of time-domain simulations results of the test systems of Fig. 4.3 is given in [4.4]. 4.5 VERIFICATION OF SIMULATION RESULTS There are several technical papers which deal with analysis and measurement of noncharacteristic harmonics of HVDC converter stations [4.2, 4.11, 4.12, 4.13]. The primary concern in these papers is the dc side triplen harmonics which cause interference and not the second harmonic instability problem. Reference [4.15] provides a modelling approach for representation of a six-pulse converter with respect to the second harmonic for eigen analysis. Such eigen analysis approach can be used as an alternative technique for validation of simulation results. Eigen analysis studies based on the

In this section, ferroresonance is introduced and a general modeling approach is given. An overview of available literature and contributors to this area is provided. A simple case of ferroresonance in a single phase transformer is used to illustrate this phenomenon. Three phase transformer core structures are discussed. Ferroresonance in three phase grounded-wye distribution systems is described and illustrated with waveform data obtained from laboratory simulations. Representation of the study zone is discussed, modeling techniques are presented, and implementation suggestions are made. Three case studied are presented. Transformer representation is critical to performing a valid simulation. The direction of ongoing research is discussed, and the reader is advised to monitor the literature for ongoing rapid improvements in transformer modeling techniques.

5.1 INTRODUCTION TO FERRORESONANCE

Research involving ferroresonance in transformers has been conducted over the last 80 years. The word ferroresonance first appears in the literature in 1920 [5.7], although papers on resonance in transformers appeared as early as 1907 [5.4]. Practical interest was generated in the 1930s when it was shown that use of series capacitors for voltage regulation caused ferroresonance in distribution systems [5.9], resulting in damaging overvoltages. The first analytical work was done by Rudenberg in the 1940s [5.36]. More exacting and detailed work was done later by Hayashi in the 1950s [5.17]. Subsequent research has been divided into two main areas: improving the models used to predict the behavior of the transformers, and studying ferroresonance involving transformers installed in power systems.

3-12

An understanding of the nonlinear parameters describing a transformer core is prerequisite to dealing with ferroresonance. Swift [5.47] and Jiles [5.20] have provided insight into transformer core behavior and the separation of hysteresis and eddy current losses. Frame [5.15] and others have developed piecewise-linear methods of modeling the nonlinearities in saturable inductances. Hopkinson [5.19] performed system tests and simulations on the effect of different switching strategies on the initiation of ferroresonance in three phase systems. Smith [5.38] categorized the modes of ferroresonance in one type of three phase distribution transformer based on the magnitude and appearance of the voltage waveforms. Arturi [5.2] and Mork [5.29] have demonstrated the use of duality transformations to obtain transformer equivalent circuits. Mork [5.27] and Kieny [5.21] have shown that the theories and experimental techniques of nonlinear dynamics and chaotic systems can be applied to better understand ferroresonance and limitations inherent in modeling a nonlinear system. Developments in the near future are expected to be in the areas of developing improved transformer models and applying nonlinear dynamics to the simulation of ferroresonance.

2 0 0 .0 1 5 0 .0 1 0 0 .0 5 0 .0 0 .0 -5 0 .0 -1 0 0. 0 -1 5 0. 0 -2 0 0. 0 0 .0 s

1 .0 0 .7 5 0 .5 0 .2 5 0 .0 -0 .2 5 -0 .5 -0 .7 5 -1 .0 5 0 . 0m s

1 0 . 0m s

2 0 . 0m s

3 0 . 0m s

4 0 . 0m s

T IM E

Fig. 5.1. Unloaded single phase transformer with rated voltage applied.Solid waveform is applied voltage; dashed waveform is exciting current

5.2 FERRORESONANCE IN A SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER In simple terms, ferroresonance is a series "resonance" involving nonlinear inductance and capacitances. It typically involves the saturable magnetizing inductance of a transformer and a capacitive distribution cable or transmission line connected to the transformer. Its occurrence is more likely in the absence of adequate damping. A simple case of ferroresonance is presented here as an illustration. When rated voltage is applied to an unloaded single phase transformer, only a very small excitation current flows (Fig. 5.1). In this case, the 120-volt winding of a 120-240 volt 1.5 kVA dry-type transformer is energized, resulting in an exciting current, whose peak amplitude is 0.05 per unit. Referring to the equivalent circuit shown, it is seen that this current consists of two components: the magnetizing current and the core loss current. The magnetizing current, which flows through the nonlinear magnetizing inductance LM, is required to induce a voltage in the secondary winding of the transformer. The core loss current, flowing through RC, makes up the eddy current losses and hysteresis losses in the transformer's steel core.

Although usually assumed linear, RC is dependent on voltage and frequency. The excitation current contains high order odd harmonics, due to transformer core saturation. RW and LL are the winding resistance and winding leakage inductance, respectively. They are assumed to be linear parameters. Their magnitudes are relatively small compared to LM and RC and so are usually ignored in no-load situations [5.3,5.24]. If a capacitor is placed between the voltage source and the unloaded transformer, ferroresonance may occur (Fig. 5.2). An extremely large exciting current (1.92 per unit peak) is drawn and the voltage induced on the secondary may be much larger than rated (1.44 per unit peak). The high current here is due to resonance between CS and LM; ferroresonance in most practical situations results in smaller exciting currents. Any operating "modes" which result in a significantly distorted transformer (inductor) voltage waveform are typically referred to as ferroresonance, although the implication of resonance in a classical sense is arguably a misnomer. Even though the "resonance" occurring does involve a capacitance and an inductance, there is no definite resonant frequency, more than one response is possible for the same set of parameters, and gradual drifts or transients may cause the response to jump from one steady-state response to another. High-order odd harmonics are characteristic of the waveforms, whose shapes might be conceptually explained in terms of the effective natural frequency 1 LMCS as LM goes in and out of saturation. Steep slopes (fast changes) occur when LM is saturated, and flat slopes occur when LM is operating in its linear unsaturated region. Due to nonlinearity, two other ferroresonant operating modes

3-13

are possible, depending on the magnitudes of source voltage and series capacitance. In this case, all modes are seen to produce periodic voltage waveforms on the transformer secondary [5.26,5.29]. In general, gradual changes in source voltage or capacitance will cause state transitions. A reversal to conditions that caused a transition will not reverse the transition, due to nonlinearity of LM [5.36]. Transients can also trigger transition from mode to mode. In modern terms, these jumps are referred to as bifurcations [16,27,29,45], and may be better understood by applying the theory of nonlinear dynamics and chaos. A long-used intuitive explanation of these jumps, based on a graphical method, is given by Rudenberg [5.36]. However, this method is not a good analytical tool since it is based only on the fundamental frequency and neglects harmonics. Damping added to the circuit will attenuate the ferroresonant voltage and current. Some damping is always present in the form of resistive source impedance, transformer losses, and also corona losses in high voltage systems, but most damping is due to the load applied to the secondary of the transformer.

Ferroresonance can lead to heating of transformer, due to high peak currents and high core fluxes. High temperatures inside the transformer may weaken the insulation and cause a failure under electrical stresses. In EHV systems, ferroresonance may result in high overvoltages during the first few cycles, resulting in an insulation coordination problem involving frequencies higher than the operating frequency of the system. Because of nonlinearities, analytical solution of the ferroresonant circuit must be done using time domain methods. Typically, a computer-based numerical integration method is applied using time domain simulation programs such as the EMTP.

5.3 MAGNETIC BEHAVIOR OF THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

It is incorrect to assume that a three phase transformer core is magnetically equivalent to three single phase transformers, i.e. that the three phases have no direct magnetic coupling. Such an assumption can lead to serious errors, especially if one is investigating a transformer's behavior under transient or unbalanced conditions.

Fig. 5.2. Same transformer as in Fig. 5.1, fed through a 75F capacitance,operating in ferroresonance. Solid waveform is terminal voltageof transformer; dashed waveform is the current.

Damping added to the circuit will attenuate the ferroresonant voltage and current. Some damping is always present in the form of resistive source impedance, transformer losses, and also corona losses in high voltage systems, but most damping is due to the load applied to the secondary of the transformer. Therefore, a lightly-loaded or unloaded transformer fed through a capacitive source impedance is a prime candidate for ferroresonance. This elementary type of ferroresonance is similar to that which occurred in the series capacitor compensated distribution systems of the 1930s. It can also occur, from different sources of capacitance, in today's single phase distribution transformers and voltage instrument transformers [5.1,5.18]. It can also occur in series-compensated transmission lines.

Fig. 5.1. Core configurations commonly used in three phase transformers.Only one set of windings is shown.

