Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and International Human Rights Law - A Practioners Guide

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Practitioners Guide No. 4

Fverywhere ln the world, whatever the polltlcal,
cultural or rellglous envlronment, human rlghts
vlolatlons are perpetrated on the grounds of people's
real or percelved sexual orlentatlon or gender
ldentlty. Many countrles have dlscrlmlnatory laws and
practlces, as well as laws that crlmlnallse expresslons
of sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty. All human
belngs are equal persons before the law regardless of
thelr sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty, and are
entltled to rlghts and freedoms derlvlng from the
lnherent dlgnlty of the human person, as well as to
the equal protectlon of the law wlthout dlscrlmlna-
tlon. }udges and lawyers, as protectors and guaran-
tors of human rlghts, have an essentlal role to protect
the rlghts and freedoms of all persons lrrespectlve of
thelr sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty.
lnternatlonal law provldes the |udlclary and legal
professlon wlth a powerful tool for protectlon of
rlghts denled on the basls of sexual orlentatlon and
gender ldentlty. Thls 0ulde explalns how lnternatlonal
law and standards can and should be used to provlde
vlctlms of human rlghts vlolatlons, on the grounds of
sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty, the protectlon
to whlch they are entltled. The 0ulde explalns how to
apply the recently adopted ogyakarta Prlnclples and
contalns selected excerpts of prlmary texts from
reglonal courts and trlbunals.
Sexual Orientation,
Gender Identity
and International
Human Rights Law
lnternatlonal Commlsslon of }urlsts
P.0. 8ox 1
kue des 8alns
Ch-1z11 0eneva S
Swltzerland
S
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a
l

0
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a
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a
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l
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a
l

h
u
m
a
n

k
l
g
h
t
s

L
a
w

P
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a
c
t
l
t
l
o
n
e
r
s

0
u
l
d
e

h
o
.

Practitioners Guide No. 4

Fverywhere ln the world, whatever the polltlcal,
cultural or rellglous envlronment, human rlghts
vlolatlons are perpetrated on the grounds of people's
real or percelved sexual orlentatlon or gender
ldentlty. Many countrles have dlscrlmlnatory laws and
practlces, as well as laws that crlmlnallse expresslons
of sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty. All human
belngs are equal persons before the law regardless of
thelr sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty, and are
entltled to rlghts and freedoms derlvlng from the
lnherent dlgnlty of the human person, as well as to
the equal protectlon of the law wlthout dlscrlmlna-
tlon. }udges and lawyers, as protectors and guaran-
tors of human rlghts, have an essentlal role to protect
the rlghts and freedoms of all persons lrrespectlve of
thelr sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty.
lnternatlonal law provldes the |udlclary and legal
professlon wlth a powerful tool for protectlon of
rlghts denled on the basls of sexual orlentatlon and
gender ldentlty. Thls 0ulde explalns how lnternatlonal
law and standards can and should be used to provlde
vlctlms of human rlghts vlolatlons, on the grounds of
sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty, the protectlon
to whlch they are entltled. The 0ulde explalns how to
apply the recently adopted ogyakarta Prlnclples and
contalns selected excerpts of prlmary texts from
reglonal courts and trlbunals.
Sexual Orientation,
Gender Identity
and International
Human Rights Law
lnternatlonal Commlsslon of }urlsts
P.0. 8ox 1
kue des 8alns
Ch-1z11 0eneva S
Swltzerland
tnternatiena| Cemmissien eI |urists
The lnternatlonal Commlsslon of }urlsts (lC}) ls a non-governmental organlsatlon
devoted to promotlng the understandlng and observance of the rule of law and the
legal protectlon of human rlghts throughout the world. lt ls headquartered ln 0eneva,
Swltzerland, and has many natlonal sectlons and affllated organlsatlons. lt en|oys
consultatlve status ln the unlted hatlons Fconomlc and Soclal Councll, uhFSC0,
the Councll of Furope and the Afrlcan unlon. The lC} malntalns cooperatlve relatlons
wlth varlous bodles of the 0rganlzatlon of Amerlcan States.
President
Mrs. Mary k08lhS0h, lreland
vice-Presidents
0r. ka|eev 0hAvAh, lndla }ustlce }ohn 00w0, Australla
xecutive Cemmittee
Prof. vo|ln 0lMlTkl}FvlC, Serbla
}ustlce unlty 00w, 8otswana
0r. 0ustavo 0ALL0h 0lkAL00, Colombla
Mr. Stellan 0Ak0F, Sweden
Prof. kobert 00L0MAh, unlted States
0r. Pedro hlKKFh, venezuela
}ustlce Mlchle klvFT, Canada
Mr. ka|l S0ukAhl, Palestlne
Prof. Lella ZFkk0u0ul, Algerla
0ther Cemmissien Members
Mr. Muhand AL-hASSAhl, Syrla
Mr. 0hanlm ALhA}}Ak, Kuwalt
Mr. ka|a AZlZ A00kuSF, Malaysla
Prof. Abdullahl Ah-hA'lM, Sudan
}ustlce Solomy 8ALuh0l 80SSA, uganda
Mr. Abdelazlz 8FhZAK0uk, Morocco
}ustlce lan 8lhhlF, Canada
Prof. Alexander 8k0STL, Slovakla
}ustlce Arthur ChASKALS0h, South Afrlca
Prof. Santlago C0kCuFkA, Mexlco
Prof. Loulse 00SwAL0-8FCK, Swltzerland
}ustlce hlsham FL 8ASTAwlSSl, Fgypt
Prof. Paula FSCAkAMFlA, Portugal
}ustlce Fllsabeth FvATT, Australla
Prof. }ochen Fk0wFlh, 0ermany
Mr. koberto 0AkkFT0h, Chlle
Prof. }enny F. 00L0SChMl0T, hetherlands
Ms. Asma }AhAh0lk, Paklstan
Ms. lmrana }ALAL, Fl|l
Prof. 0avld KkFTZMFk, lsrael
Prof. Kazlmlerz Marla LAhK0SZ, Poland
}ustlce }os Antonlo MAkTlh PALLlh, Spaln
Mr. Kathurlma M'lh0Tl, Kenya
}ustlce San|l M0hA0Fh0, 8otswana
Ms. Karlnna M0SKALFhK0, kussla
Prof. lulla M0T0C, komanla
Prof. vltlt MuhTAk8h0kh, Thalland
Prof. Manfred h0wAK, Austrla
0r. }orge Fduardo PAh CkuZ, uruguay
Prof. Andrel klChTFk, kussla
Slr hlgel k00LF, unlted Klngdom
Mr. Claes SAh00kFh, Sweden
Mr. 8ellsarlo dos SAhT0S }uhl0k, 8razll
}ustlce Phlllppe TFXlFk, France
Prof. 0anlel ThukFk, Swltzerland
Prof. u. 0|l uM0ZuklKF, hlgerla
Prof. vllenas vA0APALAS, Llthuanla
Prof. ozo 0K0TA, }apan
}ustlce F. kaul ZAFFAk0hl, Argentlna
Benerary Members
Professor 0eorges Abl-Saab, Fgypt
}ustlce P.h. 8hagwatl, lndla
0r. 8outros 8outros-0hall, Fgypt
Mr. wllllam }. 8utler, uSA
Prof. Antonlo Cassese, ltaly
}ustlce Marle-}os Crespln, Senegal
0ato' Param Cumaraswamy, Malaysla
0r. 0almo A. de Abreu 0alarl, 8razll
Prof. Alfredo Ftchebery, Chlle
Mr. 0esmond Fernando, Srl Lanka
Lord wllllam 0oodhart, unlted Klngdom
}ustlce Lennart 0rol, Sweden
Prof. hans-helnrlch }escheck, 0ermany
Mr. Louls }olnet, France
Prof. P.}.0. Kapteyn, hetherlands
}ustlce Mlchael 0. Klrby, AC, CM0, Australla
Prof. Kof Kumado, 0hana
Prof. }ean Flavlen Lallve, Swltzerland
}ustlce Clalre L'heureux-0ub, Canada
0r. kudolf Machacek, Austrla
Prof. 0anlel h. Marchand, France
Mr. }.k.w.S. Mawala, Tanzanla
Mr. Franols-Xavler Mbouyom, Cameroon
Mr. Fall S. harlman, lndla
Slr Shrldath S. kamphal, 0uyana
Mr. 8ertrand kamcharan, 0uyana
0r. }oaquln kulz -0lmenez, Spaln
Prof. Chrlstlan Tomuschat, 0ermany
Mr. Mlchael A. Trlantafylldes, Cyprus
Prof. Theo van 8oven, hetherlands
Prof. Luzlus wlldhaber, Swltzerland
P.0. 8ox 1
kue des 8alns
Ch-1z11 0eneva S
Swltzerland
F-mall: lnfo@lc|.org
www.lc|.org
tnternatiena| Cemmissien eI |urists
The lnternatlonal Commlsslon of }urlsts (lC}) ls a non-governmental organlsatlon
devoted to promotlng the understandlng and observance of the rule of law and the
legal protectlon of human rlghts throughout the world. lt ls headquartered ln 0eneva,
Swltzerland, and has many natlonal sectlons and affllated organlsatlons. lt en|oys
consultatlve status ln the unlted hatlons Fconomlc and Soclal Councll, uhFSC0,
the Councll of Furope and the Afrlcan unlon. The lC} malntalns cooperatlve relatlons
wlth varlous bodles of the 0rganlzatlon of Amerlcan States.
President
Mrs. Mary k08lhS0h, lreland
vice-Presidents
0r. ka|eev 0hAvAh, lndla }ustlce }ohn 00w0, Australla
xecutive Cemmittee
Prof. vo|ln 0lMlTkl}FvlC, Serbla
}ustlce unlty 00w, 8otswana
0r. 0ustavo 0ALL0h 0lkAL00, Colombla
Mr. Stellan 0Ak0F, Sweden
Prof. kobert 00L0MAh, unlted States
0r. Pedro hlKKFh, venezuela
}ustlce Mlchle klvFT, Canada
Mr. ka|l S0ukAhl, Palestlne
Prof. Lella ZFkk0u0ul, Algerla
0ther Cemmissien Members
Mr. Muhand AL-hASSAhl, Syrla
Mr. 0hanlm ALhA}}Ak, Kuwalt
Mr. ka|a AZlZ A00kuSF, Malaysla
Prof. Abdullahl Ah-hA'lM, Sudan
}ustlce Solomy 8ALuh0l 80SSA, uganda
Mr. Abdelazlz 8FhZAK0uk, Morocco
}ustlce lan 8lhhlF, Canada
Prof. Alexander 8k0STL, Slovakla
}ustlce Arthur ChASKALS0h, South Afrlca
Prof. Santlago C0kCuFkA, Mexlco
Prof. Loulse 00SwAL0-8FCK, Swltzerland
}ustlce hlsham FL 8ASTAwlSSl, Fgypt
Prof. Paula FSCAkAMFlA, Portugal
}ustlce Fllsabeth FvATT, Australla
Prof. }ochen Fk0wFlh, 0ermany
Mr. koberto 0AkkFT0h, Chlle
Prof. }enny F. 00L0SChMl0T, hetherlands
Ms. Asma }AhAh0lk, Paklstan
Ms. lmrana }ALAL, Fl|l
Prof. 0avld KkFTZMFk, lsrael
Prof. Kazlmlerz Marla LAhK0SZ, Poland
}ustlce }os Antonlo MAkTlh PALLlh, Spaln
Mr. Kathurlma M'lh0Tl, Kenya
}ustlce San|l M0hA0Fh0, 8otswana
Ms. Karlnna M0SKALFhK0, kussla
Prof. lulla M0T0C, komanla
Prof. vltlt MuhTAk8h0kh, Thalland
Prof. Manfred h0wAK, Austrla
0r. }orge Fduardo PAh CkuZ, uruguay
Prof. Andrel klChTFk, kussla
Slr hlgel k00LF, unlted Klngdom
Mr. Claes SAh00kFh, Sweden
Mr. 8ellsarlo dos SAhT0S }uhl0k, 8razll
}ustlce Phlllppe TFXlFk, France
Prof. 0anlel ThukFk, Swltzerland
Prof. u. 0|l uM0ZuklKF, hlgerla
Prof. vllenas vA0APALAS, Llthuanla
Prof. ozo 0K0TA, }apan
}ustlce F. kaul ZAFFAk0hl, Argentlna
Benerary Members
Professor 0eorges Abl-Saab, Fgypt
}ustlce P.h. 8hagwatl, lndla
0r. 8outros 8outros-0hall, Fgypt
Mr. wllllam }. 8utler, uSA
Prof. Antonlo Cassese, ltaly
}ustlce Marle-}os Crespln, Senegal
0ato' Param Cumaraswamy, Malaysla
0r. 0almo A. de Abreu 0alarl, 8razll
Prof. Alfredo Ftchebery, Chlle
Mr. 0esmond Fernando, Srl Lanka
Lord wllllam 0oodhart, unlted Klngdom
}ustlce Lennart 0rol, Sweden
Prof. hans-helnrlch }escheck, 0ermany
Mr. Louls }olnet, France
Prof. P.}.0. Kapteyn, hetherlands
}ustlce Mlchael 0. Klrby, AC, CM0, Australla
Prof. Kof Kumado, 0hana
Prof. }ean Flavlen Lallve, Swltzerland
}ustlce Clalre L'heureux-0ub, Canada
0r. kudolf Machacek, Austrla
Prof. 0anlel h. Marchand, France
Mr. }.k.w.S. Mawala, Tanzanla
Mr. Franols-Xavler Mbouyom, Cameroon
Mr. Fall S. harlman, lndla
Slr Shrldath S. kamphal, 0uyana
Mr. 8ertrand kamcharan, 0uyana
0r. }oaquln kulz -0lmenez, Spaln
Prof. Chrlstlan Tomuschat, 0ermany
Mr. Mlchael A. Trlantafylldes, Cyprus
Prof. Theo van 8oven, hetherlands
Prof. Luzlus wlldhaber, Swltzerland
P.0. 8ox 1
kue des 8alns
Ch-1z11 0eneva S
Swltzerland
www.lc|.org
Practitioners 0uide ho.
Sexual 0rientation, 0ender Identity
and International Ruman kights Law
Copyrlght lnternatlonal Commlsslon of }urlsts, zoo
The lC} permlts free reproductlon of extracts from any of lts publl-
catlons provlded that due acknowledgment ls glven and a copy of
the publlcatlon carrylng the extract ls sent to lts headquarters at
the followlng address:
tnternatiena| Cemmissien 0I |urists
P.0. 8ox 1
kue des 8alns
Ch-1z11 0eneva S
Swltzerland
www.lc|.org
Sexual 0rlentatlon, 0ender ldentlty and lnternatlonal human
klghts Law - Practltloners 0ulde ho.
lS8h: ,S-z-o,-1,-
0eneva, zoo
Practitioners 0uide ho.
Sexual 0rientation, 0ender Identity
and International Ruman kights Law
Thls Practltloners 0ulde was elaborated wlth the contrlbutlon of Phlllp
0ayle and 0avld 8rown. Federlco Andreu-0uzmn provlded legal
revlew. Prlyamvada arnell edlted and coordlnated lts productlon, Frln
8rechtelsbauer asslsted.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw v
1A L 0f C 0k 1 k 1 5
tntreductien 1
t. Cenera| Censideratiens
:. Re|igieus and mera| disceurses
z. "5cientiIic" disceurses S
y. Pe|itica| and idee|egica| disceurses 1
. 0ecrimina|isatien and centinued crimina|isatien 1
y. Mevement tewards recegnitien 16
6. 5eme 0eIinitiens zo
tt. feundatiens in tnternatiena| and Cemparative Pub|ic Law z
:. Re|atienship between nen-discriminatien and the right te be equa|
beIere the |aw z
z. 5cepe and reach eI the princip|e eI nen-discriminatien and the
right te be equa| beIere the |aw z6
y. ken-discriminatien and the right eI equa|ity beIere the |aw zS
. ken-discriminatien, equa|ity beIere the |aw and sexua| erientatien
and gender identity z
.: 1he Uk Buman Rights 1reaty edies and Uk 5pecia|
Precedures en Buman Rights z
.z 1he urepean Ceurt eI Buman Rights and nen-discriminatien 6
.y 1he tnter-American 5ystem eI Buman Rights S
. 1he Ceurt eI |ustice eI the urepean Cemmunities
.y 1he AIrican Cemmissien en Buman and Peep|es' Rights 1
y. Petentia| use eI discriminatery impact in pretectien eI sexua|
erientatien and gender identity
5ummary 6
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. vl
ttt. 1he Right te Private LiIe ,
:. Lega| nature and scepe ,
z. 5tates' eb|igatien te pretect the right te private |iIe
y. Arbitrary er un|awIu| restrictiens en er interIerence with the right
te private |iIe 1
. 5exua| 0rientatien and Cender tdentity and the right te privacy z
.: Cemparative pub|ic |aw and the right te privacy
y. tnterIerence with and restrictien eI the enjeyment eI the right te
privacy in the area eI sexua| erientatien and gender identity 6z
y.: Cemparative pub|ic |aw and interIerence and restrictien eI
the right te privacy 6
5ummary 6,
tv. Arbitrary 0eprivatien eI Liberty 6
:. Lega| kature and 5cepe 6
z. 0eIining arbitrary deprivatien eI |iberty ,o
y. asic criteria Ier |awIu| deprivatien eI |iberty ,z
y.: Lega|ity ,
y.z Legitimate Purpese ,
. 0eprivatien eI |iberty en greunds eI 5exua| 0rientatien and
Cender tdentity ,
y. 5pecia| cencerns regarding LC1 persens |awIu||y deprived eI
their |iberty So
5ummary S
v. 1he Right te LiIe S,
:. Lega| nature and scepe S,
z. 5tates' eb|igatien te pretect the right te |iIe SS
y. Arbitrary deprivatien eI |iIe and death threats o
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw vll
y.: xtrajudicia| executien o
y.z Arbitrary executien 1
y.y 5ummary executien and the death pena|ty z
y. 0eath threats
. 5exua| 0rientatien and Cender tdentity and the right te |iIe
5ummary ,
vt. 1erture and t||-1reatment
:. kature and scepe eI the prehibitien eI terture and i||-treatment
z. 1erture and i||-treatment 1o1
z.: 1erture: scepe eI deIinitien and sexua||y metivated crimes 1o1
z.z Crue|, inhuman er degrading treatment er punishment 1o
y. 5tates' eb|igatiens 1o
. 1erture and i||-treatment en greunds eI sexua| erientatien and
gender identity 1o,
.: 1erture and i||-treatment arising Irem prejudice and
discriminatien 1o,
.z 1erture and i||-treatment via 'cures' impesed en sexua|
minerities 1oS
5ummary 11o
vtt. Rights te freedem eI xpressien, Assemb|y and
Asseciatien 11
:. 5cepe and nature eI the rights 11
:.: freedem eI expressien 11
:.z 1he rights eI peaceIu| assemb|y and asseciatien 11
z. 0eregatiens, |imitatiens and restrictiens 11
z.: Limitatiens and Restrictiens en Ireedem eI expressien 116
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. vlll
z.z Limitatiens and Restrictiens en the rights te Ireedem eI
assemb|y and asseciatien 11,
y. freedem eI expressien, peaceIu| assemb|y and asseciatien
app|ied te sexua| erientatien and gender identity. 1zo
5ummary 1z
vttt. Asy|um and ReIuge 1z,
:. Lega| kature and 5cepe 1z,
z. 5tates' eb|igatiens teward reIugees 1zS
y. Asy|um and ReIugee 5tatus en the Creunds eI 5exua| 0rientatien
and Cender tdentity 1o
y.: Particu|ar secia| greup inc|uding sexua| minerities 1o
y.z Persecutien 1
y.z.: 5cepe eI persecutien 1
y.z.z Persecutien in re|atien te sexua| erientatien and gender
identity 1
5ummary 16
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1
"Ncithcr thc cxistcrrc cj rcticrcl lcws, rcr thc prcvc-
lcrrc cj rustcn rcr cvcr justijy thc cbusc, cttcrks,
tcrturc crJ irJccJ killirs thct cy, lcsbicr, biscxucl,
crJ trcrscrJcr pcrscrs crc subjcrtcJ tc bcrcusc cj
whc thcy crc cr crc pcrrcivcJ tc bc. 8crcusc cj thc
stinc cttcrhcJ tc issucs surrcurJir scxucl cricr-
tcticr crJ crJcr iJcrtity, viclcrrc ccirst lC81
pcrscrs is jrcqucrtly urrcpcrtcJ, urJcruncrtcJ crJ
ccs ultinctcly urpurishcJ. kcrcly Jccs it prcvckc
publir Jcbctc crJ cutrcc. 1his shcncjul silcrrc is
thc ultinctc rcjcrticr cj thc jurJcncrtcl prirriplc cj
urivcrsclity cj rihts."
-Loulse Arbour, Former uh hlgh
Commlssloner for human klghts
1
tntreductien
Fverywhere ln the world, whatever the cultural or rellglous envlronment, human
rlghts vlolatlons are perpetrated on the grounds of people's real or percelved sexual
orlentatlon or gender ldentlty, lncludlng some of the most egreglous such as arbltrary
detentlon, torture and extra|udlclal executlons. Many countrles have dlscrlmlnatory
natlonal leglslatlon and practlces, as well as laws that crlmlnallse expresslons of
sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty. Thls often tends to 'legltlmlse' human rlghts
vlolatlons agalnst gay, lesblan, blsexual and transgendered persons. Thls sltuatlon
ls an ob|ect of concern ln several |udlclal and legal professlons around the world.
The Constltutlonal Court of Colombla has aptly descrlbed thls:
"Fcr c lcr tinc, hcncscxucls hcvc bccr subjcrt tc irtcrsc jcrns cj ncrir-
clizcticr crJ scricl crJ pclitircl cxrlusicr, rct crly ir cur rcurtry but clsc
ir ncry cthcr scrictics. Nct crly hcvc hcncscxucl bchcvicurs bccr crJ
rcrtiruc tc bc rrinirclizcJ by vcricus lccl prcvisicrs but, ir cJJiticr, ir
thc Jcily lijc, pccplc with this scxucl prcjcrcrrc hcvc bccr cxrluJcJ jrcn
nultiplc scricl bcrcjits crJ hcvc hcJ tc crJurc] scricl stinctizcticr,
whirh hcvc cncurtcJ tc, ir thc ncst cxtrcnc rcscs, rcnpcirs cj cxtcr-
nircticr ccirst thcsc pcpulcticrs. .] 1his situcticr cj hcncscxucls hcs
bccr justijicJ vic rcrrcpticrs crrcrJir tc whirh thcsc pccplc, bcrcusc
thcy prcscrt/Jisplcy c scxucl cricrtcticr Jijjcrcrt jrcn thc ncjcrity cj thc
pcpulcticr, hcJ bccr rcrsiJcrcJ cbrcrncl, ill cr inncrcl. .] 1hcsc clJ
rcrrcpticrs ccirst hcncscxuclity rcrtrcJirt csscrticl vclucs cj rcrtcnpc-
1. Prcscrtcticr by thc uritcJ Ncticrs hih Ccnnissicrcr jcr huncr kihts, Ms. lcuisc Arbcur ct thc
lrtcrrcticrcl Ccrjcrcrrc cr lC81 (lcsbicr, Ccys, 8iscxucl crJ 1rcrscrJcr| huncr kihts, Montreal, z6
}uly zoo6.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. z
rcry publir lcw, bcscJ cr plurclisn crJ rcrcriticr cj cutcrcny crJ cqucl
Jirity cj pccplc crJ Jijjcrcrt wclks cj lijc."
z
ln many countrles, persons wlth dlfferent sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty, vls-
-vls the of model of sexuallty soclally or morally accepted or lmposed, constltute
a vulnerable soclal group and are often vlctlms of persecutlon, dlscrlmlnatlon and
gross human rlghts vlolatlons. Courts of several countrles have demonstrated these
sltuatlons. For example, }ustlce Alble Sachs of the South Afrlcan Constltutlonal Court
wrote:
"i]r thc rcsc cj cys, histcry crJ cxpcricrrc tccrh us thct thc srcrrir
biz] rcncs rct jrcn pcvcrty cr pcwcrlcssrcss, but jrcn irvisibility. lt is
thc tcirtir cj Jcsirc, it is thc cttributicr cj pcrvcrsity crJ shcnc tc spcr-
tcrccus bcJily cjjcrticr, it is thc prchibiticr cj thc cxprcssicr cj lcvc, it is
thc Jcricl cj jull ncrcl ritizcrship ir scricty bcrcusc ycu crc whct ycu crc,
thct inpircs cr thc Jirity crJ sclj-wcrth cj c rcup. 1his spcricl vulrcr-
cbility cj cys crJ lcsbicrs cs c nircrity rcup whcsc bchcvicur Jcvictcs
jrcn thc cjjiricl rcrn stcns jrcn thc jcrt thct .] cys rcrstitutc c Jistirrt
thcuh irvisiblc scrticr cj thc rcnnurity thct hcs bccr trcctcJ rct crly
with Jisrcspcrt cr rcrJcsrcrsicr but with Jiscpprcvcl crJ rcvulsicr, thcy
crc rct crcrclly cbvicus cs c rcup, prcssurizcJ by scricty crJ thc lcw tc
rcncir irvisiblc thcir iJcrtijyir rhcrcrtcristir rcnbircs cll thc crxictics
prcJurcJ by scxuclity with cll thc clicrctir cjjcrts rcsultir jrcn Jijjcr-
crrc, crJ thcy crc sccr cs cspcriclly rcrtcicus cr prcrc tc rcrruptir
cthcrs. Ncrc cj thcsc jcrtcrs cpply] tc cthcr rcups trcJiticrclly subjcrt tc
Jisrrinircticr, surh cs pccplc cj rclcur cr wcncr, ccrh cj whc, cj rcursc,
hcvc hcJ tc sujjcr thcir cwr spcrijir jcrns cj cpprcssicr".
The tradltlonal arguments - from rellglous and moral perspectlves as well as from
'sclentlfc' perspectlves - have been challenged and]or re|ected not only by devel-
opments ln sclence but by lnternatlonal |urlsprudence and ln numerous courts
throughout the world.
All human belngs are persons before the law regardless of thelr sexual orlentatlon
or gender ldentlty, and are entltled to rlghts and freedoms derlvlng from the lnherent
dlgnlty of the human person as well as to the equal protectlon of the law wlthout
dlscrlmlnatlon. }udges and lawyers, as protectors and guarantors of human rlghts for
z. Constltutlonal Court of Colombla, }udgment ho. C-S1]S of September 1S, paras. 1o, 11 and 1z (0rlglnal
ln Spanlsh, unofflclal translatlon).
. Constltutlonal Court of South Afrlca, }udgment of 0ctober 1S, Case of Ncticrcl Cccliticr cj Ccy 8 lcsbicr
Fquclity crJ Arcthcr v. Miristcr cj /ustirc crJ cthcrs, Ccsc CCT11]S, paras. 1z, and 1zS.
. See for example, Constltutlonal Court of South Afrlca, }udgment of 0ctober 1S, Case of Ncticrcl Cccliticr
cj Ccy 8 lcsbicr Fquclity crJ Arcthcr v. Miristcr cj /ustirc crJ cthcrs, Court of Flnal Appeal of the hong
Kong Speclal Admlnlstratlve keglon, }udgment of 1, }uly zoo,, Case of Scrrctcry jcr /ustirc v. cu uk lur
Zic crJ lcc kcn Chucr, Constltutlonal Court of Colombla, }udgment ho. C-S1]S of September 1S,
Constltutlonal Trlbunal of Fcuador, }udgment ho. 111-,-TC of z, hovember 1,.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw
all persons, have an essentlal role to protect the rlghts and freedoms of persons wlth
dlfferent sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty. lndeed, as polnted out by the Court of
Flnal Appeal of hong Kong, ln a case ln whlch the |udlclary declared unconstltutlonal
a legal provlslon allowlng crlmlnallsatlon of homosexuallty:
"1hc rcurts hcvc thc Juty cj crjcrrir thc rcrstituticrcl ucrcrtcc cj
cquclity bcjcrc thc lcw crJ cj crsurir prctcrticr ccirst Jisrrinirctcry
lcw."
Although lt ls true that the lssue of sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty has been
neglected by lnternatlonal law ln the last decades, the lssues have nevertheless
attracted the concern and attentlon from human rlghts courts and bodles. human
rlghts vlolatlons on the grounds of sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty appear
at varlous levels wlthln the work of the uh treaty bodles and speclal procedures of
the former Commlsslon on human klghts and lts successor, the uh human klghts
Councll. keglonal Courts and bodles have made an lmportant contrlbutlon towards
the protectlon of rlghts of persons wlth dlfferent sexual orlentatlon or gender lden-
tlty as well as developlng legal arguments based ln lnternatlonal law. ln recent years,
the lssue of sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty has been taken lnto account
and lncorporated ln new legal lnstruments and legal standards, both unlversal and
reglonal. Polltlcal bodles of lntergovernmental organlsatlons, both unlted hatlons
and reglonal, have adopted resolutlons ralslng the questlon of human rlghts vlola-
tlons commltted on the basls of sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty.
Sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty ralse classlc legal lssues of lnternatlonal
human rlghts law, such as non-dlscrlmlnatlon, equallty before the law and the rlght
to prlvate llfe, amongst others. however, the questlon of sexual orlentatlon and
gender ldentlty are not restrlcted to these legal lssues. lndeed, the questlon of
sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty could be ralsed ln relatlon to all human rlghts
and fundamental freedoms. Fxperlence teaches us that ln certaln contexts, persons
wlth dlfferent sexual orlentatlon were not fully recognlsed as persons under the
law, a unlversal and fundamental rlght. ln many countrles, persons face multlple
obstacles lmpalrlng, because thelr sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty, the rlght
to work, to soclal protectlon, educatlon, and]or adequate houslng. Although ln the
last decade the questlon of sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty has ralsed more
attentlon and found more legal answers from lnternatlonal human rlghts law and
|urlsprudence, certaln aspects remaln under-developed.
The lC} works to lncrease the legal protectlon of vlctlms whose human rlghts are
vlolated because of thelr real or percelved sexual orlentatlon and]or gender ldentlty
and to develop lnternatlonal law ln order to provlde, from a hollstlc perspectlve,
. Court of Flnal Appeal of the hong Kong Speclal Admlnlstratlve keglon, }udgment of 1, }uly zoo,, Case of
Scrrctcry jcr /ustirc v. cu uk lur Zic crJ lcc kcn Chucr, Flnal Appeal ho. 1z of zoo6 (Crlmlnal), para.
z.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho.
better recognltlon and protectlon of human rlghts for persons wlth dlfferent sexual
orlentatlon and gender ldentlty.
As a frst contrlbutlon, the lnternatlonal Commlsslon of }urlsts (lC}), |olntly wlth the
lnternatlonal Servlce for human klghts, sponsored a meetlng of legal experts on
these lssues. The meetlng took place ln hovember zoo6, ln ogyakarta (lndonesla),
wlth the partlclpatlon of twenty-nlne lnternatlonal human rlghts law experts and
|urlsts, who agreed a statement of Prirriplcs cr thc Applircticr cj lrtcrrcticrcl
huncr kihts lcw ir rclcticr tc Scxucl 0ricrtcticr crJ CcrJcr lJcrtity (cyckcrtc
Prirriplcs), whlch were offclally launched ln 0eneva ln March zoo,. The prlnclples
are an authorltatlve lnterpretatlon of lnternatlonal human rlghts law on the sub|ect
and lnclude statements of rlghts as well as obllgatlons of States.
Followlng the adoptlon of the cyckcrtc Prirriplcs, the lC} declded to lnltlate a
serles of studles wlth the alm of contrlbutlng to the clarlfcatlon of the nature and
scope of exlstlng State obllgatlons ln relatlon to human rlghts and sexual orlen-
tatlon and gender ldentlty, and to develop the legal argument that lnternatlonal
human rlghts law does and should protect agalnst abuses based on these grounds.
Followlng thls, the lC} has produced a Practitieners Cuide en 5exua| 0rientatien,
Cender tdentity and tnternatiena| Buman Rights Law. Thls 0ulde addresses ques-
tlons of sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty ln relatlon to certaln human rlghts
and fundamental freedoms. The alm ls to clarlfy the exlstlng lnternatlonal legal
framework to deal wlth abuses of certaln rlghts on the grounds of sexual orlenta-
tlon and gender ldentlty and lllustrate how the legal arguments for human rlghts
protectlon are properly developed and sustalned. 0ther rlghts and freedoms - such
as the rlghts to be person under the law, to famlly, to work, to soclal protectlon, to
educatlon or to adequate houslng, are not addressed ln thls 0ulde.
lnsplred by the cyckcrtc Prirriplcs, thls 0ulde draws on many sources of lnterna-
tlonal law and |urlsprudence as well as some comparatlve natlonal law and practlce.
For lnternatlonal human rlghts |urlsprudence, the maln sources are uh human rlghts
treaty bodles, uh speclal procedures, the lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts,
lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts, the Furopean Court of human klghts
and the Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and Peoples' klghts. Followlng a slmple
structure, lt revlews the lnternatlonal law and |urlsprudence as well as comparatlve
law on the addressed sub|ects.
The present 0ulde frst lntroduces the sub|ect by puttlng the treatment of sexual
orlentatlon and gender ldentlty ln an hlstorlcal context, Chapters l and ll provlde
the foundatlons ln lnternatlonal and comparatlve publlc law for human rlghts clalms
based on sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty. ln partlcular, these Chapters explore
how arguments of equallty before the law and non-dlscrlmlnatlon are used to sustaln
thls clalm. Chapter lll looks at the rlght to prlvate llfe. Chapter lv deals wlth arbltrary
deprlvatlon of llberty. The rlght to llfe ls addressed ln Chapter v. Torture and lll-
treatment are dlscussed ln Chapter vl. Chapter vll deals wlth freedom of expresslon
and the rlghts to assembly and assoclatlon. Chapter vlll examlnes asylum rlghts.
"1c pcrclizc scnccrc bcrcusc cj thcir scxucl cricrtc-
ticr is likc whct uscJ tc hcppcr tc us, tc bc pcrclizcJ
jcr scncthir whirh wc rculJ Jc rcthir cbcut cur
cthririty, cur rcrc. .] l wculJ jirJ it quitc urcrrcpt-
cblc tc rcrJcnr, pcrscrutc c nircrity thct hcs clrccJy
bccr pcrscrutcJ."
-Archblshop 0esmond Tutu, hobel Peace Prlce
Laureate and Angllcan archblshop
6
t. Cenera| Censideratiens
hlstorlcally, persons wlth dlfferent sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty vls--vls the
of model of sexuallty soclally or morally accepted or lmposed, have been sub|ect
to persecutlon and dlscrlmlnatlon. A dlverslty of 'arguments' - rellglous, moral,
'sclentlfc', and 'cultural' - have been used ln an attempt to |ustlfy represslon of
homosexuallty and denegatlon of rlghts for persons of dlfferent sexual orlentatlon or
gender ldentlty. however, lt ls also true that not all socletles and systems of rellglous
or moral values were opposed to homosexuallty and same-sex erotlclsm.
:. Re|igieus and mera| disceurses
Socletles' values and notlons of proprlety have often been based on rellglous ldeolo-
gles of morallty. kellglous and moral dlscourses have shaped attltudes and laws ln
respect of sex and gender. lt ls unsurprlslng therefore, that ldeas and law-maklng
concernlng sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty are strongly embedded wlthln
socletal perceptlons that refect these bellefs. Among all the Abrahamlc rellglons,
,

there has been a varlety of oppresslon and tolerance of same-sex erotlclsm at
dlfferent tlmes, places and among dlfferent branches of these rellglons.
}ewlsh law orlglnally condemned all non-procreatlve sexual practlces as part of 0od's
mandate to Adam and Fve to populate the Farth.
S
There was also a strong emphasls
on purlty. Conslstent wlth vlolatlon of purlty laws, the penalty for homosexual prac-
tlces was death.
0ther contemporary cultures dld not condemn sodomy, and lt was

varlously practlced as part of rltual or heallng ceremonles, for money, or as part of
the practlce of educatlng youth.
1o
Thls changed wlth the advent of Chrlstlanlty.
6. world Soclal Forum, 1 March zoo,, halrobl, Kenya.
,. Thls ls a term used to descrlbe rellglons wlth a hlstorlc-theologlcal llnk wlth Abraham, malnly }udalsm,
Chrlstlanlty and lslam. See http:]]llsar.lss.wlsc.edu]welcome]abrahamlc.html
S. The 8lble, 0enesls 1:zS.
. The 8lble, Levltlcus 1S:zz, zo:1.
1o. lbiJ.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. 6
Chrlstlans dld adopt the prohlbltlon of sodomy. wlth the adoptlon of Chrlstlanlty as
the State rellglon of the koman Fmplre ln the fourth century, the law began to refect
thls polnt of vlew. For the Chrlstlan Theology, sexual actlvlty outslde a procreatlve
functlon was absolutely agalnst the rellglon. The Cathollc Church ruled that same-
sex practlces among men and women were crlmes "agalnst nature" (rrincr rcrtrc
rcturcn and rrincr rcjcrJun).
11
These prohlbltlons were used to combat paganlsm
and to lmpose a model of soclal order and dlsclpllne.
lslam has hlstorlcally been the most tolerant of the Abrahamlc rellglons toward
same-sex erotlclsm. ln contrast to the }ewlsh and Chrlstlan vlew of same-sex attrac-
tlon, whlch portrayed homosexuallty as "agalnst nature", lslamlc tradltlon vlewed
lt as surrenderlng to a natural temptatlon.
1z
The lslamlc response to sodomy was
consequently more amblvalent. The hcJith reports that Muhammad's son-ln-law and
hls chlef lleutenant executed people "for dolng what Lot's people dld."
1
Conversely,
the Koran states that Musllm martyrs ln Paradlse wlll be surrounded by boys llke
"scattered pearls".
1
The hcJith also states that Muhammad recommended tolerance toward nukhcr-
rcthur (gender varlant people, often entertalners), allowlng them to enter Mecca
and Medlna wlth some restrlctlons, but wlthout fear of persecutlon as long as
they practlced lslam.
1
Therefore, Musllm dlsapproval of homosexual practlces as
slns tended to focus on the lrreverence of the practlces rather than on the act of
sodomy ltself.
16
Throughout hlstory, many Musllm States malntalned slmultaneous
pollcles of tolerance and dlsclpllne toward certaln forms of homosexual erotlclsm.
ln the contemporary world, thls tenslon can be seen ln the contrastlng examples of
Afghanlstan, where the custom of keeplng bcrhc (danclng boys) stlll thrlves amongst
the landownlng class, whllst lts nelghbour lran, admlnlsters the death penalty for
men convlcted of sodomy.
1,
At the same tlme as the advance of lslam ended the Chrlstlan persecutlons of
homosexuals ln the Mlddle Fast and much of the Medlterranean world, Chrlstlan
Furope also entered a perlod of tolerance. wlth the exceptlon of the vlslgoths,
whose klngdom was ultlmately annexed by the Musllm Callphate, no other Chrlstlan
11. See irtcr clic, }acques Chlffoleau, Contra naturam. Pour une approche casulstlque et procdurale de la
nature mdlvale , ln Mirrclcus, lv, 16, pp. z6-1z, Mark }ordan, 1hc lrvcrticr cj ScJcny ir Christicr
1hcclcy, unlverslty of Chlcago Press, Chlcago, 1,, and Carla Casagrande and Sllvana vecchlo, Pch ,
ln }acques Le 00FF and }ean-Claude SChMlTT, lc Jirticrrcirc rciscrrc Jc l0rriJcrt ncJicvcl, Parls, Fayard,
1, pp. S,,-S,S.
1z. Mlchael 0oodlch, 1hc urncrticrcblc virc: hcncscxuclity ir thc lctcr McJicvcl PcricJ, koss-Frlkson
Publlshers, 1,, p. 111.
1. Mlshkat, vol. 1, p. ,6, PrcsrribcJ Purishncrts.
1. Sura ,6:1.
1. Sunan Abu-0awud, 8cck 1:Ccrcrcl 8chcvicr (kitcb Al-AJcb|.
16. haphy, cp. rit., p. 16o.
1,. keuters, "Ajhcr bcy Jcrrcrs scxuclly cbuscJ by jcrncr wcrlcrJs", 1S hovember zoo,, human klghts
watch, "lrcr: 1wc Mcrc Fxcruticrs jcr hcncscxucl CcrJurt", zz hovember zoo.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw ,
klngdom outslde the koman Fmplre crlmlnallsed sodomy.
1S
8eglnnlng ln the tenth
century, eccleslastlcal wrlters began to call for renewed persecutlon of sodomy, but
these calls generally went unheeded.
1
lnstead, Church law focused on lndlvldual
penance, wlth perlods of fastlng and repentance for "slns of lmpurlty", whlle clvll
law remalned altogether sllent on the lssue.
zo
0nly ln the twelfth century dld the church return to persecutlons. 8eglnnlng frst
wlth the Crusader Councll of hablus ln 11zo and contlnulng ln the more malnstream
Lateran Councll of 11, the Cathollc Church began to equate sodomy wlth heresy,
assertlng that sex for procreatlon was the "natural order" and rebelllon agalnst
lt was a rebelllon rcrtrc rcturcn (agalnst nature).
z1
The Cathars, members of a
heretlcal sect of Chrlstlanlty repressed by crusaders ln the late twelfth and early
thlrteenth centurles, were often accused of practlclng non-procreatlve sex. lt was
felt that one act of heresy would loglcally lead to the other. The orlgln of the Cathar
heresy ln 8ulgarla, pronounced 8curcs ln the French of the day, gave us the word
"buggery".
zz
0nce sodomy had been frmly entrenched ln church law as a heret-
lcal act, Furopean clvll lawmakers began crlmlnallslng lt as well. 8y the thlrteenth
century, sodomy was a capltal offence throughout Furope. lt would remaln as
such for over half a mlllennlum, carrylng over through the Protestant keformatlon
and, wlth the advent of Furopean lmperlallsm, lnto Furope's overseas colonles as
well.
z
0utslde of the world of the monothelstlc rellglons, rellglous teachlng has been gener-
ally less represslve of same-sex erotlclsm. There has also been less dlvlslon between
"rellglous" and "secular", wlth lnstltutlons and customs blendlng elements of both.
For example, 8uddhlsm has very llttle to say about homosexuallty, as the teachlngs
of the 8uddha are completely sllent on same-sex attractlon and on procreatlve sex
allke. ln the Theravada tradltlon of 8uddhlsm, practlced by the ma|orlty of the popu-
latlons of Srl Lanka, Thalland, 8urma, Cambodla and Laos, punlshments for monks
engaglng ln sexual acts wlth each other ls actually llghter than for monks engaglng
ln sex wlth lay women - an extremely rare example of llllclt homosexual actlvlty
belng consldered less serlous than heterosexual.
z
ln Chlna, Confuclan teachlngs
about hlerarchy dld not condemn same-sex attractlon. Two well-known storles from
the han dynasty (zo6 8C-zzo A0) lllustrate bonds of hlerarchlcal loyalty cemented
by sexual attractlon. ln one, 0uke Llng of wel's young subordlnate Mlzl Xla blt lnto
1S. 0oodlch, cp. rit., p. ,-, Percy, cp. rit., p. 6SS.
1. Percy, cp. rit., p. 6S6, "0ecretals", FrryrlcpcJic 8ritcrrirc, 111.
zo. 0oodlch, cp. rit., p. z.
z1. haphy, cp. rit., p. S.
zz. lbiJ., p. ,,.
z. 0oodlch at S,.
z. Percy, cp. rit., p. 16, Peter }ackson, "Performatlve 0enders, Perverse 0eslres: A 8lo-hlstory of Thalland's
Same-sex and Transgender Cultures", ln lrtcrscrticrs: CcrJcr, histcry crJ Culturc ir thc Asicr Ccrtcxt,
ho. , August zoo, p. .
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. S
a peach and fndlng lt sweet gave lt to the 0uke to fnlsh. ln the other, Fmperor Al's
male concublne 0ongxlan fell asleep on the Fmperor's sleeve, and the Fmperor,
havlng to depart, cut the sleeve off rather than wake hls lover. ln the contemporary
Chlnese language, same-sex attractlon ls stlll known as "cut sleeve" or "shared
peach".
z
lndlan scrlpture and rellglous law also lack broad condemnatlons of homosexual
actlvlty, especlally before the arrlval of lslam ln the thlrteenth century. The treatlse
Arthashastra, attrlbuted to the lmperlal advlsor Kautllya around oo 8C, condemns
non-procreatlve sex ln mlld terms, lmposlng a small fne and rltual baths for the
act.
z6
The Manusmltrl legal code, wrltten between zoo 8C and zoo A0, condemns
homosexual practlces only lf they cause loss of caste or female vlrglnlty.
z,
lt should be noted that anthropologlcal llterature ls rlfe wlth descrlptlons of homo-
sexual sexual practlces ln cultures worldwlde that practlce trance and possesslon
as part of thelr rellglous or heallng tradltlons, or whlch recognlse a "thlrd sex" that
ls often related to unlque splrltual or shamanlstlc powers.
zS
Concernlng rellglous dlscourses agalnst sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty, lt ls
relevant to underllne what the hlgh Court of South Afrlca stated:
"1hcrc is still c substcrticl bcJy cj thcclcircl thcuht whirh hclJs thct thc
bcsir purpcsc cj thc scxucl rclcticrship is prcrrccticr crJ jcr thct rccscr
clsc prcsrribcs rcrtrcrcpticr. 1hcrc is cr cquclly strcr bcJy cj thcclcircl
thcuht thct rc lcrcr hclJs thc vicw. Scrictcl cttituJcs tc rcrtrcrcpticr
crJ ncrriccs whirh crc Jclibcrctcly rhilJlcss crc clsc rhcrir. 1hcsc
rhcrir cttituJcs nust ircvitcbly rcusc c rhcrc ir cttituJcs tc hcnc-
scxuclity."
z
z. "5cientiIic" disceurses
kepresslon of sexual orlentatlons and gender ldentltles has also been conducted
vla 'sclentlfc' approaches. hlstorlcally, and especlally durlng the nlneteenth and the
frst half of the twentleth century, sclentlfc dlscourse has had a fuld connectlon wlth
the moral and rellglous dlscourse. ldeas of normalcy, devlance and soclal danger
have often been constructed and enforced, represslng those wlth dlfferent sexual
orlentatlon and gender ldentlty.
z. Percy, cp. rit., p. z16-z1,, Chou wah-Shan, "homosexuallty and the Cultural Polltlcs of Tongzhl ln Chlnese
Socletles", ln 1hc /currcl cj hcncscxuclity, harrlngton Park Press, vol. o, ho. ], zoo1, p. z.
z6. Arthashastra .1.z6.
z,. Manu Smltrl S:6-,o, 11:6S and 11:1,.
zS. See for example, Percy, cp. rit., p. 6.
z. }udgment of 1, Case of S. v. h., para. 1zA-8, clted ln Constltutlonal Court of South Afrlca, }udgment of
0ctober 1S, Ncticrcl Cccliticr cj Ccy 8 lcsbicr Fquclity crJ Arcthcr v. Miristcr cj /ustirc crJ cthcrs,
Ccsc CCT11]S, para. S.
The lntroductlon of notlons of sexual orlentatlons and gender ldentlty ln sclentlfc
dlscourse arose ln the feld of medlclne. Medlcal texts and natural hlstorles consld-
ered the lssue from tlme to tlme throughout the pre-modern era. Caraka, a famous
lndlan physlclan of the thlrd century 8C who helped codlfy the "Ayurveda" system of
lndlan medlclne, descrlbed gender "abnormalltles" ln hls treatlse Chcrckcscnhitc.
These lncluded varlous forms of lnter-sex condltlons and sterlllty, along wlth male
and female homosexuallty.
o
South Aslan 8uddhlst medlcal wrlters of the same era
also descrlbed same-sex deslre, sometlmes grouplng lt wlth varlous forms of male
lmpotence.
1
ln the Arab world, early Musllm physlclans descrlbed same-sex deslre
alternatlvely as a form of pathology or as congenltal condltlon, the product of a
person's horoscope at blrth.
z
ln Furope, the 0reek phllosopher Arlstotle offered
explanatlons for homosexual deslre ln men rooted ln epllepsy and the lmproper
fow of semen wlthln the body, but later ln Furope, Chrlstlan physlclans generally
avolded the lssue, seelng homosexual practlces as slnful cholces rather than as
products of dlsease.
The nlneteenth and twentleth centurles saw the emergence of sclence as a forum
to repress homosexuallty. From blologlcal, medlcal, crlmlnologlcal and soclologlcal
approaches several theorles emerged to |ustlfy, 'sclentlfcally', the represslon of
homosexuallty. The theorles of westphal and Lombroso are examples. ln 1S6o, the
0erman psychlatrlst Karl westphal lnvented the dlagnosls of the mental dlsorder
of "contrary sexual feellng", whlch would later come to be called "lnverslon" ln the
Fngllsh-speaklng world. ln ltaly, Cesare Lombroso, formulated, from the crlmlnal
anthropology and blology perspectlve, hls theory of the born crlmlnal ("lnnate
crlmlnal offender"), whose weakened nervous system predlsposed hlm to engage
ln degenerate behavlour, whlch lncluded homosexuallty.
ln 1S,6 Austrlan psycholo-

glst klchard von Kraft-Fbblng publlshed hls book "Psyrhcpcthic Scxuclis". The work
proclalmed that "every expresslon of the sex drlve that does not correspond to the
purposes of nature", l.e., reproductlon, was "perverse". The book also popularlsed
westphal's concept of lnverslon, and led to the frst efforts to treat homosexuallty
as a dlsease. 0arwln's theory of natural selectlon also lndlrectly relnforced the
vlew that homosexuallty as an lllness, as same-sex lntercourse falled to produce
off-sprlng.
o. wllllam haphy, cp. rit., p. ,6.