The only type of core that displays magnetic characteristics similar to three single phase transformers is the triplex core. Although the cores share the same tank, they are magnetically isolated (except for leakage fluxes). Core laminations can be stacked or wound. Zero sequence fluxes will circulate individually in each core, and tank heating is not a problem. Under normal balanced operation, exciting currents in each phase are identical, except for their 120 shift in phase angle. All of the other core configurations provide direct flux linkages between phases via the magnetic core. Simply stated, applying a voltage to any one phase will result in voltages being

3-14

induced in the other phases (only in the adjacent phase(s) in the case of the five-legged wound core). Further, the degree of saturation in each limb of the core affects the way flux flows divide. The apparent reluctance seen by each of the windings changes depending on the degree of saturation in each of the limbs of the transformer core. Therefore, exciting currents vary from phase to phase, even under balanced operation. A brief discussion of each of these core types follows: Core-form transformers require the least amount of core material to manufacture. Laminations are stacked. Their worst problem is that unbalanced operation results in zero sequence fluxes which cannot circulate in the core. These zero sequence fluxes are forced through the insulation surrounding the core and through the transformer tank. Tank steel is not laminated like the core is, so eddy currents can heat the tank and cause damage. Therefore, this type of core should only be used where load currents are balanced. The shell-form core provides a magnetic path for zero sequence flux, and is much better-suited for unbalanced operation. Laminations are stacked. There is a large base of transformers with this type of core (about half of the installed three phase power transformers in the US). The four-legged core also provides a magnetic path for zero sequence flux. This type of core design is not very common. It is the only type of core whose outer phases do not exhibit like behavior. The five-legged stacked core also provides a magnetic path for zero sequence flux, but has a more symmetric core. This type of core is often specified where a low-profile is desirable for shipping or for visual appearance in urban substations. The five-legged wound core is made up of four concentrically-laminated cores. The unique feature of this core is that only adjacent phases are directly linked via a magnetic path. Assuming no flux leakage between cores, the two outer winding assemblies are not magnetically coupled. Tank heating is minimized, since there are zero sequence flux paths in the core. Because of its low cost, this type of transformer core is widely used in distribution systems. The winding configuration used does not have any effect on the transformer core model. Delta, wye, or zig-zag winding connections are made outside of the model of the core equivalent. However, behavior of the transformer is strongly dependent on the winding configuration. 5.4 FERRORESONANCE IN THREE PHASE SYSTEMS Ferroresonance in three phase systems can involve large power transformers, distribution transformers, or instrument transformers (VTs or CVTs). The general requirements for ferroresonance are an applied (or induced) source voltage, a saturable magnetizing inductance of a transformer, a capacitance, and little damping. The capacitance can be in the form of capacitance of underground cables or long transmission

lines, capacitor banks, coupling capacitances between double circuit lines or in a temporarily-ungrounded system, and voltage grading capacitors in HV circuit breakers. Other possibilities are generator surge capacitors and SVCs in long transmission lines. Due to the multitude of transformer winding and core configurations, system connections, various sources of capacitance, and the nonlinearities involved, the scenarios under which ferroresonance can occur are seemingly endless [5.5]. System events that may initiate ferroresonance include single phase switching or fusing, or loss of system grounding. The ferroresonant circuit in all cases is an applied (or induced) voltage connected to a capacitance in series with a transformer's magnetizing reactance. Fig. 5.4 gives three examples of ferroresonance occurring in a network where single phase switching is used. A wye-connected capacitance is paralleled with an unloaded wye-connected transformer. The capacitance could be a capacitor bank or the shunt capacitance of the lines or cables connecting the transformer to the source. Each phase of the transformer is represented by jXm, since ferroresonance involves only the magnetizing reactance.

Fig. 5.1. Three examples of ferroresonance in three phase systems.

If one or two poles of the switch are open and if either the capacitor bank or the transformer have grounded neutrals, then a series path through capacitance(s) and magnetizing reac-

3-15

tance(s) exists and ferroresonance is possible. If both neutrals are grounded or both are ungrounded, then no series path exists and there is no clear possibility of ferroresonance. In all of these cases, the voltage source is the applied system voltage. Ferroresonance is possible for any of the core configurations of Fig. 5.3 (even for triplexed or a bank of single phase transformers).

Depending on the type of transformer core, ferroresonance may be possible even when there is no obvious series path from the applied voltage through a capacitance and a magnetizing reactance. This is possible with three phase core types which provide direct magnetic coupling between phases, where voltages can be induced in the open phase(s) of the transformer. To illustrate, a grounded-wye to grounded-wye transformer typical of modern distribution systems is considered. A recent survey in the US showed that 79% of underground rural distribution systems use this configuration, so ferroresonance problems in this type of installation are of special interest [5.23,5.25,5.40,5.41]. A simplified schematic of such a system is shown in Fig. 5.5. The distribution line is represented by its RLC pi equivalent, with no interphase coupling. Three phase circuit breakers and gang-operated switches are used at the substation where distribution lines originate, but single phase switching and interrupting devices are used outside of the substation.

Whether ferroresonance occurs depends on the type of switching and interrupting devices, type of transformer, the load on the secondary of the transformer, and the length and type of distribution line. A long underground line is much more capacitive than a short overhead line. However, due to nonlinearities, increased capacitance does not necessarily mean an increased likelihood of ferroresonance. Operating guidelines based on linear extrapolations of capacitance may not be valid. Also, as mentioned previously, the smaller the load on the transformer's secondary, the less the system damping is and the more likely ferroresonance will be. Therefore, a highly capacitive line and little or no load on the transformer are prerequisites for ferroresonance. Binary loads (either full load or no load) such as irrigation, are essentially zero most of the time and cannot be relied upon to damp ferroresonance. Ferroresonance is rarely seen provided all three source phases are energized, but may occur when one or two of the source phases are lost while the transformer is unloaded or lightly loaded. The loss of one or two phases can easily happen due to clearing of single phase fusing, operation of single phase reclosers or sectionalizers, or when energizing or deenergizing using single phase switching procedures. If one of the three switches of Fig. 5.4 were open, only two phases of the transformer would be energized. If the transformer is of the triplex design or is a bank of single phase transformers, the open phase is simply deenergized and the energized phases draw normal exciting current. (Existence of capacitor banks or significant phase to phase capacitive coupling could still result in ferroresonance, but that possibility is not addressed here). However, if the transformer is of the three-, four- or fivelegged core type, a voltage is induced in the "open" phase. This induced voltage will "backfeed" the distribution line back to the open switch. If the shunt capacitance is significant, ferroresonance may occur. The ferroresonance that occurs involves the nonlinear magnetizing reactance of the transformer's open phase and the shunt capacitance of the distribution line and/or transformer winding capacitance. It has been shown that the ferroresonant circuit is a series combination of the shunt cable capacitance and the magnetizing inductance of one of the transformer's wound cores [5.23]. The equivalent circuit for this transformer is derived later in this paper. An example of ferroresonant voltage and current waveforms occurring under this scenario is shown in Fig. 5.6. In this case, rated voltage was applied to X2 and X3, while X1 was unenergized and had 9F attached to simulate a length of underground distribution cable. Whether in ferroresonance or not, this backfeed situation can be dangerous, as operating personnel may assume that the load side of the open switch is deenergized and safe to work on, when in fact a high voltage is present. Also, it can be seen that single phase loads connected along this backfed phase

Fig. 5.2. Typical distribution system supplying a three phaseload through a grounded-wye to grounded-wye transformer.

Either overhead lines or underground cables connect transformers to the system. Cables have a relatively large shunt capacitance compared to overhead lines, so this type of ferroresonance most often involves underground cables, but is also possible due solely to transformer winding capacitance. Three phase or single phase transformers can appear at the end of a distribution line or at any point along the line. Three phase transformers may have any one of the several core types discussed in the previous section.

3-16

will continue to be supplied, although with dangerously high or low voltage levels and with poor power quality. Therefore, use of single phase interruption and switching practices in systems containing the five-legged core transformers is the main operating tactic responsible for initiating ferroresonance. Replacement of all single phase switching and interrupting devices with three phase devices would eliminate this problem, although economics discourages such large scale upgrades. An alternate solution would be to replace all five-legged core transformers with single phase banks or triplex designs wherever there is a small load factor. System wide operation and design implications of this problem have been more fully addressed in prior work [5.25].

Fig. 5.1. Measurement of ferroresonance in a three phase grounded-wye to grounded-wye five-legged core transformer. Voltage waveform is solid; current waveform is dashed.

The "higher energy modes" [5.1] of ferroresonance involving relatively large capacitances and little damping can produce a nonperiodic voltage on the open phase(s). These voltage waveforms can be quite similar to those of Duffing's equation [5.45], which describes a nonlinear forced oscillator commonly used to illustrate the behaviors of a nonlinear dynamical system. Transitions between periodic and nonperiodic modes occur due to gradual changes in circuit parameters or to transients. And as with Duffing's equation, initial conditions determine the mode that operation stabilizes in after the transients die down. The recognition that ferroresonance is a nonlinear and sometimes chaotic process opens up many possibilities. The newly-developed techniques for analysis of nonlinear dynamical systems and chaos are being evaluated for use with ferroresonance [5.27,5.21]. Use of geometric graphical methods like phase plane projections and Poincar sections can be applied to obtain a better understanding of ferroresonance.

5.5 NONLINEAR DYNAMICS AND CHAOS APPLIED TO FERRORESONANCE

Ferroresonant circuits can be analyzed as damped nonlinear systems driven by sinusoidal forcing function(s) [5.27]. The nonlinear behavior of ferroresonance falls into two main categories. In the first, the response is a distorted periodic waveform, containing the fundamental and higher-order odd harmonics of the fundamental frequency. The second type is characterized by a nonperiodic, or chaotic, response. In both cases the response's power spectrum contains fundamental and odd harmonic frequency components. In the chaotic response, however, there are also distributed frequency harmonics and subharmonics. A good conceptual introduction to chaos and nonlinear dynamics is given by [5.16], and a good theoretical introduction can be found in [5.45]. At least 2 different periodic responses are possible for a single phase transformer [5.26], similar to that of Fig.5.1. Ferroresonance in the above three phase five-legged core distribution transformer can be periodic or nonperiodic. "Lower energy modes" [5.1] (involving relatively low energy oscillations between the inductance and capacitance, similar to the waveforms shown in Fig. 5.5) produce periodic voltages on the secondary. Some of the periodic modes of ferroresonance may contain subharmonics, but still have strong power frequency components, but take longer than one fundamental cycle to repeat. This occurs more typically for very large values of C.

5.6 MODELLING AND ANALYSIS OF FERRORESONANCE 5.6.1 Overview Ferroresonance has never been well-understood. Therefore, there is a great deal of misinformation on ferroresonance in the literature. A good example of this concerns the application of grounded-wye to grounded-wye five-legged core distribution transformers. As recently as 1989, specification of this type of transformer was recommended to eliminate or minimize the possibility of ferroresonance [5.14,5.35]. This misinformation is gradually being corrected [5.25,5.32], but engineers must be cautious and continue to update themselves. Efforts in past years seem focused on refining equivalent circuit models for transformers and performing simulations using a transient circuit analysis program such as EMTP. Although these programs use fairly robust methods of numerical integration, such as the trapezoidal rule, results are only as good as the models used (and the initial conditions if the onset of ferroresonance is a concern). Simulation results have a great sensitivity to the model used and errors in nonlinear model parameters. Unfortunately, determining the model's nonlinear parameters is probably the biggest modeling difficulty. Three phase transformer modeling has not progressed as far as single phase modeling. A different model is required for each type of core, and a different means of determining the model parameters. Ideally, use of a correct transformer model would allow an engineer to simulate situations where ferroresonance is likely.

3-17

Simulation results could then be used to avoid this problem when designing a distribution system. Difficulties in determining an adequate model and in simulating every possible combination of initial condition and transient make prediction less than certain. 5.6.2 The Study Zone Parts of the system that must be simulated are the source impedance, the transmission or distribution line(s), the transformer, and any capacitance not already included. Source representation is not generally critical. Unless the source contains nonlinearities, it is sufficient to use the steady-state thevenin impedance and open-circuit voltage. The distribution line or transmission line can be assumed to be an RLC coupled pi-equivalent, cascaded for longer lines. Shunt or series capacitors may be represented as a standard capacitance, paralleled with the appropriate dissipation resistance. Stray capacitance may also be incorporated either at the corners of an open-circuited delta transformer winding or midway along each winding. Other sources of capacitance are transformer bushings and interwinding capacitances, and possibly busbar capacitances. One of the most critical parts of any ferroresonance study is the transformer model. The transformer contains the nonlinearities, and modeling results are most sensitive to correct representation of magnetic saturation and core loss. The rest of this discussion focuses mainly on how the transformer should be modeled. Many are dissatisfied with the transformer modeling capabilities in today's modeling packages. There has been much discussion recently as to what improvements can be made in modeling techniques [5.6,5.13,5.46]. 5.6.3 More on Single Phase Transformer Models And Parameters Single phase transformers are typically modeled as shown in Fig. 5.2. This model is topologically correct only for the case where the primary and secondary windings are not concentrically wound. LL2 is essentially zero for concentric coils. Errors in leakage representation are not significant, however, unless the core saturates. Obtaining the linear parameters for this 2-winding transformer may be difficult. Short circuit tests give total impedance (R1 + R2) + j(X1 + X2). A judgement must be made as to how it is divided between the primary and secondary windings. If the transformer has three or more windings, the Rs and Xs for the individual windings of each phase may be separated. Sometimes one of Xs is negative, but this will not usually cause a problem in the time domain transient simulation. This approach satisfactorily separates the winding resistances, but may not correctly account for mutual inductive coupling. To solve this problem, a coupled L representation for the short circuit inductances is recommended [5.11]. Binary short circuit (shorting two windings at a time while leaving all others

open) tests for all possible combinations of windings must be performed to obtain the inductance matrix. Additional developments are still needed, however, since the core equivalent cannot be correctly incorporated with this representation (the only place it can be connected is on one of the external transformer terminals). Model performance depends mainly on the representation of the nonlinear elements RC and LM. RC has traditionally been modeled as a linear resistance. Such a core loss representation, if it represents the average losses at the level of excitation being simulated, may in fact yield reasonable results. Due to eddy current losses and hysteresis losses being nonlinear, calculation of a linear core loss resistance RC gives different values for each level of excitation. Using the value of RC closest to rated voltage may be a good enough estimate. Past research has shown low sensitivities to fairly large changes in RC [5.29] for single phase transformers, but a high sensitivity for three-phase cores. LM is typically represented as a piecewise linear -i characteristic [5.22], or perhaps as a hysteretic inductance [5.15,5.20,5.33]. The linear value of LM (below the knee of the curve) does not much affect the simulation results [5.8], although great sensitivities are seen for the shape of the knee and the final slope in saturation. Factory test data provided by the transformer manufacturer is often insufficient to obtain the core parameters. Open circuit tests should be made for 0.2 to 1.3 pu (or higher) instead of the typical 0.8 to 1.14 pu range. It is important that open circuit tests be performed for voltages as high as the conditions being simulated, or the final -i slope of LM must be guessed. Some thought should be given to the requirements of test reports when specifying new transformers. A method proposed by Dommel [5.11,5.22] is often used to convert the RMS V-I open circuit characteristic to the -i characteristic of LM. To successfully use this method, the first (lowest) level of excitation must result in sinusoidal current, or errors will result in the form of an S-shaped -i curve. Also, the V-I characteristic must extend as high as the highest voltage that will be encountered in the simulation. An extension on this method has been proposed to obtain a nonlinear v-i representation of RC [5.31], but the resulting flux-linked vs. IEX loop does not seem to correctly represent the core losses. Modern low-loss transformers have comparatively large inter-winding capacitances which can affect the shape of the excitation curve [5.47]. This can cause significant errors when the above method is being used to obtain core parameters. In these cases, factory tests must be performed to get the -i curve before the coils are placed on the core. A means of removing the capacitive component of the exciting current has also been developed [5.29]. 5.6.4 Three Phase Transformer Models And Model Parameters

3-18

For three phase transformers, it is possible to make a simplified model by connecting together three of the above single phase models. If this is done, a triplex core configuration is assumed (see Fig. 5.3). A delta-wye transformer of this type is shown in Fig. 5.7. It is postulated that zero sequence (homopolar) effects are included almost entirely by the leakage inductance of the delta windings [5.11,5.22].