1. lbiJ., pp. S-.
z. haphy, cp. rit., p. 1o1, warren }ohannson, "Medlcal Theorles of homosexuallty", ln wllllam Percy, cp. rit.,
pp. ,o-1.
. Plckett, 8rent, "hcncscxuclity", The Stanford Fncyclopedla of Phllosophy (wlnter zoo6 Fdltlon|, Fdward
h. Zalta (ed.), p. ,1.
. lucnc Jclirqucrtc (The Crlmlnal Man), ltaly, 1S,6. Cesare Lombroso was consldered one of the founders
of the crlmlnology (see irtcr clic, 0. Stefanl, 0. Levasseur and k }ambu-Merlln, Crinirclcic ct sricrrc
pcritcrticirc, Col. Prcls 0alloz Fd. 0alloz, Parls, 1S).
. Pleter k. Adrlaens and Andreas 0e 8lock, "The Fvolutlon of a Soclal Constructlon", ln Pcrspcrtivcs ir 8iclcy
crJ McJirirc, . (zoo6), p. ,o-S.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. 1o
Some crlmlnologlcal theorles whlch emerged ln the early twentleth century lnsplred
by the 'sclentlfc' dlscourse on the blologlcal and]or soclal determlnlsm, addressed
the questlon of homosexuallty as a form of "genetlc degeneracy", "lnherlted char-
acter tralt", "soclal devlance" or a "behavlour of soclal dangerousness". These
crlmlnologlcal theorles found translatlon ln crlmlnal law ln several countrles. A
number of countrles began to create laws for "habltual crlmlnals", "vagrants" and
other soclal outcasts to be removed from soclety, often through detentlon wlthout
trlal. As gay men and lesblans were percelved as "lnnate crlmlnal offenders", "sexual
lnverts" or "perverts", they were frequently sub|ect to such laws. A typlcal example
ls of Spaln ln 1. There, laws declared "ruffans, procurers, professlonal beggars,
and those who llve from others' begglng" to be "ln a state of soclal dangerous-
ness" and condemned them to "lnternment ln a work establlshment or agrlcultural
colony".
6
Thls law was modlfed ln 1 to expllcltly lnclude "homosexuals", who
were sentenced ln addltlon to "absolute segregatlon from the others".
,
Thelr deten-
tlon comblned rellglous educatlon, hard physlcal labour and torture ln an effort to
cure the presumed dellnquency and also protect soclety from any harm that mlght
have been caused.
S
The sentence could last untll the prlsoner's "cure or, falllng that,
the cessatlon of the state of soclal dangerousness".
ln 0ermany, although the law agalnst homosexual conduct had exlsted for many
years prlor to the kelch Crlmlnal Code
o
, the hazl reglme took these laws further.
A 1 reform to the 0erman Penal Code allowed for the lndefnlte "preventatlve
custody" of "habltual dellnquents," thls was supplemented by the 1 lcw cbcut
Alicrs tc thc Ccnnurity, whlch provlded for the sterlllzatlon of such persons,
lncludlng "asoclal persons, vagrants, and homosexuals".
1
homosexuals were
lnterned ln concentratlon camps and branded wlth a plnk-trlangle. Tens of thou-
sands perlshed ln these camps.
z
Some States ln the unlted States of Amerlca also passed laws around the same tlme
leglslatlng the sterlllzatlon of "habltual crlmlnals", although the uS Supreme Court
6. Artlcle 6 (z) of the lcw cj vcrcrts crJ Misrrccrts (lcy Jc vccs y Mclccrtcs), of August 1 (0rlglnal
ln Spanlsh, unofflclal translatlon).
,. Amendment of 1 }uly 1 (0rlglnal ln Spanlsh, unofflclal translatlon).
S. Arturo Arnalte, kcJcJc Jc viclctcs - lc hcncscxucliJcJ cr cl jrcrquisnc, Fd. La Fsfera de los Llbros,
Madrld, zoo.
. Artlcle of the lcw cj vcrcrts crJ Misrrccrts (lcy Jc vccs y Mclccrtcs).
o. Thls provlslon dated from 1S,1.
1. Franclsco Muoz Conde, "Fl proyecto naclonalsoclallsta sobre el tratamlento de los 'extraos a la comu-
nldad'", ln kcvistc Ccripcr, ho. zo, Madrld, 1 }anuary zoo1, p. z.
z. See irtcr clic: }ohansson, warren, "Plnk Trlangles", ln FrryrlcpcJic cj hcncscxuclity, cp. rit., and }ohansson,
warren, and Percy, wllllam A. "homosexuals ln hazl 0ermany", ln henry Frledlander (Fd.), Sincr wicscrthcl
Ccrtcr Arrucl: vclunc ;, hew ork, Allled 8ooks, Ltd., 1o, Llvely, Scott, "homosexuallty and the hazl
Party", ln 0eorge A. kekers (Fdltor), 1hc /currcl cj huncr Scxuclity, Lewls & Stanley Publlshers, uSA,
16.
lnvalldated these laws.
Fven ln socletles where punlshments for soclal dlsorders

were sllghter, such as ln northern Furope and the more urban States of the unlted
States of Amerlca, mlsdemeanour statutes agalnst vagrancy, dlsorderly conduct
and the llke were frequently deployed to harass gay men and lesblans, and sub|ect
them to short-term detentlon.
0urlng the nlneteenth century, approaches emerged dlfferent from sclentlfc dlscl-
pllne counterlng the theorles whlch attempted to |ustlfy, on a 'sclentlfc' basls the
represslon of homosexuallty. For example, ln the 1S6os, 0erman |urlsts Karl helnrlch
ulrlchs and Kroly Kertbenkya proposed the exlstence of a thlrd gender, composed
of people wlth souls or natures of the opposlte sex.
ulrlchs called these people

"uranlans" and Kertbenkya lnvented the term "homosexual" to descrlbe them. 8oth
men asserted thelr bellef on the naturalness and lnnateness of homosexuallty and
advocated for the antl-sodomy laws to be repealed.
Further research lnto same-sex attractlon by doctors and psychlatrlsts such as
Magnus hlrschfeld and Slgmund Freud, and even a change of heart by von Kraft-
Fbblng hlmself shortly before hls death, dlsputed the concluslon that same-sex
deslre was ln fact a dlsease, but to llttle effect.
6
Sclence was fully engaged ln the
task of seeklng explanatlons and treatments for the 'dlsease' of homosexuallty. The
most commonly accepted explanatlon was that homosexuallty was an "arrested
development" of sexuallty caused by anxlety lnduced ln chlldhood.
,
hew ork
psychlatrlsts such as Albert Fllls, and Charles Socarldes developed "reparatlve
theraples", ln whlch patlents were told they were slck but could recover through
maklng lnslghts lnto the subconsclous source of thelr sexual compulslons and thelr
psychopathologlcal parents. 0ne practltloner clalmed a z,% success rate, whlle
another clalmed as hlgh as one thlrd.
S
Columbla unlverslty psychlatrlst Sandor
kado developed an "averslon therapy" thls could lnvolve a mlx of psychoanalysls
wlth sesslons showlng the patlent homoerotlc lmages whlle admlnlsterlng electrlc
shocks or drugs to lnduce nausea. ln 16z, thls therapy resulted ln the death of a
8rltlsh soldler convlcted of homosexuallty.
Sex changes, usually compulsory, were

. uS Supreme Court, }udgment of 1 }une 1z, Case of Skirrcr v. 0klchcnc cx rcl. willicnscr, 16 u.S.
(1z).
. wllllam h. Fskrldge, }r, "Prlvacy }urlsprudence and the Apartheld of the Closet, 16-161", ln FlcriJc Stctc
urivcrsity lcw kcvicw, ho. z, 1,, Shannon Mlnter, "Sodomy and Publlc Morallty 0ffenses under u.S.
lmmlgratlon Law: Penallzlng Lesblan and 0ay ldentlty", ln Ccrrcll lrtcrrcticrcl lcw /currcl, ho. z6, 1,
p. So.
. Manfred herzer, "Kertbenkya, koly Mara", ln Percy, cp. rit., p 6, hubert Kennedy, "ulrlchs, Karl helnrlch",
ln Percy, cp. rit., p. 1.
6. lbiJ., warren }ohansson, "Magnus hlrschfeld", "Freud, Slgmund" and "Freudlan Concepts" ln Percy, cp. rit.,
o-, and -.
,. Arvlnd harraln and Tarunabh Khaltan, "Medlcallsatlon of homosexuallty", ln Ccnbct lcw, volume 1, ho. 1
(March - Aprll zooz).
S. }ack 0rescher, "l'm our handyman", ln /currcl cj hcncscxuclity, volume 6(1) 1S, p. z,, Charles w.
Socarldes, "hcw Ancrirc wcrt Ccy", Leadershlp u, www.leaderu.com]|hs]socarldes.html.
. 8everley 0'Sllva, "when 0ay Meant Mad", ln 1hc lrJcpcrJcrt, London, August 16.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. 1z
another treatment. ln 1, famed 8rltlsh computer sclentlst and mathematlclan
Alan Turlng was convlcted of gross lndecency, sentenced to oestrogen ln|ectlons
and dled shortly thereafter.
o
ln South Afrlca nearly oo compulsory sex changes
were performed on soldlers durlng the apartheld era.
1
As the sclentlfc communlty grew to adopt the vlew that "sexual lnverslon" was a
mental lllness,
z
punlshment for the crlme of homosexuallty shlfted toward compul-
sory medlcal treatment. ln 1,o's Spaln the Law of vagrants and Mlscreants was
repealed and replaced wlth the Law about Soclal 0angerousness and kehabllltatlon.

under thls law, "those who commlt homosexual acts", as well as "lnsolent, brutal
or cynlcal" people, the "morally perverted" and "the mentally defclent",
could
be sentenced to a wlde range of punlshments, lncludlng, for homosexuals and
prostltutes, "confnement ln a re-educatlon establlshment".
ln the unlted States

of Amerlca, a number of |urlsdlctlons enacted so-called "sexual psychopath" laws
allowlng a court to sentence repeat sexual offenders, lncludlng those whose convlc-
tlons were for consensual homosexual sex, to lnvoluntary confnement and treatment
ln mental hospltals.
6
The unlted Klngdom allowed some men convlcted of homo-
sexuallty to choose between prlson and sex reasslgnment treatment.
,
Although
ln most countrles, lnvoluntary medlcal treatment laws have now been repealed,
and ln fact forced medlcal treatment ls recognlsed as valld grounds for clalmlng
asylum,
S
lnvoluntary treatment contlnues to be practlsed ln some countrles, such
as the unlted Arab Fmlrates and some former Sovlet States.
At the same tlme, the research of uS lnvestlgators such as Alfred Klnsey and Fvelyn
hooker demonstrated that there was no sclentlfc basls for assertlng that hetero-
sexuallty ls "normal" whlle other forms of sexual orlentatlon are "devlant", or that
same-sex attractlon was pathologlcal. These researchers dld not focus, as prlor
psychlatrlsts had, on convlcted crlmlnals or patlents seeklng treatment, and showed
that homosexuals exhlblted the same frequency of psychologlcal well-belng and
o. Paul 0ray, "Alcr 1urir", Tlme, z March 1.
1. Ana Slmo, "Scuth Ajrirc", The 0ully, z August zooo.
z. For example, the Amerlcan Psychlatrlc Assoclatlon flrst classlfled "homosexuallty" as a dlsease ln 1z.
Amerlcan Psychlatrlc Assoclatlon, 0lagnostlc and Statlstlcal Manual: Mental 0lsorders (0SM-l) (1z),
S-.
. Law 16]1,o (ley Sobre Pellgrosldad y kehabllltaclon Soclal) of August 1,o, 80F ho. 1S,.
. lbiJ., Artlcle zo.
. lbiJ., Artlcle o.
6. Fskrldge, Jcr. rit., pp. ,1z-,16.
,. See for example, Andrew hodges, Alcr 1urir: thc Frinc, vlntage, kandom house, London 1z.
S. For example, unlted States Court of Appeals for the hlnth Clrcult, 0eclslon of z }une 1,, Case of
Pitrhcrskcic v. lNS.
. unlted States 0epartment of State, Press kelease, Forced Medlcal Treatment of uAF homosexuals, zS
hov zoo, avallable at www.state.gov]r]pa]prs]ps]zoo],o.htm, Amnesty lnternatlonal, Crincs cj
hctc, rcrspircry cj silcrrc: 1crturc crJ ill-trcctncrt bcscJ cr scxucl iJcrtity, ACT o]o16]zoo1, Chapter
(zoo1).
dlsorder as do heterosexuals.
6o
These concluslons galned acceptance among sclen-
tlsts and health professlonals ln the uS throughout the 16os, culmlnatlng ln the
abandonment of the dlagnosls of homosexuallty as a mental lllness by the Amerl can
Psychologlcal Assoclatlon ln 1,. Subsequently, the Amerlcan Psychologlcal,
Psychlatrlc, and Medlcal Assoclatlons have all stated the posltlon that reparatlve
therapy, based on the fawed assumptlon that a patlent should change hls or her
sexual orlentatlon, ls lneffectlve and ls llkely to cause harm.
61
Flsewhere, the recognltlon that varlant sexual orlentatlon ls not a dlsease evolved
more slowly. The Amerlcan Psychologlcal Assoclatlon has opposed the classlfcatlon
of homosexuallty as a dlsorder slnce 1S,
6z
whllst the psychlatrlc bodles of }apan,
kussla and Chlna dld not do so untll 1, 1 and zoo1, respectlvely. The world
health 0rganlzatlon removed homosexuallty from the lrtcrrcticrcl Clcssircticr
cj 0isccscs crJ kclctcJ hcclth Prcblcns (lC0-1o) ln 1z.
6
ln thls context, the concluslon of the Constltutlonal Court of Colombla ls apt. They
took lnto account the sclentlfc lnvestlgatlons made slnce the mlddle of twentleth
century and reports from the world health 0rganlzatlon:
"hcncscxuclity is rct c Jisccsc, rcr c hcrnjul rcrJurt, it rcprcscrts c
vcricticr cj huncr scxucl cricrtcticr. 1hcrcjcrc, thc trcJiticrcl visicrs cj
hcncscxuclity cs c Jisccsc cr cr cbrcrnclity thct nust bc rurcJ ncJirclly
crc rct crrcptcblc ir rcrtcnpcrcry plurclistir scrictics".
6
y. Pe|itica| and idee|egica| disceurses
ln addltlon to the rellglous, moral and "sclentlfc" arguments used, the questlon
of homosexuallty has also been utlllsed for polltlcal persecutlons and targetlng
polltlcal opponents. hlstory ls, lamentably, rlch ln wlth lllustratlons. The Stallnlst
purges and McCarthylsm are |ust two of the many examples. ln lmperlal kussla,
unllke western Furope, medlcal dlscourse on homosexuallty had relatlvely llttle
lnfuence ln the late nlneteenth century. homosexuallty was crlmlnallsed ln 1S,
but ln fact the Tsarlst authorltles had a relatlvely lndulgent attltude towards same-
sex practlces. The 8olshevlk revolutlon abrogated the crlmlnal leglslatlon of the
Tsarlst reglme, lncludlng the laws relatlng to same-sex relatlons between consentlng
adults. The Sovlet crlmlnal code of 1zz dld not lnclude homosexuallty as an offence.
6o. Fvelyn hooker, "The Ad|ustment of the Male 0vert homosexual", ln /currcl cj Prcjcrtivc 1crhriqucs, vol.
z1 (1,), p. z, A.C. Klnsey, w.8. Pomeroy, C.F. Martln, Scxucl 8chcvicr ir thc huncr Mclc, w.8. Saunders
Fd., Phlladelphla, 1S.
61. See Karolyn Ann hlcks, "keparatlve Therapy: whether parental attempts to change a chlld's sexual orlenta-
tlon can legally constltute chlld abuse", ln Ancrircr urivcrsity lcw kcvicw, vol. , May zooo.
6z. Fox, k.F. (1SS), Proceedlngs of the Amerlcan Psychologlcal Assoclatlon, lncorporated, for the year 1S,:
Mlnutes of the Annual meetlng of the Councll of kepresentatlves, Ancrircr Psyrhclcist, , oS-1.
6. wh0, "lC0-1c", www.who.lnt]classlflcatlons]apps]lcd]lcd1oonllne.
6. Constltutlonal Court of Colombla, }udgment ho. C-S1]S of September 1S, para. 11 (0rlglnal ln Spanlsh,
unofflclal translatlon).
however, the Stallnlst reglme assoclated homosexuallty wlth fasclsm and denounced
"pederasts" as agents of corruptlon and subverslon of capltallsm. homosexuallty
was re-crlmlnallsed ln 1,
6
uslng medlcal language to provlde sclentlfc |ustlfca-
tlon for the deportatlon of homosexuals to the 0ulag or lnternment ln psychlatrlc
establlshments.
66
The Stallnlst reglme dldn't hesltate to use the new leglslatlon
for polltlcal represslon and purges. The statement of Maxlm 0orkl "0estroy the
homosexuals and fasclsm wlll dlsappear" refected thls polltlcal lnstrumentallsa-
tlon.
6,
lronlcally, ln the unlted States, the argument agalnst homosexuallty was used
durlng the McCarthy Fra as part of the antl-communlst crusade. homosexuals were
portrayed as a threat to natlonal securlty and]or as communlst agents.
6S
ln thls
context, Presldent 0wlght 0. Flsenhower slgned Fxecutlve 0rder 1oo "Scrurity
kcquircncrts jcr Ccvcrrncrt Fnplcyncrt", z, Aprll 1, whlch declared homo-
sexuals to be "securlty rlsks" and mandated frlng all federal employees who were
deemed to be gullty of "sexual perverslon."
The sense of natlonhood and cultural relatlvlsm are often used to ob|ect to decrlm-
lnallslng homosexuallty, argulng that lt ls allen to natlonal ldentlty, culture and
values. Countrles lnvoke "natlon", "natlonal tradltlons" and "cultural speclfclty" as
the crlterlon for the unacceptablllty of homosexuallty. ln the now-overruled 1S, uS
Supreme Court declslon 8cwcrs v. hcrJwirk,
6
the ma|orlty deployed reasonlng that
mlrrored the rhetorlc used ln many Southern countrles to retaln sodomy laws. 0ne
|ustlce pronounced that the federal constltutlon dld not confer a "fundamental rlght
upon homosexuals to engage ln sodomy", fndlng the prohlbltlon of sodomy "deeply
rooted ln thls hatlon's hlstory and tradltlon". Slmllarly, ln a dlssentlng |udgment ln
0uJccr v. 1hc uritcJ kirJcn, a Cyprlot |udge on the Furopean Court of human
klghts noted that "all clvlllzed countrles untll recent years penallzed sodomy", and
foretold "publlc outcry and turmoll" lf such laws were repealed ln elther Cyprus or
horthern lreland, slnce "both countrles are rellglous mlnded and adhere to moral
standards whlch are centurles old".
,o
lf lnternatlonal human rlghts law and |urlsprudence re|ects the argument of cultural
relatlvlsm, that domestlc moral values |ustlfy the denlal or lmpalrment of an lndl-
vlduals sexual orlentatlon, the uh human klghts Commlttee generally re|ects the
6. The 1 law was revoked ln 1.
66. See: healey, 0an, hcncscxucl 0csirc ir kcvcluticrcry kussic: 1hc kculcticr cj Scxucl crJ CcrJcr 0isscrt,
unlverslty of Chlcago Press, zoo1, 0orsuch, Anne F., "homosexual 0eslre ln kevolutlonary kussla: The
kegulatlon of Sexual and 0ender 0lssent", ln /currcl cj thc histcry cj Scxuclity, volume 11, ho. , 0ctober
zooz, and 0ert hekma, harry 0osterhuls and }ames Steakley (Fdltor), Ccy Mcr crJ thc Scxucl histcry cj
thc Pclitircl lcjt, harrlngton Park Press, 1.
6,. healey, 0an, cp. rit., p. zz,.
6S. 0avld K. }ohnson, 1hc lcvcrJcr Srcrc - 1hc CclJ wcr Pcrscruticr cj Ccys crJ lcsbicrs ir thc FcJcrcl
Ccvcrrncrt, unlverslty of Chlcago Press, zoo.
6. uS Supreme Court, }udgment of o }une 1S6 8cwcrs v. hcrJwirk, ,S uS 1S6 (1S6)].
,o. 8oth horthern lreland and Cyprus remalned lntact after 0uJccr v. uk (1S1) and McJircs v. Cyprus
(1).
crlmlnallsatlon of homosexuallty on the basls of the rlght to prlvacy, lncludlng
consensual adult sexual actlvlty.
,1
. 0ecrimina|isatien and centinued crimina|isatien
The Furopean world of the Fnllghtenment had lnherlted the crlmlnal laws rooted
ln 8lbllcal passages and centurles of Chrlstlan tradltlon that mandated the death
penalty for non-procreatlve sex.
,z
The French kevolutlon broke wlth thls Furopean custom by abollshlng moral crlmes,
lncludlng sodomy, under a new Penal Code, promulgated ln 1,1. updated by
hapoleon, and spread by hls mllltary conquests, the Code was adopted throughout
Contlnental Furope. After the fall of hapoleon, most countrles repealed thelr
hapoleonlc Codes, but a few - notably France, 8elglum, Spaln and the hetherlands
- dld not re-crlmlnallse sodomy.
,
ltaly ln 1SS (the Klngdom of Two Slcllles and later
the Klngdom of haples) decrlmlnallsed consensual same-sex acts between adults,
as dld Portugal ln 1Sz (but the crlme was relntroduced ln 11z). Subsequently,
some of the new States created ln Furope between the mld-nlneteenth and early
twentleth centurles, such as ltaly and Poland, never lnstltuted a crlmlnal prohl-
bltlon of sodomy, or enacted a varlant of the hapoleonlc Code shortly after thelr
lndependence.
,
ln other reglons, few other countrles decrlmlnallsed homosexual
relatlonshlps: for example, ln }apan, ln 1SS, the government reversed lts declslon
adopted ln 1S, maklng consensual sex between men lllegal.
The modern decrlmlnallsatlon movement began ln the mld-twentleth century. The
arguments were rooted ln the soclal sclences, notably the feld of psychology.
0enmark became the frst natlon of the twentleth century to repeal lts sodomy law,
ln 1, followed by Swltzerland ln 11 and Sweden ln 1.
,
After the Second
world war, the 8rltlsh wolfenden keport of 1, and the Amerlcan Model Penal
Code, frst drafted ln 1, recommended that the crlme of sodomy be abollshed.
,6

The Amerlcan State of llllnols became the frst to adopt thls recommendatlon ln
161. 8y 1S, half of the states of the unlted States of Amerlca had followed the
lead of llllnols.
,,
ln Furope countrles followed a roughly slmllar but sllghtly more
,1. human klghts Commlttee, vlews of 1 March 1, Case of Nirhclcs 1ccrcr v. Austrclic, Communlcatlon
ho. SS]1z, para. S..
,z. See for example, Levltlcus 1S:zz.
,. Stephanle Coontz, Mcrricc, A histcry: Frcn 0bcJicrrc tc lrtincry, cr hcw lcvc CcrqucrcJ Mcrricc, Fd.
Penguln 0roup, hew ork, zoo, Chapter .
,. kobert wlntemute, "lnternatlonal Trends ln Legal kecognltlon of Same-Sex Partnershlps", ln uirripicr lcw
kcvicw, ulnnlplac unlverslty School of Law, uSA, volume z, zoo.
,. lbiJ., and hubert Kennedy, "Chapter 1: 8eglnnlngs" ln /currcl cj hcncscxuclity, volume S, ho. 1]z, 1,
pp. ,, 1.
,6. wllllam Fskrldge, "Challenglng The Apartheld 0f The Closet: establlshlng condltlons for lesblan and gay
lntlmacy, norms, and cltlzenshlp, 161-1S1" ln hcjstrc lcw kcvicw, volume z, 16.
,,. Mellnda Kane, "Soclal Movement Pollcy Success: 0ecrlmlnallzlng State Sodomy Laws, 16-1S", ln
Mcbilizcticr: Ar lrtcrrcticrcl ucrtcrly, volume S, humber , 0ctober zoo, pp. 1 and 1.
rapld tra|ectory. Czechoslovakla and hungary were the frst of thls group to abollsh
thelr sodomy laws, also ln 161.
,S
8y 1S, most of Furope on both sldes of the
lron Curtaln had decrlmlnallsed sodomy, wlth only fve countrles, the 8rltlsh Crown
0ependencles, and certaln parts of ugoslavla retalnlng thelr antl-sodomy laws.
,
lt should be noted that several countrles ln Latln Amerlca and Fast Asla elther never
had an expllclt legal prohlbltlon of sodomy or, as was the case ln }apan, Mexlco and
8razll, enacted a verslon of the hapoleonlc Code durlng the nlneteenth century.
So

hotable exceptlons, ln addltlon to those countrles mentloned ln the prevlous para-
graph, lnclude Chlna, whlch dld not repeal lts antl-sodomy statute untll 1, and
the former 8rltlsh colonles of Southeast Asla, whlch retaln thelr antl-sodomy laws
today.
S1
Most former 8rltlsh colonles of Afrlca, the Carlbbean and South Asla have also
retalned thelr antl-sodomy laws, as have all Mlddle Fastern and horth Afrlcan
natlons, save lsrael.
Sz
kegardlng the former 8rltlsh colonles ln the Carlbbean, many
lnclude ln thelr constltutlon "savlngs law" clauses
S
, whlch malntaln old colonlal
laws and vlctorlan laws, lncludlng the 1S61 provlslons of the uK's 0jjcrrcs ccirst
thc Pcrscrs Art and the 1SS Crlmlnal law amendment, proscrlblng buggery and
gross lndecency. The unlted Klngdom repealed vlctorlan laws agalnst homosex-
uallty through lts own tumultuous lnterrogatlon of them: beglnnlng wlth the law
and morallty debates that led to the wolfenden keport, followed by the leglslatlve
changes ln the 16os and human rlghts lnterventlons resultlng from lts engagement
wlth the Furopean human klghts system.
y. Mevement tewards recegnitien
The year 161 also saw the creatlon of the Mattachlne Soclety of washlngton ln the
unlted States of Amerlca, whose mlsslon to work publlcly "to equallze the status and
posltlon of the homosexual" made a sharp break wlth older "homophlle" organlsa-
tlons, whlch had eschewed publlclty.
S
Slmllar organlsatlons grew rapldly elsewhere
around the world, re-characterlslng the effort to repeal antl-sodomy laws as a part
,S. Fskerldge, Jcr. rit., p. S, Mlchael }ose Torra, "0ay klghts after the lron Curtaln", ln Flctrhcr Fcrun cj wcrlJ
Ajjcirs, volume zz:z, summer 1S, pp. , and ,6.
,. lbiJ., and Pratlma harayan, "Somewhere 0ver the kalnbow: lnternatlonal human klghts Protectlon for
Sexual Mlnorltles ln the hew Mlllennlum", ln 8cstcr urivcrsity lrtcrrcticrcl lcw /currcl, zoo6, ho.z, pp.
1 and 1,.
So. Charles P. Sherman, "The 0ebt of Modern }apanese Law to French Law", ln Cclijcrric lcw kcvicw, vol. 6,
ho. , March 11S, p. 1S, wayne Percy, cp. rit., p. So6, 0anlel 0ttosson, lC81 wcrlJ lccl wrcp up survcy,
Fd. lnternatlonal Lesblan and 0ay Assoclatlon, zoo6.
S1. 0anlel 0ttosson, lC81 wcrlJ lccl wrcp up survcy, Jcr. rit.
Sz. lbiJ., and lndlana unlverslty, 0fflce of 0verseas Study, "Cl81 kcscurrcs ir thc MiJJlc Fcst", www.lndlana.
edu]-overseas]lesblgay]mlddleeast.html.
S. See Constltutlons of 8arbados, s z6, }amalca, s z6(S), Trlnldad retalned lts savlng clause even after lt became
a republlc.
S. Fskerldge, Jcr. rit., pp. Sz1-Szz.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1,
of a broader human rlghts struggle. As early as 16 some actlvlsts were descrlblng
thelr efforts as a "gay llberatlon".
Farly on, the Furopean human rlghts system was frlendly to sexual-orlentatlon-
based clalms. ln 1S1, the Furopean Court of human klghts declared the offences
of buggery and gross lndecency ln horthern lreland to vlolate the rlght to prlvacy
under Artlcle S of the Furopean Conventlon on human klghts (FChk). Thls declslon
arose from a challenge to the law by a gay man who argued that the exlstence of the
offences ln horthern lreland made hlm llable to crlmlnal prosecutlon and lnfrlnged
on hls rlght to prlvacy. The court ruled ln thls landmark case of 0uJccr v. 1hc
uritcJ kirJcn that the "malntenance ln force of the lmpugned leglslatlon constl-
tutes a contlnulng lnterference wlth the appllcant's rlght to respect for hls prlvate
llfe (whlch lncludes hls sexual llfe)".
S
The Furopean Court declded slmllarly ln 1SS and 1 ln Ncrris v. lrclcrJ
S6
and
McJircs v. Cyprus
S,
respectlvely. 8oth States ln questlon clted strong feellngs
agalnst homosexuallty based on rellglon and clalmed that there was a legltlmate
alm ln the "protectlon of morals" for malntalnlng the laws. The Furopean Court dld
not defer to the margln of appreclatlon or the lndlvldual State practlce ln elther case
and lnstead clted the overwhelmlng practlce ln other member States of the Furopean
human rlghts system that had long decrlmlnallzed consensual sex between adults
of the same sex. The Court found no "presslng soclal need" for the malntenance of
the leglslatlon ln elther sltuatlon. ln performlng lts proportlonallty test, the Furopean
Court found that the harm resultlng from the antl-homosexual laws through the
vlolatlon of the rlght to a prlvate llfe outwelghed the "legltlmate alms" pursued by
the law ln questlon.
The Furopean Court was however unwllllng to examlne a broader scope for sexual-
orlentatlon rlghts beyond strlklng down penal laws through the rlght to prlvacy
provlslon.
SS
lt was not untll 1 that the Furopean Court expressed a broader
role for the rlght to prlvacy, ln the cases of lusti Prccr crJ 8crkctt v. 1hc uritcJ
kirJcn
S
and Snith crJ CrcJy v. uritcJ kirJcn.
o
uslng Artlcle S of the FChk,
the Court felled laws that excluded gays and lesblans from the mllltary and opened
up an lnterpretatlon of prlvacy that envlsaged gay and lesblan llfe reachlng beyond
closed doors and lnto the publlc realm. Also lmportantly ln 1, the Furopean Court
expressly affrmed "sexual orlentatlon" as a prohlblted category of dlscrlmlnatlon,
S. Furopean Court of human klghts, }udgment of zz 0ctober 1S1, Appllcatlon ho. ,z],6, para. 1.
S6. }udgment of z6 0ctober 1SS, Case of Ncrris v. lrclcrJ, Appllcatlon ho. 1oS1]S.
S,. }udgment of zz Aprll 1, Case of McJircs v. Cyprus, Appllcatlon ho. 1o,o]S.
SS. The Furopean Court of human klghts conslstently refused to pronounce on arguments of dlscrlmlnatlon
based on dlfferent ages of consent between homosexuals and heterosexuals ln the cases of 0uJccr, Ncrris,
and McJircs.
S. }udgment of z, September 1, Appllcatlons ho. 11,]6 and z,,]6.
o. }udgment of z, September 1, Appllcatlons ho. S]6 and S6]6.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. 1S
strlklng down a Portuguese court declslon that dlspossessed a father of hls custody
rlghts because he was gay.
1
To date slx countrles have enacted leglslatlon allowlng same-sex marrlage: the
hetherlands,
z
8elglum,
Spaln,
Canada,
horway
6
and South Afrlca.
,
Two of
these States dld so by order of thelr respectlve supreme courts.
S
An addltlonal 1S
countrles
and federal States of others fve countrles

1oo
recognlse under dlfferent
legal fgures (Clvll unlon, reglstered partnershlp, clvll partnershlp, clvll solldarlty
pact, etcetera) same-sex partnershlps that fall short of all the rlghts and dutles of
marrlage. The rlght of same-sex couples to adopt chlldren, or to be free of dlscrlmlna-
tlon ln the declslon to place an adopted chlld, remalns unsettled. The Furopean Court
of human klghts has ruled that a State that allows adoptlon by slngle persons may
not take that person's sexual orlentatlon lnto account arbltrarlly when conslderlng
thelr petltlon for adoptlon.
1o1
however, thls case left two questlons unanswered:
whether lt would be posslble for a State to produce a |ustlfable reason to deny a
petltlon to adopt on the grounds of sexual orlentatlon and whether States may effec-
tlvely dlscrlmlnate agalnst gays and lesblans by restrlctlng ellglblllty for adoptlon
to marrled couples, whlle not grantlng the rlght to marrlage to same-sex couples.
1oz

Flsewhere, most States of the unlted States of Amerlca allow for gay and lesblan
1. }udgment of z1 0ecember 1, Case of Sclucirc Jc Silvc Mcutc v. Pcrtucl, Appllcatlon ho. zo]6.
z. Clvll Code, Artlcle o, 8ook l, reform of zoo1.
. Clvll Code, Artlcle 1, 8ook l, Tltle v, Chapter l, reform of 1 February zoo, Mcritcur 8clc, zS February
zoo, pp. SSo-S.
. Clvll Code, Artlcle , reformed by Law 1]zoo, o }une zoo, 8clctir Jcl FstcJc, z }uly zoo.
. Clvll Marrlage Act of zo }uly zoo.
6. The Stcrtir (horweglan Parllament) approved equal marrlage ln }une zooS wlth the new laws taklng effect
from 1 }anuary zoo. The leglslatlon repeals the kcistcrcJ Pcrtrcrship Art and provldes prevlously regls-
tered partners the optlon of convertlng thelr partnershlps to marrlage.
,. Clvll unlon Act ho. 1, of zoo6], o hov zoo6.
S. kcjcrcrrc rc Scnc-Scx Mcrricc zoo] S.C.k. 6S, zoo SCC , (Canada), Fcuric crJ 8crthuys v. Miristcr
cj hcnc Ajjcirs, Case CCT z]o (South Afrlca).
. Andorra, Colombla, Croatla, Czech kepubllc, 0enmark, Flnland, France, 0ermany, hungary, lceland, lsrael,
Luxembourg, hew Zealand, Slovenla, Sweden, Swltzerland, unlted Klngdom and uruguay.
1oo. Argentlna (Autonomous Clty of 8uenos Alres , the Provlnce of ko hegro and the clty of vllla Carlos Paz),
Australla (Australlan Capltal Terrltory, Tasmanla and vlctorla), 8razll (klo de }anelro), Mexlco (Coahulla,
Mexlco 0.F.) and unlted States of Amerlca (Connectlcut, hawall, hew hampshlre, hew }ersey, vermont,
0lstrlct of Columbla, Malne, 0regon and washlngton).
1o1. }udgment of zz }anuary zooS, Case of F.8. v. Frcrrc, Appllcatlon ho. 6]oz.
1oz. Thls ls the case, for example, ln the Amerlcan state of utah, whlch prohlblts unmarrled couples from adoptlng,
and also prohlblts same-sex marrlage. utah Code Tltle o Chapter 1 Sectlon z and Tltle ,S8 Chapter 6 Sectlon
11,.
adoptlon by slngle persons or couples,
1o
and such adoptlons are allowed ln South
Afrlca,
1o
lsrael, Spaln and ln most parts of Canada and of Australla.
1o
Progress ln human rlghts based on sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty has not
been llmlted to horth Amerlca and Furope. ln the 1,os and 1Sos, local move-
ments to vlndlcate the rlghts of gays and lesblans were formed around the world.
Colombla's Mcvinicrtc pcr lc libcrcricr hcncscxucl concluded a successful
campalgn to decrlmlnallse sodomy ln 1S1. 0ther successful campalgns were waged
by local organlsatlons ln hew Zealand, lsrael and Australla.
The gay and lesblan movement was not merely focused on repeallng antl-sodomy
laws, lt lncluded other human rlghts lssues, such as non-dlscrlmlnatlon and recognl-
tlon. The end of the Cold war brought new opportunltles for human rlghts actlvlsm.
ln the decade after 11, the growth of local clvll soclety and the expanslon of the
Councll of Furope helped brlng down the sodomy laws of 1 countrles ln Fastern
Furope and of the former Sovlet unlon. 0ver the past decade, the lesblan, gay,
blsexual, and transgender (L08T) rlghts movement, as lt ls now known, has comblned
local and transnatlonal efforts to repeal the sodomy laws of Chlle, Cape verde, Fl|l,
the Marshall lslands, Mongolla, hlcaragua and the remalnder of the unlted States
of Amerlca.
1o6
ln the Amerlcas, beglnnlng ln 1, several countrles enacted prohl-
bltlons on sexual-orlentatlon dlscrlmlnatlon, by a constltutlonal amendment ln
Fcuador,
1o,
by leglslatlon ln Mexlco,
1oS
by a Supreme Court rullng ln Canada,
1o
by
a serles of Constltutlonal Court rullngs ln Colombla
11o
and by an executlve order ln
venezuela.
111
ln thls context, the adoptlon, ln }une zooS, by the 0eneral Assembly
of the 0rganlzatlon of Amerlcan States, by consensus, of lts frst kesolutlon on
"human klghts, Sexual 0rlentatlon and 0ender ldentlty" ls partlcularly relevant.
11z

1o. 0ary }. 0ates, M.v. Lee 8adgett, }ennlfer Fhrle Macomber and Kate Chambers, AJcpticr crJ Fcstcr Ccrc by
Ccy crJ lcsbicr Pcrcrts ir thc uritcJ Stctcs, Fd. The wllllams lnstltute (uCLA School of Law) ] The urban
lnstltute - washlngton, 0C, March zoo,, p. .
1o. Constltutlonal Court of South Afrlca, }udgment of 1o September zooz, Case of 0u 1cit crJ Jc vcs v. Miristcr
jcr wcljcrc crJ Pcpulcticr 0cvclcpncrt, Case CCT o]o1.
1o. Adoptlon Act of 1, part , dlvlslon 6, sectlon , wcstcrr Austrclic CcrscliJctcJ Arts.
1o6. 0anlel 0ttoson, Stctc SpcrscrcJ hcncphcbic, Fd. lnternatlonal Lesblan and 0ay Assoclatlon, Aprll zoo,,
(http:]]www.llga.org]statehomophobla]State_sponsored_homophobla_lL0A_o,.pdf.).
1o,. Constltutlon of Fcuador, Artlcle z, para. .
1oS. Federal Law to Prevent and Fllmlnate 0lscrlmlnatlon (lcy FcJcrcl pcrc Prcvcrir y Flinircr lc 0isrrinircricr|
of 11 }une zoo.
1o. Fcr v. CcrcJc, 1] z S.C.k. 1.
11o. See for example, Constltutlonal Court of Colombla: }udgments ho. T-o,], T-1o1]S, C-S1]S, C-o,],
T-z6S]oo, C-,]oz and T-o1]o.
111. kegulatlon of the Statutory law of the work (kclcncrtc Jc lc lcy 0rdrirc Jcl 1rcbcjc), ln the offlclal
|ournal (Ccrctc 0jiricl) ho. .zz of z }anuary 1.
11z. A0]kFS. z (XXXvlll-0]oS), "human klghts, Sexual 0rlentatlon and 0ender ldentlty", adopted the }une
zooS.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. zo
Flsewhere ln the world, antl-dlscrlmlnatlon laws or constltutlonal provlslons exlst
ln South Afrlca,
11
lsrael,
11
Talwan
11
and Fl|l.
116
6. 5eme 0eIinitiens
ln addresslng the lssue of sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty lt ls neces-
sary to clarlfy certaln terms and notlons. Frequently people use the terms "gay",
"lesblan", "transgendered", "transexual" ln descrlblng one's sexual orlentatlon.
The Prirriplcs cr thc Applircticr cj lrtcrrcticrcl huncr kihts lcw ir rclcticr
tc Scxucl 0ricrtcticr crJ CcrJcr lJcrtity (cyckcrtc Prirriplcs) provlde useful
defnltlons.
Accordlng to the preamble of the ogyakarta Prlnclples, scxucl cricrtcticr:
"rcjcrs] tc ccrh pcrscrs rcpcrity jcr prcjcurJ cncticrcl, cjjcrticrcl crJ
scxucl cttrcrticr tc, crJ irtinctc crJ scxucl rclcticrs with, irJiviJucls cj c
Jijjcrcrt crJcr cr thc scnc crJcr cr ncrc thcr crc crJcr."
The status of one's sexual orlentatlon establlshes the gender of the ob|ect of one's
sexual attractlon or experlences. The sexual orlentatlon of a person ls often dlvlded
ln terms of a) homosexual, descrlblng same-gender attractlon, b) heterosexual,
descrlblng opposlte-gender attractlon and c) blsexual, descrlblng both opposlte
and same-sex attractlon. These descrlptlons have thelr roots ln medlcal lnterest ln
lssues of sexuallty and sometlmes slt uneaslly wlth some advocates because they
have thelr orlglns ln a perlod ln medlcal hlstory when homosexuallty was ldentlfed
and treated as a pathologlcal lllness.
11,
The orlglns of words such as lesblan, gay and stralght, and thelr lnvolvement ln
debates about cultural relatlvlsm, have created anxletles about thelr standard
deployment ln unlted hatlons or some legal rlghts contexts. These concerns have
glven rlse to creatlon of the term "men who have sex wlth men", or MSM, to descrlbe
men who engage ln same-sex behavlours.
11S
Thls ls an attempt to create a cate-
gory that avolds the sub|ectlve clalm to a sexual ldentlty or, at least, the polltlcal
connotatlons of some labels. lnstead, MSM addresses the need for classlfcatlon
of behavlours for publlc health lnltlatlves. MSMs have been declared a vulnerable
group for hlv]Al0S preventlon.
11. Constltutlon of South Afrlca, Artlcle , para. .
11. Fqucl Fnplcyncrt 0ppcrturity Art (1z), 0crilcwitz v. Fl Al, Supreme Court of lsrael, 1.
11. www.state.gov]g]drl]rls]hrrpt]zoo,]1oo1,.htm.
116. Constltutlon of Fl|l, Artlcle S, sectlon z(a).
11,. See generally, Mlller, Allce, "Scxucl rihts wcrJs crJ thcir nccrirs: 1hc ctcwcy tc cjjcrtivc huncr rihts
wcrk cr scxucl crJ crJcr Jivcrsity", paper submltted for the ogyakarta meetlng, hovember zoo6.
11S. See uhAl0S, "men who have sex wlth men" (http:]]www.unalds.org]en]PollcyAndPractlce]KeyPopulatlons]
MenSexMen]).
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw z1
For the purpose of human rlghts protectlon, gender expresslon ls also lmportant to
acknowledge and ldentlfy. The notlon of what properly constltutes male or female
norms has been a source of human rlghts abuses agalnst lndlvlduals who do not
ft or conform to the stereotyplcal models of mascullne or femlnlne. Personal
deportment, mode of dress, mannerlsms, speech patterns, soclal behavlour and
lnteractlons, economlc lndependence of women and the absence of an opposlte-sex
partner are all features that may subvert gender expectatlons.
Accordlng to the preamble of the ogyakarta Prlnclples, crJcr iJcrtity:
"rcjcrs] tc ccrh pcrscrs Jccply jclt irtcrrcl crJ irJiviJucl cxpcricrrc cj
crJcr, whirh ncy cr ncy rct rcrrcspcrJ with thc scx cssircJ ct birth,
irrluJir thc pcrscrcl scrsc cj thc bcJy (whirh ncy irvclvc, ij jrccly
rhcscr, ncJijircticr cj bcJily cppccrcrrc cr jurrticr by ncJircl, surircl
cr cthcr nccrs| crJ cthcr cxprcssicrs cj crJcr, irrluJir Jrcss, spccrh
crJ ncrrcrisns."
A transgender person ls someone whose deeply held sense of gender ls dlfferent
from thelr physlcal characterlstlcs at the tlme of blrth. A person may be a female-to-
male transgender (FTM) ln that he has a gender ldentlty that ls predomlnantly male,
even though he was born wlth a female body. Slmllarly, a person may be male-to-
female transgender (MTF) ln that she has a gender ldentlty that ls predomlnantly
female, even though she was born wlth a male body or physlcal characterlstlcs.
A transsexual person ls one who has undergone physlcal or hormonal alteratlons
by surgery or therapy, ln order to assume new physlcal gender characterlstlcs.
Transgender and transsexual people can have any sexual orlentatlon: lt ls lmpor-
tant to dlstlngulsh the gender from the sexual actlvlty. lt wlll be later examlned, that
the advances ln "gender ldentlty" from the |urlsprudence of the Furopean Court of
human klghts are hugely premlsed on assumlng new gender through complete
allgnment of the physlcal body by surgery, hormonal alteratlons and the potentlal
for heterosexual performance (transexuallsm). The |urlsprudentlal foundatlon for
thls posltlon was rooted ln uK natlonal |urlsprudence. ln hls dlssentlng |udgment
11

ln the 8rltlsh case of Ccrbctt v. Ccrbctt, Lord }ustlce Thorpe sald:
"t]c nckc thc rhrcncscncl jcrtcr rcrrlusivc, cr cvcr Jcnircrt, sccns tc
nc pcrtirulcrly qucsticrcblc ir thc rcrtcxt cj ncrricc. Fcr it is cr irvisiblc
jccturc cj cr irJiviJucl, irrcpcblc cj pcrrcpticr cr rcistrcticr cthcr thcr
by sricrtijir tcst. lt nckcs rc rcrtributicr tc thc physiclcircl cr psyrhc-
lcircl sclj. lrJccJ ir thc rcrtcxt cj thc irstituticr cj ncrricc cs it is tcJcy
it sccns tc nc riht cs c ncttcr cj prirriplc crJ lcir tc ivc prcJcni-
rcrrc tc psyrhclcircl jcrtcrs just cs it sccn riht tc rcrry cut thc csscrticl
11. }udgment of z February 1,o, Case of Ccrbctt v. Ccrbctt (otherwlse called Ashley), para. 1, clted ln
Furopean Court of human klghts, }udgment of 11 }uly zooz, Case of l. v. 1hc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon
ho. z6So], para. 6.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. zz
csscssncrt cj crJcr ct cr shcrtly bcjcrc thc tinc cj ncrricc rcthcr thcr
ct thc tinc cj birth."
1zo
ln the Australlan case of kc kcvir, a case of valldlty of marrlage of transsexual, Mr.
}ustlce Chlsholm held:
"b]crcusc thc wcrJs ncr crJ wcncr hcvc thcir crJircry rcrtcnpcrcry
nccrir, thcrc is rc jcrnulcir scluticr tc Jctcrnirir thc scx cj cr irJi-
viJucl jcr thc purpcsc cj thc lcw cj ncrricc. 1hct is, it rcrrct bc sciJ cs
c ncttcr cj lcw thct thc qucsticr ir c pcrtirulcr rcsc will bc JctcrnircJ by
cpplyir c sirlc rritcricr, cr linitcJ list cj rritcric. 1hus it is wrcr tc scy
thct c pcrscrs scx JcpcrJs cr cry sirlc jcrtcr, surh cs rhrcncscncs
cr critcl scx, cr scnc linitcJ rcrc cj jcrtcrs, surh cs thc stctc cj thc
pcrscrs crcJs, rhrcncscncs cr critcls (whcthcr ct birth cr ct scnc
cthcr tinc|. Sinilcrly, it wculJ bc wrcr ir lcw tc scy thct thc qucsticr rcr
bc rcsclvcJ by rcjcrcrrc sclcly tc thc pcrscrs psyrhclcircl stctc, cr by
iJcrtijyir thc pcrscrs brcir scx.
1c Jctcrnirc c pcrscrs scx jcr thc lcw cj ncrricc, cll rclcvcrt ncttcrs
rccJ tc bc rcrsiJcrcJ. l Jc rct scck tc stctc c rcnplctc list cr sucst thct
cry jcrtcrs rcrcsscrily hcvc ncrc inpcrtcrrc thcr cthcrs. hcwcvcr thc
rclcvcrt ncttcrs irrluJc, ir ny cpiricr, thc pcrscrs biclcircl crJ physircl
rhcrcrtcristirs ct birth (irrluJir crcJs, critcls crJ rhrcncscncs|, thc
pcrscrs lijc cxpcricrrcs, irrluJir thc scx ir whirh hc cr shc wcs brcuht
up crJ thc pcrscrs cttituJc tc it, thc pcrscrs sclj-pcrrcpticr cs c ncr cr c
wcncr, thc cxtcrt tc whirh thc pcrscr hcs jurrticrcJ ir scricty cs c ncr cr
c wcncr, cry hcrncrcl, surircl cr cthcr ncJircl scx rc-cssirncrt trcct-
ncrts thc pcrscr hcs urJcrcrc, crJ thc rcrscqucrrcs cj surh trcctncrt,
crJ thc pcrscrs biclcircl, psyrhclcircl crJ physircl rhcrcrtcristirs ct thc
tinc cj thc ncrricc".
1z1
L08T ls an acronym for "lesblan, gay, blsexual and transgender" people. lt comblnes
the sexual orlentatlon-based ldentltles of lesblan, gay and blsexual wlth a non-
sexual orlentatlon created category, transgender. The unlted hatlons treatment
of the lssues of sexual orlentatlon, gender ldentlty and gender expresslon have
also lumped all these questlons for treatment under the banner of sexual mlnorl-
tles. Professor Allce Mlller oplnes that though thls umbrella term has been used by
uh experts and mechanlsms to deal wlth lssues of dlscrlmlnatlon, excluslon and
1zo. }udgment of z February 1,o.
1z1. }udgment of 1z 0ctober zoo1, Famlly Court of Australla - At Sldney, Flle ho. SS16 0F 1, zoo1] Fam CA
1o,, para. zS.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw z
stlgmatlsatlon, lt ls unclear what groups are lncluded as sexual mlnorltles and how
the status ls determlned.
1zz
She notes that though thls categorlsatlon ls helpful for
glvlng promlnence to the lssues, lt may be a troublesome "shorthand" ln terms of
dellneatlng categorles of human rlghts abuses concernlng sexuallty and gender.
1zz. Allce Mlller further notes: "First, it is urrlccr cxcrtly whc is rcvcrcJ by thc tcrn crJ rcrtcsts crJ rcnpcti-
ticrs inncJictcly crisc cvcr whc jits urJcr thc unbrcllc (with scx wcrkcrs clbcwir lcsbicrs crJ cys jcr
irrlusicr|, cs wcll cs whc hcs ncst crtitlcncrt tc "nircrity" stctus. ScrcrJ, thc rlubbir tccthcr cj thc
Jispcrctc rcups nckcs it cppccr thct thcy cll sujjcr jrcn thc scnc kirJ cj Jisrrinircticr cr cbusc--crJ
thcrcjcrc thct thc scnc kirJ cj rcncJics will sujjirc jcr cll. 1hc cnriun-cthcrun cjjcrt thus lccvcs it
urrlccr whct spcrijir cspcrts cj thc lcws cr pclirics crc urJcr rcvicw jcr thcir cbusivc cr Jisrrinirctcry
cjjcrt. Chcllcrir rrinirclizcticr cj scx wcrk cr rcjcrn cj prcstituticr lcws is c vcry Jijjcrcrt rcspcrsc
thcr crcrtir rcr-Jisrrinircticr prctcrticrs jcr Jisrrinircticr bcscJ cr crJcr iJcrtity cr cxprcssicr"
(Alirc Millcr, "Sexual rlghts words and thelr meanlngs:..", Jcr. rit.).
"1hcrc is cr irscpcrcblc rcrrcrticr tc rcspcrt crJ
ucrcrtcc huncr rihts crJ thc prirriplc cj cquclity
crJ rcr-Jisrrinircticr. Stctcs crc cblicJ tc rcspcrt
crJ ucrcrtcc thc jull crJ jrcc cxcrrisc cj rihts crJ
jrccJcns withcut cry Jisrrinircticr. Ncr-rcnplicrrc
by thc Stctc with thc crcrcl cblicticr tc rcspcrt
crJ ucrcrtcc huncr rihts, cwir tc cry Jisrrini-
rctcry trcctncrt, ivcs risc tc its irtcrrcticrcl
rcspcrsibility".
-lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts
1z
tt. feundatiens in tnternatiena| and Cemparative
Pub|ic Law
All human belngs are persons before the law, regardless of thelr sexual orlentatlon
or gender ldentlty, entltled to freedoms derlvlng from the lnherent dlgnlty of the
human person: equallty before the law, non-dlscrlmlnatlon and equal protectlon
of the law.
:. Re|atienship between nen-discriminatien and the right te be
equa| beIere the |aw
The prlnclple of non-dlscrlmlnatlon
1z
and the rlght to be equal before the law
1z
are
unlversally recognlsed and protected under lnternatlonal law. The uh human klghts
Commlttee declares that:
1z. Advlsory 0plnlon 0C-1S]o, /uriJircl CcrJiticr crJ kihts cj thc urJcruncrtcJ Mircrts, of 1, September
zoo, Serles A ho. 1S, para. S.
1z. Artlcles 1 () and of the unlted hatlons Charter, Artlcle , of the unlversal 0eclaratlon of human klghts,
Artlcles z, (1) and z6 of the lnternatlonal Covenant on Clvll and Polltlcal klghts (lCCPk), Artlcle z of the
lnternatlonal Covenant on Fconomlc, Soclal and Cultural klghts, Artlcle z of the Conventlon of the klghts
of the Chlld, Artlcle , of the lnternatlonal Conventlon on the Protectlon of the klghts of All Mlgrant workers
and Members of Thelr Famllles, Artlcle of the Conventlon on the klghts of Persons wlth 0lsabllltles, Artlcle
1 of the Furopean Conventlon on human klghts, Protocol ho. 1z of the Furopean Conventlon on human
klghts, Artlcle z of the Afrlcan Charter on human and Peoples' klghts, Artlcle of the Afrlcan Charter on the
klghts and welfare of the Chlld, Artlcle ll of the Amerlcan 0eclaratlon of the klghts and 0utles of Man, Artlcle
1 of the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts, Artlcles and 11 of the Arab Charter on human klghts, and
Artlcle z1 of the Charter of Fundamental klghts of the Furopean unlon.
1z. Artlcle , of the unlversal 0eclaratlon of human klghts, Artlcle z6 of the lCCPk, Artlcle of the Afrlcan Charter
on human and Peoples' klghts, Artlcle ll of the Amerlcan 0eclaratlon of the klghts and 0utles of Man, Artlcle
z of the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts, Protocol ho. 1z of the Furopean Conventlon on human
klghts, Artlcle 11 of the Arab Charter on human klghts, and Artlcle zo of the Charter of Fundamental klghts
of the Furopean unlon.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. z6
"Ncr-Jisrrinircticr, tccthcr with cquclity bcjcrc thc lcw crJ cqucl prctcr-
ticr cj thc lcw withcut cry Jisrrinircticr, rcrstitutc c bcsir crJ crcrcl
prirriplc rclctir tc thc prctcrticr cj huncr rihts."
1z6
The close and lnterdependent relatlonshlp between the prlnclple of non-dlscrlm-
lnatlon and the rlght to equallty before the law ls evldenced by Artlcle z6 of the
lrtcrrcticrcl Ccvcrcrt cr Civil crJ Pclitircl kihts (lCCPk), whlch states that "a]ll
persons are equal before the law and are entltled wlthout any dlscrlmlnatlon to
the equal protectlon of the law. .] T]he law shall prohlblt any dlscrlmlnatlon and
guarantee to all persons equal and effectlve protectlon agalnst dlscrlmlnatlon on
any ground such as race, colour, sex, language, rellglon, polltlcal or other oplnlon,
natlonal or soclal orlgln, property, blrth, or other status."
1z,
z. 5cepe and reach eI the princip|e eI nen-discriminatien and the
right te be equa| beIere the |aw
The prlnclple of non-dlscrlmlnatlon and the rlght to be equal before the law requlres
that the State not only protect people from dlscrlmlnatlon from State agents but
also from prlvate entltles and persons. Accordlng to the human klghts Commlttee,
non-dlscrlmlnatlon lmplles the prohlbltlon of "dlscrlmlnatlon ln law or ln fact ln any
feld regulated and protected by publlc authorltles".
1zS
To glve effect to the prlnclple of non-dlscrlmlnatlon and the rlght to be equal before
the law, the human klghts Commlttee has polnted out that "the term 'dlscrlmlnatlon'
..] should be understood to lmply any dlstlnctlon, excluslon, restrlctlon or prefer-
ence whlch ls based on any ground such as race, colour, sex, language, rellglon,
polltlcal or other oplnlon, natlonal or soclal orlgln, property, blrth or other status,
and whlch has the purpose or effect of nulllfylng or lmpalrlng the recognltlon, en|oy-
ment or exerclse by all persons, on an equal footlng, of all rlghts and freedoms".
1z

The Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and People's klghts
1o
and the Furopean Court
of human klghts
11
have adopted a slmllar approach. The lnter-Amerlcan Court of
human klghts, for lts part, has stated that "l]n the amblt of the lnternatlonal Law
of human klghts, ..] whlch permeates lts whole rcrpus juris, ls ..] the prlnclple of
equallty and non-dlscrlmlnatlon. .] 0]lscrlmlnatlon ls defned, essentlally as any
dlstlnctlon, excluslon, restrlctlon or llmltatlon, or prlvllege, to the detrlment of the
human rlghts enshrlned thereln. The prohlbltlon of dlscrlmlnatlon comprlses both
1z6. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc.18, Ncr-Jisrrinircticr, para. 1.
1z,. lCCPk, Artlcle z6.
1zS. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc.18, Ncr-Jisrrinircticr, para. 1z.
1z. lbiJ., para. ,.
1o. See irtcr clic: lccl kcscurrcs FcurJcticr v. Zcnbic, Communlcatlon z11]S (, May zooo), paras. 6, ,o
and ftn. .
11. See irtcr clic: }udgment of z }uly 16S, Case of Ccrtcir Aspcrts cj thc lcws cr thc usc cj lcruccs ir
FJurcticr ir 8cliun, Appllcatlon ho 1,]6z, 16,,]6z, 161]6z, 1,6]6, 1]6, z1z6]6.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw z,
the totallty of those rlghts, at substantlve level, as well as the condltlons of thelr
exerclse, at procedural level."
1z
hon-dlscrlmlnatlon and equallty before the law also entalls posltlve obllgatlons as
underllned by the human klghts Commlttee:
"thc pcsitivc cblicticrs cr Stctcs Pcrtics tc crsurc Ccvcrcrt rihts will
crly bc jully JisrhcrcJ ij irJiviJucls crc prctcrtcJ by thc Stctc ..] 1hcrc
ncy bc rirrunstcrrcs ir whirh c jcilurc tc crsurc Ccvcrcrt rihts cs
rcquircJ by crtirlc 2 wculJ ivc risc tc viclcticrs by Stctcs Pcrtics cj thcsc
rihts, cs c rcsult cj Stctcs Pcrtics pcrnittir cr jcilir tc tckc cpprcprictc
nccsurcs cr tc cxcrrisc Juc Jilicrrc tc prcvcrt, purish, irvcstictc cr
rcJrcss thc hcrn rcuscJ by surh crts by privctc pcrscrs cr crtitics. Stctcs
crc rcnirJcJ cj thc irtcrrclcticrship bctwccr thc pcsitivc cblicticrs
inpcscJ urJcr crtirlc 2 crJ thc rccJ tc prcviJc cjjcrtivc rcncJics ir thc
cvcrt cj brccrh urJcr crtirlc 2, pcrcrcph ."
1
Concernlng the questlon of non-dlscrlmlnatlon and mlnorltles, the human klghts
Commlttee has outllned that the entltlement to en|oy the rlghts protected by the
lCCPk (Artlcle z.1) wlthout dlscrlmlnatlon "applles to all lndlvlduals wlthln the terrl-
tory or under the |urlsdlctlon of the State whether or not those persons belong to a
mlnorlty. ln addltlon, there ls a dlstlnct rlght provlded under Artlcle z6 for equallty
before the law, equal protectlon of the law, and non-dlscrlmlnatlon ln respect of
rlghts granted and obllgatlons lmposed by the States. lt governs the exerclse of all
rlghts, whether protected under the Covenant or not, whlch the State party confers
by law on lndlvlduals wlthln lts terrltory or under lts |urlsdlctlon, lrrespectlve of
whether they belong to the mlnorltles speclfed ln Artlcle z, or not."
1
The human klghts Commlttee has consldered that, although the rlghts to non-
dlscrlmlnatlon and to be equal before the law (Artlcle z6 of the lCCPk) have not
been llsted among the non-derogable provlslons ln Artlcle (z) of the lCCPk, "there
are elements or dlmenslons of the rlght to non-dlscrlmlnatlon that cannot be dero-
gated from ln any clrcumstances".
1
The lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts goes
further, concludlng that, "the prlnclple of equallty before the law, equal protec-
tlon before the law and non-dlscrlmlnatlon belongs to jus rccrs, because the
whole legal structure of natlonal and lnternatlonal publlc order rests on lt and lt ls
a fundamental prlnclple that permeates all laws. howadays, no legal act that ls ln
conflct wlth thls fundamental prlnclple ls acceptable. 0lscrlmlnatory treatment of
any person, owlng to gender, race, colour, language, rellglon or bellef, polltlcal or
1z. Advlsory 0plnlon ho. 0C-1S]o, Jcr. rit., para. .
1. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 1, 1hc Ncturc cj thc Ccrcrcl lccl 0blicticr lnpcscJ
cr Stctcs Pcrtics tc thc Ccvcrcrt, para. S.
1. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2, kihts cj nircritics, (Artirlc 2;|, para. .
1. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2p, Stctcs cj Fncrcrry, (Artirlc |, para. S.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. zS
other oplnlon, natlonal, ethnlc or soclal orlgln, natlonallty, age, economlc sltuatlon,
property, clvll status, blrth or any other status ls unacceptable.
y. ken-discriminatien and the right eI equa|ity beIere the |aw
The prlnclple of non-dlscrlmlnatlon and the rlght of equallty before the law does not
preclude dlfferentlal treatment and dlstlnctlons for certaln categorles of lndlvlduals,
vls--vls certaln rlghts and freedom, such as mlnors, the lndlgenous, allens, non-
cltlzens etcetera.
16
As the human klghts Commlttee has polnted out, "t]he rlght to
equallty before the law and to equal protectlon of the law wlthout any dlscrlmlnatlon
does not make all dlfferences of treatment dlscrlmlnatory"
1,
and "t]he en|oyment
of rlghts and freedoms on an equal footlng, however, does not mean ldentlcal treat-
ment ln every lnstance".
1S
At the same tlme dlfferentlal treatment ls only acceptable
lf lt ls founded on reasonable and ob|ectlve crlterla.
1
lt must have a legltlmate
purpose.
1o
The lnter-Amerlcan Court has descrlbed lts formula for dlscernlng what lt has oplned
amenable to protectlon: "t]here may well exlst certaln factual lnequalltles that mlght
legltlmately glve rlse to lnequalltles ln legal treatment that do not vlolate prlnclples
of |ustlce. They may ln fact be lnstrumental ln achlevlng |ustlce or ln protectlng those
who fnd themselves ln a weak legal posltlon .] lt follows that there would be no
dlscrlmlnatlon ln dlfferences ln treatment of lndlvlduals by a State when the clas-
slfcatlons selected are based on substantlal factual dlfferences and there exlsts a
reasonable relatlonshlp of proportlonallty between these dlfferences and the alms
of the legal rule under revlew."
11
The lnter-Amerlcan Court has emphaslsed that a
"dlstlnctlon that lacks ob|ectlve and reasonable |ustlfcatlon ls dlscrlmlnatory"
1z
and
has polnted out that, when lt ls necessary to restrlct a rlght, the restrlctlon should
be proportlonate to thls purpose.
1
16. See for example Artlcles 1o (), 1, z of the lCCPk.
1,. vlews of Aprll 1S,, Case of S. w. M. 8rccks v. thc NcthcrlcrJs, Communlcatlon ho. 1,z]1S, para. 1, ln
uh document Supp. ho. o (A]z]o), annex vlll.8,. See also, among others, vlews of Aprll 1S,, Case of
Zwccr-Jc-vrics v. 1hc NcthcrlcrJs, Communlcatlon ho. 1Sz]1S, vlews of Aprll 1S, Case of lbrchinc
Cucyc crJ cthcrs v. Frcrrc, Communlcatlon ho. 16]1S, and vlews of 1 }uly 1, Case of Alirc Sinurck
v. 1hc Czcrh kcpublir, Communlcatlon ho. 16]1z.
1S. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 18, Ncr-Jisrrinircticr, para. S.
1. lbiJ., para. 1.
1o. lbiJ.
11. Advlsory 0plnlon 0C-]S, PrcpcscJ AncrJncrts cj thc Ncturclizcticr Prcvisicrs cj thc Ccrstituticr cj
Ccstc kirc, of 1 }anuary 1S, Serles A ho. , paras. 6-,.
1z. }udgment of z }une zoo, Case of ctcnc v. Nircrcuc, Serles C ho. 1z,, para. 1S.
1. lbiJ., para. zo6.
. ken-discriminatien, equa|ity beIere the |aw and sexua|
There ls a radlcal posltlvlst assertlon that no protectlon of "sexual orlentatlon" or
"gender ldentlty" exlsts ln lnternatlonal human rlghts law, slnce these categorles are
not speclfcally enumerated ln the core lnternatlonal human rlghts treatles. however,
lnternatlonal lnstruments were not meant to be exhaustlve ln thelr enumeratlon
of status and the reference to "or other status" ls the clearest lndlcatlon of the
lntentlon to encompass protectlon for unnamed categorles. The acceptance of a non-
dlscrlmlnatlon norm ln lnternatlonal law therefore admlts an lnherent openness to
categorles of protectlon that were unnamed and the genera of "sexual orlentatlon"
and "gender ldentlty", have found categorles for clalms.
kegardlng Artlcle z6 of the lCCPk, on equallty before the law and rlght to be free
from dlscrlmlnatlon, the absence of "sexual orlentatlon" and "gender ldentlty" as
expressly stated categorles of non-dlscrlmlnatlon, does not exclude them from the
lntended protectlon of thls artlcle. The lncluslon of an "other status" category by
the drafters, clearly contemplated grounds of dlscrlmlnatlon that were elther not
llsted or that would evolve ln soclety. 0eneral Comment 1S of the human klghts
Commlttee explalns that Artlcle z6 of the lCCPk ls free standlng and ls premlsed on
ensurlng equallty before the law.
1
ln order to ensure protectlon lt ls an emerglng trend ln new human rlghts lnstru-
ments and standards to lncorporate "sexual orlentatlon" or "gender ldentlty" ln
the prohlblted grounds of dlscrlmlnatlon. lndeed, the uh 0eneral Assembly have
urged all States to ensure the effectlve protectlon of the rlght to llfe and to lnvestl-
gate promptly and thoroughly all kllllngs commltted for any dlscrlmlnatory reason,
lncludlng sexual orlentatlon.
1
The Parllamentary Assembly of the Councll of Furope
has adopted several resolutlons on the questlon of dlscrlmlnatlon on sexual orlenta-
tlon and gender ldentlty (S00l) grounds.
16
kecently, the 0eneral Assembly of the
0rganlzatlon of Amerlcan States have adopted lts frst resolutlon on human klghts,
Sexual 0rlentatlon and 0ender ldentlty.
1,
ln addltlon, new lnternatlonal lnstruments
1. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 18, Ncr-Jisrrinircticr, para. 1z.
1. See kesolutlons on "Fxtra|udlclal, summary or arbltrary executlons" ho. 61]1, of 1 0ecember zoo6, ho.
]1, of zo 0ecember zoo and ho. ,]z1 of 1S 0ecember zooz.
16. See irtcr clic: kecommendatlon z (1S1) 1, on Jisrrinircticr ccirst hcncscxucls, adopted the 1 0ctober
1S1, kecommendatlon 1,o (zooo) of the Parllamentary Assembly on situcticr cj cys crJ lcsbicrs
crJ thcir pcrtrcrs ir rcspcrt cj csylun crJ innircticr ir thc ncnbcr Stctcs cj thc Ccurril cj Furcpc,
kecommendatlon 1, (zooo) of the Parllamentary Assembly on situcticr cj lcsbicrs crJ cys ir Ccurril
cj Furcpc ncnbcr Stctcs, kecommendatlon 16 (zoo) of the Parllamentary Assembly on lcsbicrs crJ
cys ir spcrt.
1,. kesolutlon A0]kFS. z (XXXvlll-0]oS) of }une zooS.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. o
have expllcltly lntegrated sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty ln the llst of prohlb-
lted grounds of dlscrlmlnatlon.
1S
Leglslatlve work wlthln the Furopean unlon has taken a number of leglslatlve steps
to combat dlscrlmlnatlon based on sexual orlentatlon. Artlcle 1 of the 1, 1rccty
cj AnstcrJcn empowered Member States of the Furopean Communlty to "take
approprlate actlon to combat dlscrlmlnatlon based on sex, raclal or ethnlc orlgln,
rellglon or bellef, dlsablllty, age or sexual orlentatlon".
1
Thls led to the Fmployment
0lrectlve of zooo
1o
that obllged all member States to lntroduce leglslatlon bannlng
dlscrlmlnatlon ln employment on a number of grounds, lncludlng sexual orlentatlon,
by 0ecember zoo. 0lrectlve zoo]S]FC of the Furopean Parllament
11
llsted sexual
orlentatlon among the prohlblted grounds for dlscrlmlnatlon. Staff kegulatlons of
offclals for the Furopean Communltles provldes: "o]ffclals shall be entltled to equal
treatment under these Staff kegulatlons wlthout reference, dlrect or lndlrect, to .]
sex or sexual orlentatlon, wlthout pre|udlce to the relevant provlslons requlrlng a
speclfc marltal status".
1z
The Furcpccr Arrcst wcrrcrt
1
preamble states, "t]hls
Framework 0eclslon respects fundamental rlghts and observes the prlnclples recog-
nlzed by Artlcle 6 of the Treaty on Furopean unlon and refected ln the Charter of
Fundamental klghts of the Furopean unlon, ln partlcular Chapter vl thereof. hothlng
ln thls Framework 0eclslon may be lnterpreted as prohlbltlng refusal to surrender a
person for whom a Furopean arrest warrant has been lssued when there are reasons
to belleve, on the basls of ob|ectlve elements, that the sald arrest warrant has been
lssued for the purpose of prosecutlng or punlshlng a person on the grounds of hls or
her .] sexual orlentatlon".
1
ln the Chcrtcr cj FurJcncrtcl kihts cj thc Furcpccr
uricr,
1
Artlcle z1 (1) on "hon-dlscrlmlnatlon" states that, "dlscrlmlnatlon based
on any ground such as sex, race, colour, ethnlc or soclal orlgln, genetlc features,
language, rellglon or bellef, polltlcal or any other oplnlon, membershlp of a natlonal
1S. See irtcr clic: the Prlnclples and 8est Practlces on the Protectlon of Persons 0eprlved of Llberty ln the
Amerlcas, approved by the lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts ln zooS, the lbero-Amerlcan
Conventlon on oung People's klghts (entered lnto force ln zooS), Charter of Fundamental klghts of the
Furopean unlon (Artlcle z1.1), and the Councll Framework 0eclslon on the Furopean arrest warrant and the
surrender procedures between Member States, adopted by the Councll of the Furopean unlon on 1 }une
zooz.
1. See http:]]europa.eu.lnt]eur-lex]en]treatles]dat]amsterdam.html#ooo1o1ooo1
1o. Councll 0lrectlve zooo],S]FCof z, hovember zooo cstcblishir c crcrcl jrcncwcrk jcr cqucl
trcctncrt ir cnplcyncrt crJ crrupcticr. See http:]]europa.eu.lnt]eur-lex]prl]en]o|]dat]zooo]l_o]
l_ozooo1zozenoo16oozz.pdf
11. 0lrectlve zoo]S]FC of the Furopean Parllament and of the Councll, of z Aprll zoo, on thc riht cj
ritizcrs cj thc uricr crJ thcir jcnily ncnbcrs tc ncvc crJ rcsiJc jrccly withir thc tcrritcry cj thc Mcnbcr
Stctcs.
1z. Councll kegulatlon (FC, FCSC, Furatom) ho ,S1]S of , Aprll 1S (0} 1S L 11, p. , 'the Staff kegulatlons,"
Artlcle 1a (1)).
1. Ccurril Frcncwcrk 0crisicr cr thc Furcpccr crrcst wcrrcrt crJ thc surrcrJcr prcrcJurcs bctwccr Mcnbcr
Stctcs, adopted by the Councll of the Furopean unlon on 1 }une zooz.
1. Preamble, para. 1z.
1. As slgned and proclalmed by the Presldents of the Furopean Parllament, the Councll and the Commlsslon
at the Furopean Councll meetlng ln hlce on , 0ecember zooo.
mlnorlty, property, blrth, dlsablllty, age or sexual orlentatlon shall be prohlblted".
These lnstruments cement the norms set fourth ln the Furcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr
huncr kihts and mandates States wlshlng to |oln the Furopean unlon to lntroduce
leglslatlon bannlng dlscrlmlnatlon ln employment based on sexual orlentatlon. ln
addltlon, lt overwhelmlngly relnforces antl-dlscrlmlnatlon based on sexual orlenta-
tlon wlthln the Furopean human rlghts system.
There ls also progresslve leglslatlon ln the lnter-Amerlcan human rlghts system. The
Prirriplcs crJ 8cst Prcrtircs cr thc Prctcrticr cj Pcrscrs 0cprivcJ cj libcrty ir thc
Ancrircs, adopted by the lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts ln March
zooS, states, "u]nder no clrcumstances shall persons deprlved of llberty be dlscrlml-
nated agalnst for reasons of .] sexual orlentatlon".
16
The ArJccr Chcrtcr jcr thc
Prcncticr crJ Prctcrticr cj huncr kihts
1,
lncludes sexual orlentatlon on the llst
of prohlblted grounds for dlscrlmlnatlon. The lbcrc-Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr cr cur
Pccplcs kihts, adopted ln zoo and entered lnto force ln zooS, lncludes sexual
orlentatlon ln the prohlblted grounds of dlscrlmlnatlon and protects the rlght of the
young people to have thelr own ldentlty and personallty, lncludlng thelr sexual orlen-
tatlon.
1S
0urlng the preparatory process for the wcrlJ Ccrjcrcrrc ccirst kcrisn,
kcricl 0isrrinircticr, Xcrcphcbic crJ kclctcJ lrtclcrcrrc (0urban, zoo1), the
Amerlcan States adopted a 0eclaratlon and Plan of Actlon on -, 0ecember zooo ln
Santlago, Chlle, whlch reaffrmed the prohlbltlon of dlscrlmlnatlon based on sexual
orlentatlon grounds and urged States "to glve prlorlty to promotlng and protectlng
the full and equal en|oyment by women and men of all human rlghts and funda-
mental freedoms wlthout dlstlnctlon of any klnd such as] sexual orlentatlon".
1
The evolutlon of lnternatlonal refugee law on has been lllustratlve ln constructlng
"sexual orlentatlon" as a protected category ln lnternatlonal law. Sexual orlentatlon
has been lncreaslngly used as a basls to fnd a "partlcular soclal group" permls-
slble for protectlon under refugee law.
16o
Professor }ames C. hathaway has proposed
the lnter-relatlonshlp between the fve recognlsed grounds of persecutlon and the
notlon of clvll and polltlcal rlghts, and the ratlonale for dlscernlng categorles of
protectlon:
"1hc ncJcrr rcjucc Jcjiriticr cvc vcirc tc this prcnisc by ncvir
cwcy jrcn prctcrticr cr thc bcsis cj rcncJ, ncrirclizcJ rcups, crJ
tcwcrJ c ncrc crcrir jcrnulcticr cj thc ncnbcrship prirriplc. Civcr thc
prcvcilir princry cj thc rivil crJ pclitircl pcrcJin cj huncr rihts, it wcs
16. Prlnclple ll Fquclity crJ rcr-Jisrrinircticr.
1,. Artlcle 1o of the Andean Communlty (lntegrated by 8ollvla, Colombla, Fcuador, Peru and venezuela) have
adopted on z6 }uly zooz the Andean Charter for the promotlon and Protectlon of human klghts (slgned by
the Presldents of 8ollvla, Colombla, Fcuador, Peru and venezuela).
1S. Artlcles ("Prlnclple of non-dlscrlmlnatlon") and 1 (1) ("klght to the ldentlty and personallty") respectlvely
of the lbcrc-Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr cr cur Pccplcs kihts.
1. See uh 0ocument wCk]kC0hF]SAhT]zooo]L.1]kev. of zo 0ecember zooo, para. 1.
16o. See generally, Chapter vlll on Asylum and kefuge.
rcrtcxtuclly lcircl thct ncrirclizcticr shculJ bc JcjircJ by rcjcrcrrc
tc rcrns cj rcr-Jisrrinircticr: c rcjucc wcs JcjircJ cs c pcrscr ct risk
cj scricus hcrn jcr rccscrs cj rcrc, rcliicr, rcticrclity, ncnbcrship cj c
pcrtirulcr scricl rcup, cr pclitircl cpiricr. 1hc rcticrclc jcr this linitcticr
wcs rct thct cthcr pcrscrs wcrc lcss ct risk, but wcs rcthcr thct, ct lccst
ir thc rcrtcxt cj thc histcrircl ncncrt, pcrscrs cjjcrtcJ by thcsc jcrns
cj jurJcncrtcl scric-pclitircl Jisjrcrrhiscncrt wcrc lcss likcly tc bc ir c
pcsiticr tc scck cjjcrtivc rcJrcss jrcn withir thc Stctc".
161
.: 1he Uk Buman Rights 1reaty edies and Uk 5pecia| Precedures
en Buman Rights
The uh human klghts Treaty 8odles have dlscerned sexual orlentatlon as a category
for protectlon agalnst dlscrlmlnatlon and equallty before the law.
The human klghts Commlttee has affrmed that the reference to "equal and effectlve
protectlon agalnst dlscrlmlnatlon on any ground such as race, colour, sex, language,
rellglon, polltlcal or other oplnlon, natlonal or soclal orlgln, property, blrth or other
status" ln Artlcle z6 of the lCCPk lncludes dlscrlmlnatlon on grounds of sexual
orlentatlon.
16z
The Commlttee on Fconomlc, Soclal and Cultural klghts had stated that, "b]y vlrtue
of artlcle z.z and artlcle the lnternatlonal Covenant on Fconomlc, Soclal and
Cultural klghts] proscrlbes any dlscrlmlnatlon ln access to health care and underlylng
determlnants of health, as well as to means and entltlements for thelr procurement,
on the grounds of .] health status (lncludlng hlv]Al0S), sexual orlentatlon .]
whlch has the lntentlon or effect of nulllfylng or lmpalrlng the equal en|oyment or
exerclse of the rlght to health".
16
The Commlttee Agalnst Torture has consldered that the sexual orlentatlon ls one
of the prohlblted grounds lncluded ln the prlnclple of non-dlscrlmlnatlon.
16
The
Commlttee on the klghts of the Chlld has llsted sexual orlentatlon among the prohlb-
lted grounds of dlscrlmlnatlon ln lts 0eneral Comments regardlng adolescent health,
hlv]Al0S and the rlghts of the chlld.
16
161. }ames C hathaway, 1hc lcw cj kcjucc Stctus, 8utterworth's, Toronto, 11, p. 16.
16z. human klghts Commlttee: vlews of 1 March 1, Case of Nirhclcs 1ccrcr v. Austrclic, Communlcatlon
ho. SS]1z, paras. S.z-S.,. See also: vlews of 6 August zoo, Case of FJwcrJ cur v. Austrclic,
Communlcatlon ho. 1]zooo, para. 1o., and vlews of o March zoo,, Case of X v. Cclcnbic, Communlcatlon
ho. 161]zoo, para. ,.z.
16. Commlttee on Fconomlc, Soclal and Cultural klghts, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 1: 1hc riht tc thc hihcst
cttcircblc stcrJcrJ cj hcclth (Artirlc 12|, para. 1S. See also, Commlttee on Fconomlc, Soclal and Cultural
klghts, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 1: 1hc riht tc wctcr, para. 1.
16. Commlttee Agalnst Torture, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2: lnplcncrtcticr cj Artirlc 2 by Stctcs pcrtics, paras.
z1 & zz.
16. Commlttee on the klghts of the Chlld, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. : AJclcsrcrt hcclth, para. 6 and Ccrcrcl
Ccnncrt Nc. , hlv/Al0S crJ thc rihts cj thc rhilJ., para. S.
}urlsprudence of the human klghts Commlttee has progresslvely become more open
to uslng dlscrlmlnatlon, based on sexual orlentatlon, under Artlcle z6 of the lCCPk
as 'other status'. Prevlously lt had refralned from uslng Artlcle z6, when lt could rule
on dlscrlmlnatlon under Artlcle z.1 under en|oyment of rlghts wlthout dlscrlmlna-
tlon. ln the 1 case of 1ccrcr v. Austrclic,
166
the human klghts Commlttee held
that laws crlmlnallslng homosexuallty constltuted an unlawful lnterference wlth
the rlght to prlvacy, protected and guaranteed by Artlcle 1, of the lCCPk, and the
guarantee to en|oy the rlght under Artlcle z.1. Toonen was a gay Australlan cltlzen,
resldent ln the State of Tasmanla. he argued that sectlons 1zz
16,
and 1z
16S
of the
Tasmanla Crlmlnal Code charglng unnatural sexual lntercourse and lndecent prac-
tlce between males vlolated hls rlghts: not to be dlscrlmlnated (Artlcle z(1) of the
lCCPk), to prlvacy (Artlcle 1, of the lCCPk) and to equal protectlon under the law
wlthout any dlscrlmlnatlon (Artlcle z6 of the lCCPk). The Commlttee found a vlola-
tlon of Artlcle z(1) and 1,(1) but dld not conslder lt necessary to conslder a vlolatlon
of the non-dlscrlmlnatlon provlslon of Artlcle z6. The Commlttee declded that the
en|oyment of the rlght to prlvacy was guaranteed under Artlcle z(1) of the lCCPk and
lnterpreted "sex" ln Artlcle z(1) to lnclude "sexual orlentatlon". 0n the questlon of
whether there was dlscrlmlnatlon, the Commlttee concluded:
"t]hc Stctc pcrty hcs scuht thc Ccnnittccs uiJcrrc cs tc whcthcr scxucl
cricrtcticr ncy bc rcrsiJcrcJ cr cthcr stctus jcr thc purpcscs cj crtirlc
26. 1hc scnc issuc rculJ crisc urJcr crtirlc 2, pcrcrcph 1, cj thc Ccvcrcrt.
1hc Ccnnittcc rcrjircs itsclj tc rctir, hcwcvcr, thct ir its vicw thc rcjcr-
crrc tc scx ir crtirlcs 2, pcrcrcph 1, crJ 26 is tc bc tckcr cs irrluJir
scxucl cricrtcticr".
16
ln assesslng the reasonableness of the retentlon of the laws, the Commlttee re|ected
the Australlan arguments that moral lssues were purely a matter of domestlc
concern. The Commlttee noted the fact that Tasmanla was the only Australlan
State that retalned buggery laws and that the State Party had conceded both that
a reasonable level of tolerance exlsted towards homosexuallty throughout the rest
of Australla and the lack of "reasonable and ob|ectlve crlterla" of the contended
provlslons of the Tasmanla crlmlnal code.
lt has been argued that the use of the "other status" provlslon under Artlcles z(1) and
z6 of the lCCPk would have been more satlsfylng, lnstead of an lnterpretatlon that
166. vlews of 1 March 1, Communlcatlon ho. SS]1z, Case of Nirhclcs 1ccrcr v. Austrclic, uh 0oc.
CCPk]C]o]0]SS]1z of Aprll 1.
16,. Sectlon 1zz stated that: "Any person who: a) has sexual lntercourse wlth any person agalnst the order of
nature ..] c) consents to a male person havlng sexual lntercourse wlth hlm or her agalnst the order of nature
ls gullty of a crlme".
16S. Sectlon 1z stated that: "Any male person who, elther ln publlc or prlvate, commlts any lndecent assault
upon or other act of gross lndecency wlth another male person, or procures another male person to commlt
any act of gross lndecency upon hlmself or any other male person ls gullty of a crlme".
16. vlews of 1 March 1, Case of Nirhclcs 1ccrcr v. Austrclic, Jcr. rit., para. S.,.
lncludes "sexual orlentatlon" ln the defnltlon of "sex".
1,o
The Commlttee's formula-
tlon mlght have glven undlluted promlnence to the nuance of homosexuallty and the
partlcular concerns that lt presents for protectlon under the lCCPk. The dlstlnctly
separate treatment of "sex" and "sexual orlentatlon" ln other lnstruments
1,1
lndl-
cates that the categorles of "sex" and "sexual orlentatlon" have en|oyed dlstlnctly
separate meanlngs ln lnternatlonal law. lt may be noteworthy that the Commlttee
dld not proceed to fnd dlscrlmlnatlon under Artlcle z6 of the Covenant, whlch may
have further affrmed the genus of "sexual orlentatlon" as amenable to protectlon
from dlscrlmlnatlon.
The subsequent |urlsprudence relatlng to sexual orlentatlon ln the unlted hatlons
has progressed away from the 1ccrcr formulatlon ln clalmlng protectlon for the
category of sexual orlentatlon ln lnternatlonal human rlghts law under 'sex' rather
than 'other status'. ln cur v. Austrclic,
1,z
Mr. oung applled for a war veteran's
dependant penslon. The Federal 0epartment of veteran Affalrs refused to conslder
hls appllcatlon because hls partner of S years was also male. The relevant law
stated that to be a "member of a couple" the persons must be "of the opposlte sex".
Mr. oung complalned that he was belng dlscrlmlnated on the grounds of hls sexual
orlentatlon. The human klghts Commlttee found that the State Party had vlolated
Artlcle z6 of the lCCPk by denylng the author a penslon on the basls of hls sex or
sexual orlentatlon.
1,
The Commlttee recalled lts earller |urlsprudence that the prohl-
bltlon agalnst dlscrlmlnatlon under Artlcle z6 also comprlsed dlscrlmlnatlon based
on sexual orlentatlon. whlle notlng that not every dlstlnctlon amounted to prohlb-
lted dlscrlmlnatlon under the lCCPk, the Commlttee observed that the State Party
had provlded no arguments on how thls dlstlnctlon between same-sex partners,
who are excluded from penslon benefts under law, and unmarrled heterosexual
1,o. See Sarah }oseph, "0ay klghts under the lCCPk-Commentary on Toonen v. Australla", ln urivcrsity cj
1csncric lcw kcvicw, vol. 1, ho. z, 1, Anna Funder, "The Toonen Case", ln Publir lcw kcvicw, vol. ,
1, wayne Morgan, "ldentlfylng Fvll for what lt ls: Tasmanla, Sexual Perverslty and the unlted hatlons",
ln Mclbcurrc urivcrsity lcw kcvicw, vol. 1, 1.
1,1. Fxplanatory keport of the Steerlng Commlttee for human klghts (C00h) of Artlcle 1 Protocol 1z of the
Conventlon for the Protectlon of human klghts and Fundamental Freedoms whlch speaks about "sexual
orlentatlon" as a prohlblted category at http:]]www.humanrlghts.coe.lnt] Prot1z] Protocol%zo1z%zo
and%zoFxp%zokep.htm. See para. zo of the Fxplanatory keport: "1hc list cj rcr-Jisrrinircticr rcurJs
ir Artirlc 1 is iJcrtircl tc thct ir Artirlc 1 cj thc Ccrvcrticr. 1his scluticr wcs rcrsiJcrcJ prcjcrcblc cvcr
cthcrs, surh cs cxprcssly irrluJir rcrtcir cJJiticrcl rcr-Jisrrinircticr rcurJs (jcr cxcnplc, physircl
cr ncrtcl Jiscbility, scxucl cricrtcticr cr cc|, rct bcrcusc cj c lcrk cj cwcrcrcss thct surh rcurJs hcvc
bcrcnc pcrtirulcrly inpcrtcrt ir tcJcys scrictics cs rcnpcrcJ with thc tinc cj Jrcjtir cj Artirlc 1 cj thc
Ccrvcrticr, but bcrcusc surh cr irrlusicr wcs rcrsiJcrcJ urrcrcsscry jrcn c lccl pcirt cj vicw sirrc
thc list cj rcr-Jisrrinircticr rcurJs is rct cxhcustivc, crJ bcrcusc irrlusicr cj cry pcrtirulcr cJJi-
ticrcl rcurJ niht ivc risc tc urwcrrcrtcJ c rcrtrcric irtcrprctcticrs cs rccrJs Jisrrinircticr bcscJ
cr rcurJs rct sc irrluJcJ. lt is rcrcllcJ thct thc Furcpccr Ccurt cj huncr kihts hcs clrccJy cpplicJ
Artirlc 1 ir rclcticr tc Jisrrinircticr rcurJs rct cxpliritly ncrticrcJ ir thct prcvisicr (scc, jcr cxcnplc,
cs rcrrcrrs thc rcurJ cj scxucl cricrtcticr, thc juJncrt cj 21 0crcnbcr 1ppp ir thc rcsc cj Sclucirc
Jc Silvc Mcutc v. Pcrtucl|". Thls dlscusslon takes place dlstlnctly apart from under the rubrlc of "sex,"
whlch also exlsts as a separate category ln the FChk.
1,z. vlew of 6 August zoo, Case of FJwcrJ cur v. Austrclic, Communlcatlon ho. 1]zooo, uh 0oc. CCPk]
C],S]0]1]zooo, 1S September, zoo.
1,. lbiJ., para. 1o..
partners, who are granted such benefts, was reasonable and ob|ectlve, hor had lt
provlded evldence whlch would polnt to the exlstence of factors |ustlfylng such a
dlstlnctlon. Consequently, the Commlttee found that the State Party had vlolated
Artlcle z6 of the lCCPk by denylng the author a penslon on the basls of hls sex or
sexual orlentatlon.
The human klghts Commlttee declded slmllarly ln the case of X v. Cclcnbic.
1,
The
Commlttee polnted out that, "the prohlbltlon agalnst dlscrlmlnatlon under artlcle z6
comprlses also dlscrlmlnatlon based on sexual orlentatlon, and that] dlfferences ln
beneft entltlements between marrled couples and heterosexual unmarrled couples
were reasonable and ob|ectlve, as the couples ln questlon had the cholce to marry
or not, wlth all the ensulng consequences".
1,
The Commlttee has concluded that
"the vlctlm of a vlolatlon of artlcle z6, ls entltled to an effectlve remedy, lncludlng
reconslderatlon of hls request for a penslon wlthout dlscrlmlnatlon on grounds of
sex or sexual orlentatlon".
1,6
The uh Speclal Procedures on human klghts have pronounced on the questlon of
rlghts of non-dlscrlmlnatlon and to be equal before the law ln relatlon to dlscrlml-
natlon ln relatlon to sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty. The uh worklng 0roup
on Arbltrary 0etentlon, ln expresslng lts vlews on homosexuals who are detalned
or glven prlson sentences solely because of thelr sexual orlentatlon oplned that
"detentlon ls] arbltrary because lt vlolates] artlcles z (1) and z6 of the lCCPk]
whlch guarantees] equallty before the law and the rlght to equal legal protectlon
agalnst all forms of dlscrlmlnatlon, lncludlng that based on sex".
1,,
The worklng
0roup based thls oplnlon on the uh human klghts Commlttee's statement that the
"reference to 'sex' ln artlcles z, paragraph 1 and z6 ls to be taken as lncludlng sexual
orlentatlon".
1,S
ln a declslon concernlng persons arrested on the grounds of thelr
sexual orlentatlon, the worklng 0roup on Arbltrary 0etentlon has consldered that
the "detentlon of .] persons prosecuted on the grounds that, by thelr sexual orlen-
tatlon, they lnclted 'soclal dlssentlon' constltutes an arbltrary deprlvatlon of llberty,
belng ln contraventlon of the provlslons of artlcle z, paragraph 1, of the unlversal
0eclaratlon of human klghts, and artlcles z, paragraph 1, and z6 of the lnternatlonal
Covenant on Clvll and Polltlcal klghts".
1,
ln a later declslon concernlng 11 persons
1,. vlews of 1 }anuary zoo1, Case of X v. Cclcnbic, Communlcatlon ho. 161]zoo, uh 0oc. CCPk]
C]S]0]161]zoo of 1 May zoo,.
1,. lbiJ., para. ,.z.
1,6. lbiJ., para. .
1,,. keport of the worklng 0roup on Arbltrary 0etentlon, uh 0oc. F]Ch.]zoo], of 1 0ecember zoo, para.
,.
1,S. lbiJ. See also worklng 0roup on Arbltrary 0etentlon, 0plnlon ho ,]zooz (Fgypt), para. z,, ln uh 0oc. F]
Ch.]zoo]S]Add.1.
1,. worklng 0roup on Arbltrary 0etentlon, 0plnlon ho ,]zooz (Fgypt) of z1 }une zooz, para. zS, ln uh 0oc. F]
Ch.]zoo]S]Add.1.
detalned for thelr sexual orlentatlon and prosecuted under an antl-sodomy law, the
worklng 0roup on Arbltrary 0etentlon has stated that:
"Fvcr sirrc thc huncr kihts Ccnnittcc cJcptcJ its vicw ir 1ccrcr v.
Austrclic crJ itsclj cJcptcJ its 0piricr ;/2cc2 (Fypt|, thc wcrkir Crcup
hcs jcllcwcJ thc lirc tckcr ir thcsc rcscs. 1hct nccrs thct thc cxistcrrc
cj lcws rrinirclizir hcncscxucl bchcvicur bctwccr rcrscrtir cJults ir
privctc crJ thc cpplircticr cj rrinircl pcrcltics ccirst pcrscrs crruscJ
cj surh bchcvicur viclctc thc rihts tc privcry crJ jrccJcn jrcn Jisrrini-
rcticr sct jcrth ir thc lrtcrrcticrcl Ccvcrcrt cr Civil crJ Pclitircl kihts.
Ccrscqucrtly, thc wcrkir Crcup rcrsiJcrs . thc rrinirclizcticr cj hcnc-
scxuclity ir Ccncrccricr lcw irrcnpctiblc with crtirlcs 1; crJ 26 cj thc
lrtcrrcticrcl Ccvcrcrt cr Civil crJ Pclitircl kihts, whirh irstruncrt
Ccncrccr hcs rctijicJ."
1So
.z 1he urepean Ceurt eI Buman Rights and nen-discriminatien
ln the perlod around the 0uJccr case
1S1
, the Furopean Court of human klghts
seemed unwllllng to formulate a broader scope for gay rlghts beyond challenglng
penal laws wlth the use of the rlght to prlvacy provlslon.
1Sz
lt was ln 1 that the
Furopean Court expressed a broader role for the rlght to prlvacy and non-dlscrlm-
lnatlon, ln the twln cases of lusti-Prccr crJ 8crkctt v. uritcJ kirJcn
1S
and
Snith crJ CrcJy v. 1hc uritcJ kirJcn.
1S
ln Snith crJ CrcJy, the Furopean
Court oplned, that "the questlon for the Court ls whether the above-noted nega-
tlve attltudes constltute suffclent |ustlfcatlon for the lnterferences at lssue. The
Court observes from the keport of the hPAT hcncscxucl Pcliry Asscssncrt 1ccn]
that these attltudes, even lf slncerely felt by those who expressed them, ranged
from stereotyplcal expresslons of hostlllty to those of homosexual orlentatlon, to
vague expresslons of unease about the presence of homosexual colleagues. To the
extent that they represent a predlsposed blas on the part of a heterosexual ma|orlty
agalnst a homosexual mlnorlty, these negatlve attltudes cannot, of themselves, be
consldered by the Court to amount to suffclent |ustlfcatlon for the lnterferences
wlth the appllcants' rlghts outllned above any more than "slmllar negatlve attltudes
towards those of a dlfferent race, orlgln or colour".
1S
uslng Artlcle S of the Furcpccr
Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts, the Court struck down laws that excluded gays and
1So. 0plnlon ho zz]zoo6 (Cameroon) of 1 August zoo6, para. 1, ln uh 0oc. A]hkC]]o]Add.1.
1S1. See sectlon , The movement towards recognltlon, Chapter l.
1Sz. The Furopean Court of human klghts conslstently refused to pronounce on arguments of dlscrlmlnatlon
based on dlfferent ages of consent between homosexuals and heterosexuals ln the cases of 0uJccr v.
uritcJ kirJcn (1p8|, Ncrris v. lrclcrJ (1SS), and McJircs v. Cyprus (1).
1S. }udgment of z, September 1 (Flnal z, 0ecember 1), Case of lusti-Prccr crJ 8crkctt v. uritcJ
kirJcn, Appllcatlons ho. 11,]6 and z,,]6.
1S. }udgment of z, September 1, Case of Snith crJ CrcJy v. 1hc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlons ho. S]6
and S6]6.
1S. lbiJ., para. ,.
lesblans from the mllltary and opened up an lnterpretatlon of prlvacy that envlsaged
the publlc manlfestatlons of the gay experlence. The Court framed lts reasonlng as
follows:
"t]hc Ccurt rcrsiJcrs thct, ir thc rirrunstcrrcs cj thc prcscrt rcsc, thc
cpplircrts rcnplcirts thct thcy wcrc JisrrinirctcJ ccirst cr rcurJs cj
thcir scxucl cricrtcticr by rccscr cj thc cxistcrrc crJ cpplircticr cj thc
pcliry cj thc Miristry cj 0cjcrrc, cncurts ir cjjcrt tc thc scnc rcnplcirt,
clbcit sccr jrcn c Jijjcrcrt crlc, thct thc Ccurt hcs clrccJy rcrsiJcrcJ ir
rclcticr tc Artirlc 8 cj thc Ccrvcrticr".
1S6
The Furopean Court ln Sclucirc Jc Silvc Mcutc v. Pcrtucl expressly affrmed
"sexual orlentatlon" as a prohlblted category of dlscrlmlnatlon, strlklng down a decl-
slon of a Portuguese court that dlspossessed a father of hls custody rlghts because
he was gay.
1S,
The Furopean Court declded that "the appllcant's homosexuallty was
a factor whlch was declslve ln the fnal declslon. That concluslon ls supported by
the fact that the Court of Appeal, when rullng on the appllcant's rlght to contact,
warned hlm not to adopt conduct whlch mlght make the chlld reallze that her father
was llvlng wlth another man 'ln condltlons resembllng those of man and wlfe'".
1SS

The Furopean Court concluded that that:
"thcrc wcs c Jijjcrcrrc cj trcctncrt .] bcscJ cr thc cpplircrts scxucl
cricrtcticr, c rcrrcpt whirh is urJcubtcJly rcvcrcJ by Artirlc 1 cj thc
Ccrvcrticr. 1hc Ccurt rcitcrctcs ir thct rcrrcrticr thct thc list sct cut ir
thct prcvisicr is illustrctivc crJ rct cxhcustivc, cs is shcwr by thc wcrJs
cry rcurJ surh cs (ir Frcrrh rctcnncrt|".
1S
ln the case of S.l. v. Austric before the Furopean Court, the appllcant alleged that
the malntenance of Artlcle zo of the Austrlan Crlmlnal Code, whlch penallsed
homosexual acts of adult men wlth consentlng adolescents between fourteen
and elghteen years of age, vlolated hls rlght to respect for hls prlvate llfe and was
dlscrlmlnatory. The Furopean Court noted that Parllament, ln lts conslderatlon of
sclentlfc evldence ln favour of equal age of consent for both heterosexuals and
homosexuals, had re|ected the notlon that "male adolescents were 'recrulted' lnto
homosexuallty". The Court reasoned that:
"t]c thc cxtcrt thct Artirlc 2cp cj thc Crinircl CcJc cnbcJicJ c prcJis-
pcscJ bics cr thc pcrt cj c hctcrcscxucl ncjcrity ccirst c hcncscxucl
nircrity, thcsc rcctivc cttituJcs rcrrct cj thcnsclvcs bc rcrsiJcrcJ by
thc Ccurt tc cncurt tc sujjiricrt justijircticr jcr thc Jijjcrcrticl trcctncrt
1S6. lusti-Prccr crJ 8crkctt v. 1hc uritcJ kirJcn, Jcr. rit., para. 1oS.
1S,. }udgment of z1 0ecember 1 (flnal z1 March zooo), Case of SclucirJc Jc Silvc Mcutc v. Pcrtucl,
Appllcatlon ho. zo]6.
1SS. lbiJ., para. .
1S. lbiJ., para. zS.
cry ncrc thcr sinilcr rcctivc cttituJcs tcwcrJs thcsc cj c Jijjcrcrt rcrc,
criir cr rclcur".
1o
ln the case of CccJwir v. uritcJ kirJcn, the Court has slgnlfcantly advanced
questlons of gender ldentlty. The appllcant alleged vlolatlons of Artlcles S (rlght to
prlvacy), 1z (rlght to marry), 1 (rlght to remedy) and 1 (non-dlscrlmlnatlon) of the
Furcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts ln respect of the legal status of transsexuals
ln the unlted Klngdom and partlcularly thelr treatment ln the sphere of employment,
soclal securlty, penslons and marrlage. After fndlng vlolatlons of Artlcles S and 1z,
the Court concluded that no separate lssue arose under Artlcle 1.
11
Slmllarly, ln the case of vcr kbrk v. Ccrncry,
1z
the Court decllned to conslder a
vlolatlon of Artlcles 6 and S ln con|unctlon wlth 1, ln respect of an lnvaslve court
lnqulry of whether the appllcant genulnely requlred gender reasslgnment surgery
that |ustlfed relmbursement clalms. The Court declded that the lssues were
adequately dealt wlth by Artlcle S of the Conventlon.
.y 1he tnter-American 5ystem eI Buman Rights
Llke other lnternatlonal human rlghts lnstruments, there are no expllclt references
to "sexual orlentatlon" or "gender ldentlty" ln the human rlghts lnstruments of the
lnter-Amerlcan system,
1
wlth the exceptlon of the Prirriplcs crJ 8cst Prcrtircs
cr thc Prctcrticr cj Pcrscrs 0cprivcJ cj libcrty ir thc Ancrircs. however, ln
lts AJviscry 0piricr cr thc /uriJircl CcrJiticr crJ kihts cj thc urJcruncrtcJ
Mircrts, the lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts has polnted out that "l]t ls
perfectly posslble, besldes belng deslrable, to turn attentlons to all the areas of
dlscrlmlnatory human behavlour, lncludlng those whlch have so far been lgnored or
neglected at lnternatlonal level (e.g., irtcr clic, soclal status, lncome, medlcal state,
age, sexual orlentatlon, among others)".
1
The lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts has started to address thls
lssue. ln the frst case on human rlghts and sexual orlentatlon ln the lnter-Amerlcan
system, Mcrtc luric lvcrcz CirclJc v. Cclcnbic, a petltlon concernlng an lnmate
at a women's prlson who was denled the rlght to lntlmate vlslts wlth her same-sex
partner, the lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon declded to admlt the petltlon because lt
found that, "ln prlnclple, the clalm of the petltloner refers to facts that could lnvolve,
irtcr clic, a vlolatlon of Artlcle 11(z) of the Amerlcan Conventlon ln so far as they
1o. }udgment of }anuary zoo (flnal Aprll zoo), Case of S.l v. Austric, Appllcatlon ho. o], para.
.
11. }udgment of 11 }uly zooz, Case of Christirc CccJwir v. uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho. zS,].
1z. }udgment of 1z }une zoo, Case of vcr kurk v. Ccrncry, Appllcatlon ho. 6S],.
1. See irtcr clic, Artlcle ll of the Amerlcan 0eclaratlon on the klghts and 0utles of Man, Artlcles 1(1) and z of
the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts, Artlcle of the lnter-Amerlcan 0emocratlc Charter, Prlnclple z
of the 0eclaratlon of Prlnclples on Freedom of Fxpresslon.
1. Advlsory 0plnlon 0C-1S]o, /uriJircl CcrJiticr crJ kihts cj thc urJcruncrtcJ Mircrts, of 1, September
zoo, Serles A ho. 1S, para. 6.
could constltute an arbltrary or abuslve lnterference wlth her prlvate llfe".
1
The
lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon has polnted out that the crlmlnallzatlon of homosexu-
allty and deprlvatlon of llberty slmply because of sexual preference ls a practlce
"contrary to the provlslons of varlous artlcles of the Amerlcan Conventlon and must
therefore be corrected".
16
8ased on the prlnclple of equallty and non-dlscrlmlnatlon,
and taklng lnto account that "s]exual preference ls lncluded as a category as lt ls
encompassed by the very concept of sex", the Speclal kapporteurshlp on Mlgrant
workers and thelr Famllles of the lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts has
consldered that mlgratlon pollcy cannot dlscrlmlnate for reasons of "sexual prefer-
ence" (sexual orlentatlon).
1,
. 1he Ceurt eI |ustice eI the urepean Cemmunities
The Court of }ustlce of the Furopean Communltles (the Furopean Court of }ustlce)
has also addressed the questlon of sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty. ln lts
}udgment of the Ccnnissicr cj thc Furcpccr Ccnnuritics v. FcJcrcl kcpublir cj
Ccrncry,
1S
the Court declared that, by falllng to adopt all the laws, regulatlons
and admlnlstratlve provlslons necessary to comply wlth Councll 0lrectlve zooo],S]
FC of z, hovember zooo establlshlng a general framework for equal treatment ln
employment and occupatlon, as far as concerns dlscrlmlnatlon based on rellglon or
bellef, dlsablllty and sexual orlentatlon, the Federal kepubllc of 0ermany had falled
to fulfl lts obllgatlons under that dlrectlve.
ln the case of P. v. S. crJ Ccrrwcll Ccurty Ccurril, the Furopean Court of }ustlce
1

held that dlscrlmlnatlon arlslng from gender reasslgnment constltuted dlscrlmlna-
tlon on grounds of sex
zoo
and prevented the dlsmlssal of a transsexual for a reason
related to a gender reasslgnment. The appllcant had been employed as the general
manager of an educatlonal establlshment, operated by the County Councll, and
respondent S was the head of the establlshment. P was taken on as a male employee
but later lnformed S that she was plannlng to have gender reasslgnment ln order to
llve as a woman. The appllcant later wrote to S confrmlng that she was to undergo
an operatlon for gender reasslgnment. The governors of the establlshment were
lnformed and durlng that summer P took slck leave for lnltlal surglcal treatment.
Consequently, she was soon after glven three months' notlce of dlsmlssal and not
permltted to return from slck leave ln her female gender role. The fnal surglcal
1. Case number 11.66, keport ho. ,1] (Admlsslblllty) of May 1, para. z1.
16. lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts, Press release ho. z]1.
1,. ScrcrJ Prcrcss rcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcurship cr Mircrt wcrkcrs crJ thcir Fcnilics ir thc
hcnisphcrc, 0FA]Ser.L]v]ll.111, 0oc. zo rev., 16 Aprll zoo1.
1S. Court (Fourth Chamber), }udgment of z February zoo6, Ccnnissicr cj thc Furcpccr Ccnnuritics v. FcJcrcl
kcpublir cj Ccrncry, Case C--o.
1. }udgment of o Aprll 16, P. v. S. crJ Ccrrwcll Ccurty Ccurril, Case C-1].
zoo. Councll 0lrectlve ,6]zo,]FFC of February 1,6 on the lmplementatlon of the prlnclple of equal treatment
for men and women as regards access to employment, vocatlonal tralnlng and promotlon and worklng
condltlons (Fqual Treatment 0lrectlve).
operatlon took place before the notlce of dlsmlssal had explred. P complalned, and
the Court agreed, that she had been dlscrlmlnated agalnst on grounds of sex. The
Furopean Court of }ustlce held that:
"whcrc c pcrscr is JisnisscJ cr thc rcurJ thct hc cr shc irtcrJs tc
urJcrc cr hcs urJcrcrc crJcr rccssirncrt, hc cr shc is trcctcJ urjc-
vcurcbly by rcnpcriscr with pcrscrs cj thc scx tc whirh hc cr shc wcs
JccncJ tc bclcr bcjcrc urJcrcir crJcr rccssirncrt. 1c tclcrctc surh
Jisrrinircticr wculJ bc tcrtcncurt, cs rccrJs surh c pcrscr, tc c jcilurc
tc rcspcrt thc Jirity crJ jrccJcn tc whirh hc cr shc is crtitlcJ crJ whirh
thc Ccurt hcs c Juty tc scjcucrJ".
zo1
ln the case of Scrch Mcrcrct kirhcrJs v. Scrrctcry cj Stctc jcr wcrk crJ Pcrsicrs,
zoz

the appllcant was born on zS February 1z and her blrth certlfcate reglstered her
gender as male. havlng been dlagnosed as sufferlng from gender dysphorla, she
underwent gender reasslgnment surgery on May zoo1. 0n 1 February zooz she
applled to the Secretary of State for work and Penslons for a retlrement penslon to
be pald from zS February zooz, the date on whlch she turned 6o, the age at whlch,
under natlonal law, a woman born before 6 Aprll 1o ls ellglble to recelve a retlre-
ment penslon. 8y declslon of 1z March zooz, the appllcatlon was refused on the
ground that 'the clalm was made more than years before the clalmant reaches age
6", whlch ls the retlrement age for men ln the unlted Klngdom. The Court consld-
ered whether Councll 0lrectlve ,],]FFC
zo
prohlblted the refusal of a retlrement
penslon to a male-to-female transsexual untll she reached the age of 6, though
she would have been entltled to such a penslon at the age of 6o had she been held
to be a woman as a matter of natlonal law.
The Court clted P. v. S. crJ Ccrrwcll Ccurty Ccurril and noted that the rlght not
to be dlscrlmlnated agalnst on grounds of sex ls one of the fundamental human
rlghts that the Court had to ensure.
zo
ln determlnlng the scope of Councll 0lrectlve
,],]FFC, the Court consldered that lt could not be confned to slmply construe
dlscrlmlnatlon based on the fact that a person ls of one or other sex. The scope of
that dlrectlve was also found to be dlscrlmlnatory, arlslng from the gender reasslgn-
ment of the person concerned.
zo1. }udgment of o Aprll 16, P v S crJ Ccrrwcll Ccurty Ccurril, Case C-1], paras. z1-zz. The Sexual
0lscrlmlnatlon (0ender ke-asslgnment) kegulatlons uK 1 were lssued to comply wlth the rullng of the
Furopean Court of }ustlce ln P. v. S. crJ Ccrrwcll Ccurty Ccurril. Thls provldes generally that transsexual
persons should not be treated less favourably ln employment because they are transsexual (whether pre- or
post-operatlve).
zoz. }udgment of z, Aprll zoo6, Scrch Mcrcrct kirhcrJs v. Scrrctcry cj Stctc jcr wcrk crJ Pcrsicrs, Case
C-z]o.
zo. Councll 0lrectlve ,],]FFC of 1 0ecember 1,S on the prcrcssivc inplcncrtcticr cj thc prirriplc cj cqucl
trcctncrt jcr ncr crJ wcncr ir ncttcrs cj scricl scrurity (See Artlcles ,1 and ,,1).
zo. Case C-1], Jcr. rit., para. 1.
The Furopean Court of }ustlce also declded that the unequal treatment at lssue ln
the case was Sarah Margaret klchards' lnablllty to have her new gender, acqulred
followlng surgery, recognlsed and consequently obtaln a penslon under the Pcrsicrs
Art cj 1pp. 8y not recognlslng her gender, when she reached the retlrement age of
6o, unllke women whose gender was not the result of gender reasslgnment surgery,
klchards was not consldered ellglble for a penslon. The Court consldered the unequal
treatment, to whlch klchards was sub|ect, as dlscrlmlnatory and prohlblted by Artlcle
(1) of Councll 0lrectlve ,],]FFC.
zo
The Court also noted that Artlcle (1) of 0lrectlve ,],]FFC ls to be lnterpreted as
precludlng leglslatlon whlch denles a person who has lawfully undergone male-to-
female gender reasslgnment entltlement to a retlrement penslon on the ground that
she has not reached the age of 6, when she would have been entltled to such a
penslon at the age of 6o had she been held to be a woman as a matter of natlonal
law.
lt ls evldent from these cases that the lssue of "gender ldentlty" have been pressed
slgnlfcantly wlthln the Furopean Court of }ustlce system and notably, under the
rubrlc of dlscrlmlnatlon based on "sex".
.y 1he AIrican Cemmissien en Buman and Peep|es' Rights
The Ajrircr Chcrtcr cr huncr crJ Pccplcs kihts (AChPk) observes a scheme
of equallty before the law and equal protectlon of the law ln the same veln as the
urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr cj huncr kihts and the lCCPk.
zo6
The framlng of Artlcle zS
of the AChPk ls sllghtly dlfferent from the aforementloned lnstruments as lt lnvokes
a language of each lndlvldual's duty ln relatlon to other lndlvlduals, rather than a
general "rlght" of non-dlscrlmlnatlon. hevertheless, the basls of all these lnstru-
ments remalns the commltment to equallty before the law and non-dlscrlmlnatlon.
The scope of the "rlght" of non-dlscrlmlnatlon ln the AChPk ls arguably free standlng,
as lt ls ln the lCCPk, and does not only contemplate the non-dlscrlmlnatory appllca-
tlon of rlghts that are provlded for ln the Afrlcan Charter, but confers a free-standlng
zo. Case C-z]o, Jcr. rit.,, see also the case of k.8 v. NhS Acrry at: http:]]www.pfc.org.uk]node]61. The
8rltlsh Professor Stephen whlttle has polnted out that: "1hc rcsc cj kirhcrJs rcrjirns thc prcvicus rcsc
cj k.8 v. NhS Pcrsicrs Acrry but with nurh ncrc rlcrity crJ thcrcjcrc rcrtcirty." 8oth cases concerned
penslons and they conflrm that any natlonal leglslatlon, or workplace practlce, whlch affords pay related
beneflts based upon sex or marltal status, that results ln a transsexual person who ls permanently llvlng ln
thelr new gender role belng denled beneflts ls, ln prlnclple, lncompatlble wlth the requlrements of Artlcle
11 FC. Artlcle 11 states that "Fcrh Mcnbcr Stctc shcll crsurc thct thc prirriplc cj cqucl pcy jcr nclc crJ
jcnclc wcrkcrs jcr cqucl wcrk cr wcrk cj cqucl vcluc is cpplicJ". 1his is rccrJlcss cj whcthcr c pcrscr is
cnplcycJ ir thc publir cr privctc scrtcr, crJ thc wcrJ "pcy" is brccJly JcjircJ, tc irrluJc cry rcrsiJcrcticr
whcthcr ir rcsh cr ir kirJ, whirh thc wcrkcr rcrcivcs Jircrtly cr irJircrtly, ir rcspcrt cj his cnplcyncrt,
jrcn his cnplcycr"." (http:]]www.pfc.org.uk]flles]rlchards-analysls.pdf )
zo6. Artlcle of the AChPk states that each lndlvldual shall be "cqucl bcjcrc thc lcw" and ls entltled to "cqucl
prctcrticr cj thc lcw," whlle Artlcle zS prescrlbes that "cvcry irJiviJucl shcll hcvc thc Juty tc rcspcrt crJ
rcrsiJcr his jcllcw bcirs withcut Jisrrinircticr, crJ tc ncirtcir rclcticrs cincJ ct prcnctir, scjc-
ucrJir crJ rcirjcrrir nutucl rcspcrt crJ tclcrcrrc".
and lndependent rlght agalnst dlscrlmlnatlon. The ordlnary and grammatlcal meanlng
of the dlscrlmlnatlon provlslon ln Artlcle zS envlsages categorles such as "sexual
orlentatlon" and "gender ldentlty" that are not otherwlse speclfcally enumerated ln
the AChPk. Artlcle of the AChPk - whlch confers equallty before the law and equal
protectlon of the law - contemplates protectlon for all, regardless of sexual orlenta-
tlon. ln addltlon, Artlcle z of the AChPk ensures protectlon for "sexual orlentatlon",
elther by the category of "other status" or ln the defnltlon of "sex".
lt must also be noted that even lf the AChPk acknowledges a rlght to non-dlscrlm-
lnatlon based on sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty, the assertlon of any such
rlghts may be met wlth the correspondlng argument that thls rlght ls llmlted by
Artlcle z, (z). Thls provlslon stlpulates that rlghts must be exerclsed "wlth due
regard to the rlghts of others, collectlve securlty, morallty and common lnterest".
havlng ralsed a princ jcric vlolatlon, the onus would then be on the State to demon-
strate that such a rlght ls llmlted or restrlcted ln terms of Artlcle z, (z). The Afrlcan
Commlsslon has applled a proportlonallty test whlch requlres that such llmltatlons
are "strlctly proportlonate wlth and absolutely necessary for the advantages that
are to be obtalned" and may not lnterpret the rlght ln a manner that renders lt
meanlngless.
zo,
Murray and vll|oen, ln thelr semlnal artlcle on non-dlscrlmlnatlon
based on sexual orlentatlon and the Afrlcan Commlsslon, clted arguments of Afrlcan
values, ma|orlty morallty and hlv preventlon that may be lnvoked as llmltatlons
on any constructlon of a rlght to non-dlscrlmlnatlon wlthln the AChPk, and offered
reasonlng on how these arguments may be met, glven the aforementloned standards
of proportlonallty.
zoS
ln addltlon, the AChPk lays a clear foundatlon for the |urldlcal constructlon of rlghts
that could concelvably reference treatment ln other human rlghts systems. Artlcle
6o of the AChPk stlpulates that:
"t]hc Ccnnissicr shcll Jrcw irspircticr jrcn irtcrrcticrcl lcw cr huncr
crJ pccplcs rihts, pcrtirulcrly jrcn thc prcvisicrs cj vcricus Ajrircr irstru-
ncrts cr huncr crJ pccplcs rihts, thc Chcrtcr cj thc uritcJ Ncticrs,
thc Chcrtcr cj thc 0rcrizcticr cj Ajrircr urity, thc urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr
cj huncr kihts, cthcr irstruncrts cJcptcJ by thc uritcJ Ncticrs crJ
by Ajrircr rcurtrics ir thc jiclJ cj huncr crJ pccplcs rihts cs wcll cs
jrcn thc prcvisicrs cj vcricus irstruncrts cJcptcJ withir thc SpcriclizcJ
Acrrics cj thc uritcJ Ncticrs cj whirh thc Pcrtics tc thc prcscrt Chcrtcr
crc ncnbcrs."
zo,. McJic kihts crJ Arcthcr v. Nicric, Communlcatlon 1o], 1zS], 1o] and 1z]6 6-,o(1S).
zoS. See generally, kachel Murray and Frans vll|oen, "Towards hon-0lscrlmlnatlon on the 8asls of Sexual
0rlentatlon: The hormatlve 8asls and Procedural Posslbllltles before the Afrlcan Commlsslon on human
and Peoples' klghts and the Afrlcan unlon", ln huncr kihts ucrtcrly, vol. z, zoo,, pp. S6-111.
ln addltlon Artlcle 61 of the AChPk states:
"t]hc Ccnnissicr shcll clsc tckc irtc rcrsiJcrcticr, cs subsiJicry nccsurcs
tc Jctcrnirc thc prirriplcs cj lcw, cthcr crcrcl cr spcricl irtcrrcticrcl
rcrvcrticrs, lcyir Jcwr rulcs cxprcssly rcrcrizcJ by Mcnbcr Stctcs cj
thc 0rcrizcticr cj Ajrircr urity, Ajrircr prcrtircs rcrsistcrt with irtcrrc-
ticrcl rcrns cr huncr crJ Pccplcs kihts, rustcns crcrclly crrcptcJ cs
lcw, crcrcl prirriplcs cj lcw rcrcrizcJ by Ajrircr Stctcs cs wcll cs lccl
prcrcJcrts crJ Jcrtrirc."
y. Petentia| use eI discriminatery impact in pretectien eI sexua|
The questlon of whether an outwardly neutral pollcy dlsproportlonately dlsadvan-
taglng a speclfc group constltutes lmpermlsslble dlscrlmlnatlon ls unsettled. Thls
ls an lmportant area to human rlghts concernlng S00l. 0ften, vague morallty provl-
slons are used agalnst sexual mlnorltles, and statutes such as the buggery laws,
though they lmpllcate anal sex between a man and a woman, are used dlspropor-
tlonately agalnst gay men.
The tradltlonal vlew ls well expressed ln the Furopean Court of human klghts'
AbJulcziz, Ccbclcs crJ 8clkcrJcli v. uritcJ kirJcn
zo
oplnlon, applylng the
reasonlng ln the 8clicr liruistir Ccsc
z1o
. The Court there dld not fnd that the laws
ln questlon vlolated Artlcle 1 on the grounds of race and natlonal orlgln, as the mere
fact that the laws dlsproportlonately affected 8lacks and Aslans was "not a suffclent
reason to conslder them as raclst ln character: lt ls an effect whlch derlves .] from
the fact that, among those wlshlng to lmmlgrate, some ethnlc groups outnumbered
others".
z11
The Court also found that the lmpacts dld not "transgress the prlnclple
of proportlonallty".
z1z
The same loglc was used by the human klghts Commlttee ln a case ln whlch a Slkh
sought to use the prohlbltlon of rellglous dlscrlmlnatlon under Artlcle 1S of the lCCPk
to obtaln rellef from a Canadlan law requlrlng the use of hardhats ln constructlon
sltes. The Commlttee concluded that the, "leglslatlon whlch, on the face of lt, ls
neutral ln that lt applles to all persons wlthout dlstlnctlon .] ls |ustlfed by refer-
ence to the grounds lald down ln Artlcle 1S, paragraph , and ls] to be regarded as
reasonable and dlrected towards ob|ectlve purposes that are compatlble wlth the
zo. }udgment of zS May 1S, Case of AbJulcziz, Ccbclcs crJ 8clkcrJcli v. uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho.
z1]So, ,]S1 and ,]S1.
z1o. }udgment of z }uly 16S, Appllcatlon hos. 1,]6z, 16,,]6z, 161]6z, 1,6]6, 1]6 and z1z6]6.
z11. AbJulcziz, Ccbclcs crJ 8clkcrJcli v. uritcJ kirJcn, Jcr. rit., para. S.
z1z. lbiJ., para. SS.
Covenant"
z1
, desplte the law operatlng ln a way that "ls sald to .] dlscrlmlnate .]
agalnst persons of the Slkh rellglon"
z1
under Artlcle z6.
Furopean |urlsprudence began to dlverge from the tradltlonal vlew beglnnlng wlth a
serles of employment dlscrlmlnatlon cases. As early as 1S6, the Furopean Court of
}ustlce, ln 8ilkc-kcujhcus Cnbh v. kcrir wcbcr vcr hcrtz, found that "A]rtlcle 11
of the FFC Treaty ls lnfrlnged by a department store company whlch excludes part-
tlme employees from lts occupatlonal penslon scheme, where that excluslon affects
a far greater number of women than men, unless the undertaklng shows that the
excluslon ls based on ob|ectlvely |ustlfed factors unrelated to any dlscrlmlnatlon on
grounds of sex".
z1
Thls vlew was codlfed by the Fu parllament ln a palr of Councll
0lrectlves, ,]So]FC ln 0ecember 1, and zooo]]FC ln }une zooo. The frst of
these 0lrectlves, on the burden of proof ln sex dlscrlmlnatlon complalnts before
member States of the Furopean unlon, defned "lndlrect dlscrlmlnatlon" as "an
apparently neutral provlslon, crlterlon or practlce that] dlsadvantages a substan-
tlally hlgher proportlon of the members of one sex unless that provlslon, crlterlon
or practlce ls approprlate and necessary and can be |ustlfed by ob|ectlve factors
unrelated to sex".
z16
The latter provlde for Fu member States to lmplement leglsla-
tlve prohlbltlons on raclal dlscrlmlnatlon ln employment to "provlde, ln partlcular,
for lndlrect dlscrlmlnatlon to be establlshed by any means lncludlng on the basls of
statlstlcal evldence".
z1,
8y contrast, the Furopean Court of human klghts has been reluctant to apply Fu
standards on lndlrect dlscrlmlnatlon, especlally outslde of employment. For example,
ln the case of Ncrhcvc crJ 0thcrs v. 8ulcric, the Furopean Court of human klghts
took note of the exlstence of Councll 0lrectlve zooo]]FC but decllned to apply lt
to a case ln whlch a koma wldow alleged that the mllltary pollce shootlng her Aw0L
(absent wlthout leave) husband, ln the wlder context of antl-koma dlscrlmlnatlon by
law enforcement, was an act of raclally motlvated vlolence ln vlolatlon of Artlcle 1
of the Furcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts.
z1S
lnstead, the Court ruled that glven
the facts of the case a demonstratlon of raclst lntent would be requlred, desplte
presentatlon of evldence of blas on the part of the shooter, the coroner and the
lnvestlgatlve authorltles.
z1
z1. human klghts Commlttee, vlews of hovember 1S, Case of kcrrcl Sirh 8hirJcr v. CcrcJc,
Communlcatlon hos. zoS]1S6, para. 6.1, ln uh 0oc. CCPk]C],]0]zoS]1S6.
z1. lbiJ., para. 6.z.
z1. }udgment of 1 May 1S6, Case 1,o]S, para. 1.
z16. Councll 0lrectlve ,]So]FC of 1 0ecember 1, on thc burJcr cj prccj ir rcscs cj Jisrrinircticr bcscJ
cr scx, Celex no. 1,LooSo, Artlcle z z.
z1,. Councll 0lrectlve zooo]]FC of z }une zooo inplcncrtir thc prirriplc cj cqucl trcctncrt bctwccr
pcrscrs irrcspcrtivc cj rcricl cr cthrir criir, Celex no. ozoooLoo, preamble, para. 1.
z1S. }udgment of 6 }uly zoo, Case of Ncrhcvc crJ 0thcrs v. 8ulcric, Appllcatlon ho. ,,]S and ,]S,
paras. So, 1-1.
z1. lbiJ., para. 1,.
ln a recent case, the Furopean Court of human klghts' 0rand Chamber, however, ln
what wlll llkely prove to be a semlnal case, lssued an oplnlon, 0.h. crJ 0thcrs v. thc
Czcrh kcpublir, ln favour of a party alleglng lndlrect dlscrlmlnatlon.
zzo
Thls oplnlon
suggests that the Court ls wllllng to concede the prlnclple whlle exerclslng conserv-
atlsm ln lts appllcatlon. The Court ruled that an outwardly neutral Czech speclal
educatlon law that resulted ln koma chlldren belng asslgned to speclal educatlon
schools at thlrty tlmes the rate of non-koma chlldren was dlscrlmlnatory, notlng that
"w]here lt has been shown that leglslatlon produces such a dlscrlmlnatory effect,
the 0rand Chamber conslders that, as wlth cases concernlng employment or the
provlslon of servlces, lt ls not necessary ln cases ln the educatlonal sphere .] to
prove any dlscrlmlnatory lntent on the part of the relevant authorltles".
zz1
however,
0.h. crJ 0thcrs ls also lmportant for lts llmltatlons as well as lts declslon. hotably,
the Court, wlthout explanatlon, llmlted lts recognltlon of the dlsparate lmpact of
dlscrlmlnatlon to the felds of educatlon, employment and provlslon of servlces.
Also, the facts of the case were rare ln thelr extremlty - a thlrty-fold dlfference ln
lmpact between koma and non-koma chlldren. ln future cases wlth smaller dlfferen-
tlals, the Court could contlnue to rely on lts more conservatlve prlor |urlsprudence
lf lt wlshes to do so.
The human klghts Commlttee's vlew on dlsparate lmpact dlscrlmlnatlon has also
changed ln recent years. ln lts 0eneral Comment ho. 1S, the Commlttee noted that
"dlscrlmlnatlon ln fact" can occur even ln an absence of "dlscrlmlnatlon ln law",
and that the authorltles were prohlblted from engaglng ln elther.
zzz
Thls left the
door open for a vlew or oplnlon fndlng that a State has vlolated the lCCPk through
dlscrlmlnatlon ln fact.
ln contrast to the approach used ln Furope and by uh treaty bodles, the lnter-
Amerlcan Court has recognlsed the dlscrlmlnatory lmpact of faclally neutral laws as
lmpermlsslble dlscrlmlnatlon. ln the case of ctcnc v. Nircrcuc, the Court ordered
the repeal of a law requlrlng candldates for parllament to have a polltlcal party affll-
atlon, because polltlcal partles are "a form of organlzatlon that ls not characterlstlc
of the lndlgenous communltles of the Atlantlc Coast".
zz
The Court went out of lts
way to note that the "clrcumstances of the lnstant case, .] are not necessarlly
comparable to the clrcumstances of all polltlcal groups that may be present ln other
natlonal socletles or sectors of a natlonal soclety".
zz
Therefore, lts holdlng was not that such a law pcr sc vlolates the Ancrircr
Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts, but rather that the lmpact lt has ln hlcaragua, glven
that country's unlque ethno-cultural makeup, renders lt ln vlolatlon.
zzo. }udgment of 1 hovember zoo,, Case of 0.h. crJ 0thcrs v. thc Czcrh kcpublir, Appllcatlon ho. ,z]oo.
zz1. lbiJ., para. 1.
zzz. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 18, Jcr. rit., paras. and 1z.
zz. }udgment of z }une zoo, Case of ctcnc v. Nircrcuc, Serles C ho. 1z,, para. z1.
zz. lbiJ., para. z1.
5ummary
The prlnclple of non-dlscrlmlnatlon and the rlght to be equal before the law n
are lnterdependent and unlversally recognlsed and protected under lnterna-
tlonal law. 8oth derlve from the notlon of lnherent human dlgnlty,
The llst of prohlblted categorles of dlscrlmlnatlon ln lnternatlonal human n
rlghts lnstruments ls not exhaustlve and the lncluslon of the "other status"
category by the drafters contemplates grounds such as "sexual orlentatlon"
and "gender ldentlty". The human rlghts |urlsprudence, both unlversal and
reglonal, as well as a few new lnternatlonal lnstruments have recognlsed
and reafflrmed that "sexual orlentatlon" and "gender ldentlty" are part of
the prohlblted grounds of dlscrlmlnatlon,
The prlnclple of non-dlscrlmlnatlon and the rlght to be equal before the law n
requlre that the State not only protect people from dlscrlmlnatlon from State
agents but also by prlvate entltles and persons. The duty of the State ls to
ensure that all human belngs en|oy rlghts equally and wlthout dlscrlmlnatlon.
Prohlbltlons agalnst raclal dlscrlmlnatlon are a peremptory norm of lnterna-
tlonal law (jus rccrs) from whlch no derogatlon ls permltted,
The prlnclples of equallty before the law and non-dlscrlmlnatlon authorlse n
dlfferentlal treatment, and dlstlnctlons for certaln categorles of lndlvlduals,
vls--vls certaln rlghts and freedoms, such as mlnors, the lndlgenous, allens,
non-cltlzens etc. 0lfferentlal treatment ls only permlsslble where lt ls founded
on reasonable and ob|ectlve crlterla and must have a legltlmate purpose.
0lfferentlal treatment or dlstlnctlon that lacks ob|ectlve and reasonable |ustl-
flcatlon or does not have a legltlmate purpose ls dlscrlmlnatory.
"S]cxucl cricrtcticr .] is cr csscrticlly privctc ncri-
jcstcticr cj huncr pcrscrclity".
-Furopean Court of human klghts
zz
ttt. 1he Right te Private LiIe
:. Lega| nature and scepe
The "rlght to prlvate llfe" ls protected by many lnternatlonal human rlghts lnstru-
ments.
zz6
The rlght ls vlolated lf an lndlvldual's prlvacy ls lnterfered wlth elther
unlawfully or lawfully but arbltrarlly. The lrtcrrcticrcl Ccvcrcrt cr Civil crJ Pclitircl
kihts (lCCPk) prohlblts "arbltrary or unlawful lnterference wlth a person's] prlvacy,
famlly, home or correspondence" and grants "the rlght to the protectlon of the law
agalnst such lnterference".
zz,
Thls standard ls repeated ln the Ccrvcrticr cr thc
kihts cj thc ChilJ, the lrtcrrcticrcl Ccrvcrticr cr thc Prctcrticr cj thc kihts cj
All Mircrt wcrkcrs crJ Mcnbcrs cj 1hcir Fcnilics, the Ccrvcrticr cr thc kihts cj
Pcrscrs with 0iscbilitics, the Furcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts, thc Ancrircr
Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts, the Arcb Chcrtcr cr huncr kihts, and the Ajrircr
Chcrtcr cr thc kihts crJ wcljcrc cj thc ChilJ.
zzS
The Ajrircr Chcrtcr cr huncr crJ
Pccplcs kihts ls the only reglonal lnstrument that says nothlng about prlvacy or
freedom from State lnterference ln the famlly.
zz
The rlght to prlvate llfe ls a broad umbrella coverlng irtcr clic lntegrlty of the home,
body and famlly, the determlnatlon and development of one's own personallty,
personal ldentlty and lnter-personal relatlonshlps. The lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon
zz. }udgment of z, September 1, Case of Snith crJ CrcJy v. thc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho. S]6
and S6]6, para. 1z,.
zz6. ln addltlon to the lnstruments clted above, thls rlght ls found ln the unlversal 0eclaratlon of human klghts
(Artlcle 1z), 0eclaratlon on the human klghts of lndlvlduals who are not hatlonals of the Country ln whlch
They Llve (Artlcle ), unlted hatlons Standard Mlnlmum kules for hon-custodlal Measures (The Tokyo kules)
(kule .11), unlted hatlons kules for the Protectlon of }uvenlles 0eprlved of thelr Llberty (kules z, , 6o
and S,), unlted hatlons Standard Mlnlmum kules for the Admlnlstratlon of }uvenlle }ustlce ("The 8el|lng
kules") (kule S), unlted hatlons Prlnclples for 0lder Persons (Prlnclple 1), Prlnclples for the protectlon of
persons wlth mental lllness and the lmprovement of mental health care (Prlnclple 1), Amerlcan 0eclaratlon
on the klghts and 0utles of Man (Artlcle vl), Prlnclples and 0uldellnes on the klght to a Falr Trlal and Legal
Asslstance ln Afrlca (Prlnclple h (h)), Furopean Conventlon for the Protectlon of lndlvlduals wlth regard to
Automatlc Processlng of Personal 0ata (Artlcle 1), Charter of Fundamental klghts of the Furopean unlon
(Artlcle ,), and the Calro 0eclaratlon on human klghts ln lslam (Artlcle 1S.b).
zz,. lCCPk, Artlcle 1,.
zzS. Conventlon on the klghts of the Chlld, Artlcle 16, lnternatlonal Conventlon on the Protectlon of the klghts
of All Mlgrant workers and Members of Thelr Famllles, Artlcle 1, Conventlon on the klghts of Persons wlth
0lsabllltles, Artlcle zz (whlch also requlres the protectlon of "the prlvacy of personal, health and rehablllta-
tlon lnformatlon of persons wlth dlsabllltles on an equal basls wlth others"), Amerlcan Conventlon on human
klghts, Artlcle 11, Arab Charter on human klghts, Artlcle z1, and Afrlcan Charter on the klghts and welfare
of the Chlld, Artlcle 1o.
zz. Afrlcan Charter on human and Peoples' klghts, Artlcles 1S, z,, and zS.
on human klghts has stated that, "the rlght to prlvacy guarantees that each lndl-
vldual has a sphere lnto whlch no one can lntrude, a zone of actlvlty whlch ls wholly
one's own. ln thls sense, varlous guarantees throughout the Amerlcan] Conventlon
whlch protect the sanctlty of the person create zones of prlvacy".
zo
An exhaustlve
defnltlon of the notlon of "prlvate llfe" ls lmposslble to achleve, as the Furopean
Court of human klghts has observed:
"it wculJ bc tcc rcstrirtivc tc linit thc rcticr tc cr irrcr rirrlc ir whirh thc
irJiviJucl ncy livc his cwr pcrscrcl lijc cs hc rhccscs crJ tc cxrluJc thcrc
jrcn crtircly thc cutsiJc wcrlJ rct crrcnpcsscJ withir thct rirrlc. kcspcrt
jcr privctc lijc nust clsc rcnprisc tc c rcrtcir Jcrcc thc riht tc cstcblish
crJ Jcvclcp rclcticrships with cthcr huncr bcirs".
z1
The Furopean Court has also polnted out that the rlght to prlvacy "can sometlmes
embrace aspects of an lndlvldual's physlcal and soclal ldentlty. .] F]or example,
gender ldentlfcatlon, name and sexual orlentatlon and sexual llfe fall wlthln the
personal sphere protected by Artlcle S of the Furopean Conventlon on human
klghts]".
zz
Addltlonal outllnes of the scope of the rlght to prlvate llfe have been drawn by the
human klghts Commlttee, whlch has polnted out that "the notlon of prlvacy refers to
the sphere of a person's llfe ln whlch he or she can freely express hls or her ldentlty,
be lt by enterlng lnto relatlonshlp wlth others or alone".
z
Treaty bodles and lnternatlonal courts have found vlolatlons of the rlght to prlvacy ln
a great varlety of sltuatlons, lncludlng arbltrary or unlawful entry lnto prlvate homes
by law enforcement,
z
State lnterference wlth women's reproductlve freedom,
z

non-consensual or coerclve unnecessary testlng for hlv,
z6
fallure to protect women
agalnst rape,
z,
undue lnterference wlth prlsoners' correspondence,
zS
arbltrary
refusal to grant name changes,
z
permlttlng the constructlon of tourlst develop-
zo. keport ho. S]6 of 1 0ctober 16, Case ho. 1o.o6, X c (Arcrtirc), para. 1.
z1. }udgment of 16 0ecember 1z, Case of Nicnitz v. Ccrncry, Appllcatlon ho. 1,1o]SS, para. z .
zz. }udgment of z Aprll zooz, Case of Prctty v. 1hc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho. z6]oz, para. 61.
z. human klghts Commlttee, vlews of 1 0ctober 1, Case of A.k.Cccricl crJ M.A.k. Aurik v. 1hc NcthcrlcrJs,
Communlcatlon ho. ]11, para. 1o,z.
z. human klghts Commlttee, vlews of z 0ctober zooz, Case of Ccrcrcl ct cl. v. Cclcnbic, Communlcatlon
ho. ,,S]1, ln uh 0oc. CCPk]C],6]0],,S]1,.
z. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 28: Fquclity cj rihts bctwccr ncr crJ wcncr (Artirlc
|, para. zo.
z6. Furopean Court of }ustlce, }udgment of 0ctober 1, Case of X v. Ccnnissicr cj thc Furcpccr
Ccnnuritics, FC} Case C-o]z-P, paras. 1-z1 and z.
z,. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 28, (Artirlc |, para. zo.
zS. human klghts Commlttee, vlews of z March 1S, Case of Miucl Arcl Fstrcllc v. uruucy, Communlcatlon
ho. ,]1So, para. .z.
z. human klghts Commlttee, Case of A.k. Cccricl crJ M.A.k. Aurik v. 1hc NcthcrlcrJs, Jcr. rit., paras. 1o.z-
1o..
ments on lndlgenous peoples' ancestral burlal grounds,
zo
customs regulatlons
prohlbltlng the lmportatlon of properly prescrlbed drugs for personal use,
z1
and
the unwarranted destructlon of homes durlng mllltary operatlons,
zz
among many
others.
z. 5tates' eb|igatien te pretect the right te private |iIe
The State's competent leglslatlve, admlnlstratlve and |udlclal authorltles are obllged
to guarantee the rlght to prlvate llfe. The human klghts Commlttee has observed that
the "obllgatlons lmposed by .] artlcle 1, of the lCCPk] requlre the State to adopt
leglslatlve and other measures to glve effect to the prohlbltlon agalnst arbltrary
or unlawful] lnterferences and attacks as well as to the protectlon of thls rlght".
z

These obllgatlons requlre States to "address the actlvltles of prlvate persons or
entltles, lncludlng] the prlvacy-related guarantees of artlcle 1,, whlch] must be
protected by law".
z
Further, "p]rovlslon must also be made for everyone effectlvely
to be able to protect hlmself agalnst any unlawful attacks that do occur and to have
an effectlve remedy agalnst those responslble".
z
lnternatlonal human rlghts bodles and courts have held on a number of occaslons
that, ln addltlon to the prlmary obllgatlon of refralnlng from arbltrary lnterference
ln prlvate llfe, respect for prlvacy may also entall posltlve obllgatlons. The lnter-
Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts has observed:
"c]rtirlcs 1 crJ 2 cj thc Ccrvcrticr cstcblish cr cblicticr tc crsurc thc
rihts prctcrtcJ by thc Ccrvcrticr, crJ rcquirc thct thc Stctc Pcrtics cJcpt
surh lcislctivc cr cthcr nccsurcs cs ncy bc rcrcsscry tc ivc cjjcrt tc
thcsc rihts (rcrcrizcJ ir thc Ccrvcrticr| cr jrccJcns .]. ArrcrJirly,
cll thc Stctcs Pcrtics tc thc Ccrvcrticr hcvc cr cblicticr tc crsurc thct
thcsc rihts crc cJcquctcly crJ cjjcrtivcly prctcrtcJ by thcir Jcncstir lccl
systcns .] . urJcr thc Ccrvcrticr thc Stctc .] hcs c pcsitivc cblicticr tc
prctcrt pcrscrs withir its jurisJirticr jrcn viclcticrs cj thc riht tc privcry
crJ, whcrcvcr thct riht is brccrhcJ, tc prcviJc rcncJics thct crc prcnpt,
zo. human klghts Commlttee, vlews of z 0ecember of 1,, Case of Frcrris hcpu crJ 1cpccitu 8csscrt v.
Frcrrc, Communlcatlon ho. ]1, para. 1o..
z1. Furopean Court of }ustlce, }udgment of S Aprll 1z, Case of Ccnnissicr cj thc Furcpccr Ccnnuritics v.
FcJcrcl kcpublir cj Ccrncry, Case C-6z]o.
zz. Furopean Court of human klghts, }udgment of z Aprll 1S, Case of Scluk crJ Askcr v. 1urkcy, Appllcatlon
ho. 1z]1,],6]S- paras. S6-S,, lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts, }udgment of 1 }uly zoo6,
Case of ltucrc Mcsscrrcs v. Cclcnbic, paras. 1z-1,.
z. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 16, (Artirlc 1;|, 1hc riht tc rcspcrt cj privcry, jcnily, hcnc
crJ rcrrcspcrJcrrc, crJ prctcrticr cj hcrcur crJ rcputcticr, para. 1.
z. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 1, Ncturc cj thc Ccrcrcl lccl 0blicticr lnpcscJ cr
Stctcs Pcrtics, para. S.
z. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 16, para. 11.
cjjcrtivc crJ cJcquctc tc rcJrcss cry irjury rcuscJ by c viclcticr cj thct
riht".
z6
The Furopean Court of human klghts malntalns a slmllar vlew. The Court has:
"hclJ cr c runbcr cj crrcsicrs thct, clthcuh thc csscrticl cbjcrt cj Artirlc
8 is tc prctcrt thc irJiviJucl ccirst crbitrcry irtcrjcrcrrc by thc publir
cuthcritics, thcrc ncy ir cJJiticr bc pcsitivc cblicticrs irhcrcrt ir cr
cjjcrtivc rcspcrt jcr privctc lijc, clbcit subjcrt tc thc Stctcs ncrir cj cpprc-
ricticr, .] . lr Jctcrnirir whcthcr cr rct surh cr cblicticr cxists, rccrJ
nust bc hcJ tc thc jcir bclcrrc thct hcs tc bc strurk bctwccr thc crcrcl
irtcrcst crJ thc irtcrcsts cj thc irJiviJucl".
z,
Courts and treaty bodles sometlmes seem reluctant to concede a vlolatlon of the
rlght to prlvacy when a vlolatlon of a dlfferent rlght ln the same lnstrument has
also been breached. For example, ln the case of Mcritzc urrutic v. Cuctcnclc, the
petltloner and her famlly suffered from survelllance and pollce harassment before
she became a polltlcal prlsoner. Subsequently, when lmprlsoned she then suffered
vlolatlons of her correspondence and was forced to make false publlc confesslons.
The lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts found that those actlons all vlolated
the provlslons of the treaty grantlng the rlght to humane treatment whlle ln deten-
tlon, and decllned to dlscuss the lssue of prlvacy.
zS
Slmllarly, after the Furopean
Court of human klghts ruled that the deportatlon of an hlv-posltlve prlsoner to St.
Kltts would amount to cruel and lnhuman treatment under Artlcle , due to lack of
medlcal facllltles avallable and absence of famlly support, the Court found that hls
prlvacy rlght to "bodlly lntegrlty" also at rlsk, "ralsed no separate lssue" and dld
not conslder lt.
z
The uh human klghts Commlttee may have attempted a dellneatlon of the outer
contours of the rlght to prlvacy when lt observed that, "as all persons llve ln soclety,
the protectlon of prlvacy ls necessarlly relatlve. however, the competent publlc
authorltles should only be able to call for such lnformatlon relatlng to an lndlvldual's
prlvate llfe when] the knowledge of whlch ls essentlal ln the lnterests of soclety as
understood under the Covenant".
zo
z6. keport ho. 11]6 of z May 16, Case 11.zo (Chlle), paras. 66 and 6,.
z,. }udgment of 1, 0ctober 1S6, Case of kccs v. thc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon no. z]S1, paras. , ,.
zS. }udgment of z, hovember zoo, Case of Mcritzc urrutic v. Cuctcnclc.
z. }udgment of z May 1,, Case of 0. v. 1hc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho. 16]16],6,]6, para. 6.
zo. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 16, Jcr. rit., para. ,.
y. Arbitrary er un|awIu| restrictiens en er interIerence with the
right te private |iIe
under lnternatlonal human rlghts law, the rlght to prlvacy ls a non-absolute rlght
whlch can be restrlcted ln tlmes of normallty, as well as ln tlmes of emergency.
however, human rlghts that are sub|ect to lawful llmltatlon (lncludlng ln tlmes of
emergency) can never be deemed to have dlsappeared: derogatlon does not mean
obllteratlon.
z1
ln tlmes of normallty any restrlctlons or lnterference must be sub|ect to law and not
arbltrary. The human klghts Commlttee has deemed that an lnterference or restrlc-
tlon may be permltted only lf essentlal to the lnterests of soclety, and lf natlonal
leglslatlon speclfes ln detall the preclse clrcumstances ln whlch such lnterference
or restrlctlon ls to occur.
zz
Furthermore, lnterference must "be ln accordance wlth
the provlslons, alms and ob|ectlves of the lCCPk] and be reasonable ln the partlcular
clrcumstances of the case".
z
The human klghts Commlttee has consldered that "arbltrary lnterference" wlth the
rlght to prlvacy can lnclude lnterference provlded for under the law. The Commlttee
has stated that the monltorlng or censorshlp of communlcatlons should be sub|ect
to satlsfactory legal safeguards agalnst thelr arbltrary appllcatlon, lncludlng |udlclal
overslght. Searches of a person's home should be restrlcted to a search for neces-
sary evldence and should not be allowed to amount to harassment. ln the case of
personal or body searches, States must take effectlve measures to ensure that such
searches are carrled out ln a manner conslstent wlth the dlgnlty of the person who ls
belng searched. Monltorlng of phone, emall and fax communlcatlons of lndlvlduals,
both wlthln and outslde a State, wlthout any |udlclal or other lndependent over-
slght, ralses serlous questlons about thelr compatlblllty wlth the rlght to an effectlve
remedy and the rlght to prlvacy (Artlcles z() and 1, of the lCCPk).
z
The Furopean Court of human klghts has sald that a State has a duty not to lnter-
fere wlth lts sub|ects' prlvacy except ln strlctly llmlted clrcumstances prescrlbed
by law that are ln the publlc lnterest, have a legltlmate alm and are necessary ln
z1. hlcole uestlaux, Speclal kapporteur of the former uh Sub-Commlsslon, StuJy jcr thc inplircticrs jcr
huncr rihts cj rcrcrt Jcvclcpncrts rcrrcrrir situcticrs krcwr cs stctcs cj sicc cr cncrcrry, uh
0oc F]Ch.]Sub.z]1Sz]1, para. 1z.
zz. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 16, Jcr. rit., para. S.
z. human klghts Commlttee, vlews of 1 hovember zoo, Case of Artcrius Ccrrclis vcr hulst v. 1hc NcthcrlcrJs,
Communlcatlon ho. o]1, para. ,.. See also: human klghts Commlttee, vlews of Aprll zoo1, Case of
kcjccl ArncrJc kcjcs Ccrric v. Cclcnbic, Communlcatlon 6S,]16, and human klghts Commlttee, vlews
of Aprll 1,, Case of Cicsuc Ccrcpc v. CcrcJc, Communlcatlon ho. S]1, para. 11..
z. CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc huncr kihts Ccnnittcc: uritcJ Stctcs cj Ancrirc, Jcr. rit., para. z1.
a democratlc soclety.
z
The Furopean Commlsslon on human klghts goes further
by outllnlng that a State may lnterfere wlth prlvate llfe only when "the lndlvldual
hlmself brlngs hls prlvate llfe lnto contact wlth publlc llfe or lnto close connectlon
wlth other protected lnterests".
z6
The lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts
and the lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts conslder that ln cases of rlghts, such
as the rlght to prlvacy, for whlch the Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts does not
provlde rules establlshlng or llmltlng States' ablllty to restrlct them, then the rlghts
are sub|ect to restrlctlon under the Artlcle z (z) of the Conventlon, whlch states
that "the rlghts of each person are llmlted by the rlghts of others, by the securlty
of all, and by the |ust demands of the general welfare ln a democratlc soclety".
The lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts has polnted out that restrlctlons on
the rlghts protected ln the Conventlon "must meet certaln substantlve condltlons
whlch depend upon the legltlmacy of the ends that such restrlctlons are deslgned to
accompllsh".
z,
ln the same veln, the lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts
has polnted out that:
"c]rtirlc 11.2 cj thc Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr] spcrijirclly prchibits crbitrcry
cr cbusivc irtcrjcrcrrc with this riht. 1his prcvisicr irJirctcs thct ir cJJi-
ticr tc thc rcrJiticr cj lcclity, whirh shculJ clwcys bc cbscrvcJ whcr
c rcstrirticr is inpcscJ cr thc rihts cj thc Ccrvcrticr, thc stctc hcs c
spcricl cblicticr tc prcvcrt crbitrcry cr cbusivc irtcrjcrcrrcs. 1hc rcticr
cj crbitrcry irtcrjcrcrrc rcjcrs tc clcncrts cj irjustirc, urprcJirtcbility crJ
urrccscrcblcrcss".
zS
. 5exua| 0rientatien and Cender tdentity and the right te privacy
The scope of prlvacy may be organlsed as declslonal, relatlonal and zonal.
z