The model might be improved by using a coupled inductance matrix to model the short circuit characteristics of three phase transformers. Binary short circuit tests involving all windings of all phases must be performed. Problems can arise for RMS short circuit data involving windings on different phases, since the current may be nonsinusoidal. A problem also exists with connecting the core equivalent. Three single phase core equivalents are often attached to the windings closest to the core, and may provide acceptable results in some cases, especially in the case of the three-legged stacked core. Questions exist as to this method's validity, especially depending on the type of core being analyzed. The most important question is, however, what is the topology of the core equivalent? A method of obtaining topologically correct models is presented in the next section. 5.6.5 Use of Duality Transformations to Obtain Equivalent Circuits This method is based on the duality between magnetic and electrical circuits. It was originally developed by Cherry [5.10] in 1949 and Slemon [5.37] in 1953. Using duality transformations, equivalent circuit derivations reduce to exercises in topology. These methods did not receive much attention at first, presumably since computers were not available. Researchers have recently begun to use duality to provide equivalent circuit models which are more topologically correct [5.2,5.29,5.30,5.34,5.39,5.42,5.44]. This approach results in models that include the effects of saturation in each individual leg of the core, inter-phase magnetic coupling, and leakage effects. Results are promising, and ongoing work seems most focused on developing and improving dualitybased models. To illustrate the method, a duality derivation used to obtain the model for the five-legged wound core transformer [5.28] is done here and a case study is presented later in this paper. A section view of this type of transformer is shown in Fig. 5.8. The magnetic flux paths and assumed leakage flux paths are labeled. In the equivalent magnetic circuit, windings appear as MMF sources, leakage paths appear as linear reluctances, and magnetic cores appear as saturable reluctances.

Fig. 5.1. Model of a delta to wye transformer bank made up of three single phase transformer models [22].

If the transformer does not have any delta windings, zero sequence effects may be included by adding a set of delta windings to the model whose total leakage impedance is equal to the transformer's zero sequence inductance. This may work for a three-legged core transformer that has an air path for zero sequence flux, but is highly questionable in the case of transformers having a saturable zero sequence flux path. Factory three-phase excitation test reports will not provide the information needed to get the magnetizing inductances for this model. Note that standards require the exciting current to be stated as the "average" value of the RMS exciting currents of the three phases. Unless it is a triplexed core, this is meaningless, since the currents are not sinusoidal and they are not the same in every phase. Therefore, the waveforms of the applied voltage and exciting currents in all three phase should be given by the manufacturer for all levels of applied voltage.

The next step is the duality transformation itself. Using the symbol to denote the transformation between electrical and magnetic circuit elements, MMF I (MMF = NI), d /dt V, and L (L = N2/ ). In terms of topology, meshes and nodes in the magnetic circuit transform into nodes and meshes respectively in the electrical circuit. The resulting equivalent circuit is given in Fig. 5.9. To make the model practically useful, each current source resulting from the transformation has been replaced with an ideal transformer to provide primary-to-secondary isolation and coupling to the core, while preserving the overall primary to secondary turns ratio. Turns ratios are chosen so that core pa-

3-19

rameters are referenced to the low voltage windings. The portion of the model inside the coupling transformers represents the core and leakages. Winding resistance and interconnection of the windings appears external to the coupling transformers. The advantage to this is that the derived core equivalent can be used independently of winding configuration (delta, wye, zig-zag, etc.). Winding resistance, core losses, and capacitive coupling effects are not obtained directly, but can be added to this topologically-correct equivalent electrical circuit.

voltage transformer (VT) connected to the delta side of the power transformer, ferroresonance can occur (see figure). The capacitance in this case comes from whatever "stray" coupling capacitance exists between the delta windings and earth. Adding a resistive burden to the VT can eliminate the problem.

Fig. 5.1. Duality derived equivalent circuit with current sources replaced by ideal coupling transformers. Winding resistances have also been added

Fig. 5.1. Development of magnetic circuit for grounded-wye togroundedwye five-legged wound core transformer. At top, transformer core sectional view used as a basis for duality derivation. Leakageflux paths are labeled. Bold dividing lines mark division in corereluctances. Equivalent magnetic circuit is shown at bottom.

Tests have been developed to determine the parameters for this model [5.28]. 5.7 CASE STUDIES 5.7.1 Case Study #1: VT Ferroresonance on Floating Systems
It is possible that parts of a power system can be operated for short times without system grounding. One common example is the no-load energization of the wye side of a wye to delta power transformer.

A recent problem occurring in a 50-kV network in the Hafslund area near Moss, Norway, serves as an excellent example [5.18]. The clearing of a short circuit removed the only remaining source of grounding on the system. After the fault was cleared, the only remaining zero sequence impedance was due to capacitive coupling to earth. After operating in this way for only 3 minutes, ferroresonance had destroyed 72 of the VTs used for measurement and protective relaying. All 72 of the damaged VTs were from the same manufacturer. The VTs of two other manufacturers that were also in service during this time were not damaged. Fig. 5.10 shows the typical VT arrangement used in this system. The VTs have two low voltage windings. The secondary is used for measurement and protective relaying purposes. The burden on that winding has a very high impedance and its effects can be ignored when considering ferroresonance. It is the tertiary windings which are shown in Fig. 5.10. These windings are connected in open delta and loaded with a damp-

The delta side will "float" with respect to earth, until some load or other source of grounding is connected. If there is a

3-20

ing resistance RO. The purpose of this damping resistance is to damp out ferroresonance, and this design has been commonly used for many years.

EMTP model. System positive and negative sequence impedances were found to be very small compared to the primary impedances of the VTs, and could be neglected. The zero sequence impedance ZO consists almost entirely of the stray capacitance of the floating system, and is therefore very important. Values of ZO varied from 0.6 - j219 to 0.2 - j221 , depending where in the system. ZO therefore becomes the only system impedance needed in the model, and the positive sequence voltage sources can be modeled as stiff sources. The core losses of the VTs were also neglected, their values being much higher than the damping resistance RO.

Fig. 5.2. Typical VT connection in 50-kV Norwegian subtransmission system.

Since some of the VTs were damaged and the others weren't, the VTs of different manufacturers obviously must have different characteristics. The problem at Hafslund therefore forced a re-evaluation of the specification and application of voltage transformers. EMTP was used to simulate the system conditions that caused the VT failures. VT model parameters were obtained from the manufacturers. Parameters are shown in Table 1. Saturation characteristics were calculated based on core material B-H data, core dimensions, and number of primary turns. Data for the damaged VTs are listed as VT #1. The designed flux densities BM at rated voltage vary. As a more uniform basis of comparison, the flux densities were converted to flux-linked values (Fig. 5.11). Note that VT #1 will saturate out at lower levels than the other VTs, and one might guess this to be one of the reasons these failed and the others didn't. But this can only be confirmed from simulation results.

Fig. 5.3. Comparison of the saturation characteristics of the three VTs. Note the much lower saturation level of VT #1, the ones that were damaged.

Fig. 5.4. Reduced system equivalent, neglecting line impedances and lumping all VTs in each phase into an aggregate jXM.

RP VT # 1 VT # 2 VT # 3 32 50 $ 32 18 $ 75 88 $

XP 2 500 $ 3 094 $ 4 833 $

XT 0.0 1 $ 0.0 1 $ 0.0 1 $

N 1 :N 3 20 k:2 3 ~3 6k:42 25 k:2 9

B M AX 1. 05T 0. 77T 0. 83T

Table 1: Linear parameters used to model the VTs at Hafslund

Fig. 5.12 shows the reduced equivalent used in the

Many simulations were run, with various combinations of VTs and values of R0. It was found that ferroresonance occurred in most cases where RO was set to the 60 value typically used in system design. It was also seen that the high magnetizing currents drawn by VT #1 while in ferroresonance caused high IR losses in the windings, which thermally destroyed those VTs. If all of the VTs from manufacturer #1 were replaced with different VTs and if RO was reduced to 10 , ferroresonance would not occur. It was therefore recommended that the failed VTs be replaced with those of either VT #2 or VT #3. A decrease in the value of RO standardly

3-21

being used was also recommended.

5.7.2 Case Study #2: Ferroresonance in Distribution Systems This case involves the verification of the 75-kVA five-legged wound-core distribution transformer model developed earlier. Ferroresonance was staged on the secondary windings in the laboratory. Balanced 3-phase voltage was applied to the secondary windings, and then one or two phases of the supply were removed and replaced with various values of shunt capacitance. Scenarios investigated were loss of one source phase to the center or an outer winding, and loss of two source phases to either the two outer windings or to the center winding and one outer winding [5.27]. Measured waveforms were then compared to EMTP simulations. The transformer equivalent circuit used was essentially that of Fig. 5.9. Details of model development and parameter values are given in [5.29]. Since many ferroresonant modes are possible, bifurcation simulations were first run. A bifurcation is essentially a jump from one mode of ferroresonance to another. A simulation technique was developed to very slowly ramp the capacitance [5.12,5.28] and record jumps from one mode to another. Fig. 5.13 gives one bifurcation diagram for the case where a ramped capacitance is connected to unenergized winding X1 and rated positive sequence voltage is applied to X2 and X3. Due to nonlinearities, it is important to ramp the capacitance both upward and downward, to ensure that as many ferroresonant modes are discovered as possible. Using the bifurcation diagram as a road map, ferroresonance for capacitances of 5F, 10F, 22.5F, 14.6F, and 18 F was simulated. This corresponds to waveforms of periods 1, 2, 3, 5, and chaotic (nonperiodic). "Period 3" simply means that the waveform takes three periods of the forcing function to repeat -- it contains 1/3 harmonics.

correctly predicts the existence of all modes of ferroresonance at the correct values of capacitance. The actual waveforms simulated are very close for the periods one, two, and three. Period five is generally correct, with slightly lower than actual peak amplitudes predicted. The chaotic response predicted is slightly higher than actual. The model used a simplistic linear resistance to represent the core losses of each core. The model's accuracy could be improved by implementing a more correct (complex) core loss representation.