0eclslonal prlvacy refers to lntlmate and personal cholces ln an lndlvldual's llfe
that are central to personal dlgnlty and autonomy. kelatlonal prlvacy speaks to
the connectlons made through famlly, marrlage or procreatlon, whlle zonal prlvacy
relates to actlvltles that occur wlthln the home. The uh human klghts Commlttee,
ln the case of 1ccrcr v. Austrclic, artlculated a declslonal theory of prlvacy, encom-
passlng an adult's lntlmate and prlvate declslon whether to engage ln sexual conduct
wlth a same-sex partner. The Commlttee ruled that "l]n as far as artlcle 1, of the
z. See for example, }udgment of z Aprll 1o, Case of huvi v. Frcrrc, }udgment of zS }une 1S, Case of
Ccnpbcll crJ Fcll v. 1hc uritcJ kirJcn, }udgment of 2p April 2cc2, Case of Prctty v. 1hc uritcJ kirJcn,
Appllcatlon ho. z6]oz, and }udgment of 1, Aprll zoo, Case of ilncz v. Ccrncry, Appllcatlon ho.
zS].
z6. Furopean Commlsslon on human klghts keport, 1,,, 8rucncrr crJ Srhcutcr v. thc FcJcrcl kcpublir
cj Ccrncry.
z,. Advlsory 0plnlon 0C-]S, Ccnpulscry Mcnbcrship ir cr Asscricticr PrcsrribcJ by lcw jcr thc Prcrtirc
cj /currclisn (Artirlcs. 1 crJ 2p Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts|, 1 of hovember 1S, Serles A
ho. , para. ,.
zS. keport ho. S]6 of 1 0ctober 16, Case 1o.o6, Ms X v. (Arcrtirc), para. z.
z. See Mary koblnson amlcus brlef ln lcwrcrrc v. 1cxcs at: http:]]hrw.org]press]zoo]o,]amlcusbrlef.pdf
lCCPk] ls concerned, lt ls undlsputed that adult consensual sexual actlvlty ln prlvate
ls covered by the concept of 'prlvacy'".
z6o
The human klghts Commlttee reasoned
that the crlmlnallsatlon of homosexual practlces cannot be consldered a reasonable
means or proportlonate measure to achleve the alm of preventlng the spread of hlv]
Al0S and dlsmlssed the argument that the matters consldered were "moral lssues"
that were excluslvely of "domestlc concerns".
z61
Thls declslon has formed the basls
for protectlon of S00l wlthln the |urlsprudence and doctrlne of the uh human rlghts
system and especlally ln respect of decrlmlnallsatlon of laws crlmlnallslng homosex-
uallty.
z6z
The 1ccrcr case dld not however, address all aspects of declslonal prlvacy.
A broader scope of declslonal prlvacy was examlned ln A.k. Cccricl crJ M.A.k. Aurik
v. 1hc NcthcrlcrJs when the human klghts Commlttee observed that:
"thc rcticr cj privcry rcjcrs tc thc sphcrc cj c pcrscrs lijc ir whirh hc cr
shc rcr jrccly cxprcss his cr hcr iJcrtity, bc it by crtcrir irtc rclcticrships
with cthcrs cr clcrc. 1hc Ccnnittcc is cj thc vicw thct c pcrscrs surrcnc
rcrstitutcs cr inpcrtcrt rcnpcrcrt cj crcs iJcrtity crJ thct thc prctcr-
ticr ccirst crbitrcry cr urlcwjul irtcrjcrcrrc with crcs privcry irrluJcs
thc prctcrticr ccirst crbitrcry cr urlcwjul irtcrjcrcrrc with thc riht tc
rhccsc crJ rhcrc crcs cwr rcnc".
z6
0omestlc courts have also developed notlons of declslonal prlvacy. The Constl-
tu tlonal Court of Colombla, conslderlng both the lCCPk and the Colomblan
Constltutlon, arrlved at a declslonal theory of prlvacy as regards sexual orlenta-
tlon, holdlng that:
"s]cxuclity, whcthcr hctcrcscxucl cr hcncscxucl, is cr csscrticl clcncrt cj
huncrs crJ thcir psyrhc crJ, thcrcjcrc, is irrluJcJ ir thc brccJcr jrcnc-
wcrk cj scricbility. 1hc jull rcrstituticrcl prctcrticr cj thc irJiviJucl, ir
thc jcrn cj thc rihts tc pcrscrclity, crJ its jrcc Jcvclcpncrt (Cclcnbicr
Ccrstituticr, Artirlcs 1 crJ 16| irrluJcs ir its csscrticl rcrc thc prcrcss
cj cutcrcncus cssunpticr crJ Jcrisicr rccrJir crcs cwr scxuclity.
lt wculJ bc scrsclcss ij scxucl sclj-Jctcrnircticr wcrc tc rcncir cutsiJc
thc linits cj thc rihts tc pcrscrclity, crJ its jrcc Jcvclcpncrt, ivcr thct
iJcrtity crJ scxucl rcrJurt crrupy ir thc Jcvclcpncrt cj thc pcrscr crJ
z6o. vlews of 1 March 1, Case of Nirhclcs 1ccrcr v. Austrclic, Communlcatlon ho. SS]1z, para. S.z, ln
uh 0oc. CCPk]C]o]0]SS]1z of Aprll 1.
z61. lbiJ., para. S..
z6z. See lnternatlonal Commlsslon of }urlsts, lrtcrrcticrcl huncr kihts kcjcrcrrcs tc huncr kihts
viclcticrs cr thc CrcurJs cj Scxucl 0ricrtcticr crJ CcrJcr lJcrtity at http:]]www.lc|.org]news.php!ld_
artlcle=6S,&lang=en. See ln partlcular: See Country observatlons of the human klghts Commlttee (lC}
Compllatlon rd ed) (Concludlng observatlons on: 0reece, CCPk]C0]S]0kC, 1 March zoo, para. 1,
Kenya, CCPk]C0]S]KFh, zS March zoo, para. z,, hamlbla, CCPk]C0]S1]hAM, o }uly zoo, para. zz,
Fgypt, CCPk]C0],6]F0, zS hovember zooz, para. 1, unlted Klngdom of 0reat 8rltaln and horthern lreland,
CCPk]C],]Add.11, z, March zooo, para. 1, Poland CCPk]C],]Add.11o, z}uly 1, para. z, komanla
CCPk]C],]Add.111, zS }uly 1, para. 16, and Chlle, CCPk]C],]Add.1o, o March 1, para. zo).
z6. vlews of 1 0ctober 1, Case of A.k. Cccricl crJ M.A.k. Aurik v. 1hc NcthcrlcrJs, Communlcatlon ho.
]11, para. 1o.z.
ir thc urjclJir cj his libcrty crJ cutcrcny surh c rcrtrcl crJ Jcrisivc
plcrc".
z6
The South Afrlcan Constltutlonal Court has arrlved at a theory of prlvacy ln sexuallty
that lncludes both declslonal and relatlonal elements. lt states:
"p]rivcry rcrcriscs thct wc cll hcvc c riht tc c sphcrc cj privctc irtincry
crJ cutcrcny whirh cllcws us tc cstcblish crJ rurturc huncr rclcticrships
withcut irtcrjcrcrrc jrcn thc cutsiJc rcnnurity. 1hc wcy ir whirh wc ivc
cxprcssicr tc cur scxuclity is ct thc rcrc cj this crcc cj privctc irtincry. lj,
ir cxprcssir cur scxuclity, wc crt rcrscrsuclly crJ withcut hcrnir crc
crcthcr, irvcsicr cj thct prcrirrt will bc c brccrh cj cur privcry".
z6
The lnter-Amerlcan system has not, as yet, been used to press any lssue of declslonal
prlvacy ln relatlon to sexual orlentatlon. however, the lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon
on human klghts dld declare admlsslble a case that, whlle ultlmately not movlng
forward, declared that a law prohlbltlng same-sex partners from lntlmate prlson
vlslts, whlle allowlng heterosexual ones, "could lnvolve, irtcr clic, a vlolatlon
of Artlcle 11(z) of the Amerlcan Conventlon ln so far as they could constltute an
arbltrary or abuslve lnterference wlth a lesblan petltloner's] prlvate llfe".
z66
The
lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon has developed a broad vlew of the rlght to prlvate llfe,
notlng that:
"t]hc rcquircncrts cj Artirlc 11 cj thc Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr cr huncr
kihts] crrcnpcss c rcrc cj jcrtcrs pcrtcirir tc thc Jirity cj thc irJi-
viJucl, irrluJir, jcr cxcnplc, thc cbility tc pursuc thc Jcvclcpncrt cj
crcs pcrscrclity crJ cspircticrs, Jctcrnirc crcs iJcrtity, crJ Jcjirc crcs
pcrscrcl rclcticrships".
z6,
The Furopean Court of human klghts ls the most developed human rlghts body on
the lssue of sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty vls--vls of the rlght to prlvacy.
z6S

The Furopean Court has utlllsed several opportunltles to reaffrm that "t]here can be
z6. }udgment ho. C-oS]6 of , March 16 (0rlglnal ln Spanlsh, free translatlon). The |udgment ls avallable at
http:]]www.unlllbrebaq.edu.co]html]provldenclas]C-oS-6.htm
z6. }udgment of 0ctober 1S, Ncticrcl Cccliticr cj Ccy 8 lcsbicr Fquclity crJ Arcthcr v. Miristcr cj /ustirc
crJ cthcrs, Ccsc CCT11]S, para. z.
z66. keport ho. ,1] (Admlsslblllty) of May 1, Case 11.66, Mcrtc luric lvcrcz CirclJc (Cclcnbic|, para.
z1.
z6,. keport ho. ]o1 of 1 }anuary zoo1, case 11.6z, Mcric Fucric Mcrclcs Jc Sicrrc (Cuctcnclc|, para. 6.
z6S. See irtcr clic: }udgment of zz 0ctober 1S1, Case of 0uJccr v. thc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho.
,z],6, }udgment of z6 0ctober 1SS, Case of Ncrris v. lrclcrJ, Appllcatlon ho. 1oS1]S, }udgment of zz
Aprll 1, Case of McJircs v. Cyprus, Appllcatlon ho. 1o,o]S, }udgment of }anuary zoo, Case of S.l.
v. Austric, Appllcatlon ho. o], }udgment of z, September 1, Case of lusti-Prccr crJ 8crkctt v.
thc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho. 11,]6 and z,,]6, }udgment of 1 February 1,, Case of lcskcy,
/ccrJ crJ 8rcwr v. uritcJ kirJcn, Applircticr Nc. 16z,], z1Sz6] and z1,], }udgment on 11
}uly zooz, Case of Christirc CccJwir v. thc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho. zS,], }udgment of 1z }une
of zoo, Case of vcr kbrk v. Ccrncry, Appllcatlon ho. 6S],, and }udgment of 16 0ecember 1z, Case
of Nicnictz v. Ccrncry, Appllcatlon ho. 1,1o]SS.
no doubt that sexual orlentatlon and actlvlty concern an lntlmate aspect of prlvate
llfe".
z6
The case of 0uJccr v. 1hc uritcJ kirJcn typlfes the approach of the
Furopean Court of human klghts ln lts cases deallng wlth prlvacy and sexual orlenta-
tlon. 0udgeon was a -year-old gay man who llved ln horthern lreland. The pollce
vlslted hls home on a drugs lnvestlgatlon concernlng a thlrd party and selzed gay
llterature and paraphernalla belonglng to hlm. Llable to prosecutlon under exlstlng
buggery laws ln horthern lreland he challenged the laws. The Furopean Court held
under Artlcle S of the Furcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts that the buggery laws
constltuted an lnterference wlth a "most lntlmate part of prlvate llfe". ln the 0udgeon
case, the Court reasoned that:
"thc ncirtcrcrrc ir jcrrc cj thc inpurcJ lcislcticr rcrstitutcs c rcrtir-
uir irtcrjcrcrrc with thc cpplircrts riht tc rcspcrt jcr his privctc lijc
(whirh irrluJcs his scxucl lijc| withir thc nccrir cj Artirlc 8. .] 1]hc vcry
cxistcrrc cj this lcislcticr rcrtirucusly crJ Jircrtly cjjcrts 0uJccrs]
privctc lijc: cithcr hc rcspcrts thc lcw crJ rcjrcirs jrcn crcir - cvcr ir
privctc with rcrscrtir nclc pcrtrcrs - ir prchibitcJ scxucl crts tc whirh
hc is JispcscJ by rccscr cj his hcncscxucl tcrJcrrics, cr hc rcnnits surh
crts crJ thcrcby bcrcncs licblc tc rrinircl prcscruticr".
z,o
The Court accordlngly found a breach of Artlcle S. The reasonlng ln 0uJccr was
affrmed by the Furopean Court ln the later cases of Ncrris v. lrclcrJ
z,1
and McJircs
v. Cyprus.
z,z
The Furopean Court also found that there was a vlolatlon of the rlght
to prlvacy ln con|unctlon wlth the rlght agalnst dlscrlmlnatlon ln S.l. v. Austric,
z,

where the Court consldered the questlon of crlmlnal sanctlons and a hlgher age of
consent for male homosexuals.
The Furopean Court's conceptlon of the normatlve scope of prlvacy at frst seemed
hard-pressed to do more than trump buggery laws and lncorporate protectlon of
the publlc manlfestatlons of prlvate llfe. The case of lusti-Prccr crJ 8crkctt v. thc
uritcJ kirJcn
z,
(1S years after 0uJccr), concernlng the rlght of gay persons
to serve ln the mllltary, marked a slgnlfcant development ln the use of the prlvacy
concept to protect the sexual orlentatlon of persons ln not merely the lnner clrcle
of thelr prlvate llfe but ln professlonal or buslness aspects of llfe and relatlonshlps.
uslng Artlcle S of the Furcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts, the Court felled laws
that excluded gays and lesblans from the mllltary and opened an lnterpretatlon of
z6. }udgment of zz 0ctober 1S1, Case of 0uJccr v. thc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho. ,z],6, para. z.
See also, }udgment of 1 February 1,, Case of lcskcy, /ccrJ crJ 8rcwr v. uritcJ kirJcn, Applircticr
Nc. 16z,], z1Sz6] and z1,], para. 6.
z,o. }udgment of zz 0ctober 1S1, Case of 0uJccr v. thc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho. ,z],6, para. 1.
z,1. }udgment of z6 0ctober 1SS, Case of Ncrris v. lrclcrJ, Appllcatlon ho. 1oS1]S.
z,z. }udgment of zz Aprll 1, Case of McJircs v. Cyprus, Appllcatlon ho. 1o,o]S.
z,. }udgment of }anuary zoo, Case of S l v. Austric, Appllcatlon ho. o], para. 6.
z,. }udgment of z, September 1, Case of lusti-Prccr crJ 8crkctt v. thc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho.
11,]6 and z,,]6.
prlvacy that envlsaged gay llfe behlnd closed doors and lnto the publlc reaches of
the gay experlence. lt may be sald that the Court was slow ln developlng a compre-
henslve normatlve framework for the development of gay rlghts - and the scope of
prlvacy - beyond the decrlmlnallsatlon of buggery.
ln relatlon to gender ldentlty, the Furopean Commlsslon on human klghts ruled
ln the case of 0. vcr 0cstcrwijk v. 8cliun, a case concernlng a transsexual who
wanted to have blrth certlfcate altered, that the rlght to respect for 'prlvate llfe' ls
the rlght to prlvacy, the rlght to llve as far as one wlshes, protected from publlclty. lt
also comprlses, to a certaln degree, the rlght to establlsh and develop relatlonshlps
wlth other human belngs especlally ln the emotlonal feld, for the development and
fulflment of one's own personallty.
z,
The Commlsslon found that the refusal of
8elglum to enable the reglsters of clvll status to refect lawful sex changes vlolated
the rlght to respect for prlvate llfe ln Artlcle S of the FChk.
z,6
Thls heralded the
Furopean Court of human klghts' approach ln the 0udgeon, horrls and Modlnos
cases, whlch concretlzed the scope of declslonal prlvacy under the Furcpccr
Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts.
The lssues of gender ldentlty have been best advanced ln the |urlsprudence of the
Furopean Court under Artlcle S (the rlght to respect for prlvate and famlly llfe) of
the Furopean Conventlon. The exlstlng |urlsprudence refects the Court's assess-
ment of a "contlnulng lnternatlonal trend" ln favour of gender ldentlty recognltlon.
lndeed, the Court has polnted out that lt, "attaches less lmportance to the lack of
evldence of a common Furopean approach to the resolutlon of the legal and prac-
tlcal problems posed, than to the clear and uncontested evldence of a contlnulng
lnternatlonal trend ln favour not only of lncreased soclal acceptance of transsexuals
but of legal recognltlon of the new sexual ldentlty of post-operatlve transsexuals".
z,,

As a result, the leadlng cases of Christirc CccJwir v. thc uritcJ kirJcn and vcr
kbrk v. Ccrncry represent lmportant advances ln the appllcatlon of the rlght to
prlvacy ln the area of gender ldentlty and expresslon. lmportantly, both cases
follow the declslonal prlvacy trend ln 0uJccr, deferrlng to notlons of "lntlmate
parts of prlvate llfe" and utlllslng language that speaks to personallty development
and "gender ldentlty". however, the requlrement that an appllcant must manlfest
z,. Furopean Commlsslon on human klghts, Case of 0. vcr 0cstcrwijk v. 8cliun, Appllcatlon ho ,6],6,
1,.
z,6. See also }udgment of 16 0ecember 1z, Case of Nicnictz v. Ccrncry, Appllcatlon ho. 1,1o]SS, ln whlch
the Court noted that respect for prlvate llfe lncludes rlght to "establlsh and develop relatlonshlps", both
personal and professlonal, para. z.
z,,. }udgment on 11 }uly zooz, Case of Christirc CccJwir v. thc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho. zS,],
para. S.
"gender ldentlty" as a medlcal concern ln order to prove lts authentlclty,
z,S
as well
as to demonstrate the capaclty for heterosexual performance ln order to prove a
successful gender transltlon, remalns troublesome.
z,
ln the case of Christirc CccJwir v. thc uritcJ kirJcn, the appllcant was a uK
cltlzen and a post-operatlve male-to-female transsexual.
zSo
She had marrled a
woman and had four chlldren, but remalned wlth the convlctlon that her "braln
sex" dld not ft her body. She underwent gender reasslgnment surgery at a hatlonal
health Servlce hospltal, provlded for and pald by the hatlonal health Servlce. The
appllcant dlvorced from her wlfe but contlnued to have a good relatlonshlp wlth
her chlldren.
Almost lmmedlately, she began to experlence a varlety of personal and bureaucratlc
challenges as a result of her gender reasslgnment. She clalmed that between 1o
and 1z she was sexually harassed by colleagues at work and was subsequently
dlsmlssed from her employment for reasons connected wlth her health, but alleged
that the real reason was that she was a transsexual. She found a new |ob but, as the
0cpcrtncrt cj Scricl Scrurity (0SS) decllned to lssue her a new hatlonal lnsurance
number, her employer was able to use the old number to trace her old ldentlty, and
she began to experlence problems at work. Colleagues stopped speaklng to her and
she was the vlctlm of mallclous gosslp. ln addltlon, the 0SS Contrlbutlons Agency
lnformed the appllcant that she would be lnellglble for a State penslon at the age
of 6o, the age of entltlement for women ln the unlted Klngdom. She was lnformed
that her penslon contrlbutlons would have to be contlnued untll the date at whlch
she reached the age of 6, belng the age of entltlement for men. her fles at the
0SS were marked "sensltlve" to ensure that only an employee of a partlcular grade
had access to her fles, requlrlng her to make ln-person appolntments to address
even the most trlvlal matters, and 0SS correspondence contlnued to use her old
name. She also had to forego opportunltles condltlonal upon her produclng her
blrth certlfcate, lncludlng a loan condltlonal upon llfe lnsurance, a re-mortgage
offer and an entltlement to a wlnter fuel allowance from the 0SS. She remalned
obllged to pay the hlgher motor lnsurance premlums appllcable to men. She also
dld not report a theft to the pollce for fear that the lnvestlgatlon would requlre her
to reveal her prlor ldentlty.
z,S. 0n thls lssue, the Furopean Court has consldered that "l]t is rct cppcrcrt tc thc Ccurt thct thc rhrcnc-
scncl clcncrt, cncrst cll thc cthcrs, nust ircvitcbly tckc cr Jcrisivc sirijircrrc jcr thc purpcscs cj
lccl cttributicr cj crJcr iJcrtity jcr trcrsscxucls.] 1hc Ccurt is rct pcrsucJcJ thcrcjcrc thct thc stctc cj
ncJircl sricrrc cr sricrtijir krcwlcJc prcviJcs cry Jctcrnirir cruncrt cs rccrJs thc lccl rcrcriticr
cj trcrsscxucls." (}udgment of 11 }uly zooz, Case of Christirc CccJwir v. thc uritcJ kirJcn, Jcr. rit., para.
S1.)
z,. For development of the ldea of that heterosexuallty goes hand-ln-hand wlth the rlght to recognltlon ln a]
new gender ln the |urlsprudence of the Furopean Court, see Susan Marks and Andrew Clapham, lrtcrrcticrcl
huncr kihts lcxircr, cp. rit., p. .
zSo. }udgment of 11 }uly zooz, Case of Christirc CccJwir v. thc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho. zS,].
0escrlblng the nature of the lnterference to prlvate llfe, the Court sald:
"t]hc strcss crJ clicrcticr crisir jrcn c JisrcrJcrrc bctwccr thc pcsi-
ticr ir scricty cssuncJ by c pcst-cpcrctivc trcrsscxucl crJ thc stctus
inpcscJ by lcw whirh rcjuscs tc rcrcrizc thc rhcrc cj crJcr rcrrct,
ir thc Ccurts vicw, bc rccrJcJ cs c nircr irrcrvcricrrc crisir jrcn c
jcrnclity. A rcrjlirt bctwccr scricl rcclity crJ lcw criscs whirh plcrcs thc
trcrsscxucl ir cr crcnclcus pcsiticr, ir whirh hc cr shc ncy cxpcricrrc
jcclirs cj vulrcrcbility, hunilicticr crJ crxicty.
"urJcr Artirlc 8 cj thc Ccrvcrticr ir pcrtirulcr, whcrc thc rcticr cj pcrscrcl
cutcrcny is cr inpcrtcrt prirriplc urJcrlyir thc irtcrprctcticr cj its
ucrcrtccs, prctcrticr is ivcr tc thc pcrscrcl sphcrc cj ccrh irJiviJucl,
irrluJir thc riht tc cstcblish Jctcils cj thcir iJcrtity cs irJiviJucl huncr
bcirs .] . lr thc twcrty jirst rcrtury thc riht cj trcrsscxucls tc pcrscrcl
Jcvclcpncrt crJ tc physircl crJ ncrcl scrurity ir thc jull scrsc crjcycJ
by cthcrs ir scricty rcrrct bc rccrJcJ cs c ncttcr cj rcrtrcvcrsy rcquirir
thc lcpsc cj tinc tc rcst rlccrcr liht cr thc issucs irvclvcJ".
zS1
ln the case of vcr kbrk v. Ccrncry,
zSz
the appllcant was a male-to-female transsexual
whose lnsurance company had denled coverage of medlcal expenses related to sex
reasslgnment. 0erman courts consldered the appllcant's llfe hlstory - lncludlng a
perlod of mllltary servlce, marrlage to a woman and an absence of transgender lden-
tlfcatlon durlng her youth - and concluded that the appllcant herself had caused
her transsexuallty and therefore the denlal of coverage was legltlmate.
zS
The Court's
declslon also expressed doubts about the medlcal valldlty and necesslty of sex
reasslgnment.
zS
Cltlng CccJwir among other cases, the Furopean Court of human
klghts found that "the very essence of the Conventlon belng respect for human
dlgnlty and human freedom, obllges that] protectlon ls glven to the rlght of transsex-
uals to personal development and to physlcal and moral securlty".
zS
The Court went
on to fnd that thls entalls a posltlve obllgatlon ln addltlon to the obllgatlon to refraln
from lnterferlng ln prlvacy.
zS6
The Court concluded that "the lmpact of the court decl-
slons on the appllcant's rlght to respect for her sexual self-determlnatlon as one of
the aspects of her rlght to respect for her prlvate llfe" amounted to a "fallure] to
dlscharge the State's posltlve obllgatlons and the] burden placed on a person to
prove the medlcal necesslty of treatment, lncludlng lrreverslble surgery, ln one of
zS1. }udgment of 11 }uly zooz, Case of Christirc CccJwir v. thc uritcJ kirJcn, Jcr. rit., paras. ,, and o.
zSz. }udgment of 1z }une of zoo, Case of vcr kbrk v. Ccrncry, Appllcatlon ho. 6S],.
zS. lbiJ., para. .
zS. lbiJ., para. .
zS. lbiJ., para. 6.
zS6. lbiJ., para. ,o.
the most lntlmate areas of prlvate llfe, appears dlsproportlonate."
zS,
Consequently
lt ruled a vlolatlon of Artlcle S of the Furopean Conventlon.
The Court has reaffrmed that the very essence of the Furopean Conventlon was
respect for human dlgnlty and freedom and that protectlon ls glven to the rlght of
transsexuals to personal development and to physlcal and moral securlty. ln thls
feld, the Court noted that the concept of "prlvate llfe" ls a broad term not suscep-
tlble to exhaustlve defnltlon and that lt covers the physlcal and psychologlcal
lntegrlty of a person.
zSS
Thls can also entall aspects of an lndlvldual's physlcal and
soclal ldentlty,
zS
such as gender ldentlfcatlon.
.: Cemparative pub|ic |aw and the right te privacy
}ustlce 8lackmun, ln hls dlssent ln the now-overruled case of 8cwcrs v. hcrJwirk
zo

before the uS Supreme Court, oplned that the "rlght to be left alone" should be
seen not slmply as a negatlve rlght to occupy a prlvate space free from government
lntruslon (or zonal prlvacy), but as a rlght to get on wlth one's llfe, express person-
allty and make fundamental declslons about one's lntlmate relatlonshlps wlthout
penallsatlon. ln dlscusslng thls notlon of prlvacy ln Ncticrcl Cccliticr cj Ccy crJ
lcsbicr Fquclity v. Miristcr cj /ustirc,
z1
}ustlces ln the South Afrlcan Constltutlonal
Court explalned that "there ls no good reason why the concept of prlvacy should, (as
was suggested), be restrlcted slmply to seallng off from State control what happens
ln the bedroom, wlth the doleful sub-text that you may behave as blzarrely or shame-
fully as you llke, on the understandlng that you do so ln prlvate".
zz
lnstead, the
Court explalned that the scope of prlvacy recognlses that we all have a rlght to a
sphere of prlvate lntlmacy and autonomy that allows us to establlsh and nurture
human relatlonshlps wlthout lnterference from the outslde communlty. The way ln
whlch we glve expresslon to our sexuallty, the Court reasoned, ls at the core of thls
area of prlvate lntlmacy. lf, ln expresslng our sexuallty, we act consensually and
wlthout harmlng one another, lnvaslon of that preclnct wlll be a breach of the rlght
to prlvacy.
}ustlce 8lackmun also noted the contentlon that the concept of prlvacy dld not
contemplate a comprehenslve normatlve framework that addresses dlscrlmlnatlon
agalnst gays ln both the prlvate and publlc component of the llved experlence. The
South Afrlcan Constltutlonal Court however reasoned that these concerns were
based on an unnecessary and artlfclally constructed contest between prlvacy and
zS,. lbiJ., paras. ,, ,S and Sz.
zSS. }udgment of z6 March 1S, Case of X crJ v. thc NcthcrlcrJs, Appllcatlon ho. S,S]So, para. zz.
zS. }udgment of , February zooz, Case of Mikulir v. Crcctic, Appllcatlon ho. 1,6], para. .
zo. uS Supreme Court, }udgment of o }une 1S6 8cwcrs v. hcrJwirk, ,S uS 1S6 (1S6)].
z1. }udgment of 0ctober 1S, Ncticrcl Cccliticr cj Ccy 8 lcsbicr Fquclity crJ Arcthcr v. Miristcr cj /ustirc
crJ cthcrs, Ccsc CCT11]S.
zz. lbiJ., para. 116.
the equallty]non-dlscrlmlnatlon norm and a lack of appreclatlon of the normatlve
scope of prlvacy.
Flrstly, the South Afrlcan Constltutlonal Court addressed the matter by observlng
that equallty and prlvacy were belng vlolated slmultaneously by the antl-sodomy
laws. The rlght to equallty was lnfrlnged because of the lntruslon lnto prlvate llfe
based on dlsrespect for a person of homosexual orlentatlon, resultlng ln dlspenslng
unequal treatment. Secondly, the Court adopted the expanslve constructlon of
prlvacy remlnlscent of the dlssentlng oplnlon ln 8cwcrs v. hcrJwirk,
z
that dld not
merely lmaglne the lndlvldual ln lsolatlon but ln the entlrety of hls llved experlence,
both publlc and prlvate and the protectlon of hls llfe cholces agalnst the conflctlng
whlm of the ma|orlty.
Thlrdly, the South Afrlcan Constltutlonal Court was of the vlew that the equallty
prlnclple was engaged by the ln|ury to hls dlgnlty occasloned by antl-sodomy laws of
the class of persons called gays based on thelr sexual orlentatlon. The Constltutlonal
Court found that gays were a permanent mlnorlty who constltuted a "dlstlnct though
lnvlslble" sectlon of the communlty and whose ldentlfylng characterlstlcs comblned
"all the anxletles produced by sexuallty wlth all the allenatlng effects resultlng from
dlfference". The ln|ury to dlgnlty wrought by the antl-sodomy laws resulted from the
dlsenfranchlsement from "full moral cltlzenshlp" and was evldenced by the talntlng
of the homosexual deslre and the attrlbutlon of perverslty and shame to sponta-
neous physlcal affectlon among persons of homosexual orlentatlon.
Thls lntegrated notlon of equallty affrms the varlablllty of human belngs and
re|ects the argument that the ma|orlty sentlment ls the measure for what ls legally
normatlve on the questlon of lndlvldual freedoms and potentlal conflct wlth soclal
control. vlolatlons of the rlght to prlvacy, alongslde clalms of ln|ury to the dlgnlty of
homosexual men, make prlvacy clalms stronger and also strengthen arguments for
non-dlscrlmlnatlon and equallty before the law.
A varlety of supreme courts have found crlmlnal penaltles for homosexuallty to
vlolate both constltutlonal and lnternatlonal law guarantees of prlvacy and the rlght
to the unlversal en|oyment of fundamental human rlghts. The followlng ls a brlef
summary of a few of these declslons.
cuader: 1, - Constltutlonal Court rullng that Artlcle 16 of the Crlmlnal Code (on
"homosexuallsm") vlolated constltutlonal and lnternatlonal law guarantees of the
equal en|oyment of fundamental rlght by all persons.
Ce|embia: 1 - Constltutlonal Court rullng that homosexuallty between adults
ls protected by the law, homosexuals are protected by the fundamental rule of
equal protectlon by the law and they have the same fundamental rlghts that hetero-
sexuals have, nothlng authorlses the dlscrlmlnatlon of homosexuals for thelr sexual
z. uS Supreme Court, }udgment of o }une 1S6 8cwcrs v. hcrJwirk, ,S uS 1S6 (1S6)].
orlentatlon (}udgment ho. T-- of o hovember 1, see also ho. T-z,o and
T-z).
Peru: zoo - Constltutlonal Trlbunal rullng grantlng gays ln the mllltary the freedom
to have sex, declarlng that a rule whlch had deemed such relatlons lllegal was uncon-
stltutlonal (}udgment of }une zoo, Case ho. ooz-zoo-Al]TC).
China - Beng Keng: zoo6 - the Court of Appeal upheld a hlgh Court rullng agalnst a
law provldlng that men younger than z1 who engage ln sodomy would be |alled for
llfe. The panel of three Court of Appeal |udges upheld the orlglnal declslon lssued
by the lower court ln August zoo. The laws were frst challenged by wllllam koy
Leung, a then zo-year-old gay man who argued that he should be able to have a
sexual relatlonshlp wlthout the fear of lmprlsonment. ln the August rullng, hlgh
Court }udge Mlchael hartmann slded wlth Mr. Leung, saylng the laws agalnst sodomy
lnfrlnged on the rlghts of prlvacy and equallty for gay men. whlle gay men caught
engaglng ln sodomy when elther was under z1 faced llfe lmprlsonment, heterosexual
couples could legally have sex at age 16. ln thls declslon, of zo September, the Court
of Appeal dlsmlssed the government's appeal.
kepa|: 0ecember zoo,, the Supreme Court ordered the government to scrap laws
that dlscrlmlnated agalnst homosexuals. The court also ordered that sexual mlnorl-
tles should be guaranteed the same rlghts as other cltlzens. ln thelr rullng, two
Supreme Court |udges sald: "The government of hepal should formulate new laws
and amend exlstlng laws ln order to safeguard the rlghts of these people. Lesblan,
gay, blsexual, transsexual and lntersex are natural persons lrrespectlve of thelr
mascullne and femlnlne gender and they have the rlght to exerclse thelr rlghts and
llve an lndependent llfe ln soclety."
fiji: zoo - 0hlrendra hadan, z, and Thomas McCosker, , had been sentenced
to two years lmprlsonment ln Aprll zoo for "offences agalnst nature" and "gross
lndecency". The palr were unrepresented at thelr orlglnal trlal and pleaded gullty,
but they appealed agalnst the sentence. 0ecldlng on thelr appeal, hlgh Court |udge
}ustlce 0erard wlnter sald thelr convlctlons were lnvalld because they were lncon-
slstent wlth the 1, Constltutlon's protectlon of prlvacy and equallty. Artlcle S of
the Fl|lan Constltutlon prohlblts dlscrlmlnatlon based on any "actual or supposed
personal characterlstlcs or clrcumstances, lncludlng .] sexual orlentatlon" and
Artlcle , of the Constltutlon also protects the "rlght to personal prlvacy".
Uganda: 0ecember zooS, the hlgh Court of uganda at Kampala (clvll 0lvlslon) ruled
that ugandan constltutlonal rlghts apply to lesblans, gays, blsexuals and transgen-
dered, regardless of thelr sexual orlentatlon.
y. tnterIerence with and restrictien eI the enjeyment eI the right te
privacy in the area eI sexua| erientatien and gender identity
The duty to protect the rlght to prlvacy ln relatlon to sexual orlentatlon ralses the
questlon of the unlawfulness and arbltrarlness of lnterference. The human klghts
Commlttee ln 1ccrcr v. Austrclic recalled that the:
"irtrcJurticr cj thc rcrrcpt cj crbitrcrircss is irtcrJcJ tc ucrcrtcc thct
cvcry irtcrjcrcrrc prcviJcJ jcr by thc lcw shculJ bc ir crrcrJcrrc with thc
prcvisicrs, cins crJ cbjcrtivcs cj thc Ccvcrcrt crJ shculJ bc, ir cry cvcrt,
rccscrcblc ir thc rirrunstcrrcs. .] 1]hc rcquircncrt cj rccscrcblcrcss
tc inply thct cry irtcrjcrcrrc with privcry nust bc prcpcrticrcl tc thc crJ
scuht crJ bc rcrcsscry ir thc rirrunstcrrcs cj cry ivcr rcsc."
z
here the human klghts Commlttee has concluded that the crlmlnallsatlon of homo-
sexual practlces was both arbltrary and dlsproportlonate. Crlmlnallsatlon constltutes
an arbltrary lnterference wlth the rlght to prlvacy, whlch lncludes adult consensual
sexual actlvlty ln prlvate.
z
The Commlttee noted that "the crlmlnallzatlon of homo-
sexual practlces cannot be consldered a reasonable means or proportlonate measure
to achleve the alm of preventlng the spread of Al0S]hlv"
z6
, especlally when "no
llnk has been shown between the contlnued crlmlnallzatlon of homosexual actlvlty
and the effectlve control of the spread of the hlv]Al0S vlrus."
z,
The current vlew regardlng lnterference and restrlctlon of the rlght to prlvacy ln
the area of sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty was fundamentally developed
by the Furopean Court of human klghts, whlch has dealt wlth several cases durlng
the last decades. As early as 1,6, the Furopean Court declared ln lts hcrJysiJc
|udgment
zS
that, ln lnvestlgatlng whether the protectlon of morals necessltated
the varlous measures taken, lt had to make an "assessment of the reallty of the
presslng soclal need lmplled by the notlon of 'necesslty' ln thls context" and stated
that "every 'restrlctlon' lmposed ln thls sphere must be proportlonate to the legltl-
z. vlews of 1 March 1, Case of Nirhclcs 1ccrcr v. Austrclic, Communlcatlon ho. SS]1z, para. S..
z. lbiJ., para. S.z. ln the same llne, see irtcr clic, Concludlng observatlons of the human klghts Commlttee on:
Chlle, CCPk]C],]Add.1o of o March 1, para. zo, }amalca, CCPk]C0]S]KFh of z Aprll zoo, para.
z,, Poland, CCPk]C],]Add.11o of z }uly 1, para. z, and komanla, CCPk]C],]Add.111 of zS }uly 1
para. 16.
z6. lbiJ., para. S..
z,. lbiJ.
zS. }udgment of , 0ecember of 1,6, Case of hcrJysiJc v. 1hc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho. ],z, paras.
6, S and .
mate alm pursued". lt confrmed thls approach ln the case of 0uJccr,
z
ln whlch
the Court was of the oplnlon that slnce the case concerned a most lntlmate aspect
of prlvate llfe, there had to be partlcularly serlous reasons before lnterferences on
the part of the publlc could be legltlmate for the purposes of paragraph z of Artlcle
S of the Furcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts. The Court clted that prlnclples of
tolerance and broadmlndedness underplnned the defnltlon of a Conventlon rlght
and reasoned that the notlon of what was "necessary ln a democratlc soclety" was
only conslstent wlth a Conventlon rlght when lt was proportlonate to the legltlmate
alm pursued. lt further clted that, notwlthstandlng the margln of appreclatlon left
to the natlonal authorltles, lt fell to the Court to determlne whether the lnterference
complalned of was proportlonate to the soclal need clalmed for lt.
The Court also noted an lncreased tolerance of homosexual behavlour ln the great
ma|orlty of the Member States of the Councll of Furope and noted that lt was no
longer consldered to be necessary or approprlate to crlmlnallse consensual homo-
sexual practlces. 0n the lssue of proportlonallty, the Court consldered that the
|ustlfcatlons for retalnlng the law ln force un-amended was outwelghed by the
detrlmental effects that the very exlstence of the leglslatlve provlslons ln questlon
could have had on the llfe of a person of homosexual orlentatlon llke the appllcant.
The Court has polnted out that, "t]here can be no denlal that some degree of regu-
latlon of male homosexual conduct, as lndeed of other forms of sexual conduct, by
means of the crlmlnal law can be |ustlfed as 'necessary ln a democratlc soclety'.
The overall functlon served by the crlmlnal law ln thls feld ls .] 'to preserve publlc
order and decency and] to protect the cltlzen from what ls offenslve or ln|urlous'.
Furthermore, thls necesslty for some degree of control may even extend to consen-
sual acts commltted ln prlvate, notably where there ls call .] to provlde suffclent
safeguards agalnst exploltatlon and corruptlon of others".
oo
however, the Court
has underllned that, "although members of the publlc who regard homosexuallty
as lmmoral may be shocked, offended or dlsturbed by the commlsslon by others
of prlvate homosexual acts, thls cannot on lts own warrant the appllcatlon of penal
sanctlons when lt ls consentlng adults alone who are lnvolved".
o1
ln the case of Christirc CccJwir, the Court ln lts assessment noted that lt had ruled
ln an opposlte manner ln slmllar cases,
oz
but clted the fact that the Court must have
regard to the changlng condltlons wlthln the respondent State and wlthln Contractlng
States generally. lt also acknowledged the need to respond to any evolvlng conver-
z. }udgment of zz 0ctober 1S1, Case of 0uJccr v. 1hc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho. ,z],6, paras. S
ct scq.
oo. lbiJ., para. .
o1. lbiJ., para. 6o.
oz. See }udgment of 1, 0ctober 1S6, Case of kccs v. thc uritcJ kirJcn, Applircticr Nc. z]S1, }udgment of
z, September 1, Case of Ccsscy v. thc uritcJ kirJcn |udgment, Appllcatlon ho. 1oS]S , }udgment
of zz Aprll 1,, Case of X., . crJ Z. v. thc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho.,]1]S1]66, , }udgment
of o }uly 1S, Case of ShcjjiclJ crJ hcrshcn v. thc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho. 1-z]1,]S1-
S16]1o1S-1o1, }udgment of z March 1z, Case of 8 v. Frcrrc, Appllcatlon ho. 1]S,.
gence as to the standards to be achleved and recognlsed the serlous lnterference
wlth prlvate llfe that can arlse where the state of domestlc law conflcts wlth an
lmportant aspect of personal ldentlty.
o
The Court consldered lt most slgnlfcant
that "transsexuallsm has wlde lnternatlonal recognltlon as a medlcal condltlon for
whlch treatment ls provlded ln order to afford rellef. For example, the 0icrcstir crJ
Stctistircl Mcrucl- fourth edltlon (0SM-lv) replaced the dlagnosls of transsexuallsm
wlth 'gender ldentlty dlsorder', see also the lrtcrrcticrcl Clcssircticr cj 0isccscs,
tenth edltlon (lC0-1o))".
o
The case of Mbllcr crJ 0thcrs v. SwitzcrlcrJ demonstrates that, ln the context of the
protectlon of morals, the Court contlnues to apply the same tests for determlnlng
what ls "necessary ln a democratlc soclety".
o
ln that case, the Court, ln reachlng lts
declslon, examlned whether the contested measures, whlch pursued the legltlmate
alm of protectlng morals, both answered a presslng soclal need and complled wlth
the prlnclple of proportlonallty.
o6
The reference to a predomlnant standard of tolerance towards homosexuallty ln
Furope ln the case of 0uJccr, for example, arguably allenates the |udgment ln lts
appllcablllty to some other forums. The use of Furope as a standard of reasonable
conduct ln the clrcumstances ls extremely problematlc glven the strong natlonallst
sentlments that prevall ln some parts of the world, as well as ln Furope ltself. A
correspondlng lack of tolerance at the slte ln questlon may be ralsed to argue the
lntentlon to retaln laws prohlbltlng buggery. Though the |udgment welghs heavlly
ln the context of Furope, lt remalns unassallable that lts force emanates from
arguments concernlng the ln|ury to that "most lntlmate part of prlvate llfe" and a
favourable constructlon of the proportlonallty test. lt ls also noteworthy that the
force of the prlvacy argument ln decrlmlnallslng buggery laws proved satlsfactory
for those purposes ln Furope, as lt overcame the strong soclal (rellglous) reslstance
of horthern lreland ln 0uJccr, lreland ln Ncrris and Cyprus ln McJircs.
y.: Cemparative pub|ic |aw and interIerence and restrictien eI the
right te privacy
The reasonlng offered by the ma|orlty of the uS Supreme Court ln the now over-ruled
case of 8cwcrs v. hcrJwirk typlfes the rhetorlc employed ln the many countrles
whlch retaln antl-homosexual laws on the strength of ma|orlty sentlment. ln denylng
the appllcant's constltutlonal challenge of the 0eorgla sodomy laws, }ustlce 8ryan of
the ma|orlty pronounced that the Federal Constltutlon dld not confer a fundamental
rlght upon homosexuals to engage ln sodomy. he clted the hlstorlcal orlglns of the
o. See 0uJccr v. thc uritcJ kirJcn, Jcr. rit., para. 1.
o. }udgment of 11 }uly zooz, Case of Christirc CccJwir v. 1hc uritcJ kirJcn, Applircticr Nc. zS,],
para. S1.
o. }udgment of z May 1SS, Case of Mbllcr crJ 0thcrs v. SwitzcrlcrJ, Appllcatlon ho. 1o,,]S, paras. 1-,
and o-.
o6. lbiJ., paras. z, o and .
sodomy laws and found that lts prohlbltlon was "deeply rooted ln thls hatlon's
hlstory and tradltlon". he predlcated the ratlonal basls for sodomy laws on notlons
of morallty and the presumed bellef of the ma|orlty of the electorate ln 0eorgla
that homosexual sodomy was lmmoral and unacceptable. The Court dld not re|ect
prevlous case law that had lnterpreted the Constltutlon ln ways that protected
prlvate relatlonshlps ln marrlage and famlly, but nevertheless refused to extend
thls protectlon to homosexual relatlonshlps between consentlng adults.
}ustlce 8lackmun, ln hls vlgorous dlssent saw the lssue as the Constltutlonal "rlght
to be let alone". he argued that:
"c]rly thc ncst wiljul blirJrcss shculJ cbsrurc thc jcrt thct scxucl irtincry
is c scrsitivc kcy rclcticrship cj huncr cxistcrrc .] . 1hc jcrt thct irJi-
viJucls Jcjirc thcnsclvcs ir c sirijircrt wcy thrcuh thcir irtinctc scxucl
rclcticrships with cthcrs sucsts, ir c Ncticr cs Jivcrsc cs curs, thct thcrc
ncy bc ncry riht wcys cj rcrJurtir thcsc rclcticrships, crJ thct nurh
cj thc rirhrcss cj c rclcticrship will rcnc jrcn thc jrccJcn cr irJiviJucl
hcs tc rhccsc thc jcrn crJ rcturc cj thcsc irtcrscly pcrscrcl bcrJs."
o,
}ustlce 8lackmun fayed the recourse to the antlqulty of the laws of the ma|orlty and
declared that the age of laws dld not render them lnscrutable, especlally when the
grounds on whlch they were establlshed had now vanlshed. hls constructlon of the
rlght to prlvacy was not merely spatlal, but was expanslve enough to protect the
rlght to express personallty and develop lntlmate assoclatlons wlthout lnterference
by the State.
The gulf ln the ma|orlty and dlssentlng vlews of 8cwcrs v. hcrJwirk refected the
dlfferent concepts of "hatlon" - or State obllgatlon - among the |udges. The ma|orlty
vlew constructed the State ln monollthlc terms that speak vla the ma|orlty sentl-
ment whlle the dlssent saw the hatlon as a plural entlty that must have regard for
the lndlvldual even where the ma|orlty stands ln opposltlon. Prlvacy ls envlsloned
as the buffer between State and lndlvldual. Professor Sheldon Leader argues that
the polnt of the Conventlon and the Constltutlon ls to test leglslatlon agalnst the
respectlve standards of both lnstruments.
oS
where declslons are made wholly on
account of the fact that they represent the ma|orlty vlew of the communlty, as was
the case wlth the ma|orlty ln 8cwcrs v. hcrJwirk, the |udge has abdlcated thelr role
to ad|udlcate and made the communlty a |udge ln lts own cause.
The uS Supreme Court ln lcwrcrrc v. 1cxcs - whlch over-ruled 8cwcrs v. hcrJwirk
- stated that desplte powerful volces that have condemned homosexuallty as
lmmoral ln the past, the Court's role was to defne llberty for all and not mandate
o,. uS Supreme Court, }udgment of o }une 1S6 8cwcrs v. hcrJwirk, ,S uS 1S6 (1S6)]. }ustlce 8rennan,
}ustlce Marshall and }ustlce Stevens |olnt the dlssentlng of }ustlce 8lackmun.
oS. Sheldon Leader, "The klght to Prlvacy, the Fnforcement of Morals, and the }udlclal Functlon: An Argument", ln
Currcrt lccl Prcblcns, edltors: koger kldeout & 8ob hepple, Sweet & Maxwell]Stevens]Stevens, 1o.
lts own moral code.
o
The ma|orlty reasoned that laws and tradltlons of the past
half-century show "an emerglng awareness that llberty glves substantlal protectlon
to adult persons ln decldlng how to conduct thelr prlvate llves ln matters pertalnlng
to sex".
1o
Cruclally, the Court noted that to the extent that the 8cwcrs v. hcrJwirk
declslon relled on shared values wlth the wlder clvlllzatlon, the case's reasonlng had
slnce been re|ected by the Furopean human klghts System, and that other natlons
had taken actlon conslstent wlth an affrmatlon of the protected rlght of homosexual
adults to engage ln lntlmate consensual conduct. Furthermore, the Court found that
there was no urgent or legltlmate governmental lnterest ln clrcumscrlblng thls area
of personal cholce. The ma|orlty accepted the dlssent ln 8cwcrs v. hcrJwirk whlch
argued that: (1) the fact that a State's governlng ma|orlty has tradltlonally vlewed a
partlcular practlce as lmmoral ls not a suffclent reason for upholdlng a law prohlb-
ltlng the practlce, and (z) lndlvldual declslons concernlng the lntlmacles of physlcal
relatlonshlps, even when not lntended to produce offsprlng, are a form of "llberty"
protected by due process. As the case lnvolved consent between adults, and there
was no evldence of ln|ury or coerclon, the Court declded that no legltlmate govern-
mental lnterest had been engaged to clrcumscrlbe the prlvacy of the lndlvldual.
The normatlve scope of the "rlght to prlvacy", acknowledges a governmental lnterest
geared towards "protectlon". These llmltatlons are the usual publlc lnterest consld-
eratlons and the balanclng test or publlc pollcy lnterests are well stated. Some have
argued that there are three llmltlng prlnclples that may be dlscerned wlthln the |urls-
prudence of the Furopean Court of human klghts that apply to sex:
11
(a) the harm
prlnclple,
1z
(b) restrlctlon to acts among consentlng adults
1
and c) wlthholdlng
the protectlon from commerclal sexual conduct, even lf lt occurs at home. A slmllar
governmental lnterest was noted ln South Afrlca ln the case of Ncticrcl Cccliticr cj
Ccy crJ lcsbicr Fquclity v. Miristcr cj /ustirc and was expressed as follows:
"t]his cvcrrncrtcl irtcrcst is crccJ bcrcusc cj c pcrrcivcJ hcrn. lr
privctc rclcticrs, pcrscrs ncy bc pcrclizcJ jcr irtcr-crcrcticrcl, irtrc-
jcnilicl crJ rrcss spcrics scx ir publir cr privctc. Scx irvclvir viclcrrc,
o. uS Supreme Court, }udgment of z6 }une zoo lcwrcrrc ct cl. v. 1cxcs (oz-1oz) u.S. S (zoo)].
1o. lbiJ.
11. Mary koblnson amlcus brlef ln lcwrcrrc v. 1cxcs ( http:]]hrw.org]press]zoo]o,]amlcusbrlef.pdf ) at p.
16.
1z. ln lts }udgment of 1 February 1,, ln the case of lcskcy, /ccrJ crJ 8rcwr v. uritcJ kirJcn, Jcr. rit.,
the Court emphaslsed the harm prlnclple ln decllnlng to extend 0uJccr to protect consensual, sado-
masochlstlc sexual actlvlty ln the home. The Court stressed "thct rct cvcry scxucl crtivity rcrricJ cut bchirJ
rlcscJ Jccrs rcrcsscrily jclls withir thc srcpc cj Artirlc 8", para. 6.
1. ln 0uJccr ltself, the Court acknowledged that "scnc Jcrcc cj rculcticr cj nclc hcncscxucl rcrJurt"
by thc rrinircl lcw wcs justijicJ, cvcr with rcspcrt tc rcrscrsucl crts rcnnittcJ ir privctc, "tc prcviJc
sujjiricrt scjcucrJs ccirst cxplcitcticr crJ rcrrupticr cj cthcrs, pcrtirulcrly thcsc whc crc spcriclly
vulrcrcblc bcrcusc thcy crc ycur, wcck ir bcJy cr nirJ, ircxpcricrrcJ, cr ir c stctc cj spcricl physircl,
cjjiricl cr crcrcnir JcpcrJcrrc".
Jcrcpticr, vcycurisn, irtrusicr cr hcrcssncrt is scnctincs purishcblc cr
ncJc crticrcblc, whcrcvcr thcy tckc plcrc".
1
5ummary
Sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty are an essentlally prlvate manlfes- n
tatlon of human personallty and the rlght to prlvate llfe. lt ls undlsputed
that adult consensual sexual actlvlty, conducted ln prlvate, ls covered by the
concept of 'prlvacy' and that gender ldentlty, sexual orlentatlon and actlvlty
concern an lntlmate aspect of prlvate llfe,
The rlght to prlvate llfe ls a broad umbrella coverlng n irtcr clic lntegrlty of
the home, body and famlly, and determlnatlon and development of one's
own personallty, personal ldentlty and lnter-personal relatlonshlps. The rlght
ls vlolated lf an lndlvldual's prlvacy ls lnterfered wlth elther unlawfully or
lawfully but arbltrarlly,
States have the lnternatlonal obllgatlon to guarantee the rlght to prlvate llfe. n
Thls lncludes the duty of non-lnterference wlth prlvate llfe and the obllgatlon
to prevent attacks by thlrd partles on prlvate llfe. The obllgatlon entalls both
posltlve and negatlve dutles,
The rlght to prlvacy ls a non-absolute rlght and lt can be derogated ln tlmes n
of emergency. 0erogatlon does not mean obllteratlon of the rlght,
ln normal tlmes, the rlght to prlvacy may be sub|ect to restrlctlons or lnterfer- n
ence, whlch must be sub|ect to law and must be not arbltrary. lnterference
or restrlctlon may be permltted, but only lf they:
are essentlal ln the lnterests of soclety and are necessary ln a demo-
cratlc soclety,
have legltlmate alm and purpose,
are reasonable ln the partlcular clrcumstances of the case,
are provlded for by law, whlch speclfles ln detall the preclse clrcum-
stances ln whlch such lnterference or restrlctlon ls to occur, and
compatlble and conslstent wlth lnternatlonal human rlghts law,
Permlsslble llmltatlons on the rlght to prlvacy are the usual publlc lnterest n
conslderatlons, balanclng tests and publlc pollcy concerns. Some of these
lnclude the protectlon of the lndlvldual from harm, restrlctlon of acts to
1. Constltutlonal Court of South Afrlca, }udgment of 0ctober 1S, Ncticrcl Cccliticr cj Ccy 8 lcsbicr
Fquclity crJ Arcthcr v. Miristcr cj /ustirc crJ cthcrs, Ccsc CCT11]S.
consentlng adults and wlthholdlng protectlon from commerclal sexual
conduct, even lf lt occurs at home. The prlnclples of tolerance and broadmlnd-
edness are lmportant conslderatlons ln balanclng competlng conslderatlons
concernlng prlvacy of the lndlvldual.
"1hc Jctcrticr cj .] pcrscrs prcscrutcJ cr thc
rcurJs thct, by thcir scxucl cricrtcticr, thcy irritcJ
scricl Jisscrticr rcrstitutcs cr crbitrcry Jcprivcticr
cj libcrty, bcir ir rcrtrcvcrticr cj thc prcvisicrs cj
crtirlc 2, pcrcrcph 1, cj thc urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr cj
huncr kihts, crJ crtirlcs 2, pcrcrcph 1, crJ 26
cj thc lrtcrrcticrcl Ccvcrcrt cr Civil crJ Pclitircl
kihts."
-uh worklng 0roup on Arbltrary 0etentlon
1
tv. Arbitrary 0eprivatien eI Liberty
:. Lega| kature and 5cepe
lnternatlonal law recognlses and protects the rlght to llberty and the rlght not to
be arbltrarlly deprlved of llberty.
16
The concept of deprlvatlon of llberty assumes
dlfferent forms, lncludlng arrest
1,
and detentlon.
1S
lt also covers any klnd of deprl-
vatlon of llberty: pre-trlal detentlon, admlnlstratlve detentlon, pollcy custody,
lnternment and house arrest, amongst others. The "rlght to llberty" ls closely
connected wlth the "rlght to securlty of person"
1
, protected by Artlcle of the
urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr cj huncr kihts. Furthermore the human klghts Commlttee
has polnted out that "Artlcle (1) of the lCCPk] protects the rlght to securlty of
person also outslde the context of formal deprlvatlon of llberty. An lnterpretatlon of
1. worklng 0roup on Arbltrary 0etentlon, 0plnlon ho. ,]zooz (Fgypt), of z1 of }une zooz, para. zS, uh 0oc.
F]Ch.]zoo]S]Add.1.
16. unlversal 0eclaratlon of human klghts (Artlcles and ), lnternatlonal Covenant on Clvll and Polltlcal klghts
(lCCPk) (Artlcle ), lnternatlonal Conventlon on the Protectlon of the klghts of All Mlgrant workers and
Members of Thelr Famllles (Artlcle 16), Conventlon on the klghts of the Chlld (Artlcle ,), lnternatlonal
Conventlon for the Protectlon of All Persons from Fnforced 0lsappearance (Artlcle 1,), 0eclaratlon on the
human rlghts of lndlvlduals who are not natlonals of the country ln whlch they llve (Artlcle .1), Afrlcan
Charter on human and Peoples' klghts (Artlcle 6), Prlnclples and 0uldellnes on the rlght to a falr trlal and
legal asslstance ln Afrlca (Prlnclple M), Amerlcan 0eclaratlon of the klghts and 0utles of Man (Artlcles l and
XXv), Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts (Artlcle ,), Arab Charter on human klghts (Artlcle 1) and
Furopean Conventlon on human klghts (Artlcle ).
1,. The uh 8ody of Prlnclples for the Protectlon of All Persons under Any Form of 0etentlon or lmprlsonment
provldes the followlng deflnltlon of 'arrest': "thc crt cj cpprchcrJir c pcrscr jcr thc cllccJ rcnnissicr
cj cr cjjcrrc cr by thc crticr cj cr cuthcrity".
1S. '0etentlon' means the condltlon of persons deprlved of personal llberty except as a result of convlctlon
for an offence (uh 8ody of Prlnclples for the Protectlon of All Persons under Any Form of 0etentlon or
lmprlsonment, "use of Terms").
1. See human klghts Commlttee: vlews of z 0ctober zooo, Case kcJcr Chcrwc v. Zcnbic, Communlcatlon
ho. Sz1]1S, CCPk]C],o]0]Sz1]1S, vlews of zo March zooo, Case Ccrlcs 0ics v. Arclc, Communlcatlon
ho. ,11]16, CCPk]C]6S]0],11]16, and vlews of 1z }uly 1o, Case willicn FJucrJc 0clcJc Pdcz v.
Cclcnbic, Communlcatlon ho. 1]1S, CCPk]C]]0]1]1S. See also the Furopean Court of human
klghts, }udgments of 1z March zoo and May zoo (0rand Chamber), Case of 0rclcr v. 1urkcy, Appllcatlon
ho. 6zz1]. Artlcle of the unlversal 0eclaratlon of human klghts refers to the rlght to llfe, the rlght to
llberty and the rlght to securlty of the person.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. ,o
Artlcle whlch would allow a State party to lgnore threats to the personal securlty
of non-detalned persons sub|ect to lts |urlsdlctlon would render totally lneffectlve
the guarantees of the Covenant".
zo
States have the obllgatlon to adopt and put
ln place leglslatlve or other measures to ensure the rlght to llberty and to prevent
arbltrary detentlon. To protect the rlght to llberty, lnternatlonal law has establlshed
numerous guarantees that seek to protect people from unlawful or arbltrary deten-
tlon or arrest.
Accordlng to appllcable lnternatlonal human rlghts treatles,
z1
the rlght to llberty
may be the sub|ect of derogatlon ln tlmes of emergency. however, such deroga-
tlons must be conslstent wlth other obllgatlons under lnternatlonal law, lncludlng
lnternatlonal customary law, ln partlcular peremptory norms of lnternatlonal law that
extend beyond the express llst of non-derogable provlslons establlshed ln human
rlghts treatles,
zz
and cannot deprlve detalnees of the safeguards deslgned to protect
non-derogable rlghts. ln thls connectlon, the human klghts Commlttee has polnted
out that a state of emergency or state of war cannot be lnvoked as a |ustlfcatlon for
unacknowledged detentlon, arbltrarlly deprlvlng people of thelr llberty, or denylng
anyone deprlved of thelr llberty the rlght to be treated wlth humanlty and respect
for the lnherent dlgnlty of the human person.
z
z. 0eIining arbitrary deprivatien eI |iberty
ln the urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr cj huncr kihts, Artlcle states that "n]o one shall be
sub|ected to arbltrary arrest, detentlon or exlle". The 0eclaratlon does not defne
"arbltrary". lt should be noted that the |urlsprudence of arrest and detentlon are
overlapplng but separate. whlle the |urlsprudence on arrest ls concerned wlth the
reasons advanced for detalnlng an lndlvldual, the |urlsprudence on detentlon ls also
concerned wlth addltlonal lssues related to keeplng an lndlvldual detalned over
tlme. The uh human klghts Commlttee has underllned that "for an arrest to be ln
compllance wlth Artlcle , paragraph 1, of the lCCPk] lt must not only be lawful, but
also reasonable and necessary ln all the clrcumstances".
z
lt has also stated that
"p]re-trlal detentlon should be an exceptlon and as short as posslble".
z
zo. vlews of 1z }uly 1o, Case of willicn FJucrJc 0clcJc Pdcz v. Cclcnbic, Jcr. rit., para. S..
z1. The lCCPk (Artlcle ), Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts (Artlcle z,) and Furopean Conventlon on human
klghts (Artlcle 1).
zz. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2p, Stctcs cj cncrcrry, Artirlc , para. 11.
z. lbiJ., paras. 11 and 1.
z. vlews of hovember 1, Case Acc Spcknc v. Ncrwcy, Communlcatlon ho 61]1, para. 6., ln uh
0oc. CCPk]C]6,]0]61]1, 11 hovember 1.
z. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 8, kiht tc libcrty crJ scrurity cj pcrscrs, Artirlc p, para.
. See also, CcrrluJir cbscrvcticrs cj thc huncr kihts Ccnnittcc: Arcrtirc, uh 0oc. CCPk]C0],o]
Ak0, hovember zooo, para. 1o.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw ,1
The human klghts Commlttee has consldered, ln the framework of a temporary or
pre-trlal detentlon of a |udlclal nature, that:
"t]hc Jrcjtir histcry cj crtirlc p, pcrcrcph 1 cj thc lCCPk], rcrjirns thct
crbitrcrircss is rct tc bc cquctcJ with ccirst thc lcw, but nust bc irtcr-
prctcJ ncrc brccJly tc irrluJc clcncrts cj ircpprcprictcrcss, irjustirc crJ
lcrk cj prcJirtcbility. 1his nccrs thct rcncrJ ir rustcJy pursucrt tc lcwjul
crrcst nust rct crly bc lcwjul but rccscrcblc ir cll thc rirrunstcrrcs, .]
jcr cxcnplc, tc prcvcrt jliht, irtcrjcrcrrc with cviJcrrc cr thc rcrurrcrrc
cj rrinc".
z6
Several general crlterla of arbltrarlness can be ldentlfed from the human klghts
Commlttee's |urlsprudence, although every klnd of deprlvatlon of llberty may requlre
addltlonal or speclfc crlterla. These lnclude legallty, legltlmacy, necesslty, propor-
tlonallty and preservatlon of other human rlghts, lncludlng irtcr clic the rlght to a
remedy and to securlty of person.
The Furopean Court of human klghts
z,
, the lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human
klghts
zS
and the Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and Peoples' klghts
z
all follow
thls ratlonal: to avold arbltrarlness detentlon must be prescrlbed by law and that
domestlc law be ln conformlty wlth reglonal and lnternatlonal law.
z6. vlews of z }uly 1o, Case huc vcr Alphcr v. 1hc NcthcrlcrJs, Communlcatlon ho. o]1SS, para. .S,
CCPk]C]]0]o]1SS of 1 August 1o. See also vlews of hovember 1, Case Acc v. Ncrwcy,
Communlcatlon ho. 61]1, para. 6. (CCPk]C]6,]0]61]1) , vlews of z1 }uly 1, Case Albcrt
wcnch Mukcr v. Ccncrccr, Communlcatlon ho. S]11, para. (S), (CCPk]C]1]0]S]11),
vlews of Aprll 1,, Case A(rcnc JclctcJ| v. Austrclic, Communlcatlon ho 6o]1, para. .z (
CCPk]C]]0]6o]1).
z,. The Furopean Court of human klghts speclfles that deprlvatlon of llberty must protect lndlvlduals from
arbltrarlness ln conslstency wlth Artlcle of the Conventlon, see }udgment of 1 hovember 16, Case of
Chchcl v. 1hc uritcJ kirJcn, para. 11S, }udgment of 1z March zoo, Case of 0rclcr v. 1urkcy, para. S6,
}udgment of 1S 0ecember 1S6, Case of 8czcrc v. Frcrrc, para. , and }udgment of z, September 1o,
Case of wcssirk v. thc NcthcrlcrJs, para. z. Along the same veln see also the lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon
on human klghts keport on Terrorlsm and human klghts, cp. rit., para. 1z1.
zS. The lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts has stated that although an arrest may be made ln accord-
ance wlth procedure - lf lt ls wlthout reasonable purpose then lt ls arbltrary, see keport ho.]6, Case
11.o, Ccrcrcl /csc Frcrrisrc CcllcrJc kcJriucz (Mcxirc|, paras. 6-,o. lt has also stated that domestlc
law must conflrm to the fundamental purposes underlylng Artlcle XXv, protectlng lndlvlduals from arbltrary
deprlvatlons of llberty, see keport ho. 1]o1, Case o, kcjccl Fcrrcr-Mczcrrc ct cl (unlted States), para.
z11.
z. The Afrlcan Commlsslon has outllned that, "1hcrcjcrc, cry Jcncstir lcw thct purpcrts tc viclctc this riht
shculJ rcrjcrn tc irtcrrcticrclly lciJ Jcwr rcrns crJ stcrJcrJs. .] Artirlc 6 cj thc Ajrircr Chcrtcr jurthcr
stctcs thct rc crc ncy bc crbitrcrily crrcstcJ cr JctcircJ. Prchibiticr ccirst crbitrcrircss rcquircs cncr
cthcr thirs thct Jcprivcticr cj libcrty shcll bc urJcr thc cuthcrity crJ supcrvisicr cj pcrscrs prcrcJurclly
crJ substcrtivcly rcnpctcrt tc rcrtijy it", Communlcatlon ho. z1]zoo1, Case of Purchit crJ Mccrc / 1hc
Ccnbic, para. 6-6.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. ,z
Farly ln 16z, a uh Commlttee conducted a "Study of the klght of Fveryone to be
Free from Arbltrary Arrest, 0etentlon and Fxlle"
o
and concluded that "an arrest or
detentlon ls arbltrary lf lt ls (a) on grounds or ln accordance wlth procedures other
than those establlshed by law, or (b) under the provlslons of a law the purpose of
whlch ls lncompatlble wlth respect for the rlght to llberty and securlty of person".
1

ln conslderlng those crlterla, the uh worklng 0roup on Arbltrary 0etentlon has
developed three categorles of arbltrary detentlon:
when lt ls clearly lmposslble to lnvoke any legal basls |ustlfylng the deprlva- n
tlon of llberty (Category l),
when the deprlvatlon of llberty results from the exerclse of the rlghts or n
freedoms guaranteed by the Artlcles of the urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr cj huncr
kihts, such as freedom of expresslon and freedom of consclence (Category
ll), and
when the total or partlal non-observance of the lnternatlonal norms relatlng n
to the rlght to a falr trlal, establlshed ln the unlversal 0eclaratlon of human
klghts and ln the relevant lnternatlonal lnstruments accepted by the States
concerned, ls of such gravlty as to glve the deprlvatlon of llberty an arbltrary
character (Category lll).
z
y. asic criteria Ier |awIu| deprivatien eI |iberty
Any deprlvatlon of llberty must meet the followlng crlterla to avold belng arbltrary:
procedural and substantlve legallty, legltlmacy of purpose, necessary, proportlonal
and human rlghts guaranteed.
The Furopean Court of human klghts has consldered that "|udlclal control of lnterfer-
ences by the executlve wlth the lndlvldual's rlght to llberty provlded for by artlcle
of the Furopean Conventlon on human klghts] ls lmplled by one of the fundamental
o. The Commlttee was set up by the former uh Commlsslon on human klghts ln 16 wlth the purpose of
carrylng out several studles. lts mandate to carry out the study on the rlght of everyone to be free from
arbltrary arrest, detentlon and exlle was endorsed ln resolutlon 6z 8 (XXll) of the Fconomlc and Soclal
Councll.
1. StuJy cj thc riht cj cvcrycrc tc bc jrcc jrcn crbitrcry crrcst, Jctcrticr crJ cxilc, uh 0oc. F]Ch.]Sz6]
kev.1, p. ,, para. z, 16).
z. See Fcrt Shcct Nc. 26: 1hc wcrkir Crcup cr Arbitrcry 0ctcrticr, Annex lv "kevlsed Methods of work",
para. S (http:]]wwwz.ohchr.org]engllsh]about]publlcatlons]docs]fsz6.htm).
. See, among others, the lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts (}udgment of z1 }anuary 1, Ccrcrcn
PcrJcy, paras. 6-,, }udgment of S }uly zoo, Ccncz Pcquiycuri v. Pcru, para. S, }udgment of z hovember
zoo, Mcritzc urrutic v. Cuctcnclc, para. 6, }udgment of 1S September zoo, 8ulcric v. Arcrtirc, para.
1z, and }udgment of , }une zoo, /ucr hunbcrtc Sdrrhcz v. hcrJurcs, para. ,S) and the Furopean Court of
human klghts (}udgment of z6 May 1, 8rcrricr crJ Mr8riJc v. 1hc uritcJ kirJcn, para. S, }udgment
of z hovember 1SS, 8rccr crJ cthcrs v. 1hc uritcJ kirJcn, para. z, }udgment of z, September zoo1,
Cbrcy crJ cthcrs v. 1urkcy, para. zz, }udgment of z6 hovember 1,, Murct Sckik crJ cthcrs v. 1urkcy,
para. , and }udgment of 1 hovember 16, Chchcl v. 1hc uritcJ kirJcn, para. 11S).
prlnclples of a democratlc soclety, namely the rule of law".
They have further

declared that "the llst of exceptlons to the rlght to llberty secured ln Artlcle .1 of
the Furopean Conventlon] ls an exhaustlve one and only a narrow lnterpretatlon of
those exceptlons ls conslstent wlth the alm of that provlslon, namely to ensure that
no one ls arbltrarlly deprlved of hls or her llberty".
The Furcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts also requlres that ln addltlon to belng
reasonably |ustlfable wlth reference to Artlcle .1, an arrest must be a measure
proportlonal to the sltuatlon lt purports to remedy. The Furopean Court consldered
that although Artlcle .1 of the Conventlon allows for the detentlon of persons "for
the preventlon of the spreadlng of lnfectlous dlseases", the arrest and detentlon of
an hlv-posltlve man for |ust that purpose was arbltrary because "less severe meas-
ures had not been consldered and found to be lnsuffclent to safeguard the publlc
lnterest".
6
The Court reached lts declslon desplte notlng that the sub|ect of the
arrest order was often non-cooperatlve wlth hospltal staff and had a sexual prefer-
ence for teenage boys. here the Court conducted a proportlonallty test: welghlng
the rlsks of the spread of hlv agalnst the severlty of the clrcumstances the arrest
and detentlon are lntended to remedy.
,
The lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts has clarlfed that as well as adherlng to
the procedures prescrlbed by law and ensurlng those laws are ln accordance wlth
the prlnclples establlshed ln the Conventlon, to ensure a detentlon ls not arbltrary
lt must not be "unreasonable, unforeseeable or lacklng ln proportlonallty."
S
y.: Lega|ity
All the ma|or human rlghts treatles requlre that arrests or detentlon be made
accordlng to a procedure establlshed by law. The lCCPk says, "n]o one shall be
deprlved of hls llberty except .] ln accordance wlth such procedure as are estab-
llshed by law",
the Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts prohlblts arrests

"except .] under the condltlons establlshed beforehand by the constltutlon of
the State Party concerned or by a law establlshed pursuant thereto",
o
the Ajrircr
. }udgment of z6 May1, Case of 8rcrricr crJ Mr8riJc v. uritcJ kirJcn, para. S. See also |udgment
of z hovember 1SS, case 8rccr crJ cthcrs v. uritcJ kirJcn, para. z, }udgment of z, September
zoo1, case Cbrcy crJ cthcrs v. 1urkcy, para. zz, and }ugdment of z6 hovember 1,, Case of Murct Sckik
crJ cthcrs v. 1urkcy, para. .
. }udgment of 6 Aprll zooo, Case of lcbitc v. ltcly, para. 1,o. ln the same llne, see |udgment of zz March 1,
Case of uirr v. Frcrrc, para. z, and |udgment of z May 1S, case kurt v. 1urkcy, para. 1zz.
6. }udgment of z }anuary zoo, Case of Frhcrr v. SwcJcr, Appllcatlon ho. 6z]oo, para. .
,. lbiJ., para. S.
S. }udgment of z1 }anuary 1, Case of Ccrcrcn PcrJcy, paras. 6-,. See Also: }udgment of S }uly zoo,
Case of Ccncz Pcquiycuri v. Pcru, para. S, }udgment of z hovember zoo, Case of Mcritzc urrutic v.
Cuctcnclc, para. 6, }udgment of 1S September zoo, Case of 8ulcric v. Arcrtirc, para. 1z, and }udgment
of , }une zoo, Case of /ucr hunbcrtc Sdrrhcz v. hcrJurcs, para. ,S.
. lnternatlonal Covenant on Clvll and Polltlcal klghts, Artlcle .1.
o. Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts, Artlcle ,.z.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. ,
Chcrtcr cr huncr crJ Pccplcs kihts requlres arrests to be made only "for .]
condltlons prevlously lald down by law",
1
the Furcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr huncr
kihts requlres that arrests be made "ln accordance wlth a procedure prescrlbed
by law",
z
and the Arcb Chcrtcr cr huncr kihts stlpulates that "no one shall be
arrested, held ln custody or detalned wlthout a legal warrant and wlthout belng
brought promptly before a |udge".
0eprlvatlon of llberty that does not meet these

procedural requlrements ls arbltrary.
Procedural arbltrary detentlons fall lnto two broad categorles: those where no proce-
dure ls followed, and those where the procedure ls lncorrectly followed. The frst
form, "when lt ls clearly lmposslble to lnvoke any legal basls |ustlfylng the deprlva-
tlon of llberty" and consequently no procedure applles, ls the easlest to recognlse.
For example, when the Furopean Court of human klghts found ln the case of 0crizri
crJ 0thcrs v. Cyprus where the pollce arrested nlne people and expelled them from
the country, "that no reason was glven for thelr arrest, that no court order or |udg-
ment was served on them and that there was no |udlclal warrant authorlslng thelr
arrest", lt was qulckly able to conclude that the arrest was arbltrary.
The other type of procedural arbltrary arrest occurs when the arrestlng authorl-
tles fall to follow the legal procedure establlshed for arrest under natlonal law. ln
the case of Cusirskiy v. kussic, the buslnessman 0uslnskly had been arrested and
detalned for questlonlng ln the course of a crlmlnal lnvestlgatlon lnto fraud he was
alleged to have commltted.
0uslnskly was the holder of State decoratlon, a few

weeks before 0uslnskly's arrest, the kusslan parllament had passed a law grantlng
to all holders of such decoratlons an amnesty from lmprlsonment of any duratlon
and from belng the sub|ect of crlmlnal lnvestlgatlons. The Furopean Court of human
klghts reasoned that, slnce "fallure to comply wlth domestlc law entalls a breach
of the Furopean] Conventlon", the pollce's fallure to follow the amnesty law made
0uslnskly's arrest arbltrary. Another type of procedural lnvalldlty can occur when
the authorlty orderlng the deprlvatlon of llberty ls not competent to do so.
6
The
lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts consldered the case of an Fcuadorlan arrested
subsequent to the lssue of an order by the natlonal pollce.
,
As Fcuadorlan law
provldes that only a court may lssue a valld arrest warrant the pollce order was
legally lnsuffclent to authorlze the arrest. Consequently, the Court consldered the
arrest lllegal and therefore arbltrary.
S
1. Afrlcan Charter on human and Peoples' klghts, Artlcle 6.
z. Furopean Conventlon on human klghts, Artlcle .1.
. Arab Charter on human klghts, Artlcle 1.
. }udgment of z May zoo1, Case of 0crizri crJ 0thcrs v. Cyprus, Appllcatlon ho. z16-zz1] and
z,zo,], paras. S-.
. }udgment of 11 0ctober zoo, Case of Cusirskiy v. kussic, Appllcatlon ho. ,oz,6]o1.
6. See for example, lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts, keport ho. ,]oo, Case 11.,S, Mcrrclirc
hcrriqucz ct cl. (Arcrtirc|.
,. }udgment of 1z hovember 1,, Case of Sudrcz kcscrc para. .
S. lbiJ., paras. -.
y.z Legitimate Purpese
Fven where an arrest ls made ln proper compllance wlth legal procedure, lt ls arbl-
trary lf lt ls not made for a legltlmate purpose. 8eyond compllance wlth domestlc law,
courts must also look to lnternatlonal human rlghts law, customary lnternatlonal law
and general prlnclples of lnternatlonal law to determlne whether the stated purpose
of an arrest ls legltlmate.
The uh worklng 0roup on Arbltrary 0etentlon conslders arbltrary any deprlvatlon
of llberty resultlng from the exerclse of the rlghts or freedoms guaranteed by the
artlcles of the urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr cj huncr kihts. For example, the worklng
0roup has consldered arbltrary the detentlon of persons "for havlng peacefully
exerclsed thelr rlght to freedom of oplnlon and expresslon, as guaranteed under
Artlcles 1S, 1 and zo of the urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr cj huncr kihts and Artlcles 1S,
1, z1 and zz of the lrtcrrcticrcl Ccvcrcrt cr Civil crJ Pclitircl kihts".
Slmllarly,
the human klghts Commlttee has determlned that, whlle Artlcle 1. of the lCCPk
allows for pursulng the "legltlmate ob|ectlve of safeguardlng and lndeed strength-
enlng natlonal unlty under dlffcult polltlcal clrcumstances, lt] cannot be achleved
by attemptlng to muzzle advocacy of multl-party democracy, democratlc tenets and
human rlghts".
o
The Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and Peoples' klghts and the
lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts have also consldered that when the
law ls used for an lllegltlmate purpose, such as prosecutlng the polltlcal opposltlon
or sllenclng human rlghts advocates, any deprlvatlon of llberty under such laws
would be arbltrary.
1
. 0eprivatien eI |iberty en greunds eI 5exua| 0rientatien and
Cender tdentity
Frequently, L08T persons are deprlved of thelr llberty solely on the grounds of thelr
sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty. Thls klnd of deprlvatlon of llberty can lnclude
|udlclal prosecutlon and trlal, admlnlstratlve detentlon, deprlvatlon of llberty on
medlcal grounds and arrest for the purposes of harassment, among others. lt has
already been shown that slnce sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty are part of the
rlght to prlvate llfe and grounds of non-dlscrlmlnatlon, the deprlvatlon of llberty on
. worklng 0roup on Arbltrary 0etentlon: 0plnlon ho. o]zoo1 (lslamlc kepubllc of lran), of 0ecember zoo1,
para. 11, ln uh 0oc. F]Ch.]zoo]S]Add.1.
o. vlews of z1 }uly 1, Case of Albcrt wcnch Mukcr v. Ccncrccr, Communlcatlon ho. S]11, para. .,,
ln uh 0oc. CCPk]C]1]0]S]11.
1. See irtcr clic: Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and Peoples' klghts, Communlcatlons ho. 1o], 11] and
1], Case of Ccrstituticrcl kihts Prcjcrt, Civil libcrtics 0rcriscticr crJ McJic kihts AcrJc/Nicric,
Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and Peoples' klghts, Communlcatlon ho. z1]zoo1, Case of Purchit crJ
Mccrc / 1hc Ccnbic, lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts, keport ho.]6, Case 11.o, Ccrcrcl
/csc Frcrrisrc CcllcrJc kcJriucz (Mcxirc|, lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts, kesolutlon ho.
]Sz, Case ,Sz (8ollvla).
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. ,6
sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty grounds can amount to an arbltrary deprlva-
tlon of llberty.
The exlstence of laws crlmlnallslng certaln manlfestatlons of sexual orlentatlon or
gender ldentlty, even ln clrcumstances where these laws are not actlvely enforced,
wlll reduce the scope of llberty for persons of homosexual orlentatlon or trans-
gender ldentlty.
z
States consequently have an obllgatlon to ellmlnate these laws,
for reason that they necessarlly lead to arbltrary deprlvatlon of llberty. For example,
buggery laws, even though technlcally lmpllcatlng all consentlng adults engaglng
ln anal lntercourse, are prlmarlly assoclated wlth male homosexuallty, thelr appll-
catlon therefore dlsproportlonately affects gay men. The targets of these laws
are frequently men of homosexual orlentatlon, regardless of whether they have
commltted the physlcal act of buggery ltself. The State-sponsored lmposltlon of an
aura of crlmlnallty on homosexual men through these laws marks the entlre commu-
nlty wlth a badge of perverslty.
ln accordance wlth thls vlew, }ustlce Sachs of the

Constltutlonal Court of South Afrlca notes ln Ncticrcl Cccliticr cj Ccy crJ lcsbicr
Fquclity v. Miristcr cj /ustirc:
"i]t is inpcrtcrt tc stcrt thc crclysis by cskir whct is rcclly bcir purishcJ
by thc crti-scJcny lcws. ls it cr crt, cr is it c pcrscr? 0utsiJc cj rculc-
tcry rcrtrcl, rcrJurt thct Jcvictcs jrcn scnc publirly cstcblishcJ rcrn is
usuclly crly purishcblc whcr it is viclcrt, Jishcrcst, trccrhcrcus cr ir scnc
cthcr wcy Jisturbir cj thc publir pccrc cr prcvcrctivc cj irjury. lr thc rcsc
cj nclc hcncscxuclity hcwcvcr, thc pcrrcivcJ Jcvicrrc is purishcJ sinply
bcrcusc it is Jcvicrt. lt is rcprcsscJ jcr its pcrrcivcJ synbclisn rcthcr thcr
bcrcusc cj its prcvcr hcrn. lj prccj wcrc rcrcsscry, it is cstcblishcJ by
thc jcrt thct rcrscrsucl crcl pcrctrcticr cj c jcnclc is rct rrinirclizcJ.
1hus, it is rct thc crt cj scJcny thct is JcrcurrcJ by thc lcw, but thc
sc-rcllcJ scJcnitc whc pcrjcrns it, rct cry prcvcr scricl Jcncc, but thc
thrcct thct scnc-scx pcssicr ir itsclj is sccr cs rcprcscrtir tc hctcrcscxucl
hccncry".
Legal provlslons that cause loss of llberty because of sexual orlentatlon or gender
ldentlty may occur more lndlrectly. 0etentlon or prosecutlon may be ostenslbly
based on reasons other than one's ldentlty or status, but these reasons may merely
be a pretext for taklng actlon agalnst one's sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty.
0etentlons made under laws whlch deem consensual homosexual sex or expres-
slons of gender ldentlty to be mental lllnesses requlrlng compulsory hospltallzatlon
z. kyan 0oodman, "8eyond the Fnforcement Prlnclple: Sodomy Laws, Soclal horms and Soclal Panoptlcs", ln
Cclijcrric lcw kcvicw, ho. S, zoo1, p. 6 .
. See K Thomas "8eyond the Prlvacy Prlnclple" ln Ajtcr lJcrtity, edltors, 0 0anlelson and K Fngle, koutledge,
hew ork, 1.
. }udgment of 0ctober 1S, Ncticrcl Cccliticr cj Ccy 8 lcsbicr Fquclity crJ Arcthcr v. Miristcr cj /ustirc
crJ cthcrs, Case CCT11]S, para. 1oS.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw ,,
are arbltrary.
vague morallty codes and laws clrcumscrlblng publlc heath, morallty

and publlc decency are often also deployed to affect arbltrary detentlons on the
grounds of sexual orlentatlon, or gender ldentlty or expresslon.
The questlon of arbltrary deprlvatlon of llberty and sexual orlentatlon was frst
brought before the uh worklng 0roup on Arbltrary 0etentlon (w0A0) ln an oplnlon
concernlng the arrest of men ln Calro, Fgypt, durlng a pollce rald on a dlscotheque
ln zoo1.
6
The w0A0 consldered lnformatlon charglng that pollce targeted men
who appeared to them to have been homosexuals or who were not accompanled by
women. ln lts defence, the Fgyptlan government argued that Fgyptlan law dld not
provlde for the prosecutlon of a person on account of hls or her sexual orlentatlon.
kather, other crlmlnal charges had been levled, lncludlng "contempt of rellglon" and
"habltually engaglng ln lmmoral acts wlth men". The 0overnment argued that the
crlmlnal offence of each detalnee was hls perpetratlon of lmmoral acts and offences
agalnst publlc decency, and that gender or sexual orlentatlon were not elements of
the offences.
ln the llght of the above lnformatlon, the w0A0 consldered the case ln two stages.
Flrst, lt consldered whether the alleged prosecutlon or convlctlon of the persons
accused on grounds of sexual orlentatlon was |ustlfed and, lf so, whether those
grounds constltuted dlscrlmlnatlon under Artlcle z, paragraph 1, of both the
urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr cj huncr kihts and the lCCPk, whlch would confer an arbl-
trary character on thelr detentlon. Thls lnqulry sought to ascertaln whether there
had been a Category ll deprlvatlon of llberty.
The w0A0 concluded that the men were ln fact prosecuted on charges of homo-
sexuallty. The worklng 0roup reasoned that the legal examlnatlon ordered by the
Procurator's 0ffce, lncludlng an "anal examlnatlon", was ln fact an lnqulry lnto
sexual orlentatlon, to determlne whether the arrestees were homosexuals, and
therefore llable for havlng commltted the offence of "soclal dlssenslons" under
Artlcle S, paragraph 1, of the Fgyptlan Penal Code.
The w0A0 then consldered whether dlscrlmlnatlon on the grounds of sexual orlen-
tatlon was covered by the lCCPk, to whlch Fgypt ls a party, and thus prohlblted
under appllcable lnternatlonal law. Speclfcally, the w0A0 consldered whether the
reference to "sex" ln the lCCPk could be regarded as coverlng "sexual orlentatlon
or affllatlon". lf so, the detentlon of the defendants could be consldered arbltrary
on the grounds that lt was ordered on the basls of a domestlc leglslatlon provl-
slon, namely Artlcle S, paragraph 1, of the Fgyptlan Penal Code, not ln accordance
wlth the lnternatlonal standards set forth ln Artlcle z, paragraph 1, of the urivcrscl
. ln lts Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 8, kiht tc libcrty crJ scrurity cj pcrscrs (Artirlc p|, the human klghts Commlttee
"pcirts cut thct pcrcrcph 1 is cpplircblc tc cll Jcprivcticrs cj libcrty, whcthcr ir rrinircl rcscs cr ir cthcr
rcscs surh cs, jcr cxcnplc, ncrtcl illrcss, vcrcrry, Jru cJJirticr, cJurcticrcl purpcscs, innircticr
rcrtrcl, ctr." (para. 1).
6. 0plnlon ho ,]zooz (Fgypt), of z1 }une zooz, ln uh 0oc. F]Ch.]zoo]S]Add.1.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. ,S
0crlcrcticr cj huncr kihts and Artlcles z, paragraph 1, and z6 of the lCCPk. The
w0A0 declded that the approach adopted by uh human klghts Treaty 8odles
,
and
the 0ffce of the unlted hatlons hlgh Commlssloner for kefugees
S
wlth regard to
thls questlon would argue ln favour of an affrmatlve answer. The w0A0 found that
the detentlon of the men prosecuted for lncltlng "soclal dlssenslon" constltuted an
arbltrary deprlvatlon of llberty. Thls was consldered to be a prosecutlon and deten-
tlon on the basls of sexual orlentatlon, whlch was ln contraventlon of the provlslons
of Artlcle z, paragraph 1, of the urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr cj huncr kihts, and Artlcles
z, paragraph 1, and z6 of the lCCPk.
ln a later case lnvolvlng Cameroon,

6o
the w0A0 applled a llne of reasonlng slmllar
to lts earller oplnlon concernlng Fgypt. 0ne notable dlfference was that the rlght to
prlvacy ln Artlcle 1, of the lCCPk was presented as a Category ll arbltrary detentlon
uslng the worklng 0roup's formulatlon. Though the w0A0 also based the case for
dlscrlmlnatlon under Artlcle z6 of the lCCPk, the extenslon of the scope of Category
ll to lnclude the rlght to prlvacy ls noteworthy.
ln the Cameroon case, 11 men had been arrested ln a bar reputed to be a meetlng
place for homosexuals. The men were accused of vlolatlng Artlcle , (8ls) of the
Crlmlnal Code prescrlblng a punlshment of detentlon from 6 months to years and
a fne for whoever has sexual relatlons wlth someone of the same sex.
The w0A0 reasoned that the exlstence of laws crlmlnallslng prlvate homosexual
relatlonshlps between consentlng adults, as well as the appllcatlon of penaltles
agalnst these persons, vlolates the protectlon of prlvate llfe and the rlght of non-
dlscrlmlnatlon establlshed by the lCCPk. As a consequence, lt was consldered that
the crlmlnallsatlon of homosexuallty establlshed ln the Cameroonlan penal leglsla-
tlon was lncompatlble wlth Artlcles 1, and z6 of the lCCPk. The w0A0 concluded
that the deprlvatlon of llberty applled ln the case was arbltrary.
61
,. The w0A0 refers to the human klghts Commlttee (vlews of 1 March 1, Case of Nirhclcs 1ccrcr v.
Austrclic, Communlcatlon ho. SS]1z, para. S.,- u.h. 0oc CCPk]C]o]0]SS]1z- and CcrrluJir
0bscrvcticrs cj thc huncr kihts Ccnnittcc: PclcrJ, CCPk]C],]Add.11o, para. z), the Commlttee on
Fconomlc, Soclal and Cultural klghts, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 1 (zooo), para. 1S, and the Commlttee on the
Fllmlnatlon of 0lscrlmlnatlon agalnst women (Concludlng observatlons on Kyrgyzstan (A]S), paras. 1z,
and 1zS).
S. The 0fflce of the unlted hatlons hlgh Commlssloner for kefugees, conslderlng "persecutlon on account of
one's sexual orlentatlon", has stated:"w]hcrc hcncscxuclity is illccl ir c pcrtirulcr scricty, thc inpcsi-
ticr cj scvcrc rrinircl pcrcltics jcr hcncscxucl rcrJurt rculJ cncurt tc pcrscruticr, just cs it wculJ jcr
rcjusir tc wccr thc vcil by wcncr ir scnc scrictics. Fvcr whcrc hcncscxucl prcrtircs crc rct rrinirclizcJ,
c rlcincrt rculJ still cstcblish c vcliJ rlcin whcrc thc Stctc rcrJcrcs cr tclcrctcs Jisrrinirctcry prcrtircs
cr hcrn pcrpctrctcJ ccirst hin cr hcr, cr whcrc tc prctcrt cjjcrtivcly thc rlcincrt ccirst surh hcrn."
(0uldellnes on lnternatlonal Protectlon: gender-related persecutlon wlthln the context of Artlcle 1 A (z) of
the 11 Conventlon and lts 16, Protocol relatlng to the Status of kefugees, hCk]0lP]oz]o1, para. 1,, of
, May zooz).
. 0plnlon ho. ,]zooz, Jcr. rit., para. zS.
6o. 0plnlon ho zz]zoo6 (Cameroon) of 1 August zoo6, ln uh 0oc. A]hkC]]o]Add.1.
61. lbiJ., para. zz.
under Artlcle of the Furcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts persons of "unsound
mlnd" may lawfully be detalned ln accordance wlth law. 0ays and lesblans have
hlstorlcally been sub|ected to forced "medlcal" treatment to change thelr sexual
orlentatlon wlth methods of electrlc shock, other forms of "averslon therapy" or the
use of psychotroplc drugs.
6z
The contlnulng treatment of homosexual and trans-
gender ldentltles as mental lllnesses ralses serlous questlons about deprlvatlons
of llberty that are |ustlfed for reasons of mental health.
Accordlng to the establlshed |urlsprudence of the Furopean Court of human klghts,
three mlnlmum condltlons must be satlsfed for an lndlvldual to be consldered of
"unsound mlnd" and deprlved of llberty:
"j ]irstly, hc nust rclicbly bc shcwr tc bc cj urscurJ nirJ, scrcrJly,
thc ncrtcl JiscrJcr nust bc cj c kirJ cr Jcrcc wcrrcrtir rcnpulscry
rcrjircncrt, thirJly, thc vcliJity cj rcrtirucJ rcrjircncrt JcpcrJs upcr
thc pcrsistcrrc cj surh c JiscrJcr".
6
The opportunlty to lnvestlgate whether one's sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty ls
the real basls for deprlvatlon of llberty arlses ln an evldentlary lnqulry of whether a
person ls ln fact of unsound mlnd. The Furopean Court of human klghts has clarlfed
that, "the very nature of what has to be establlshed before the competent natlonal
authorlty - that ls, a true mental dlsorder - calls for ob|ectlve medlcal expertlse".
6

The overwhelmlng rellance on medlcal knowledge ln establlshlng proof ln these
questlons has hlstorlcally been problematlc. however, one notes the progresslve
advancements ln ceaslng to treat homosexual orlentatlon and transgender ldentl-
tles as mental dlsorders.
The w0A0 has also expressed concern for the sltuatlon of vulnerable persons such
as the dlsabled, drug addlcts and people sufferlng from Al0S who are held ln deten-
tlon on health grounds.
6
lt recommended that, "wlth regard to persons deprlved
of thelr llberty on health grounds, the worklng 0roup conslders that ln any event
all persons affected by such measures must have |udlclal means of challenglng
thelr detentlon".
66
Thls faclllty would avall ltself to persons who are detalned on
account of thelr sexual orlentatlon, gender ldentlty or gender expresslon, though
the formal reasons charged are "health" or "mental lnstablllty". The w0A0 has not
6z. Amnesty lnternatlonal, 8rcckir thc Silcrrc: huncr kihts viclcticrs bcscJ cr scxucl cricrtcticr, London,
1, See generally, 0oodman, kyan, "The lncorporatlon of lnternatlonal human klghts Standards lnto
sexual orlentatlon asylum clalms: cases of lnvoluntary "medlcal" lnterventlon", ln clc lcw /currcl, vol.
1o, 1.
6. }udgment of 0ctober zooo, Case of vcrbcrcv v. 8ulcric, Appllcatlon ho. 16]6, para. .
6. }udgment of z 0ctober 1,, Case of wirtcrwcrp v. thc NcthcrlcrJs, Appllcatlon ho. 6o1],, para. .
6. kcpcrt cj thc wcrkir Crcup cr Arbitrcry 0ctcrticr, uh 0oc. F]Ch.]zoo], of 1 0ecember zoo, para.
,.
66. lbiJ., para. S,.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. So
dealt wlth thls type of sltuatlon and oplnes
6,
that each scenarlo would have to be
dealt wlth on a "case by case basls" and not "ln the abstract". lt has stated that ln
the conslderatlon of lndlvldual communlcatlons under lts mandate:
"0crisicrs cr psyrhictrir Jctcrticrs shculJ cvciJ cutcnctirclly jcllcwir
thc cxpcrt cpiricr cj thc irstituticr whcrc thc pcticrt is hclJ cr thc rcpcrt
crJ rcrcnncrJcticrs cj thc cttcrJir psyrhictrist. Ccruirc cJvcrscricl
prcrcJurc shcll bc rcrJurtcJ, whcrc thc pcticrt crJ/cr his lccl rcprcscrtc-
tivc crc ivcr thc cppcrturity tc rhcllcrc thc rcpcrt cj thc psyrhictrist,
crJ] psyrhictrir Jctcrticr shcll rct bc uscJ tc jccpcrJizc scnccrcs
jrccJcn cj cxprcssicr rcr tc purish, Jctcr cr JisrrcJit hin cr crrcurt cj
his pclitircl, iJcclcircl, cr rcliicus vicws, rcrvirticrs cr crtivity".
6S
These select guldellnes evlnce an appreclatlon of the publlc pollcy elements that
are lnherent ln detentlon on grounds of mental health, whlle slmultaneously belng
vlgllant to protect those detalned from any form of dlscrlmlnatlon.
As ls the sltuatlon where laws crlmlnallslng adult same-sex practlce are found to glve
rlse to arbltrary deprlvatlon of llberty, lt ls also arguable that detentlons premlsed
on homosexual or transgender ldentltles belng "mental dlsorders" are "arbltrary"
and a vlolatlon of the rlght to llberty. The basls of thls assertlon ls that such laws
or provlslons are based on un|ustlfable dlscrlmlnatlon on the grounds of sexual
orlentatlon or gender ldentlty.
y. 5pecia| cencerns regarding LC1 persens |awIu||y deprived eI
their |iberty
A detentlon based solely on sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty grounds can
amount to an arbltrary detentlon, however L08T persons can be lawfully deprlved of
thelr llberty, for example when they have commltted a crlme. ln any case, deprlvatlon
of llberty must meet the followlng crlterla to avold belng arbltrary: procedural and
substantlve legallty, legltlmacy of purpose, necesslty, proportlonallty and human
rlghts guaranteed. L08T persons deprlved of thelr llberty must have the same rlghts
and guarantees of the other detalnees, such as: the rlght to be lnformed of the
reasons for the arrest and of any charges agalnst hlm]her, the rlght to be lnformed
about hls]her rlghts and how to avall hlmself or herself of these rlghts, the rlght to a
|udlclal remedy to challenge the lawfulness of hls detentlon and order hls release lf
the detentlon ls not lawful, the rlght to be brought promptly before a |udge or other
6,. 0clibcrcticr Nc. ; cr issucs rclctcJ psyrhictrir Jctcrticr, ln keport of the worklng 0roup on Arbltrary
0etentlon, uh 0oc. F]Ch.]zoo]6, of 1 0ecember zoo.
6S. lbiJ., para. S.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw S1
|udlclal offcer, the rlght to prompt access to a lawyer, the rlght to have access to the
outslde world, and the rlght to humane treatment durlng detentlon.
6
Sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty shall not be lnvoked to deny or restrlct
these rlghts and safeguards. The prohlbltlon of dlscrlmlnatlon has been clearly
expressed by the lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts, ln lts Prirriplcs
crJ 8cst Prcrtircs cr thc Prctcrticr cj Pcrscrs 0cprivcJ cj libcrty ir thc Ancrircs:
"u]nder no clrcumstances shall persons deprlved of llberty be dlscrlmlnated agalnst
for reasons of ..] sexual orlentatlon .]. Therefore, any dlstlnctlon, excluslon, or
restrlctlon that ls elther deslgned to or has the effect of undermlnlng or lmpedlng
the recognltlon, en|oyment, or exerclse of the lnternatlonally recognlsed rlghts of
persons deprlved of llberty, shall be prohlblted."
,o
The uh human klghts Commlttee
has also noted that states of emergency cannot be used to |ustlfy derogatlon from
the prlnclple of non-dlscrlmlnatlon.
,1
L08T persons detalned, as well as every person deprlved of hls]her llberty, must
"be treated wlth humanlty and wlth respect for the lnherent dlgnlty of the human
person".
,z
Thls rlght applles to any one deprlved of llberty under the laws and
authorlty of the State who ls held ln prlsons, hospltals - partlcularly psychlatrlc
hospltals - detentlon camps or correctlonal lnstltutlons or elsewhere.
,
The duty
to protect and preserve thls rlght lmposes on States a posltlve obllgatlon towards
persons who are partlcularly vulnerable because of thelr status as persons deprlved
of llberty.
,
States have the obllgatlon to organlse thelr system of detentlon and
penltentlary servlces ln order to protect detalnees from any klnd of threats and acts
of torture, cruel, lnhuman, or degradlng treatment or punlshment, sexual vlolence,
corporal punlshment, collectlve punlshment, forced lnterventlon or coerclve treat-
6. The Standard Mlnlmum kules for the Treatment of Prlsoners (kule ), the 8ody of Prlnclples for the
Protectlon of All Persons under Any Form of 0etentlon or lmprlsonment (Prlnclples 1, and 1S), the uh
8aslc Prlnclples on the kole of Lawyers (Prlnclples 1, , 6, , and S), the lnternatlonal Conventlon for the
Protectlon of All Persons from Fnforced 0lsappearance (Artlcle 1,), Prlnclples on the Fffectlve Preventlon and
lnvestlgatlon of Fxtra-legal, Arbltrary and Summary Fxecutlon (Prlnclple 6) and the Prlnclples and 0uldellnes
on the rlght to a falr trlal and legal asslstance ln Afrlca (Prlnclple M.z). See also human klghts Commlttee,
Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2c, cp. rit. z, para. 11.
,o. Prlnclple ll of the Prlnclples and 8est Practlces on the Protectlon of Persons 0eprlved of Llberty ln the
Amerlcas. These Prlnclples was approved by the lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts durlng lts
11st regular perlod of sesslons, held ln March zooS.
,1. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2p, Jcr. rit., para. S.
,z. See Artlcle 1o (1) of the lCCPk, Artlcle 1, (1) of the lnternatlonal Conventlon on the Protectlon of the klghts
of All Mlgrant workers and Members of Thelr Famllles, Artlcle , (c) of the Conventlon of the klghts of the
Chlld, Artlcle () of the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts, Artlcle of the Afrlcan Charter on human
and Peoples' klghts, and Artlcle zo of the Arab Charter on human klghts.
,. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 21, huncrc trcctncrt cj pcrscrs JcprivcJ cj thcir libcrty,
Artirlc 1c, para. z.
,. lbiJ., para. , Furopean Court of human klghts, }udgment of 1 }une zooz, Case of Pcul crJ AuJrcy FJwcrJs
v. thc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho. 6,,], and lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts, }udgment of
z September zoo, Case of /uvcrilc kc-cJurcticr lrstitutc v. Pcrcucy, para. 1S.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. Sz
ment, and from any method lntended to obllterate thelr personallty or to dlmlnlsh
thelr physlcal or mental capacltles.
,
The uh human klghts Commlttee has polnted out that states of emergency cannot
be used to |ustlfy derogatlon of the rlght to be treated wlth humanlty durlng the
deprlvatlon of llberty.
,6
ln certaln countrles, L08T detalnees are held under a reglme
of prolonged total lsolatlon. The human klghts Commlttee has found the prolonged,
total lsolatlon of a detalnee from hls or her famlly to "constltute lnhuman treatment
wlthln the meanlng of Artlcle , and be] lnconslstent wlth the standards of human
treatment requlred under Artlcle 1o, paragraph 1, of the lCCPk]".
,,
Two uh Speclal
kapporteurs on Torture have noted that "lncommunlcado detentlon should be made
lllegal and ls the most lmportant determlnlng factor as to whether an lndlvldual ls at
rlsk of torture".
,S
The human klghts Commlttee, the Commlttee agalnst Torture and
the lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts have all noted that the prolonged solltary
confnement or lncommunlcado detentlon of a detalned or lmprlsoned person may
amount to prohlblted acts such as torture or lll-treatment.
,
Prlnclple , of the uh 8csir Prirriplcs cr thc kclc cj lcwycrs stlpulates that "all
persons arrested or detalned, wlth or wlthout crlmlnal charge, shall have prompt
access to a lawyer, and ln any case not later than forty-elght hours from the tlme
of arrest or detentlon". The human klghts Commlttee stated that "all persons who
are arrested must lmmedlately have access to counsel"
So
and that "the use of
prolonged detentlon wlthout any access to a lawyer or other persons of the outslde
world vlolates artlcles of the Covenant (Artlcles ,, , 1o and 1, para. .b)".
S1