5.7.3 Case Study #3: Ferroresonance of Autotransformer

This case is taken from the Ontario Hydro system where the Cataraqui 230/115-kV autotransformer T2, fed by line X3H, was experiencing ferroresonance upon deenergization of line X3H and the 115-kV bus (Fig. 5.15). The deenergizing circuit breaker was also experiencing a high recovery voltage. It was deduced that capacitive coupling between line X3H and the still-energized lines X4H and X522A was driving the autotransformer into ferroresonance. Damping resistors were added to the tertiary of T2, but it was not certain whether the resulting damping was sufficient to limit the duration of ferroresonance and the related recovery voltage.

Fig. 5.1. Period 3 ferroresonance, 22.5F connected X1

Fig. 5.2. Ontario Hydro 230-kV system. Ferroresonance involving line X3H and connected transformer at Cataraqui Transformer Station. Fig. 5.1. Sample bifurcation diagram. Shunt capacitance on X1 is ramped from 0 to 30 F. Blurred areas correspond to chaos.

Fig. 5.14 shows the result of one of the EMTP simulations and compares it to the actual measurements. The model

Several EMTP simulations were run, with Y-connected resistive loads of zero, 133 kW/phase, and 266 kW/phase attached to the tertiary of T2. In each case, the 115-kV breaker of T2 was assumed to open last. Two double-circuit 230-kV lines, an existing 500-kV line, and a future 500-kV line were includ-

3-22

ed in the corridor, resulting in an 18-phase coupled-circuit transmission equivalent (Fig. 5.16). Fig. 5.17 shows the circuit breaker recovery voltage for one of the cases. It is interesting to note that a 133-kW/phase load did an effective job of damping ferroresonance in T2, but resulted in a higher recovery voltage than no damping at all. The circuit breaker was marginally able to handle the recovery voltage when the load was doubled to 267 kW/phase. Simulations were also performed for deenergization of T1, with similar but less severe behaviors noted. Recommendations were made to add 267 kW/phase loads to both transformers, and add surge arresters to the high and low voltage terminals of both transformers.

3.0E+5 2.0E+5 1.0E+5 0.0 -1.0E+5 -2.0E+5 -3.0E+5 402 kV peak -4.0E+5 0.0s 100.0ms 200.0ms TIME 300.0ms 400.0ms CATARAQUI T2 FERRORESONANCE EXTERNAL DAMPING = 133 kW / phase

Fig. 5.4. Cataraqui (T2) Autotransformer Ferroresonance. HV terminal voltage on Phase C is 2.0 per unit, with 133 kW/phase of damping.

5.8 RECOMMENDATIONS Is seen that many different types of ferroresonance can and do occur. Because of the nonlinear nature of ferroresonance, it is difficult to predict if and where it might next occur. The power system engineer should be aware, however, that it is possible for lightly-loaded transformers operating in the presence of source or shunt capacitance to experience ferroresonance. Capacitance can be present in the form of cables, series or shunt capacitor banks, or even stray capacitances in inadequately-grounded portions of the system. Transient simulations are helpful in confirming or predicting the likelihood of ferroresonance, but only if a correct model is used. Per phase simulations of three phase systems will not give correct results, due to various possible transformer core configurations and winding connections. A complete three phase model must be used. Therefore, the key to transient modeling is use of the proper transformer model. Development and use of acceptable transformer models should be a priority task. The development of improved topologically correct models is a significant advancement, but model performance still depends on improving the way in which the cores are represented. Transformer core configuration must be considered and saturation characteristics must be accurately known to operating levels well above rated voltage. At this time, it is seen that modeling of ferroresonance is as much an art as a science. As such, it is important if possible to verify the results by checking the simulations against system measurements. It is highly recommended that anyone active in this area must continually monitor the literature for improvements in modeling techniques. 6. SUMMARY This document provides a set of general guidelines for digitalcomputer time-domain simulation of low-frequency (approximately 5 to 1000Hz) transients of electric power systems. 3-23

Fig. 5.3. Sequence of development of the transmission right-of-way

It is interesting to note that a 133-kW/phase load did an effective job of damping ferroresonance in T2, but resulted in a higher recovery voltage than no damping at all. The circuit breaker was marginally able to handle the recovery voltage when the load was doubled to 267 kW/phase. Simulations were also performed for deenergization of T1, with similar but less severe behaviors noted. Recommendations were made to add 267 kW/phase loads to both transformers, and add surge arresters to the high and low voltage terminals of both transformers.

The report is intended for practicing engineers who are involved in analysis, control and system planning issues related to electronic power systems. It is assumed that the reader has (1) a fair understanding of the physical phenomena and (2) an adequate knowledge of digital simulation techniques. The guidelines are provided for seven transient torsional torques, (3) turbine-blade vibrations, (4) fast bus transfer, (5) controller interactions, (6) harmonic interactions and resonance, and (7) ferroresonance. For those phenomena which have extensively discussed in the literature, i.e. (1) to (4), general guidelines are provided and the reader is frequently referred to the technical literature for further in-depth modeling and simulation issues. The emphasis of this document is on phenomena (5), (6) and particularly (7).

Transfer Studies, IEEE Trans. on Energy Conversion, Vol. EC-5, No. 3, pp. 470-476, 1990. [2.9]P.L. Young, W.L. Snider, T.A. Higgins, H.J. Holley, Report on Bus Transfer: Part III, Full Scale Testing and Evaluation, IEEE Trans. on Energy Conversion, Vol. EC-5, No. 3, pp. 477-484, 1990. [2.10]P.L. Dandeno, M.R. Iravani, Development and Application of Third-Order Turbogenerator Electrical Stability Models With Particular Reference To Subsynchronous Resonance Studies, IEEE Trans., Vol. EC-10, No. 1, pp. 78-86, March 1995. [2.11]G. Gross, M.C. Hall, Synchronouos Machine and Torsional Dynamic Simulation in Computation of Electromagnetic Transients, IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-97, No. 4, pp. 1074-1086, 1978. [2.12]IEEE SSR Working Group, First Benchmark Model for Computer Simulation of Subsynchronous Resonance, IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-96, No. 5, pp. 1565-1572, 1977. [2.13]IEEE SSR Working Group, Second Benchmark Model for Computer Simulation of Subsynchronous Resonance, IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS104, No. 5, pp. 1057-1066, 1985. [2.14]D.A. Woodford, Validation of Digital Simulation of DC Links, IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-104, No. 9, pp. 2588-2595, September 1985. [2.15]Manitoba HVDC Research Centre, EMTDC Users Manual, 1988. [2.16]N. Rostamkolai, et al, Subsynchronous Torsional Interactions with Static VAR Compensators - Influence of HVDC, IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, Vol. PWRS-6, No. 1, pp. 255-261, Feb. 1991. [2.17]L. Gyugyi, Fundamentals of Thyristor-Controlled Static VAr Compensators in Electric Power System Applications, IEEE Publication 87TH0187-5 PWRS, pp. 8-27, 1987. [2.18]A.N. Vasconcelos, et al, Detailed Modeling of an Actual Static VAR Compensator for Electromagnetic Transient Studies, IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, Vol. PWRS-7, No. 1, pp. 11-19, 1992. [2.19]H.J. Holley, T.A. Higgins, P.L. Young, W.L. Snider, A Comparison of Induction Motor Models for Bus Transfer Studies, IEEE Trans. on Energy Conversion, Vol. EC-5, No. 2, pp. 310-319, 1990. [2.20]EPRI Report, Bus Transfer Studies for Utility Motors, EERI EL-4286, Vol. 2, Project 1763-2, October 1986. [2.21]G.J. Rogers, D. Shirmohammadi, Induction Machine Modelling For Electromagnetic Transients Program, IEEE Trans., Vol. EC-2, No. 4, pp. 622-628, December 1987.