The Commlttee has recommended "that no one be] held for more than S hours
wlthout access to a lawyer"
Sz
and that all detalnees, lncludlng those belng held ln
,. See irtcr clic: human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 21, Jcr. rit., Prlnclple l of the Prlnclples
and 8est Practlces on the Protectlon of Persons 0eprlved of Llberty ln the Amerlcas, Prlnclple M (,) of the
Prlnclples and 0uldellnes on the klght to a Falr Trlal and Legal Asslstance ln Afrlca, lnter-Amerlcan Court of
human klghts, }udgment of z September zoo, Case of /uvcrilc kc-cJurcticr lrstitutc v. Pcrcucy.
,6. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2p, Jcr. rit., para. 1(a). ln the same llne, see Prlnclple l
of the Prlnclples and 8est Practlces on the Protectlon of Persons 0eprlved of Llberty ln the Amerlcas.
,,. vlews of 6 hovember 1,, Communlcatlon ho ,,]1, Case of virtcr AljrcJc Pclcy Ccnpcs v. Pcru, para.
S.6, CCPk]C]61]0],,]1, }anuary 1S.
,S. keports of the Speclal kapporteur A],]1,, z }uly zooz, para. 16, F]Ch.]zoo]6, para. ,, and A],]1,,
z }uly zooz, para. 16.
,. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2c, Prchibiticr cj tcrturc, cr cthcr rrucl, irhuncr cr
JcrcJir trcctncrt cr purishncrt, Artirlc ;, para. 6, Commlttee agalnst Torture (keports A]], paras.
1z1 and 16, A]], para. 1, and A]], para. 1Sz) and lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts,
}udgment z }uly 1SS, Case of vclcsqucz kcJriucz (para. 16) and }udgment of 1z hovember 1,, Case
of Sucrcz kcscrc (paras. o-1).
So. CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc huncr kihts Ccnnittcc: Cccric, CCPk]C],]Add.,, May 1,, para.
z,.
S1. CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc huncr kihts Ccnnittcc: lsrccl, CCPk]C0],S]lSk, para. 1.
Sz. lbiJ.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw S
admlnlstratlve detentlon, be granted prompt access to a lawyer.
S
The uh Speclal
kapporteur on Torture has polnted out that "ln accordance wlth lnternatlonal law,
and as confrmed by States' practlce, the followlng baslc legal safeguards should
remaln ln fact ln any leglslatlon relatlng to arrest and detentlon, lncludlng any type
of antl-terrorlst leglslatlon: .] the rlght to have access to a lawyer wlthln z hours
from the tlme of arrest".
S
To facllltate access to lawyers, as to allow communlca-
tlon wlth famlly members and other persons, detalnees must be held ln offclal
places of detentlon and the authorltles must keep a record of thelr ldentltles.
S

0lsappearances are absolutely prohlblted, as are prolonged lncommunlcado deten-
tlon and prolonged solltary confnement.
The rlght to have prompt access to medlcal personnel and medlcal asslstance ls
recognlsed unlversally.
S6
The lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts has
made clear that thls rlght ls so fundamental for the protectlon of detalnees that
lt cannot be suspended even ln sltuatlons allowlng emergency derogatlon.
S,
The
fallure to provlde adequate medlcal care can constltute a vlolatlon of a State's obll-
gatlon to refraln from torture or cruel, lnhuman or degradlng treatment.
SS
Fxperlence demonstrates that, lf L08T persons are ln a posltlon of vulnerablllty ln
a soclety, when they become detalnees thelr vulnerablllty dramatlcally lncreases.
lndeed, detalnees percelved to be gay, lesblan, blsexual, or transgendered are at
greater rlsk for vlolence, rape and sexual assault than the general populatlon ln
detentlon.
S
Thls ls due to a varlety of factors: hatred of and pre|udlce agalnst such
people, soclal stlgma that renders them less able to form personal relatlonshlps
S. CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc huncr kihts Ccnnittcc on: lsrccl, CCPk]C0],S]lSk, para. 1, and
SwitzcrlcrJ, CCPk]C],]Add.,o, para. z6, and vlews of z, }uly 1, Communlcatlon ho z6]1SS, Case
of hcrry kclcrc v. Zcnbic, CCPk]C]S]0]z6]1SS, para. 6..
S. keport of the Speclal kapporteur, A],]1,, z }uly zooz, para. 1S. See also: F]Ch.]zoo]6, para. z.
S. Artlcle 1o.1 of the 0eclaratlon on the Protectlon of All Persons from Fnforced 0lsappearances, Artlcle 1,
of lnternatlonal Conventlon for the Protectlon of All Persons from Fnforced 0lsappearance, kule , of the
Standard Mlnlmum kules for the Treatment of Prlsoners, Prlnclples zo and z of the 8ody of Prlnclples for
the Protectlon of All Persons under Any Form of 0etentlon or lmprlsonment, Prlnclple 6 of the Prlnclples
on the Fffectlve Preventlon and lnvestlgatlon of Fxtra-legal, Arbltrary and Summary Fxecutlon, Artlcle Xl of
the lnter-Amerlcan Conventlon on Forced 0lsappearance of Persons, kules , and S of the Furopean Prlson
kules, and Prlnclple M(6) of the Prlnclples and guldellnes on the rlght to a falr trlal and legal asslstance ln
Afrlca.
S6. The 8ody of Prlnclples for the Protectlon of All Persons under Any Form of 0etentlon or lmprlsonment
(Prlnclple z), the 0eclaratlon on the Protectlon of all Persons from Fnforced 0lsappearance (Artlcle 1o)
and the Standard Mlnlmum kules for the Treatment of Prlsoners (kules , and z).
S,. kcpcrt cr 1crrcrisn crJ huncr kihts, cp. rit., paras. 1z, and 1 and kecommendatlon ho. ,.
SS. For example, lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts, }udgment of , September zoo, Case of 1ibi v.
FrucJcr, para. 11, Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and Peoples' klghts, Case of lrtcrrcticrcl Pcr v. Nicric,
Communlcatlons hos. 1,], 1], 1]6 and 161], (1S), para. So, lnter-Amerlcan Court of human
klghts, }udgment of z, hovember zoo, Case of Mcritzc urrutic v. Cuctcnclc, paras. ,,-,S.
S. For example, Furopean Commlttee for the Preventlon of Torture, visit kcpcrt Ccrncry 2cc, CPT]lnf (zoo,)
1S, para. 1o, kcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur cr thc qucsticr cj tcrturc crJ cthcr rrucl, irhuncr cr
JcrcJir trcctncrt cr purishncrt, F]Ch.]zooz],6]Add.1, 1 March zooz, para. Sz, kcpcrt cj thc
Spcricl kcppcrtcur cr thc qucsticr cj tcrturc crJ cthcr rrucl, irhuncr cr JcrcJir trcctncrt cr purish-
ncrt, irtcrin rcpcrt, A]6]16, }uly zoo1.
that guard agalnst such acts, and the perceptlon - often made real by offclal and
extra-offclal dlscrlmlnatlon - that perpetrators of such vlolence wlll not face conse-
quences.
o
}ustlce system offclals are obllged to take measures to reduce the rlsk
of thls vlolence.
1
The Furopean Commlttee for the Preventlon of Torture (CPT), after vlsltlng a 0erman
prlson ln whlch "homosexuals appeared to be partlcularly at rlsk of belng assaulted
by other prlsoners", observed that the "prlson authorltles' duty of care lncludes the
responslblllty to protect lnmates from other lnmates who mlght wlsh to cause them
harm. Thls ls all the more lmportant where a group ls partlcularly vulnerable".
z

The uS Supreme Court, conslderlng the case of a male-to-female transsexual who
was raped two weeks after belng transferred to a hlgh-securlty men's prlson, has
ruled that prlson offclals' duty to provlde "humane condltlons of confnement"
lncludes taklng reasonable measures to abate any substantlal rlsk of rape or sexual
assault that offclals know lnmates face.
Fallure to take such preventatlve steps,

whlch may be evldenced by lndlfference to a pattern of repeated rapes and sexual
assaults ln detentlon facllltles, may vlolate several lnternatlonal human rlghts norms,
lncludlng the prohlbltlons on torture and cruel, lnhuman or degradlng treatment,
and slavery.
5ummary
The rlght to personal llberty and the rlght not to be arbltrarlly deprlved of n
llberty are unlversally recognlsed and protected by lnternatlonal human
rlghts law,
L08T persons deprlved of thelr llberty have the same rlghts and guarantees n
of other detalnees, such as: the rlght to be lnformed of the reasons for the
arrest and of any charges agalnst hlm]her, the rlght to be lnformed about
hls]her rlghts and how to avall hlmself or herself of these rlghts, the rlght
to a |udlclal remedy to challenge the lawfulness of hls detentlon and order
hls release lf the detentlon ls not lawful, the rlght to be brought promptly
before a |udge or other |udlclal offlcer, the rlght to prompt access to a lawyer,
o. Furopean Commlttee for the Preventlon of Torture, visit kcpcrt ukrcirc 2ccc, CPT]lnf (zooz) z, para. 6,
and CcrrluJir cbscrvcticrs cj thc Ccnnittcc ccirst 1crturc: 8rczil, A]6], 16 May zoo1, para. 11,
kcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur cr thc qucsticr cj tcrturc crJ cthcr rrucl, irhuncr cr JcrcJir trcctncrt
cr purishncrt, irtcrin rcpcrt, A]6]16, }uly zoo1, para. z.
1. Furopean Commlttee for the Preventlon of Torture, visit kcpcrt Ccrncry 2cc, CPT]lnf (zoo,) 1S, para. 11z,
Furopean Commlttee for the Preventlon of Torture, visit kcpcrt ukrcirc 2ccc, CPT]lnf (zooz) z, para. 6,
Fcrncr v. 8rcrrcr, 11 u.S. Supreme Court, Sz, S, (1).
z. Furopean Commlttee for the Preventlon of Torture, visit kcpcrt Ccrncry 2cc, CPT]lnf (zoo,) 1S, paras.
1o, 1z.
. Fcrncr v. 8rcrrcr, 11 u.S. Supreme Court, Sz, S, (1).
. lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts, }udgment of z September zoo, Case of /uvcrilc kccJurcticr lrstitutc
v. Pcrcucy, Furopean Court of human klghts, }udgment of 1 }une zooz, Case of Pcul crJ AuJrcy FJwcrJs
v. thc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho. 6,,].
the rlght to have access to the outslde world, the rlght to humane treatment
durlng detentlon and the rlght to have prompt access to medlcal personnel
and medlcal asslstance. Sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty shall be not
lnvoked to deny or restrlct these rlghts and safeguards,
0eprlvatlon of llberty based only on sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty n
grounds can amount to an arbltrary detentlon. States have an obllgatlon to
ellmlnate laws and legal practlces that crlmlnallse certaln manlfestatlons of
sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty, for reason that they necessarlly lead
to arbltrary deprlvatlon of llberty. Thls lncludes the use of vague "morallty"
provlslons and admlnlstratlve practlces that are ostenslbly deslgned,
lncludlng under deflnltlons of mental health,
The concept of deprlvatlon of llberty assumes dlfferent forms, lncludlng n
arrest, detentlon, pre-trlal detentlon, admlnlstratlve detentlon, pollcy
custody, lnternment, house arrest, amongst others,
The rlght to llberty may be the sub|ect of derogatlon ln tlmes of emergency. n
however, such derogatlons must be conslstent wlth other obllgatlons under
lnternatlonal law,
The notlon of "arbltrarlness" ls not to be equated wlth "agalnst the law", but n
must be lnterpreted more broadly to lnclude elements of lnapproprlateness,
ln|ustlce and lack of predlctablllty,
For a deprlvatlon of llberty to avold belng arbltrary, lt must observe the n
followlng crlterla: procedural and substantlve legallty, legltlmacy of purpose,
necesslty, proportlonallty and observance of human rlghts, ln partlcular the
rlght to a remedy and to securlty of person,
L08T persons can lawfully be deprlved of thelr llberty, but thelr deprlvatlon n
of llberty must meet the above crlterla to avold belng arbltrary,
A deprlvatlon of llberty ls arbltrary when: n
lt ls clearly lmposslble to lnvoke any legal basls |ustlfylng the deprlva-
tlon of llberty,
the deprlvatlon of llberty results from the exerclse of the rlghts or
freedoms guaranteed by the artlcles of the urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr cj
huncr kihts and the lCCPk, or
the total or partlal non-observance of the lnternatlonal norms relatlng
to the rlght to a falr trlal ls of such gravlty as to glve the deprlvatlon
of llberty an arbltrary character,
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. S6
States have the legal duty to protect detalnees from any klnd of threats and n
acts of torture, lll-treatment or punlshment, sexual vlolence, corporal punlsh-
ment, and other lnhuman acts.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw S,
"t]hc suprcnc riht cj thc huncr bcir".
-human klghts Commlttee
v. 1he Right te LiIe

:. Lega| nature and scepe
The rlght to not be arbltrarlly deprlved of llfe ls a unlversal rlght protected by several
lnternatlonal lnstruments
6
and lts exerclse ls essentlal for all other human rlghts.
lf lt ls not respected all other rlghts lack meanlng.
,
All the lnternatlonal human
rlghts lnstruments emphaslse the fundamental nature of the rlght to llfe. The uh
human klghts Commlttee has polnted out that "l]t ls the supreme rlght from whlch
no derogatlon ls permltted even ln tlme of publlc emergency whlch threatens the llfe
of the natlon".
S
The lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts, has further emphaslsed
"t]he fundamental rlght to llfe lncludes, not only the rlght of every human belng not
to be deprlved of hls llfe arbltrarlly, but also the rlght that he wlll not be prevented
from havlng access to the condltlons that guarantee a dlgnlfed exlstence".
The
Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and Peoples' klghts conslders the rlght to llfe as "the
fulcrum of all other rlghts and] the fountaln through whlch other rlghts fow".
oo
The rlght to llfe must always be lnterpreted ln an expanslve way and any of lts llml-
tatlons must be approached wlth a restrlctlve lnterpretatlon. The lnter-Amerlcan
Court stlpulates that "b]ecause of lts lnherent nature, any restrlctlve approach to
thls rlght ls lnadmlsslble".
o1
8y referrlng to lts llmltatlons, the Furopean Court of
. human klghts Commlttee, vlews of 1 March 1Sz, Case of Sucrcz Jc Cucrrcrc v. Cclcnbic, Communlcatlon
ho. ]1,, para. 1.1.
6. Artlcle of the unlversal 0eclaratlon of human klghts, Artlcle 6 of the lCCPk, Artlcle of the lnternatlonal
Conventlon on the Protectlon of the klghts of All Mlgrant workers and Members of Thelr Famllles, Artlcle
6 of the Conventlon on the klghts of the Chlld, Artlcle 1o of the Conventlon on the klghts of Persons wlth
0lsabllltles, Prlnclple 1 of the Prlnclples on the Fffectlve Preventlon and lnvestlgatlon of Fxtra-legal, Arbltrary
and Summary Fxecutlons, Artlcle , of the unlted hatlons 0eclaratlon on the klghts of lndlgenous Peoples,
and Artlcle of the 0eclaratlon on the human klghts of lndlvlduals who are not hatlonals of the Country
ln whlch They Llve, Artlcle of the Afrlcan Charter on human and Peoples' klghts, Artlcle of the Afrlcan
Charter on the klghts and welfare of the Chlld, Artlcle l of the Amerlcan 0eclaratlon on the klghts and 0uty of
Man, Artlcle of the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts, Artlcle of the Arab Charter on human klghts,
Artlcle z of the Furopean Conventlon on human klghts, Artlcle z of the Charter of fundamental rlghts of the
Furopean unlon.
,. }udgment of 1 hovember 1, Case of the "Strcct ChilJrcr" (villcrcr-Mcrclcs ct cl.| v. Cuctcnclc, para.
1.
S. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 6: 1hc riht tc lijc (Artirlc 6|, para. 1 and Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt
Nc. 1: Nurlccr wccpcrs crJ thc riht tc lijc (Artirlc 6|, para. 1.
. }udgment of 1 hovember 1, Case of the "Strcct ChilJrcr" (villcrdr-Mcrclcs ct cl.| v. Cuctcnclc, para.
1.
oo. Case of Fcrun cj Ccrsricrrc v. Sicrrc lccrc, Communlcatlon ho. zz]S (zooo), para. 1.
o1. }udgment of 6 Aprll zoo6, Case of 8clJccr-Ccrric v. Pcru, para. Sz. See also, Case of the "Strcct ChilJrcr"
(villcrcr-Mcrclcs ct cl.| v. Cuctcnclc, Jcr. rit., para. 1.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. SS
human klghts declded that they must be "strlctly construed".
oz
Accordlng to the
human klghts Commlttee, "t]he expresslon 'lnherent rlght to llfe' cannot properly
be understood ln a restrlctlve manner".
o
z. 5tates' eb|igatien te pretect the right te |iIe
under lnternatlonal human rlghts law, the obllgatlon of protectlon ln relatlon to the
rlght to llfe ls absolute and ls lncluded among the obllgatlons from whlch a State
cannot derogate under any clrcumstances.
o
Accordlngly, a State may not, even ln
tlme of war, publlc danger or other emergency
o
that threatens lts lndependence
or securlty, take measures suspendlng the obllgatlon to protect the rlght to llfe. The
absolute protectlon of the rlght to llfe applles to every lndlvldual under the |urls-
dlctlon of the State and, accordlngly, "the actlvltles of the lndlvldual ln questlon,
however undeslrable or dangerous cannot be a materlal conslderatlon".
o6
The rlght to llfe not only presumes that no person shall be deprlved of thelr llfe arbl-
trarlly (negatlve obllgatlon), but also requlres States to take all necessary measures
to protect and preserve the rlght to llfe (posltlve obllgatlon). The lnter-Amerlcan
Court of human klghts has polnted out that the State must "adopt any and all
necessary measures to protect and preserve the rlght to llfe of the lndlvlduals under
thelr |urlsdlctlon. .] States must adopt all the necessary measures to create a legal
framework that deters any posslble threat to the rlght to llfe, to establlsh an effectlve
legal system to lnvestlgate, punlsh, and redress deprlvatlon of llfe by State offclals
and prlvate lndlvlduals, and guarantee the rlght to unlmpeded access to condltlons
for a dlgnlfed llfe".
o,
The duty to protect the rlght to llfe lmplles the prohlbltlon to return, deport, extra-
dlte, expel, transfer or otherwlse send anyone to a country where he or she faces
a real rlsk of arbltrary deprlvatlon of llfe.
oS
ln partlcular, States that have already
oz. }udgment of z, September 1, Case of MrCcrr crJ 0thcrs v. 1hc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho.
1,]1]6], para. 1,.
o. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 6, 1hc kiht tc lijc (Artirlc 6|, Jcr. rit., para. .
o. Artlcle of the lCCPk, Artlcle 1 of the Furopean Conventlon on human klghts, Artlcle z, of the Amerlcan
Conventlon on human klghts, and Artlcle of the Arab Charter on human klghts. The Afrlcan Charter on
human and Peoples' klghts does not contaln any provlslon allowlng for derogatlons ln tlmes of emergency.
ln the absence of such a clause all rlghts enshrlned ln the Afrlcan Charter are consldered non-derogable
and llmltatlons on those rlghts can never be |ustlfled by emergencles or speclal clrcumstances. See Afrlcan
Commlsslon on human and Peoples' klghts, Case of McJic kihts AcrJc crJ Ccrstituticrcl kihts Prcjcrt
v. Nicric, Communlcatlons ho. 1o], 1zS], 1o] and 1z]6), 1S, paras. 6,-6S.
o. Furopean Court of human klghts, MrCcrr crJ 0thcr v. uritcJ kirJcn, Jcr. rit., para. 1,, and }udgment
of 1 0ecember zooo, Case of Cbl v. 1urkcy Appllcatlon ho. zz6,6]), para. ,S. See also huncr kihts crJ
thc Fiht ccirst lrtcrrcticrcl 1crrcrisn, 1hc Ccurril cj Furcpc CuiJclircs, March zoo, 0uldellne Xv.
o6. See, nutctis nutcrJis, }udgment of z 0ctober 16, Case of Chchcl v. 1hc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon
ho. zz1], para. So.
o,. }udgment of 6 Aprll zoo6, Case of 8clJccr-Ccrric v. Pcru, paras. Sz-S.
oS. See irtcr clic: the uh Prlnclples on the Fffectlve Preventlon and lnvestlgatlon of Fxtra-legal, Arbltrary and
Summary Fxecutlons (Prlnclple ) and the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts (Artlcle zz.S).
abollshed the death penalty have an obllgatlon both not to lmplement lt and not "to
expose a person to the real rlsk of lts appllcatlon".
o
The uh human klghts Commlttee has stated that "t]he protectlon agalnst arbltrary
deprlvatlon of llfe, whlch ls expllcltly requlred by the thlrd paragraph of Artlcle 6.1 of
the lCCPk] ls of paramount lmportance. The Commlttee conslders that States partles
should take measures not only to prevent and punlsh deprlvatlon of llfe by crlmlnal
acts, but also to prevent arbltrary kllllng by thelr own securlty forces. The deprlvatlon
of llfe by the authorltles of the State ls a matter of utmost gravlty. Therefore, the law
must strlctly control and llmlt the clrcumstances ln whlch a person may be deprlved
of hls llfe by such authorltles".
1o
The rlght to llfe further requlres that States take reasonable measures to protect thelr
cltlzens from belng arbltrarlly deprlved of llfe. These lnclude, at the level of publlc
pollcy, the obllgatlon to combat vlolent crlme, and at the level of actlon by securlty
forces, the obllgatlon to act to prevent speclfc foreseeable acts of vlolence.
An lndlvldual's rlght to llfe ls also vlolated ln cases where "the authorltles knew or
ought to have known .] of a real and lmmedlate rlsk to the llfe of an ldentlfed lndl-
vldual .] from the crlmlnal acts of a thlrd party and .] falled to take measures .]
to avold that rlsk".
11
ln a case ln whlch a mentally lll prlsoner, Chrlstopher Fdwards,
was kllled by hls cell mate, klchard Llnford, whom the prlson authorltles knew to be
a vlolent paranold schlzophrenlc, the Court dld fnd a vlolatlon of the State's obllga-
tlon to protect Fdwards' llfe, slnce "lnformatlon was avallable whlch ldentlfed .]
Llnford as .] a real and serlous rlsk to .] Chrlstopher Fdwards, when placed ln hls
cell".
1z
The FJwcrJs case also hlghllghted the State's lncreased obllgatlon to protect
the rlght to llfe of people who are unlquely unable to defend the rlght themselves.
1

These lnclude prlsoners, the mentally lll and chlldren. lt ls arguable whether thls
category could be extended to sexual mlnorltles.
People ln detentlon are unlquely dependent on the State to safeguard thelr rlghts,
therefore the State has an enhanced obllgatlon to protect them. The lnter-Amerlcan
Court has noted that the State has an obllgatlon to "keep to an absolute mlnlmum"
"collateral" restrlctlons on human rlghts resultlng from the lawful deprlvatlon of
o. human klghts Commlttee, vlews of August zoo, Case of kccr /uJc v. CcrcJc, Communlcatlon ho.
Sz]1S, para. 1o., and vlews of zS }uly 1,, Case of A.k./. v Austrclic, Communlcatlon ho. 6z]16,
para. 6.11, uh. 0oc. CCPk]C,6o]0]6z]16.
1o. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 6, Jcr. rit., para. .
11. Furopean Court of human klghts, }udgment of z 0ctober zooz, Case of Mcstrcncttcc v. ltcly, Appllcatlon
ho. ,,o],, para. 6S. See also, Furopean Court of human klghts: }udgment of zS 0ctober 1S, Case
of 0sncr v. thc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho. zz], para. 116, }udgment of 1 }une zooz, Case of
Pcul crJ AuJrcy FJwcrJs v. thc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho. 6,,], para. , and }udgment of z
hovember 1, Case of 8rcnilcy v. thc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho.,,]6.
1z. }udgment of 1 }une zooz, Case of Pcul crJ AuJrcy FJwcrJs v. thc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho.
6,,], para. 6o.
1. lbiJ., para. 6.
llberty.
1
Thus, a State vlolated |uvenlle prlsoners' rlght to llfe when they were kept
ln a prlson lacklng fre alarms, extlngulshers and evacuatlon plans, and perlshed
ln a fre.
1
y. Arbitrary deprivatien eI |iIe and death threats
vlolatlons of the rlght not to be arbltrarlly deprlved of llfe can be grouped lnto three
categorles:
summary executlons: the basls of thls concept ls the appllcatlon of death n
penalty ln condltlons prohlblted by lnternatlonal law,
arbltrary executlons: these are those deprlvatlons of llfe due to the exces- n
slve or lllegal use of force by law enforcement offlclals, ln condltlons that are
contrary to those prescrlbed by lnternatlonal law, and
extra|udlclal executlons: they are related wlth the category of murder or n
lntentlonal homlclde ln crlmlnal law. For example, the polltlcal assasslnatlons
and the deaths caused by attacks or the kllllngs perpetrated by State securlty
forces, paramllltary groups, death squads or other prlvate forces cooperatlng
wlth the government or tolerated by lt enter lnto thls deflnltlon.
The prohlbltlon of extra|udlclal, arbltrary or summary executlon ls a peremptory
norm of lnternatlonal law (jus rccrs).
16
y.: xtrajudicia| executien
Fxtra|udlclal executlons are a gross human rlghts vlolatlon
1,
and constltute a crlme
under lnternatlonal customary law.
1S
Thus, a 0uatemalan "soclal cleanslng" opera-
tlon ln whlch street chlldren were kldnapped and murdered by out-of-unlform pollce
1. lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts, }udgment of z September zoo, Case of the "/uvcrilc kccJurcticr
lrstitutc" v. Pcrcucy, paras. 1z and 1.
1. lbiJ., para. 1,S.
16. Slxth uh Congress on the Preventlon of Crlme and the Treatment of 0ffenders (1So), kesolutlon ho. on
Fxtralegal Fxecutlons, paras. z and , uh document A]C0hF.S,]1]kev.1 (1S1), lnter-Amerlcan Court of
human klghts, }udgment of 1 March zoo1, Case of 8crrics Altcs (Chunbipunc Auirrc ct cl. v. Pcru|, lnter-
Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts, kcrcnncrJcticr cr Asylun crJ lrtcrrcticrcl Crincs, zo 0ctober
zooo, and hlgel kodley, 1hc 1rcctncrt cj Priscrcrs urJcr lrtcrrcticrcl lcw, Clarendon Press, 0xford, 1,
Second Fdltlon, p. 1z.
1,. See irtcr clic, human klghts Commlttee: vlews of z March 1Sz, Communlcatlon ho. o]1,S, Case of 8lcicr
lcwhcjj y vclic Jc 8lcicr v. uruucy, vlews of 1 March 1Sz, Communlcatlon ho. ]1,, Case PcJrc
Pcblc Ccrncrc v. Cclcnbic, and Flnal 0bservatlons on 8urundl, of August 1, CCPk]C],]Add.1,
para. .
1S. See irtcr clic: 0eflnltlon "8. Scricus rrincs urJcr irtcrrcticrcl lcw " of the uh upJctcJ Sct cj prirri-
plcs jcr thc prctcrticr crJ prcncticr cj huncr rihts thrcuh crticr tc rcnbct inpurity ( ln uh 0oc.F]
Ch.]zoo]1oz]Add.1, S February zoo), . The updated Set of prlnclples was recommended by the former
uh Commlsslon on human klghts, resolutlon F]Ch.]kFS]zoo]S1 of z1 Aprll zoo) and lnter-Amerlcan
Commlsslon on human klghts, kecommendatlon on asylum and lnternatlonal crlmes, of zo 0ctober zooo.
See also, hlgel kodley, 1hc 1rcctncrt cj Priscrcrs urJcr lrtcrrcticrcl lcw, cp. rit., p. 1z.
ls a clear example of a vlolatlon of the rlght.
1
The prohlbltlon of extra|udlclal execu-
tlons by the State also lncludes kllllngs commltted by non-State actors actlng at
the State's behest or acqulescence.
zo
For example, the lnter-Amerlcan Court has
found that where Colomblan paramllltarles engaged ln kllllngs of clvlllans wlth the
"acqulescence or tolerance" of the State, even ln the absence of dlrect orders or
speclfc knowledge that the kllllngs would occur, the Colomblan government vlolated
the rlght to llfe.
z1
y.z Arbitrary executien
lnternatlonal human rlghts law permlts lmpllcltly or expllcltly for the use of lethal
force by law enforcement offclals, though under lmperatlve restrlctlons. The ma|orlty
of treatles fnd the ratlonale ln the prohlbltlon of the "arbltrary" taklng of llves. Thls
ls the reasonlng used ln the lCCPk, the Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts,
the Ajrircr Chcrtcr cr huncr crJ Pccplcs kihts and the Arcb Chcrtcr cr huncr
kihts. An exceptlon ls the Furcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts that expressly
states the cases ln whlch force can be used only when "absolutely necessary": "(a)
ln defence of any person from unlawful vlolence, (b) ln order to effect a lawful arrest
or to prevent the escape of a person lawfully detalned, (c) ln actlon lawfully taken
for the purpose of quelllng a rlot or lnsurrectlon".
zz
The uh 8csir Prirriplcs cr thc usc cj Fcrrc crJ Firccrns by lcw Frjcrrcncrt
0jricls provlde clear lndlcatlon about the legltlmate use of force and the crlterla
to establlsh when a deprlvatlon of llfe can be arbltrary. ln addltlon, the |urlspru-
dence provldes several crlterla to assess the legltlmacy of the use of force and
the arbltrarlness of deprlvatlon of llfe. For example, the human klghts Commlttee
polnts out that the use of lethal force must be taken wlth preventlve warnlng and by
glvlng the vlctlms the opportunlty to surrender and lt must be necessary for "thelr
own defence or that of others or .] to effect the arrest or prevent the escape of the
persons concerned".
z
The Furopean Court of human klghts has upheld that the
only permlsslble grounds of use of force are those envlsaged by the Conventlon
and that "a strlcter and more compelllng test of necesslty must be employed from
that normally appllcable when determlnlng whether State actlon ls 'necessary to a
democratlc soclety'. .] ln partlcular, the force used must be strlctly proportlonate
to the achlevement of the alms"
z
set out ln the Furopean Conventlon.
1. }udgment of 1 hovember 1, Case of the "Strcct ChilJrcr" (villcrdr-Mcrclcs ct cl.| v. Cuctcnclc, paras.
1,-1,.
zo. }udgment of z hovember zoo, Case of Myrrc Mcrk Chcr v. Cuctcnclc, para. 1 and }udgment of 1 }uly
zoo6, Case of the ltucrc Mcsscrrcs v. Cclcnbic, para. 1z.
z1. See Case of the ltucrc Mcsscrrcs v. Cclcnbic, Jcr. rit.
zz. Furopean Conventlon on human klghts, Artlcle z(z).
z. vlews of 1 March 1Sz, Case of Sucrcz Jc Cucrrcrc v. Cclcnbic, Communlcatlon ho. ]1,, paras. 1.1
and 1.z, ln uh 0oc. CCPk]C]1]0]]1,.
z. Case of MrCcrr crJ 0thcrs v. uritcJ kirJcn, Jcr. rit., paras. 1S-1.
y.y 5ummary executien and the death pena|ty
Fven though lnternatlonal human rlghts law establlshes the non-derogable nature
of the rlght to be not arbltrarlly deprlved of the llfe, lt admlts the phenomenon
of capltal punlshment under preclse and restrlctlve condltlons. The lCCPk and the
Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts both restrlct the death penalty to "the most
serlous crlmes"
z
and there ls lncreaslng agreement that thls standard constltutes
customary lnternatlonal law.
z6
The uh ScjcucrJs ucrcrtccir prctcrticr cj
thc rihts cj thcsc jcrir thc Jccth pcrclty stlpulates that: "capltal punlshment
may be lmposed only for the most serlous crlmes, lt belng understood that thelr
scope should not go beyond lntentlonal crlmes wlth lethal or other extremely
grave consequences".
z,
The human klghts Commlttee has noted that crlmes of an
economlc nature, of corruptlon, adultery, or crlmes that do not result ln loss of llfe,
apostasy, commlttlng a thlrd homosexual act, and embezzlement by offclals, among
others, cannot be characterlsed as the "most serlous crlmes".
zS
The former uh
Commlsslon on human klghts has stated that "the notlon of "most serlous crlmes"
does not go beyond lntentlonal crlmes wlth lethal or extremely grave consequences
and that the death penalty ls not lmposed for non-vlolent acts such as fnanclal
crlmes, rellglous practlce or expresslon of consclence and sexual relatlons between
consentlng adults nor as a mandatory sentence".
z
The lmposltlon and executlon of
the death penalty for crlmes, whlch are not the "most serlous crlmes", can amount
to a summary executlon and vlolate the rlght to llfe.
The human klghts Commlttee has polnted out that Artlcle 6 of the lCCPk "also refers
generally to abolltlon ln terms whlch strongly suggest .] that abolltlon ls deslrable.
.] A]ll measures of abolltlon should be consldered as progress ln the en|oyment of
the rlght to llfe".
o
The lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts has stated that "the
conventlonal rules concernlng the death penalty should be lnterpreted as lmposlng
restrlctlons deslgned to dellmlt strlctly lts appllcatlon and scope, ln order to reduce
the appllcatlon of the death penalty to brlng about lts gradual dlsappearance".
1

The Ccrvcrticr cr thc kihts cj thc ChilJ (Artlcle , (a)) and the Ajrircr Chcrtcr
cr thc kihts crJ wcljcrc cj thc ChilJ (Artlcle .) prohlblt capltal punlshment for
z. See Artlcle 6 of the lCCPk and Artlcle of the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts. See also Arab Charter
on human klghts, Artlcles , 6 and ,.
z6. See for example, uh00, huncr kihts Ccurril 0isrusscs thc 0ccth Pcrclty, lrstituticr 8uilJir crJ 0thcr
lssucs, Press kelease, z March zoo, (remarks by Slovenla, the unlted States and Slngapore), Frank 0affney,
kiht cj kcply cr thc 0ccth Pcrclty, Statement by the u.S. Mlsslon to the 0SCF, 0ctober zoo.
z,. Artlcle 1 of the uh Safeguards guaranteelng protectlon of the rlghts of those faclng the death penalty.
zS. See irtcr clic., CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc huncr kihts Ccnnittcc: lslcnir kcpublir cj lrcr, uh 0oc.
CCPk]C],]Add.z, August 1, para. S and CcrrluJir cbscrvcticrs cj thc huncr kihts Ccnnittcc:
SuJcr, ln uh 0oc. CCPk]C],]Add.S, 1 hovember 1,, para. S.
z. kesolutlon ho. zoo], 1hc qucsticr cj thc Jccth pcrclty, of zo Aprll zoo, para. 6.f.
o. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 6, Jcr. rit, para. 6.
1. }udgment of z1 }une zooz, Case of hilcirc, Ccrstcrtirc crJ 8crjcnir ct cl. v. 1ririJcJ crJ 1cbcc, para.
. See also, Advlsory 0plnlon 0C-]S, kcstrirticrs tc thc 0ccth Pcrclty (Artirlcs (2| crJ (| Ancrircr
Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts|, of S September 1S, para. ,.
offences commltted by persons below 1S years of age. Flrmly establlshed ln the
treaty systems at both unlversal
z
and reglonal
levels, prohlbltlon of the death

penalty ls gradually becomlng a part of general lnternatlonal law.
lnternatlonal standards and |urlsprudence requlre that penaltles can only be carrled
out pursuant to a fnal |udgment rendered by an lndependent, lmpartlal and compe-
tent trlbunal after a falr trlal wlth the observance of all the |udlclal guarantees,
lncludlng the rlght to appeal. The human klghts Commlttee has polnted out that
"t]he procedural guarantees thereln prescrlbed must be observed, lncludlng the
rlght to a falr hearlng by an lndependent trlbunal, the presumptlon of lnnocence, the
mlnlmum guarantees for the defence, and the rlght to revlew by a hlgher trlbunal".

0n the guarantees to be afforded to people faclng the death penalty, the uh
ScjcucrJs ucrcrtccir prctcrticr cj thc rihts cj thcsc jcrir Jccth pcrclty
are
an lmportant guldellne ln declaratory law. ln addltlon, certaln categorles of people
are excluded from the appllcatlon of the death penalty accordlng to lnternatlonal
law: persons who, at the tlme of the commlsslon of the crlmlnal offence were below
1S years of age, pregnant women, new mothers or the mentally lnsane.
6
y. 0eath threats
0eath threats not only undermlne the rlght to llfe but also the rlght to securlty of
persons provlded by Artlcle of the lCCPk and Artlcle of the urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr
cj huncr kihts. ln relatlon to death threats, the uh human klghts Commlttee has
observed that:
"Althcuh ir thc Ccvcrcrt thc crly rcjcrcrrc tc thc riht cj scrurity cj
pcrscr is tc bc jcurJ ir crtirlc p, thcrc is rc cviJcrrc thct it wcs irtcrJcJ
tc rcrrcw thc rcrrcpt cj thc riht tc scrurity crly tc situcticrs cj jcrncl
Jcprivcticr cj libcrty. ..] lt rcrrct bc thc rcsc thct, cs c ncttcr cj lcw,
Stctcs rcr ircrc krcwr thrccts tc thc lijc cj pcrscrs urJcr thcir juris-
Jirticr, just bcrcusc thct hc cr shc is rct crrcstcJ cr cthcrwisc JctcircJ.
z. Second 0ptlonal Protocol to the lCCPk and the Conventlon on the klght of the Chlld (Artlcle ,).
. wlthln the Councll of Furope context, see Protocols 6 and 1 to the Furcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts,
and |urlsprudence from the Furopean Court of human klghts (l.e: }udgment of 1z March zoo, Case of 0rclcr
v. 1urkcy, Appllcatlon ho. 6zz1]). wlthln the Fu context, see Artlcle z of the Charter of Fundamental
klghts of the Furopean unlon. As far as the lnter-Amerlcan system ls concerned, see the Amerlcan Conventlon
on human klghts (Artlcle .1) and the Protocol to the Amerlcan Conventlon Abollshlng the 0eath Penalty.
Already back ln 16 when the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts was adopted, fourteen out of the
nlneteen delegatlons present declared thelr "jirn hcpc cj sccir thc cpplircticr cj thc Jccth pcrclty crcJi-
rctcJ" (0AS document 0FA]Ser.K]Xvl]1.z, p. 6, - The deslrable state of affalrs ln the hemlsphere).
. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 6, 1hc kiht tc lijc (Artirlc 6|, para. ,.
. Safeguards guaranteelng protectlon of the rlghts of those faclng death penalty, approved by Fconomlc and
Soclal Councll kesolutlon 1S]o of z May 1S.
6. See irtcr clic: lCCPk (Artlcle 6.), Conventlon on the klghts of the Chlld (Artlcle ,.a), uh Safeguards guar-
anteelng protectlon of the rlghts of those faclng death penalty (Artlcle ), Amerlcan Conventlon on human
klghts (Artlcle ,), Afrlcan Charter on the klghts and welfare of the Chlld (Artlcle ,), and Protocol to the
Afrlcan Charter on human and Peoples' klghts on the klghts of women ln Afrlca (Artlcle ).
Stctcs pcrtics crc urJcr cr cblicticr tc tckc rccscrcblc crJ cpprcprictc
nccsurcs tc prctcrt thcn. Ar irtcrprctcticr cj crtirlc p whirh wculJ cllcw
c Stctc pcrty tc ircrc thrccts tc thc pcrscrcl scrurity cj rcr-JctcircJ
pcrscrs withir its jurisJirticr wculJ rcrJcr tctclly ircjjcrtivc thc ucrcr-
tccs cj thc Ccvcrcrt".
,
The human klghts Commlttee and the lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts
have concluded that the lnactlon of State vls--vls of death threats constltute a
vlolatlon of the rlght to llfe.
S
. 5exua| 0rientatien and Cender tdentity and the right te |iIe
lt ls axlomatlc that the State should not deprlve a person of llfe based on sexual
orlentatlon or gender ldentlty grounds. The lmposltlon of capltal punlshment for
commlttlng a thlrd homosexual act or sexual relatlons between consentlng adults
or extra|udlclal executlons or kllllngs for reasons of the sexual orlentatlon or gender
ldentlty of the vlctlm are a fagrant vlolatlon of the rlght to llfe.
The uh 0eneral
Assembly has repeatedly reaffrmed the obllgatlon of the States "to ensure the
protectlon of the rlght to llfe of all persons under thelr |urlsdlctlon" and has called
all States "concerned to lnvestlgate promptly and thoroughly all cases of kllllngs
.] commltted for any dlscrlmlnatory reason, lncludlng sexual orlentatlon .] and
to brlng those responslble to |ustlce before a competent, lndependent and lmpar-
tlal |udlclary and ensure that such kllllngs, lncludlng kllllngs commltted by securlty
forces, paramllltary groups or prlvate forces, are nelther condoned nor sanctloned
by government offclals or personnel."
o
,. uh human klghts Commlttee, vlews of }uly 1z, 1o, Case of willicn FJucrJc 0clcJc Pdcz v. Cclcnbic,
Communlcatlon ho 1]1S, para. . ln uh. 0oc. CCPk]C]]0]1]1S. See also, vlews of zo
March zooo, Case of Ccrlcs 0ics v. Arclc, Communlcatlon ho. ,11]16, para. S., ln uh 0oc. CCPk]
C]6S]0],11]16, vlews of z 0ctober zooo, Case of kcJcr Chcrwc v. Zcnbic, Communlcatlon ho.
Sz1]1S, para. ., ln uh 0oc. CCPk]C],o]0]Sz1]1S , and vlews of z March zooz, Case of luis AsJrbcl
/incrcz vcrc v. Cclcnbic, Communlcatlon ho. S]1, para. ,.1.
S. human klghts Commlttee, vlews of z March zooz, Case of luis AsJrbcl /incrcz vcrc v. Cclcnbic,
Communlcatlon ho. S]1, para. ,. and lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts, keport ho.
z]o, Case 1o.zzz (Peru).
. See irtcr clic, human klghts Commlttee, CcrrluJir cbscrvcticrs cj thc huncr kihts Ccnnittcc: SuJcr,
ln uh 0oc. CCPk]C],]Add.S, 1 hovember 1,, para. S, Former uh Commlsslon on human klghts,
kesolutlon ho. zoo], 1hc qucsticr cj thc Jccth pcrclty, of zo Aprll zoo, para. 6.f and kesolutlon
zoo]6,, 1hc qucsticr cj thc Jccth pcrclty, of z Aprll zoo, para. .d, uh 0eneral Assembly, kesolutlons
on "Fxtra|udlclal, summary or arbltrary executlons" ho. 61]1, of 1 0ecember zoo6, ho. ]1, of zo
0ecember zoo and ho. ,]z1 of 1S 0ecember zooz, kcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur cr FxtrcjuJiricl,
sunncry cr crbitrcry cxcruticrs, Mr. Philip Alstcr, AJJcrJun: Missicr tc Nicric, ln uh 0oc, F]
Ch.]zoo6]]Add. of , }anuary zoo6, kcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur cr cxtrcjuJiricl, sunncry cr
crbitrcry cxcruticrs, Mr. Philip Alstcr, AJJcrJun: Missicr tc Cuctcnclc, A]hkC]]zo]Add.z, 1 February
zoo,, kcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur cr FxtrcjuJiricl, Sunncry crJ Arbitrcry Fxcruticrs, F]Ch.]zooo],
z }anuary zooo, para. 116.
o. 0eneral Assembly, kesolutlon ,]z1, FxtrcjuJiricl, sunncry cr crbitrcry cxcruticrs, of 1S 0ecember zooz,
para. 6. See also resolutlon 61]1,, FxtrcjuJiricl, sunncry cr crbitrcry cxcruticrs, 16 0ecember zoo6, para.
(b).
lt merlts repeatlng that under Artlcle 6 of the lCCPk and the Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr cr
huncr kihts, death sentences may only be lmposed for the most serlous crlmes,
a stlpulatlon whlch excludes matters of sexual orlentatlon. The human klghts
Commlttee has affrmed that homosexual acts cannot be characterlsed as the "most
serlous crlmes",
1
and the former uh Commlsslon on human klghts has stated
that the death penalty should not lmposed for sexual relatlons between consentlng
adults.
z
The uh Speclal kapporteur on extra|udlclal, summary or arbltrary execu-
tlons has expllcltly stated that lmposltlon of the death sentence for a prlvate sexual
practlce, such as sodomy, ls a vlolatlon of lnternatlonal law.
The rlght to llfe establlshes a negatlve legal duty on the State to prevent actlons
by lts agents that deprlve a person of llfe based on hls or her sexual orlentatlon or
gender ldentlty. Fqually, the legal duty ls a posltlve one and obllges States to take all
approprlate measures to deter, prevent and punlsh perpetrators as well as address
any attltudes or condltlons ln soclety whlch encourage or facllltate such crlmes
from elther agents of the State or thlrd partles. Thls would lnclude puttlng ln place
effectlve crlmlnal law provlslons to deter the commlsslon of offences agalnst the
person, backed up by law-enforcement machlnery for the preventlon, suppresslon
and punlshment of breaches of such provlslons.
Thls posltlve obllgatlon should not be neglected as a large part of the vlolatlons
of the rlght to llfe ln relatlon to sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty occurs not
|ust ln the actlon of agents of the State, but also ln thelr lnactlon or fallure to take
posltlve steps to secure llfe.
The lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts, has further defned that:
"1his crtivc prctcrticr cj thc riht tc lijc by thc Stctc irvclvcs rct crly its
lcislctcrs, but clsc cll Stctc irstituticrs crJ thcsc whc shculJ prctcrt scru-
rity, whcthcr thcy crc its pclirc cr its crncJ jcrrcs. Ccrscqucrtly, thc Stctc
nust cJcpt thc rcrcsscry nccsurcs, rct crly ct thc lcislctivc, cJniristrc-
tivc crJ juJiricl lcvcls by thc issuc cj pcrcl rcrns crJ thc cstcblishncrt
cj c justirc systcn tc prcvcrt, clinirctc crJ purish thc Jcprivcticr cj
lijc cs c rcsult cj rrinircl crts, but clsc tc prcvcrt crJ prctcrt irJiviJucls
1. See irtcr clic, CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc huncr kihts Ccnnittcc: lslcnir kcpublir cj lrcr, uh 0oc.
CCPk]C],]Add.z, August 1, para. S and CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc huncr kihts Ccnnittcc:
SuJcr, uh 0oc. CCPk]C],]Add.S, 1 hovember 1,, para. S.
z. kesolutlon ho. zoo], 1hc qucsticr cj thc Jccth pcrclty, of zo Aprll zoo, para. 6.f.
. kcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur cr cxtrcjuJiricl, sunncry cr crbitrcry cxcruticrs, Mr. Philip Alstcr,
AJJcrJun: Missicr tc Nicric, uh 0oc, F]Ch.]zoo6]]Add. of , }anuary zoo6, para. ,.
. Furopean Court of human klghts, }udgment of z6 }uly zoo,, Case of Arclcvc crJ llicv v. 8ulcric,
Appllcatlon ho. z]oo, para. , and }udgment of zS 0ctober 1S, Case of 0sncr v. 1hc uritcJ
kirJcn, Appllcatlon ho. S,]1,]S,1]1oS, para. 11. lt ls thus accepted by those appearlng before
the Court that Artlcle z of the Conventlon may also lmply ln certaln well-deflned clrcumstances a posltlve
obllgatlon on the authorltles to take preventlve operatlonal measures to protect an lndlvldual whose llfe ls
at rlsk from the crlmlnal acts of another lndlvldual.
jrcn thc rrinircl crts cj cthcr irJiviJucls, crJ irvcstictc surh situcticrs
cjjcrtivcly".
There ls also a requlrement that thls type of actlon should be pursued wlth prompt-
ness and reasonable expedltlon.
6
Addresslng lssues of the rlght to llfe ln respect
of sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty obllges States to embark on leglslatlve,
|urldlcal and admlnlstratlve measures accordlngly. Thls also necessltates a polltlcal
commltment to guarantee both the exlstence of these measures and thelr effcacy.
ln order to guarantee the rlght to llfe, the uh Speclal kapporteur on extra|udlclal,
summary or arbltrary executlons has polnted out that: "Acts of murder and death
threats should be promptly and thoroughly lnvestlgated by the authorltles], regard-
less of the sexual orlentatlon of the person or persons concerned. Measures should
lnclude pollcles and programmes geared towards overcomlng hatred and pre|u-
dlce agalnst homosexuals, and sensltlzlng publlc offclals and the general publlc to
crlmes and acts of vlolence dlrected agalnst members of sexual mlnorltles."
,
Pre|udlce agalnst persons based on thelr sexual orlentatlon and]or gender ldentlty
has been ldentlfed as a basls for soclal stlgmatlzatlon.
S
L08T persons and sexual
mlnorltles are more vulnerable to vlolence and human rlghts abuses, lncludlng death
threats and vlolatlons of the rlght to llfe, whlch are often commltted ln a cllmate
of lmpunlty. The uh Speclal kapporteur on extra|udlclal, summary and arbltrary
executlons has noted that persons of homosexual orlentatlon were classlfed as
belonglng to a category of vlctlms who are partlcularly vulnerable, by vlrtue of thelr
sexual orlentatlon, of belng dlrectly targeted for extra|udlclal executlon or exposed
to extra|udlclal executlons and death threats.
Sensatlonallst medla coverage of