7. REFERENCES

[1.1]CIGRE, Guidelines For Representation of Network Elements When Calculating Transients, CIGRE Working Group 33.02, 1990. [2.1] IEEE Torsional Issues Working Group, Fourth Supplement To A Bibliography For The Study of Subsynchronous Resonance Between Rotating Machines and Power Systems, IEEE Trans., Vol. PWRS-12, No. 3, pp. 1276-1282, August 1997. [2.2] IEEE SSR Working Group, A Bibliography for the Study of Subsynchronous Resonance Between Rotating Machines and Power Systems, IEEE Trans., Vol. PAS-95, No. 1, pp. 216-218, Jan. - Feb. 1976. [2.3]IEEE SSR Working Group, First Supplement to a Bibliography for the Study of Subsynchronous Resonance Between Rotating Machines and Power Systems, IEEE Trans., Vol. PAS-98, No. 6, pp. 1872-1875, Nov. - Dec. 1979. [2.4]IEEE SSR Working Group, The Second Supplement to a Bibliography for the Study of Subsynchronous Resonance Between Rotating Machines and Power Systems, IEEE Trans., Vol. PAS-104, No. 2, pp. 321-327, Feb. 1985. [2.5]IEEE SSR Working Group, Third Supplement to a Bibliography for the Study of Subsynchronous Resonance Between Rotating Machines and Power Systems, IEEE Trans., Vol. PWRS-6, No. 2, pp. 830-834, May 1991. [2.6]T.P. Tsao, C. Chgn, Restriction of Turbine Blade Vibrations in Turbogenerators, IEE Proceedings, Vol. 137, Part C, No. 5, pp. 339-342, 1990. [2.7]J.D. Gill, Transfer of Motor Loads, Between Out-ofPhase Sources, IEEE Trans. on Industrial Applications, Vol. IA-15, No. 4, pp. 376-381, 1979. [2.8]T.A. Higgins, P.L. Young, W.L. Snider, H.J. Holley, Report on Bus Transfer: Part II, Computer Modelling for

3-24

[2.22]R.H. Doherty, Analysis of Transient Electrical Torques and Shaft Torques in Induction Motors as a Result of Power Supply Disturbances, IEEE Trans., Vol. PAS-101, No. 8, pp. 2826-2834, August 1982. [2.23]Y. Pavlyuk, Application of Static Transfer Switch For Induction Motor Load Transfer, M.A.Sc. Thesis, University of Toronto, 1997. [3.1]A.J.P. Ramos, H. Tyll, Dynamic Performance of a Radial Weak Power System with Multiple Static VAr Compensators, IEEE Trans., Vol. PWRS-4, pp. 1316-1325, November 1989. [3.2]E.V. Larsen, et al, Basic Aspects of Applying SVCs to Series Compensated AC Transmission Lines, IEEE Trans., Vol. PWRD-5, No. 3, pp. 1466-1473, July 1990. [3.3]IEEE TF Report, Modelling and Analysis Guidelines For Slow Transients, IEEE Trans., Vol. PWRD-11, No. 3, pp. 1672-1677, July 1996. [3.4]M. Parniani, Small-Signal Stability Analysis And Robust Control Design of Static VAR Compensators, Ph.D Thesis, University of Toronto, 1995. ...[3.5]M. Parniani, M.R. Iravani, Voltage Control Stability and Dynamic Interaction Phenomena of Static VAR Compensators, IEEE Trans., Vol. PWRS-10, No. 3, pp. 1592-1597, August 1995. [3.6]G. Gross, C.F. Imparato, P.M. Look, A Tool for Comprehensive Analysis of Power System Dynamic Stability, IEEE Trans., Vol. PAS-101, No. 1, pp. 226-234, January 1982. [3.7]R.M. Hamouda, M.R. Iravani, R. Hackam, Coordinated Static VAR Compensators and Power System Stabilizers for Damping Power System Oscillations, IEEE Trans., Vol. PWRS-2, pp. 1059-1067, 1987. [3.8]M. Parniani, M.R. Iravani , Computer Analysis of Small-Signal Stability of Power System Including Network Dynamics, Proceeding IEE, Gen-Trans-Distrib, Vol. 142, No. 6, pp. 613-617, November 1995. [4.1]A.E. Hammad, Analysis of Second Harmonic Instability for the Chateauguay HVDC/SVC Scheme, IEEE Trans., Vol. PWRD-7, No. 1, pp. 410-415, January 1992. [4.2]E.V. Larsen, M. Lublich, S.C. Kapoor, Impact of Stray Capacitance on HVDC Harmonics, IEEE Trans., Vol. PWRD-4, No. 1, pp. 637-645, 1989. [4.3]A.S. Morched, J.H. Ottevangers, L. Marti, Multi-Port Frequency Dependent Network Equivalents for the EMTP, IEEE Trans., Vol. PWRD-8, No. 3, pp. 1402-1412, July 1993. [4.4]A. Sarshar, M.R. Iravani, J. Li, Calculation of Noncharacteristic Harmonics of HVDC Station Using Digital TimeDomain Simulation Method, IEEE Trans., Vol. PWRD-11,

No. 1, pp. 335-344, January 1996. [4.5]Manitoba HVDC Research Center, EMTDC User Manual, pp. 12.44-12.50, 1988. [4.6]D.A. Woodford, Validation of Digital Simulation of DC Links, IEEE Trans., Vol. PAS-104, No. 9, pp. 2588-2595, September 1985. [4.7]M. El-Marsafaway, Use of Frequency Scan Techniques for Subsynchronous Resonance Analysis of a Practical Series Compensated AC Network, IEE Proceedings, Vol. 135, No. 1, pp. 28-40, 1983. [4.8]M. Szechtman, T. Wess, C.V. Thio, H. Ring, L. Pilotto, P. Kuffel, First Benchmark Model for HVDC Control Studies, Electra, No. 135, pp. 54-73, April 1991. [4.9]CIGRE Working Group 14.02 of Study Committee 14, The CIGRE HVDC Benchmark Model - A New Proposal with Revised Parameters:, Electra, No. 157, pp. 60-66, December 1994. [4.10]L.A.S. Pilotto, J.E.R. Alves, E.H. Watanabe, A.E. Hammad, A Non-Linear Switching Function Model for Static VAR Compensators, Proceedings of International Power Electronics Conference (IPEC), pp. 627-631, Yokohama, April, 1995. [4.11]N.L. Shore, G. Andersson, A.P. Canelhas and G. Asplund, A Three-Pulse Model of DC Side Harmonic Flow in HVDC Systems, IEEE Trans., Vol. PWRD-4, No. 3, pp. 1945-1954, July 1989. [4.12]D.L. Dickmander, K.J. Peterson, Analysis of DC Harmonics Using the Three-Pulse Model for the Intermountain Power Project HVDC Transmission, IEEE Trans., Vol. PWRD-4, No. 2, pp. 1195-1204, April 1989. [4.13]T.F. Garrity, I.D. Hassan, K.A. Adamson, J.A. Donahue, Measurement of Harmonic Currents and Evaluation of DC Filter Performance of the New England - Hydro Quebec Phase I HVDC Project, IEEE Trans., Vol. PWRD-4, No. 1, pp. 779-786, January 1989. [4.14]D.L. Dickmander, S.Y. Lee,, G.L. Desilets, M. Granger, AC/DC Harmonic Interaction in the Presence of GIC for the Hydro Quebec - New England Phase II HVDC Transmission, IEEE Trans., Vol. PWRD-9, No. 1, pp. 68-78, January 1994. [4.15]H. Stemmler, HVDC Back-to-back Interties on Weak AC Systems - Second Harmonic Problems Analysis and Solution, CIGRE Symposium, Paper 300-08, Boston, 1987. [4.16]R.H. Lasseter, L.J. Bohmann, Harmonic Interactions in Thyristor Controlled Reactor Circuits, IEEE Trans., Vol. PWRD-4, No. 3, pp. 1919-1925, July 1989. [4.17]L.J. Bohmann, R.H. Lasseter, Stability and Harmonics in Thyristor Controlled Reactors, IEEE Trans., Vol. PWRD-

3-25

5, No. 2, pp. 1175-1181, April 1991. [4.18]S.G. Jalali, R.H. Lasseter, A Study of Nonlinear Harmonic Interaction Between a Single Phase Line-Commutated Converter and a Power System, IEEE Trans., Vol. PWRD-9, No. 3, pp. 1616-1624, July 1994. [4.19]X. Jiang, A.M. Gole, A Frequency Scanning Method for the Identification of Harmonic Instabilities in HVDC Systems, IEEE PES paper 95WM222-0 PWRD. [5.1]R.G. Andrei and B.R. Halley, "Voltage Transformer Ferroresonance from an Energy Standpoint", IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 1773-1778, July, 1989. [5.2]C.M. Arturi, "Transient Simulation and Analysis of a Five-Limb Generator Step-Up Transformer Following an Out-of-Phase Synchronization", IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 196-207, January 1991. [5.3]F.R. Bergseth and S.S. Venkata, Introduction to Electric Energy Devices, Prentice Hall, Inc., Inglewood Cliffs, NJ, copyright 1987. [5.4]J. Bethenod, "Sur le Transformateur et Rsonance", L'Eclairae Electrique, pp. 289-296, November 30, 1907. [5.5]J.L. Blackburn, Protective Relaying Principles and Applications, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, NY, pp. 231-237, 9th printing, copyright 1987. [5.6]M.H.J. Bollen, "The Search for a General Transformer Model", 16th European EMTP Users Group Meeting, paper 89-07, pp. 1-20, May 28- 30, 1989. [5.7]P. Boucherot, "Existence de Deux Rgimes en Ferro-rsonance", R.G.E., pp. 827-828, December 10, 1920. [5.8]V. Brenner, "Subharmonic Response of the Ferroresonant Circuit with Coil Hysteresis", AIEE Transactions, vol. 75 I, pp. 450-456, September 1956. [5.9]J.W. Butler and C. Concordia, "Analysis of Series Capacitor Application Problems", AIEE Trans., vol. 56, pp. 975-988, August, 1937. [5.10]E.C. Cherry, "The Duality Between Interlinked Electric and Magnetic Circuits and the Formation of Transformer Equivalent Circuits," Proceedings of the Physical Society, Part B, vol. 62, pp. 101-111, 1949. [5.11]H.W. Dommel with S. Bhattacharya, V. Brandwajn, H.K. Lauw and L. Marti, EMTP Theory Book, 2nd Ed., Microtran Power System Analysis Corporation, Vancouver, BC, May 1992. [5.12]L. Dub and B.A. Mork, "Variable Capacitances and Inductance in ATP," EMTP News, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 33-36, March 1992. [5.13]G. Empereur, "Miscellaneous - Transformers", 16th European EMTP Users Group Meeting, Paper 89-09, May

28-30, 1989. [5.14]D.G. Fink and H.W. Beatty, Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers, 11th Ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY, copyright 1978. [5.15]J.G. Frame, N. Mohan and T. Liu, "Hysteresis Modeling in an Electro-Magnetic Transients Program", IEEE Trans. PAS, vol. PAS-101, no. 9, pp. 3403-3411, September, 1982. [5.16]J. Gleick, Chaos: Making a New Science, Viking, New York, NY, copyright 1987. [5.17]C. Hayashi, Nonlinear Oscillations in Physical Systems, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY, copyright 1964. [5.18]T. Henriksen and O. Rrvik, "Ferroresonans i 50-kV Nett til Hafslund", Energiforsyningens Forskningsinstitutt A/ S, Trondheim, Norway, ISBN 82-594-0229-7, EFI TR 3779, December 19, 1990 (in Norwegian). [5.19]R.H. Hopkinson, "Ferroresonance During Single-Phase Switching of 3-Phase Distribution Transformer Banks", IEEE Trans. PAS, vol. PAS-84, no. 4, pp. 289-293, April 1965. [5.20]D.C. Jiles and D.L. Atherton, "Theory of Ferromagnetic Hysteresis," Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials, vol. 61. pp. 48-60, January 21, 1986. [5.21]Kieny, "Application of Bifurcation Theory in Studying and Understanding the Global Behavior of a Resonant Electric Power Circuit," IEEE PES Summer Meeting, SM 265-9 PWRD, July 1990. [5.22]K.U. Leuven EMTP Center, Alternate Transients Program Rule Book, Leuven EMTP Center, Heverlee, Belgium, Revised July, 1987, copyright 1987. [5.23]D.D. Mairs, D.L. Stuehm and B.A. Mork, "Overvoltages on Five-Legged Core Transformers on Rural Electric Systems", IEEE Trans. on Industrial Applications, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 366-370, March, 1989. [5.24]L.W. Match and J.D. Morgan, Electromagnetic and Electromechanical Machines, Third Edition, Harper & Row Publishers, Inc., New York, copyright 1986. [5.25]R.D. Millet, D.D. Mairs and D.L. Stuehm, "The Assessment and Mitigation Study of Ferroresonance on GroundedWye to Grounded-Wye 3-Phase Padmounted Transformers", Summary Report, NRECA Project 86-7, July, 1987. [5.26]B.A. Mork, Ferroresonant Modeling Using EMTP, MS Thesis, North Dakota State University, September 1981. [5.27]B.A. Mork and D.L. Stuehm, "Application of Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos to Ferroresonance in Distribution Systems," IEEE Trans. Power Systems, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 10091017, April 1994.

3-26

[5.28]B.A. Mork, "Five-Legged Wound-Core Transformer Model: Derivation, Parameters, Implementation, and Evaluation," Submitted for IEEE PES Winter Meeting, 98WM414, January 1998. [5.29]B.A. Mork, Ferroresonance and Chaos - Observation and Simulation of Ferroresonance in a Five-Legged Core Distribution Transformer, Ph.D. Dissertation, North Dakota State University, May 1992. Publication No. 9227588, UMI Publishing Services, Ann Arbor, MI, 48106, (800) 521-0600. [5.30]A. Narang and R.H. Brierley, "Topology Based Magnetic Model for Steady-State and Transient Studies for Three Phase Core Type Transformers," IEEE Trans. PWRS, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 1337-1349, August 1994. [5.31]W.L.A. Neves and H.W. Dommel, "On Modelling Iron Core Nonlinearities," IEEE Trans. Power Systems, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 417-425, May 1993. [5.32]NRECA, Underground Distribution System Design and Installation Guide, Section 6, National Rural Electric Cooperatives Association, 1994. [5.33]O.E. Radulescu, "EMTP Transformer Model with Type-96 Element - Computation of the Inrush Current", EMTP Newsletter, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 25-33, June, 1986. [5.34]J. Rougin and V. Ranjamina, "Modeling of Magnetic Circuits with EMTP", EMTP Newsletter, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 8-28, March 1987. [5.35]R.J. Rush and M.L. Good, "Wyes and Wye Nots of Three-Phase Distribution Transformer Connections", IEEE Conference Paper 89CH2709-4-C2, 1989. [5.36]R. Rudenberg, Transient Performance of Electric Power Systems, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY, chapter 48, copyright 1950. [5.37]G.R. Slemon, "Equivalent Circuits for Transformers and Machines Including Non-Linear Effects," Proceedings IEE, vol. 100, part IV, pp. 129-143, 1953. [5.38]D.R. Smith, S.R. Swanson and J.D. Borst, "Overvoltages with Remotely-Switched Cable-Fed Grounded Wye-Wye Transformers", IEEE Trans. PAS, vol. PAS-94, no. 5, pp. 1843-1853, Sep/Oct 1975. [5.39]P.L. Sorenson, "Simulation of Faults and Switchings in Electrical Distribution Networks", ATV - NESA - Electrical Engineering Department, DTH - DEFU, Industrial Research Project EF186, pp. 1- 120, April, 1988. [5.40]D.L. Stuehm, B.A. Mork and D.D. Mairs, "Ferroresonance with Three Phase Five-Legged Core Transformers", Minnesota Power Systems Conference, Minneapolis, MN, October 3, 1988. [5.41]D.L. Stuehm, B.A. Mork and D.D. Mairs, "Five-Legged Core Transformer Equivalent Circuit", IEEE Trans. Power

Delivery, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 1786-1793, July, 1989. [5.42]D.L. Stuehm, "Final Report - Three Phase Transformer Core Modeling," Bonneville Power Administration Award No. DE-BI79-92BP26700, February 28, 1993. Copies available from BPA, Dept. EOHC, (503) 230-4404. [5.43]G.W. Swift, "Power Transformer Core Behavior Under Transient Conditions," IEEE Trans. PAS, vol. PAS-90, no. 5, pp. 2206-2209, Sep/Oct 1971. [5.44]E.J. Tarasiewicz, A.S. Morched, A. Narang, E.P. Dick, "Frequency Dependent Eddy Current Models for Nonlinear Iron Cores," IEEE Trans. PWRS, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 588-597, May 1993. [5.45]J.M.T. Thompson and H.B. Stewart, Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos - Geometrical Methods for Engineers and Scientists, John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY, (Reprinted October 1987), copyright 1986. [5.46]J. Usaola and G. Empereur, "Comparison Between Different Transformer Models in EMTP," EMTP News, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 25-34, June 1989. [5.47]R.A. Walling, K.D. Barker, T.M. Compton, and L.E. Zimmerman, "Ferroresonant Overvoltages in Grounded WyeWye Padmount Transformers with Low-Loss Silicon-Steel Cores", IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 16471660, July, 199.

APPENDIX A
FAST BUS TRANSFER TRANSIENTS Introduction

Motors and other loads in utility and heavy industrial applications are supplied during normal operation from a preferred power source. An alternate power source is normally provided to supply such motors and other loads during planned shutdowns and upon loss of normal power from the preferred power source. The process of disconnecting the motors and other loads from one source and reconnecting to an alternate source is commonly defined as bus transfer. Manual transfer means are normally provided to allow transferring the motors and other loads from one power source to the other. However, upon loss of the preferred power source, the motors and other loads are automatically transferred to the alternate power source. This automatic transfer is necessary to allow uninterrupted operation of the motors and other loads important to personnel safety and process operation. The normal and alternate power source connections

3-27

are always selected such that they are in phase. Therefore, manual transfers can be accomplished in a make-beforebreak, i.e., the motors and loads are connected to the second power source before the first power source is disconnected. In this overlapping transfer, the power supply is not interrupted and the motors are not subjected to transients. However, during automatic transfers, the motors may be disconnected from both power sources for a short duration depending on the type of transfer and the associated circuit breakers operating times. The time during which the motors are disconnected from both power sources is termed the dead time. It is commonly longer than two cycles and can be as long as 12 cycles. While motors are disconnected from both power sources they decelerate. The deceleration rate depends on the motor-load inertia and the synchronizing power flowing between motors due to their differing characteristics. As the motor decelerates, the relative angle between the motor internal voltage and the power source voltage changes. Also, the motor residual voltage decays at a rate which depends on the motor magnetic characteristics, speed and initial loading. If the relative angle between the motor residual voltage and the power source voltage becomes large enough at the time of reconnection with significant residual voltage remaining, the resultant voltage between the power source and the motor will produce an inrush current. The inrush current may be significantly larger than the normal full voltage starting current. Such high inrush currents cause high winding stresses and transient shaft torques which can damage the motor and/or the driven equipment. The most common bus transfer scheme is the fast bus transfer scheme. In this scheme, opening of the normal power source breaker initiates closing of the alternate power source breaker without intentional time delay. The fast bus transfer operations result in the motors being disconnected from both power sources for a duration of as short as 2 cycles to as long as 12 or more cycles. Presently, there are no generic criteria to ensure acceptable fast bus transfer operations. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze the transient behavior of motors during fast bus transfer operations. The analysis should be on a case by case basis to ensure that the motors will not be subjected to excessive inrush currents and/or shaft transient torques. A.2Modeling and Analysis A three-phase model of the motors and the power distribution system is required. This is to permit simulating the breaker individual pole interruption at separate current zeros and analyzing the effect of unbalanced faults on the motor behavior. The model must simulate the motor stator and rotor dynamics, the load dynamics, and the power source dynamics when available. The larger motors should be individually modeled; smaller motors unless for the motor being studied, if any, may be lumped together and modeled by one

equivalent motor with typical characteristics. The distinction between large and small motors should be made on a case by case basis. A.2.1 Motor Electrical System The motor electrical system may be modeled by the differential equations describing the stator and rotor quantities and flux linkages [2.20] or by the two-axis model [2.21]. A single rotor motor model may be adequate since the motor speed usually does not drop significantly during the time a fast transfer is accomplished. The model should account for saturation in the magnetizing, stator and rotor leakage reactances. A.2.2Loads The mechanical load should be modeled by its torque-speed characteristics and moment of inertia. Common centrifugal and axial pumps and fans may be modeled by a quadratic torque-speed characteristic. Non-motor loads may be lumped together and modeled by an equivalent resistance-inductance circuit. Nonmotor loads would be included in the model to account for their damping effects on the motors during the dead time. A.2.3Motor-Load Shaft Torsional Model The shaft system should be modeled by the motor rotor mass connected to the load rotor mass by a flexible spring representing the shaft [2.22]. The motor air gap torque excites the mass representing the motor rotor while the load torque excites the mass representing the load rotor. The shaft torsional model should include the effect of damping and shaft flexibility. The effect of shaft flexibility is particularly important in applications where loads have a large inertia relative to that of the motor. An example of this application is torsional study of a large boiler fan. Under such conditions, the shaft flexibility may cause the shaft torque to be higher than the motor air gap torque [2.22]. A.2.4Circuit Breakers The circuit breakers should be modeled as a three pole switch which can be opened or closed at a preset time. The three poles of the circuit breaker connecting the alternate source must be modeled to close simultaneously. the individual poles of the circuit breaker disconnecting the normal source must be modeled to open only at the respective current zero. In analysis involving transfers caused by high level electrical faults, the individual poles may be modeled to open at the respective first current zero following the end of the breaker arcing time. This is a conservative approach which, in effect, models a zero resistance arc. A.2.5Power Sources

3-28

Generally, events which initiate bus transfers such as the loss of the generator in a generating station also initiate disturbances to the connected power system. The dynamic variations of the power system voltage magnitude and phase angle are normally determined as part of system stability studies. Ideally, the normal and alternate power source models should reflect the dynamic variations in the voltage magnitude and phase angle following the initiating event. This can be accomplished by a point to point representation of the system voltage magnitude and phase angle profiles. Alternately, the system voltage magnitude and phase angle may be modeled by polynomials fitting their profiles for the short duration of interest. However, in the event that data on the dynamic behavior of the power system is not available, the normal and alternate power sources may be modeled as ideal sources in phase. A.2.6Transformers Transformer dynamics have a little or no effect on bus transfer operations. Therefore, a transformer may be modeled as an ideal transformer in series with a lumped resistance in series with a lumped inductance representing the transformer equivalent impedance. A.2.7 Cables/Lines Cable and Lines may be modelled by their -equivalents. A.2.8Simulation and Analysis In selecting conditions to be analyzed, the following should be taken into consideration: The motor initial loading (prior to the transfer) has a significant effect on the rate of change of the motor internal voltage phase angle. Higher loads cause faster drop in rotor speed and faster rates of change in the phase angle. Therefore, the worst case transfer results when the motors are operating at their highest loading. The motor-load inertia also has a significant effect on the internal voltage phase angle rate of change. Motors with a high inertia have a slower rate of change than motors with low inertia. Therefore, the effect of fast bus transfer operation with and without such high inertia motors should be evaluated. Bus transfers are initiated by low and high level electrical faults. The motor residual voltage decays at a high rate until the fault is cleared by opening the source breaker. This causes the transient shaft torque produced upon closing the alternate source breaker to be relatively low. However, faults such as line to ground faults cause the motor to experience a high oscillatory torque before the fault is cleared. The effect of the torsional stress caused by such high oscillatory

torques should be investigated. The motor air gap torque at the instant of closing the alternate source breaker is determined by the motor residual voltage magnitude and phase angle. The magnitude of the motor residual voltage decreases with time while the phase angle increased with time. This causes the magnitude of the air gap torque to be cyclic. It has a minimum value at some short bus dead time, peaks as the dead time increases and then decreases as the dead time increases further. The duration of the dead time at which the air gap torque attains minimum and maximum values are system specific and depends on the connected motors characteristics and load levels. The account for the above considerations, the following fast bus transfer operations should be simulated and analyzed. Transfers caused without high level electrical faults with motors operating at their highest loadings when the alternate source voltage is at its maximum level. Transfers caused without high level electrical faults as in 1) above except without the largest high inertia motor running. Transfers caused by high level electrical faults (line to ground and three line to ground faults). The following parameters should be monitored during the simulations: bus instantaneous voltages bus voltage phase angle individual motors instantaneous currents individual motor air gap torques individual motors shaft torques (when modeled) individual motors speed

A.3 Model Validation Ideally, validating a model of a fast bus transfer operation should include validating the individual motor models and the circuit breakers operating times. Individual motor models can be validated by simulating motor starting and running conditions and comparison of the simulation results to data recorded during an actual motor starting test. Parameters be compared include motor instantaneous current, power, apparent power (VA), and speed. However, since a typical bus transfer model may include 15 or more motors, it may not be practical to validate individual motor models. As an alternative, the bus transfer model can be based on modeling motors using unadjusted manufacturers supplied data and establishing a range of the expected accuracy.

3-29