lssues concernlng sexual orlentatlon contrlbutes to pre|udlce and creates an atmos-
phere of lmpunlty and lndlfference about crlmes commltted agalnst members of
sexual mlnorltles. lmpunlty could be the result of a weak and lnadequate |ustlce
system, whlch ls elther reluctant or unable to lnvestlgate and prosecute cases of
human rlghts vlolatlons, lncludlng vlolatlons of the rlght to llfe.
o
. lnter Amerlcan Court of human klghts, }udgment of 1 }uly zoo6, Case of 1hc ltucrc Mcsscrrcs v. Cclcnbic,
para. 11.
6. lnter Amerlcan Court of human klghts, }udgment of z hovember zoo6, Case of lc Ccrtutc v. Pcru.
,. kcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur cr cxtrcjuJiricl, sunncry cr crbitrcry cxcruticrs, F]Ch.]zooz],,
}anuary zooz, para. 1S. See also kcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur cr cxtrcjuJiricl, sunncry cr crbitrcry
cxcruticrs, F]Ch.]zoo1], 11 }anuary zoo1, para. 11S.
S. kcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur cr cxtrcjuJiricl, sunncry crJ crbitrcry cxcruticrs, F]Ch.]zoo1], 11
}anuary zoo1, para. o.
. kcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur cr cxtrcjuJiricl, sunncry crJ crbitrcry cxcruticrs, F]Ch.]zooz],,
}anuary zooz.
o. kcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur cr cxtrcjuJiricl, sunncry crJ crbitrcry cxcruticrs, F]Ch.]zooo], z
}anuary zooo, paras. ,, S and 116.
The uh Speclal kapporteur on extra|udlclal, summary and arbltrary executlons has
concluded that:
"Jcrrinirclizir ncttcrs cj scxucl cricrtcticr wculJ rcctly rcrtributc tc
cvcrrcnir thc scricl stinctizcticr cj ncnbcrs cj scxucl nircritics, crJ
thcrcby rurb inpurity jcr huncr rihts viclcticrs JircrtcJ ccirst thcsc
pcrscrs. Mcttcrs cj scxucl cricrtcticr shculJ urJcr rc rirrunstcrrcs bc
purishcblc by Jccth."
1
5ummary
A person must not be deprlved of llfe for reasons of hls]her sexual orlenta- n
tlon or gender ldentlty,
The rlght to llfe and to not be arbltrary deprlved of llfe ls unlversally recog- n
nlsed and protected by lnternatlonal human rlghts law. The scope of
protectlon of the rlght to llfe must be lnterpreted ln an expanslve way and
lts llmltatlons approached wlth a restrlctlve lnterpretatlon,
The lmposltlon of capltal punlshment for commlttlng a homosexual act or n
sexual relatlons between consentlng adults ls a flagrant vlolatlon of the rlght
to llfe and can amount to a summary executlon,
States' obllgatlon to protect the lndlvldual's rlght to not be arbltrarlly n
deprlved of llfe ls absolute and ls lncluded among the obllgatlons from whlch
States cannot derogate under any clrcumstances,
The rlght to llfe not only presumes that no person shall be deprlved of thelr n
llfe arbltrarlly (negatlve obllgatlon), but also requlres States to take all neces-
sary measures to protect and preserve the rlght to llfe (posltlve obllgatlon)
lncludlng from acts by non-State actors,
States have an obllgatlon to take reasonable and approprlate steps to protect n
persons from death threats,
The duty to protect the rlght to llfe lmplles the prohlbltlon on returnlng, n
deportlng, extradltlng, expelllng, transferrlng or otherwlse sendlng anyone
to a country where he or she faces a real rlsk of arbltrary deprlvatlon of llfe,
lncludlng when the deprlvatlon of llfe ls based on grounds of hls]her sexual
orlentatlon or gender ldentlty.
1. kcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur cr cxtrcjuJiricl, sunncry crJ crbitrcry cxcruticrs, F]Ch.]zooo], z
}anuary zooo, para. 116.
"1]hc cbsclutc rcturc cj thc prchibiticr cj tcrturc,
rrucl, irhuncr cr JcrcJir trcctncrt .] ir rc
rirrunstcrrcs rcr bc JcrcctcJ jrcn. Surh trcctncrts
rcr rcvcr bc justijicJ cr thc bcsis cj c bclcrrc tc bc
jcurJ bctwccr scrictys irtcrcst crJ thc irJiviJucls
rihts".
-human klghts Commlttee
z
vt. 1erture and t||-1reatment
:. kature and scepe eI the prehibitien eI terture and i||-treatment
The urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr cj huncr kihts states that "n]o one shall be sub|ected
to torture or to cruel, lnhuman or degradlng treatment or punlshment". All human
rlghts treatles, both lnternatlonal and reglonal, prohlblt absolutely torture and cruel,
lnhuman or degradlng treatment or punlshment.
ln addltlon, several lnternatlonal

standards relterate thls prohlbltlon.
z. CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc huncr kihts Ccnnittcc: CcrcJc, CCPk]C]CAh]C0], zo Aprll zoo6, para.
1.
. lnternatlonal Covenant on Clvll and Polltlcal klghts (Artlcle ,), the Conventlon agalnst Torture and 0ther
Cruel, lnhuman or 0egradlng Treatment or Punlshment, the Conventlon on the klghts of the Chlld (Artlcle
,a), the lnternatlonal Conventlon on the Protectlon of the klghts of All Mlgrant workers and Members
of Thelr Famllles (Artlcle 1o) the Conventlon on the klghts of Persons wlth 0lsabllltles (Artlcle 1.1), the
Furopean Conventlon on human klghts (Artlcle ), the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts (Artlcle ),
the lnter-Amerlcan Conventlon to Prevent and Punlsh Torture, the lnter-Amerlcan Conventlon on Preventlon,
Punlshment and Fradlcatlon of vlolence agalnst women (Artlcle ,c), the Arab Charter ln human klghts
(Artlcle S), the Afrlcan Charter on human and Peoples' klghts (Artlcle ), the Afrlcan Charter on the klghts
and welfare of the Chlld (Artlcle 16), and Protocol to the Afrlcan Charter on human and People's klghts on
the klghts of women ln Afrlca (Artlcle ).
. The uh 0eclaratlon on the Protectlon of All Persons from 8elng Sub|ected to Torture and 0ther Cruel,
lnhuman or 0egradlng Treatment or Punlshment, the uh 8ody of Prlnclples for the Protectlon of All Persons
under Any Form of 0etentlon or lmprlsonment (Prlnclple 6), Prlnclples of Medlcal Fthlcs relevant to the kole
of health Personnel, partlcularly Physlclans, ln the Protectlon of Prlsoners and 0etalnees agalnst Torture
and 0ther Cruel, lnhuman or 0egradlng Treatment or Punlshment, Prlnclples on the Fffectlve lnvestlgatlon
and 0ocumentatlon of Torture and 0ther Cruel, lnhuman or 0egradlng Treatment or Punlshment, Code of
Conduct for Law Fnforcement 0fflclals (Artlcle ), The 0uldellnes on the kole of Prosecutors (0uldellne 16),
the 0eclaratlon on the human klghts of lndlvlduals who are not hatlonals of the Country ln whlch They Llve
(Artlcle 6), the uh 0uldlng Prlnclples on lnternal 0lsplacement (Prlnclple 11), the Charter of Fundamental
klghts of the Furopean unlon (Artlcle ), Prlnclples and 0uldellnes on 0uldellnes on the rlght to a falr trlal
and legal asslstance ln Afrlca (Prlnclple M.,) , the 0uldellnes of the Commlttee of Mlnlsters of the Councll of
Furope on human rlghts and the flght agalnst terrorlsm (0uldellne lv), the Prlnclples and 8est Practlces on
the Protectlon of Persons 0eprlved of Llberty ln the Amerlcas (Prlnclple 1), and the 0uldellnes and Measures
for the Prohlbltlon and Preventlon of Torture, Cruel, lnhuman or 0egradlng Treatment or Punlshment ln Afrlca
(kobben lsland 0uldellnes, zooz).
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. 1oo
The prohlbltlon of torture and cruel, lnhuman or degradlng treatment or punlsh-
ment (lll-treatment) are absolute and must not be derogated from at any tlme.

The absolute nature of the prohlbltlon on torture and lll-treatment, under treaty
law and customary lnternatlonal law, ls beyond all doubt.
6
The uh Commlttee
Agalnst Torture has stated that "t]he obllgatlons contalned ln artlcles z of the
Ccrvcrticr ccirst 1crturc crJ 0thcr Crucl, lrhuncr cr 0crcJir 1rcctncrt
cr Purishncrt] (whereby 'no exceptlonal clrcumstances whatsoever .] may be
lnvoked as a |ustlfcatlon of torture'), 1 (prohlbltlng confesslons extorted by torture
belng admltted ln evldence, except agalnst the torturer), and 16 (prohlbltlng cruel,
lnhuman or degradlng treatment or punlshment) are three such provlslons and
must be observed ln all clrcumstances".
,
The Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and
Peoples' klghts has slmllarly stated that "the rlght to freedom from torture and
cruel, lnhuman and degradlng treatment cannot be derogated from for any reason,
ln whatever clrcumstances".
S
The prohlbltlon of torture ls a jus rccrs norm,
as
the lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts has underscored "t]he absolute prohlbl-
. See irtcr clic: lCCPk (Artlcle .z), Common Artlcle of the 0eneva Conventlons, Furopean Conventlon on
human klghts (Artlcle 1.z), Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts (Artlcle z,.z), and the Arab Charter on
human klghts (Artlcle S).
6. See irtcr clic: lCCPk (Artlcle and ,), Conventlon agalnst Torture and 0ther Cruel, lnhuman or 0egradlng
Treatment or Punlshment (Artlcle z), Conventlon on the klghts of the Chlld (Artlcle ,), lnternatlonal
Conventlon on the Protectlon of the klghts of All Mlgrant workers and Members of thelr Famllles (Artlcle
1o), Standard Mlnlmum kules for the Treatment of Prlsoners (kule 1), 8ody of Prlnclples for the Protectlon
of All Persons under Any Form of 0etentlon or lmprlsonment (Prlnclple 6), 0eclaratlon on the Fllmlnatlon of
vlolence agalnst women (Artlcle ), Code of Conduct for Law Fnforcement 0fflclals (Artlcle ), 0eclaratlon
on the human klghts of lndlvlduals who are not hatlonals of the Country ln whlch They Llve (Artlcle 6),
0uldellnes on the kole of Prosecutors (Prlnclple 16), human klghts Commlttee, CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs
cj thc huncr kihts Ccnnittcc: CcrcJc, uh 0oc. CCPk]C]CAh]C0], zo Aprll zoo6, para. 1, uh 0eneral
Assembly kesolutlon A]kFS]]1S, uh Commlsslon on human klghts kesolutlon F]Ch.]kFS]zoo],
and the uh Speclal kapporteur on Torture (uh document F]Ch.]1S6]1, para. , 1 February 1S6, F]
Ch.]zooz]1,, z6 February zooz, para. S). See also: Afrlcan Charter on human and Peoples' klghts (Artlcle
), Afrlcan Charter on the klghts and welfare of the Chlld, (Artlcle 16), Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts
(Artlcles & z,), lnter-Amerlcan Conventlon to Prevent and Punlsh Torture (Artlcle 1 & ), lnter-Amerlcan
Conventlon on the preventlon, punlshment and eradlcatlon of vlolence agalnst women (Artlcle ), Furopean
Conventlon on human klghts (Artlcle ) and 0uldellnes of the Commlttee of Mlnlsters of the Councll of
Furope on human rlghts and the flght agalnst terrorlsm (lv). See also: Common Artlcle of the 0eneva
Conventlons, lll 0eneva Conventlon (Artlcles , z, S,(), S, ,), lv 0eneva Conventlon (Artlcles o, 1,
, 6, 1oo, 11), Protocol l of the 0eneva Conventlons (Artlcle ,) and Protocol ll of the 0eneva Conventlon
(Artlcle ).
,. 0eclaratlon of the Commlttee Agalnst Torture, adopted the zz hovember zoo1, uh 0oc. CAT]C]XXvll]Mlsc.,.
See also Commlttee agalnst Torture, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2, lnplcncrtcticr cj Artlcle 2 by Stctcs Pcrtics,
para. 6.
S. Communlcatlon z, ] zoo, Case of Artirlc 1p v. 1hc Stctc cj Fritrcc, para. .
. Commlttee agalnst Torture, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2, para. 1. See lnternatlonal Crlmlnal Trlbunal for the
Former ugoslavla: }udgment of 1o 0ecember 1S, Case of 1hc Prcscrutcr v. Artc FururJzijc, ho. lT--
1,]1-T, para. 1, }udgment of 16 hovember 1S, Case of 1hc Prcscrutcr v. 0clclir crJ cthcrs, lT-6-z1-T,
para. , and }udgment of zz February zoo, Case of Prcscrutcr v. kurcrcr, kcvcr crJ vukcvir, lT-6-z-T
and lT-6-z]1-T. See also lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts (}udgment of , September zoo, 1ibi r.
FrucJcr, para. 1, }udgment of S }uly zoo, hcrncrcs Ccncz Pcquiycuri r. Pcr, para. 11z, }udgment
of z, hovember zoo, Mcritzc urrutic r Cuctcnclc, para. z, and }udgment of 1S August zooo, Ccrtcrcl
8crcviJcs r. Pcr, paras. 1oz and 1o), uh Speclal kapporteur on Torture (uh 0oc. F]Ch.]zoo6]6, para.
1,) and lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts (kcpcrt cr 1crrcrisn crJ huncr kihts, Jcr. rit.,
para. 1).
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1o1
tlon of torture, both physlcal and mental, ls currently part of the lnternatlonal jus
rccrs".
6o
z. 1erture and i||-treatment
z.: 1erture: scepe eI deIinitien and sexua||y metivated crimes
under lnternatlonal law, dlfferent defnltlons of torture have been offered. lndeed,
the uh 0crlcrcticr cr thc Prctcrticr cj All Pcrscrs jrcn 8cir SubjcrtcJ tc
1crturc crJ 0thcr Crucl, lrhuncr cr 0crcJir 1rcctncrt cr Purishncrt,
61
the
uh Ccrvcrticr ccirst 1crturc crJ 0thcr Crucl, lrhuncr cr 0crcJir 1rcctncrt
cr Purishncrt,
6z
the kcnc Stctutc cj thc lrtcrrcticrcl Crinircl Ccurt
6
and the
lrtcr-Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr tc Prcvcrt crJ Purish 1crturc
6
provlde dlfferent defnl-
tlons of torture. At the same tlme, lnternatlonal humanltarlan law prohlblts torture
but does not provlde a defnltlon of lt.
The lnternatlonal Crlmlnal Trlbunal for the Former ugoslavla (lCT), ln outllnlng
lts scope of |urlsdlctlon examlned torture, as a crlme commltted ln a systematlc
way (crlmes agalnst humanlty) and as a crlme commltted ln an armed conflct (war
crlmes), wlthln the "defnltlon of torture under customary lnternatlonal law".
6

Prlmarlly, the lCT consldered that the defnltlon contalned ln the uh Ccrvcrticr
ccirst 1crturc crJ 0thcr Crucl, lrhuncr cr 0crcJir 1rcctncrt cr Purishncrt
"refects a consensus whlch the Trlal Chamber conslders to be representatlve of
customary lnternatlonal law".
66
Later, the lCT clarlfed thelr posltlon that, under
customary law, three elements characterlze torture: a) the lnflctlon, by act or omls-
slon, of severe paln or sufferlng, whether physlcal or mental, b) the act or omlsslon
must be lntentlonal, and c) the act must be lnstrumental to another purpose, ln the
sense that the lnflctlon of paln must be almed at reachlng a certaln goal.
6,
The lCT
further concluded that "t]here ls no requlrement under customary lnternatlonal
law that the conduct must be solely perpetrated for one of the prohlblted purposes
under the uh Conventlon agalnst Torture]. .]the prohlblted purpose must slmply
6o. lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts, }udgment of 11 March zoo, Case of Cccscr v. 1ririJcJ crJ 1cbcc,
para. z,1.
61. Artlcle 1 (1). See also the Commentary of Artlcle of the uN CcJc cj CcrJurt jcr lcw Frjcrrcncrt
0jjiricls.
6z. Artlcle 1 (1).
6. Artlcle , (z, e).
6. Artlcle z.
6. Trlal Chamber, }udgment of zz February zoo1, Prcscrutcr v. kurcrcr, kcvcr crJ vukcvir, Case lT-6-z-T &
lT-6-z]1-T, para. 6S. See also prevlous |udgments: Prcscrutcr v. FururJzijc, 1o 0ecember 1S, lT--
1,]1-T, and Prcscrutcr v. 0clclir crJ 0thcrs, 16 hovember 1S, ho. lT-6-z1-T.
66. }udgment of 16 hovember 1S, Case of Prcscrutcr v. 0clclir crJ 0thcrs, Case lT-6-z1-T, para. . See
also }udgment of 1o 0ecember 1S, Case of Prcscrutcr v. FururJzijc, Case lT--1,]1-T, paras. 16o-161.
6,. }udgment of zz February zoo1, Prcscrutcr v. kurcrcr, kcvcr crJ vukcvir, Case lT-6-z-T and lT-6-z]1-T,
para. S and Appeals Chamber, }udgment of 1z }une zooz, Prcscrutcr v. kurcrcr, kcvcr crJ vukcvir, Case
lT-6-z-T and lT-6-z]1-T para. 1S.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. 1oz
be part of the motlvatlon behlnd the conduct and need not be the predomlnatlng
or sole purpose."
6S
ln thls legal context, the lCT stated that "s]exual vlolence necessarlly glves rlse
to severe paln or sufferlng, whether physlcal or mental, and ln thls way |ustlfes lts
characterlsatlon as an act of torture."
6
The lCT "holds that, even lf the perpetra-
tor's motlvatlon ls entlrely sexual, lt does not follow that the perpetrator does not
have the lntent to commlt an act of torture or that hls conduct does not cause severe
paln or sufferlng, whether physlcal or mental, slnce such paln or sufferlng ls a llkely
and loglcal consequence of hls conduct. ln vlew of the defnltlon, lt ls lmportant to
establlsh whether a perpetrator lntended to act ln a way whlch, ln the normal course
of events, would cause severe paln or sufferlng, whether physlcal or mental, to hls
vlctlms."
,o
ln response to the argument that the purpose of sexual gratlfcatlon ls
not llsted ln the defnltlon of torture, the lCT concluded that "acts need not have
been perpetrated solely for one of the purposes prohlblted by lnternatlonal law. lf
one of the prohlblted purposes ls fulfled by the conduct, the fact that such conduct
was also lntended to achleve a non-llsted purpose (even one of a sexual nature) ls
lmmaterlal."
,1
The Furopean Court of human klghts and Commlsslon on human klghts has also
concluded that a rape can amount to torture.
,z
The Furopean Court noted that
"rape of a detalnee by an offclal of the State must be consldered to be an especlally
grave and abhorrent form of lll-treatment glven the ease wlth whlch the offender
can explolt the vulnerablllty and weakened reslstance of hls vlctlm ln thls case the
rape of a 1,-year-old glrl]".
,
These conslderatlons of the lCT, the Furopean Court and the lnter-Amerlcan
Commlsslon are partlcularly relevant for sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty
lssues, taklng lnto account that L08T persons are frequently vlctlms of rape and
sexual vlolence, especlally when they are deprlved of thelr llberty, elther by State
offclals or by thlrd partles often due to lnactlon by the State.
The uh Conventlon agalnst Torture descrlbes "'torture' as] any act by whlch severe
paln or sufferlng, whether physlcal or mental, ls lntentlonally lnflcted .] for any
6S. }udgment of zz February zoo1, Prcscrutcr v. kurcrcr, kcvcr crJ vukcvir, Case lT-6-z-T and lT-6-z]1-T,
para. S6. See also }udgment of 16 hovember 1S, Case of Prcscrutcr v. 0clclir crJ 0thcrs, lT-6-z1-T,
para. ,o.
6. Appeals Chamber, }udgment of 1z }une zooz, Prcscrutcr v. kurcrcr, kcvcr crJ vukcvir, Case lT-6-z-T
and lT-6-z]1-T para. 1o.
,o. lbiJ., para. 1.
,1. lbiJ., para. 1.
,z. Furopean Court of human klghts, }udgment of z September 1,, Case of AyJir v. 1urkcy, Appllcatlon ho.
,]16]6,6]S66 and Commlsslon on human klghts, keport ho. ]6 of 1 March 16, Case ho. 1o.,o,
kcqucl Mcrtir Jc Mcjic v. Pcr.
,. Case of AyJir v. 1urkcy, Jcr. rit., para. S1.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1o
reason based on dlscrlmlnatlon of any klnd .]".
,
Thls aspect of the defnltlon ls
relevant for sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty lssues, and the uh Commlttee
agalnst Torture notes thls posslblllty wlth respect to a draft of dlscrlmlnatlon
grounds, lncludlng sexual orlentatlon.
,
z.z Crue|, inhuman er degrading treatment er punishment
Although no absolute defnltlon exlsts the uh CcJc cj CcrJurt jcr lcw Frjcrrcncrt
0jricls provldes an lmportant lnterpretatlon as follows: "t]he term 'cruel, lnhuman
or degradlng treatment or punlshment' ..] should be lnterpreted so as to extend the
wldest posslble protectlon agalnst abuses, whether physlcal or mental".
,6
ln fact,
lll-treatment seems fundamentally defned by negatlon ln relatlon to torture. These
manlfests as acts whlch fall short of the defnltlon of torture ln the uh Conventlon
Agalnst Torture because of the absence of elements of lntent or whlch are not carrled
out for the speclfc purposes outllned.
,,
Acts that have been deemed as lll-treat-
ment by lnternatlonal |urlsprudence and]or lnternatlonal bodles lnclude: prolonged
lncommunlcado detentlon,
,S
repeated solltary confnement, submlsslon to cold,
perslstent relocatlon to a new cell,
,
women prlsoners hanglng naked from hand-
cuffs
So
and certaln "technlques" of lnterrogatlon.
S1
The uh Speclal kapporteur on
Torture has consldered that dlsproportlonate exerclse of pollce powers
Sz
and the
powerlessness of the vlctlm
S
are lnherent elements of lll-treatment.
,. Artlcle 1.1 of the uh Ccrvcrticr ccirst 1crturc crJ 0thcr Crucl, lrhuncr cr 0crcJir 1rcctncrt cr
Purishncrt.
,. Commlttee Agalnst Torture, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2, Jcr. rit. para. zz.
,6. Commentary (para. c.) to the Artlcle of the CcJc cj CcrJurt cj lcw Frjcrrcncrt 0jjiricls.
,,. uh Speclal kapporteur on Torture, uh 0oc. F]Ch.]zoo6]6, para. . ln the same llne, see hlgel kodley,
1hc trcctncrt cj priscrcrs urJcr irtcrrcticrcl lcw, Clarendon Press, 0xford, znd Fdltlon, 1, p. S and
ft.1z.
,S. See irtcr clic, human klghts Commlttee: Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2c, Jcr. rit., para. and 6, CcrrluJir
0bscrvcticrs: uritcJ Stctcs cj Ancrirc, CCPk]C]uSA]C0]]kev.1 of 1S 0ecember zoo6, para. 1z, vlews
of }uly zoo6, Case of Ali McJjrcurc v. Alcric, Communlcatlon ho. 1z,]zoo, vlews of z March 16,
Case of Cclis lcurccrc v. Pcru Communlcatlon ho. o]1, vlews of z }uly 1, Case of Mukcr v.
Ccncrccr Communlcatlon S]11, vlews of z March 1, Case of Fl-Mcrcisi v. libycr Arcb /cnchiriyc,
Communlcatlon o]1o. See also, uh former uh human klghts Commlsslon, kesolutlons ho. 1,]S
(para. 1o) and ho. zoo] (para. ), lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts, |udgment of z }uly 1SS, Case
of vclcsqucz kcJriucz (para. 16) and |udgment of 1z hovember 1,, Case of Sucrcz kcscrc (paras. o
and 1).
,. human klghts Commlttee: vlews of 1, }uly 1S, Case of Ccrtcris v. uruucy, Communlcatlon ho.
1]1S.
So. See human klghts Commlttee: vlews of z, March 1S1, Case of lscricrc Jc 8cutcr v. uruucy, Communlcatlon
ho. ,]1,S and vlews of 1 hovember 1S, Case of Arzucc Cilbcc v. uruucy, Communlcatlon ho.
1,]1S.
S1. For example, see CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc huncr kihts Ccnnittcc: uritcJ Stctcs cj Ancrirc,
CCPk]C]uSA]C0]]kev.1 of 1S 0ecember zoo6, para. 1, and lnter-Amerlcan on human klghts, kcpcrt cr
1crrcrisn crJ huncr kihts, 0AS 0oc. 0FA]Ser.L]v]ll.116, 0oc. rev. 1 corr, paras. z11 and z1.
Sz. uh 0oc F]Ch.]zoo6]6, para. S.
S. lbiJ., para. .
The prohlbltlon of cruel, lnhuman or degradlng treatment has been used to llmlt the
appllcatlon of the death penalty ln a varlety of clrcumstances. The Furopean Court
of human klghts has ruled that exposlng a prlsoner to "death row phenomenon"
S

constltutes cruel, lnhuman or degradlng treatment, effectlvely prohlbltlng extradl-
tlons where a sentence of death upon convlctlon ls posslble.
S
The human klghts
Commlttee has ruled that repeated last-mlnute stays of executlon constltute cruel
and lnhuman treatment.
S6
y. 5tates' eb|igatiens
States have the obllgatlon to prevent, lnvestlgate and punlsh torture and lll-treat-
ment under lnternatlonal law. They have three posltlve obllgatlons regardlng both
torture and lll-treatment: a) they must take steps such as tralnlng law enforce-
ment personnel to ensure that the prohlbltlons agalnst torture and lll-treatment
are enforced, b) they must promptly and competently lnvestlgate any reasonable
allegatlons that torture or lll-treatment have taken place ln thelr terrltorles, pros-
ecute the alleged perpetrators, and, lf found gullty by an lndependent, lmpartlal and
competent trlbunal punlsh them wlth approprlate penaltles taklng lnto account thelr
grave nature, and c) they must provlde an effectlve remedy and reparatlon to the
vlctlms of such acts.
S,
The Commlttee Agalnst Torture has noted that thls obllgatlon
extends to requlrlng "posltlve measures to ensure that prlvate persons or entltles do
not lnflct torture or cruel, lnhuman or degradlng treatment or punlshment on others
wlthln thelr power."
SS
whlle all forms of prohlblted treatment requlre affrmatlve
steps to prevent, punlsh, and remedy, the prohlbltlon of torture requlres States to
fulfl two addltlonal obllgatlons: an crc cnrcs obllgatlon to extradlte or prosecute
alleged torturers and the obllgatlon of rcr-rcjculcncrt.
The absolute prohlbltlon of torture and lll-treatment lmposes the obllgatlon on
the State to not use methods of lnterrogatlon, condltlons of detentlon or punlsh-
ment, whlch can amount to these prohlblted acts. Corporal punlshment - physlcal
punlshment lnvolvlng blows to the body or mutllatlon, such as fogglng, cannlng,
S. ln essence, the degradatlon of mental well-belng that results from lndeflnlte detentlon endlng ln expected
executlon.
S. Furopean Court of human klghts, }udgment of , }uly 1S, Case of Sccrir v. thc uritcJ kirJcn, Appllcatlon
ho. 1oS]SS.
S6. vlews of , Aprll 1S, Case of Prctt crJ Mcrcr v. /cncirc, Communlcatlons hos. z1o]1S6 and zz]1S,,
para. 1.,.
S,. See irtcr clic, Commlttee agalnst Torture, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2, lnplcncrtcticr cj Artirlc 2 by Stctc
Pcrtics, paras. z & ,, human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 1, 1hc Ncturc cj thc Ccrcrcl lccl
0blicticr lnpcscJ cr Stctcs Pcrtics tc thc Ccvcrcrt, para. 16, and the upJctcJ Sct cj Prirriplcs jcr thc
prctcrticr crJ prcncticr cj huncr rihts thrcuh crticr tc rcnbct inpurity (F]Ch.]zoo]1oz] Add.1, S
February zoo), recommended by the Commlsslon on human klghts resolutlon zoo]S1 of z1 Aprll . For a
more detalled explanatlon on these lssues, see lnternatlonal Commlsslon of }urlsts, 1hc kiht tc c kcncJy
crJ tc kcpcrcticr jcr Crcss huncr kihts viclcticrs: A Prcrtiticrcrs CuiJc, Practltloners 0ulde ho. z, lC}
0eneva, zoo6.
SS. Commlttee agalnst Torture, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2, Jcr. rit., para. 11.
whlpplng, amputatlon and brandlng - lmposed by |udlclal order or as an admlnls-
tratlve sanctlon ls prohlblted by lnternatlonal standards.
S
ln several countrles,
laws punlsh consensual same-sex relatlonshlps and transgendered behavlour by
corporal punlshment.
kegardlng the duty to prosecute the alleged perpetrators of lll-treatment, the
Commlttee Agalnst Torture, "emphaslzes that lt would be a vlolatlon of the
Conventlon to prosecute conduct solely as lll-treatment where the elements of
torture are also present".
o
The Commlttee agalnst Torture has relterated that ln
cases of lll-treatment, States have a duty to conduct a crlmlnal lnvestlgatlon.
1
ln
the same veln, the human klghts Commlttee has stated that "States Partles must
ensure that those responslble are brought to |ustlce. As wlth fallure to lnvestlgate,
fallure to brlng to |ustlce perpetrators of such vlolatlons could ln and of ltself glve
rlse to a separate breach of the Covenant."
z
States must not expose lndlvlduals to the danger of torture or lll-treatments upon
return to another country by way of thelr extradltlon, expulslon or rcjculcncrt. The
prlnclple of rcr-rcjculcncrt, prohlbltlng States to return, deport, extradlte, expel,
transfer or otherwlse send anyone to a country where he or she faces a real rlsk of
gross human rlghts vlolatlons, lncludlng torture and lll-treatment, ls one of the most
fundamental prlnclples of general lnternatlonal law. lt has lts orlglns ln refugee law

and lnternatlonal regulatlons on extradltlon
and ls now an lntegral part of human

rlghts law, appllcable to all lndlvlduals. lt ls frmly establlshed ln several unlversal
and reglonal legal lnstruments
as well as ln the lnternatlonal customary law that

ls blndlng on all States. Although the lCCPk contalns no expllclt provlslon on the
sub|ect, the human klghts Commlttee conslders the prlnclple of rcr-rcjculcncrt
S. See, irtcr clic, kesolutlon zoo1]6z of z Aprll zoo1, para. , of the former uh Commlsslon on human
klghts.
o. Commlttee agalnst Torture, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2, lnplcncrtcticr cj Artlcle 2 by Stctcs Pcrtics, uh doc.
CAT]C]0C]z]CkP.1]kev., para. 1o.
1. vlews of 1 May 1S, Case of Frrcrrcricr 8lcrrc AbcJ v. Spcir, Communlcatlon ho. ]16, vlews of z1
hovember zooz, Case of hcjrizi 0zcncjl ct cl. v. ucslcvic, Communlcatlon ho. 161]zooo.
z. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 1, 1hc Ncturc cj thc Ccrcrcl lccl 0blicticr lnpcscJ
cr Stctc Pcrtics tc thc Ccvcrcrt, para. 1S.
. The 11 Conventlon relatlng to the Status of kefugees (Artlcle ), the 0AS Conventlon on Terrltorlal Asylum
(Artlcle lv) and the 0rganlzatlon of Afrlcan unlty's Conventlon 0overnlng the Speclflc Aspects of kefugee
Problems ln Afrlca (Artlcle ll ()).
. See, among others, the lnternatlonal Conventlon agalnst Taklng hostages (Artlcle ), Furopean Conventlon on
Fxtradltlon (Artlcle ), Furopean Conventlon on the Suppresslon of Terrorlsm (Artlcle ), the lnter-Amerlcan
Conventlon on Fxtradltlon (Artlcle ) and the uh Model Treaty on Fxtradltlon (Artlcle ).
. See, among others, the Conventlon Agalnst Torture and Cruel, lnhuman or 0egradlng Treatment or Punlshment
(Artlcle .1), the lnternatlonal Conventlon for the Protectlon of All Persons from Fnforced 0lsappearance
(Artlcle 16), the 0eclaratlon on Terrltorlal Asylum (Artlcle .1), the 0eclaratlon on the Protectlon of All Persons
from Fnforced 0lsappearances (Artlcle S), the Prlnclples on the Fffectlve Preventlon and lnvestlgatlon of
Fxtra-legal, Arbltrary and Summary Fxecutlons (Prlnclple ), the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts
(Artlcle zz.S), the lnter-Amerlcan Conventlon to Prevent and Punlsh Torture (Artlcle 1.), the Arab Charter
on human klghts (Artlcle zS) and the Furopean Conventlon of human klghts (Artlcle ).
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. 1o6
to be lnherent ln Artlcle ,.
6
Thls has also been endorsed by varlous unlversal and
reglonal human rlghts bodles.
,
The human klghts Commlttee has remlnded States that "the absolute nature of the
prohlbltlon of torture, cruel, lnhuman or degradlng treatment .] ln no clrcumstances
can be derogated from. ho person, wlthout any exceptlon, even those suspected
of presentlng a danger to natlonal securlty or the safety of any person, and even
durlng a state of emergency, may be deported to a country where he]she runs the
rlsk of belng sub|ected to torture or cruel, lnhuman or degradlng treatment".
S
The
prlnclple of rcr-rcjculcncrt ls a jus rccrs norm and ls absolute ln nature, and lt
cannot be sub|ect to derogatlon or restrlctlon under any clrcumstances.
The dlfference between the varlous forms of prohlblted treatment (torture and cruel,
lnhuman or degradlng treatment) ls not relevant here: glven that the prohlbltlon on
all of them ls absolute and non-derogable, the prlnclple of rcr-rcjculcncrt applles
to them all wlthout dlstlnctlon.
oo
The Commlttee Agalnst Torture has also polnted
out that the rlsk of torture may come from non-State actors who are, Jc jcrtc, exer-
clslng functlons that normally belong to the authorltles.
o1
The prlnclple of rcr-rcjculcncrt applles whenever there ls a rlsk of a serlous vlola-
tlon of human rlghts. lt ls thls rlsk whlch ls the focus of attentlon, and the nature of
the removal or the actlvltles of the person concerned are not lmportant. The prln-
clple covers any lnvoluntary removal of an lndlvldual from one country to another,
whatever form lt takes or name lt ls glven (deportatlon, expulslon, return, extradl-
tlon, transfer, etc) and regardless of whether the proceedlngs followed were legal
(l.e., Jc jcrtc or Jc jurc). The tradltlonal dlstlnctlon made ln publlc lnternatlonal
6. See the human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2c, Jcr. rit., para. . See also, irtcr clic, vlews
of the human klghts Commlttee ln the cases: Chitct N v. CcrcJc, Communlcatlon 6]11, MchcnncJ
Alzcry v. SwcJcr, Communlcatlon ho. 116]zoo, Ccx v. CcrcJc, Communlcatlon ]1, and C.1. v.
Austrclic. Communlcatlon ,o6]16.
,. Commlttee agalnst Torture, vlews of zo May zoo, Case of AhncJ husscir Mustcjc kcnil Aizc v. SwcJcr,
Communlcatlon ho. z]zoo, CAT]C]]0]z]zoo, khcr v. CcrcJc, Ccnnurircticr Nc. 1/1pp, u.N.
0cr. A/c/ ct 6 (1pp|, Furopean Court of human klghts, }udgments ln the cases Sccrir v. 1hc uritcJ
kirJcn, Cruz vcrcs crJ cthcrs v. SwcJcr, vilvcrcjch crJ cthcrs v. 1hc uritcJ kirJcn, Alcr v. SwitzcrlcrJ,
Acnci v. SwitzcrlcrJ, Mutcnbc v. SwitzcrlcrJ, 1clc v. SwcJcr, Fclckcjlcki v. SwcJcr, A v. NcthcrlcrJs, Aycs
v. SwcJcr, hcyJir v. SwcJcr, crJ h.0. v. SwitzcrlcrJ, and the Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and Peoples'
klghts, Communlcatlon ho.,], McJissc v. 8ctswcrc.
S. CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc huncr kihts Ccnnittcc: CcrcJc, CCPk]C]CAh]C0], zo Aprll zoo6, para.
1.
. See, among others, the kcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur cr tcrturc, Mr. 1hcc vcr 8cvcr, uh document. F]
Ch.]zooz]1, of z6 February zooz, para. 1, and the lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts, Arrucl
kcpcrt cj thc lrtcr-Ancrircr Ccnnissicr cr huncr kihts, 1p8-1p8, 0AS document 0FA]Ser.L]v]ll.66,
0oc. 1o rev. 1, 1 0ctober 1S.
oo. See the human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2c, cp. rit. 1z, ln whlch the human klghts Commlttee
expllcltly acknowledges the appllcatlon of the prlnclple ln the case of "tcrturc cr rrucl, irhuncr cr JcrcJir
trcctncrt cr purishncrt" (para. ).
o1. 0eclslon of 1 May 1, Case of ScJiq Shck Flnir, Australla, Communlcatlon ho. 1zo]1S,
CAT]C]zz]0]1zo]1S, z May 1, para. 6..
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1o,
law between extradltlon, expulslon, return, etc, ls not relevant here.
oz
unllke the
Ccrvcrticr rclctir tc thc Stctus cj kcjuccs, any balanclng test that would allow
appllcatlon of the prlnclple to be curtalled for reasons such as natlonal securlty can
never be used here.
. 1erture and i||-treatment en greunds eI sexua| erientatien and
gender identity
.: 1erture and i||-treatment arising Irem prejudice and
discriminatien
As a mlnorlty group, L08T persons are placed ln a posltlon of vulnerablllty ln soclety
whlch ln turn lncreases thelr susceptlblllty to torture. The uh Speclal kapporteur
on torture has noted that attltudes and bellefs stemmlng from myths and fears
assoclated wlth gender, sexuallty and hlv]Al0S, contrlbutlng to the stlgma and
dlscrlmlnatlon agalnst them. hls report catalogues graphlc manlfestatlons of lll-
treatment speclfcally arlslng from hostlllty towards a partlcular sexual orlentatlon
and gender ldentlty, "male-to-female transsexual women have been beaten lnten-
tlonally on thelr breasts and cheek-bones whlch had been enhanced by slllcone
lmplants, causlng the lmplants to burst and as a result releaslng toxlc substances
lnto thelr bodles. lll-treatment agalnst sexual mlnorltles ls belleved to have also
been used, irtcr clic, to force sex workers to leave certaln areas, ln so-called 'soclal
cleanslng' campalgns, or to dlscourage sexual mlnorltles from meetlng ln certaln
places, lncludlng clubs and bars".
o
The uh Speclal kapporteur on Torture has concluded that systemlc dlscrlmlna-
tlon agalnst members of sexual mlnorltles lncreases thelr vulnerablllty to torture.
The Speclal kapporteur noted that "f ]or some years he] has recelved lnformatlon
regardlng a number of cases ln whlch the vlctlms of torture and other cruel, lnhuman
or degradlng treatment or punlshment have been members of sexual mlnorltles. he
notes that a conslderable proportlon of the lncldents of torture carrled out agalnst
members of sexual mlnorltles suggests that they are often sub|ected to vlolence
of a sexual nature, such as rape or sexual assault ln order to 'punlsh' them for
oz. See, among others, the Commlttee agalnst Torture, vlews of }une zooo, Case of /csu Arkcuz Arcrc v.
Frcrrc, Communlcatlon ho. o6]1,, and Ccrrlusicrs crJ kcrcnncrJcticrs cj thc Ccnnittcc Acirst
1crturc: uritcJ kirJcn, uh document CAT]C]Ck]], z hovember zoo, para. (e). See also the kcpcrt
cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur cr tcrturc crJ cthcr rrucl, irhuncr cr JcrcJir trcctncrt cr purishncrt, uh
document A]]z, 1 September zoo, para. .
o. kcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur cr thc qucsticr cj tcrturc crJ cthcr rrucl, irhuncr cr JcrcJir trcctncrt
cr purishncrt, irtcrin rcpcrt, uh 0oc. A]6]16, }uly zoo1, para. 1S.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. 1oS
transgresslng gender barrlers or for challenglng predomlnant conceptlons of gender
role."
o
The uh Speclal kapporteur noted that:
"ncnbcrs cj scxucl nircritics crc Jisprcpcrticrctcly subjcrtcJ tc tcrturc
crJ cthcr jcrns cj ill-trcctncrt, bcrcusc thcy jcil tc rcrjcrn tc scriclly
rcrstrurtcJ crJcr cxpcrtcticrs. lrJccJ, Jisrrinircticr cr rcurJs cj
scxucl cricrtcticr cr crJcr iJcrtity ncy cjtcr rcrtributc tc thc prcrcss
cj thc Jchuncrizcticr cj thc virtin, whirh is cjtcr c rcrcsscry rcrJiticr jcr
tcrturc crJ ill-trcctncrt tc tckc plcrc. .] ncnbcrs cj scxucl nircritics crc
c pcrtirulcrly vulrcrcblc rcup with rcspcrt tc tcrturc ir vcricus rcrtcxts
crJ .] thcir stctus ncy clsc cjjcrt thc rcrscqucrrcs cj thcir ill-trcctncrt
ir tcrns cj thcir crrcss tc rcnplcirt prcrcJurcs cr ncJircl trcctncrt ir
stctc hcspitcls, whcrc thcy ncy jccr jurthcr virtinizcticr, cs wcll cs ir tcrns
cj lccl rcrscqucrrcs rccrJir thc lccl scrrticrs jlcwir jrcn rcrtcir
cbuscs."
o
Concernlng dlscrlmlnatlon on grounds of sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty, the
uh Speclal kapporteur on Torture has polnted out that "dlscrlmlnatory attltudes
towards members of sexual mlnorltles can mean that they are percelved as less
credlble by law enforcement agencles or not fully entltled to an equal standard
of protectlon, lncludlng protectlon agalnst vlolence carrled out by non-State
agents."
o6
.z 1erture and i||-treatment via 'cures' impesed en sexua| minerities
Medlclne or the appllcatlon of "cures" has sometlmes been the basls for acts of
torture or degradlng treatment of L08T persons. Professor kyan 0oodman has
descrlbed "the curatlve pretext" that ls used as a precursor to "soclal cleanslng"
or systematlc lll-treatment of L08T people. Professor 0oodman clted "lnvoluntary"
medlcal lnterventlon agalnst L08T persons such as electrlc shock, forms of "averslon
therapy" and use of psychotroplc drugs: "even lf the practlce of sexual orlentatlon
were not experlmentatlon, a forelgn State's use of certaln medlcal technology may
already constltute experlmentatlon ln uS courts. The experlmental nature of the
procedure ltself may brldge the alleged gap between huremberg's experlmentatlon-
speclfc laws and the sexual orlentatlon 'cures'. Thus ad|udlcators and practltloners
should conslder the speclfc technlque rather than |ust the overall medlcal attempt
to forclbly alter sexual orlentatlon. The admlnlstratlon of antlpsychotlc drugs, for
lnstance, may classlfy the practlce as experlmentatlon, because of the 'explora-
tory' nature of the use of such drugs for sexual orlentatlon 'therapy' .]. Thlrdly, the
o. lbiJ., para. 1,, see also kcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur, uh 0oc. F]Ch.]zoo]6, z 0ecember zoo.
o. lbiJ., para. 1.
o6. kcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur cr thc qucsticr cj tcrturc crJ cthcr rrucl, irhuncr cr JcrcJir trcctncrt
cr purishncrt, F]Ch.]zooz],6, z, 0ecember zoo1, Annex lll, p. 11.
alleged dlstlnctlon between cure and experlmentatlon ls untenable wlth regard to
manlpulatlon of sexual orlentatlon".
o,
The context for the development of a curatlve trope has been set through the pathol-
oglzatlon of homosexual expresslons and transgender ldentltles. Thls approach
remalns throughout many countrles ln the world and has only recently been removed
as "pathology" ln medlcal clrcles.
The lnternatlonal and reglonal human rlghts systems have not yet dealt wlth an lndl-
vldual petltlon or communlcatlon speclfcally relatlng to lssues of sexual orlentatlon
and gender ldentlty ln relatlon wlth the prohlbltlon of torture and lll-treatments, and
provlslons prohlbltlng torture. however, all lnternatlonal norms and standards from
lnternatlonal human rlghts |urlsprudence on torture and lll-treatment, referred to ln
the prevlous sectlon of thls chapter, are appllcable ln relatlon to sexual orlentatlon
and gender ldentlty. lndeed, everyone ls entltled, wlthout any klnd of dlscrlmlnatlon
and regardless hls or her sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty, to the absolute rlght
to be free from torture and lll-treatment. The Commlttee Agalnst Torture has recalled
that "t]he prlnclple of non-dlscrlmlnatlon ls a baslc and general prlnclple ln the
protectlon of human rlghts and fundamental to the lnterpretatlon and appllcatlon of
the Conventlon. hon-dlscrlmlnatlon ls lncluded wlthln the defnltlon of torture ltself
ln Artlcle 1, paragraph 1, of the Conventlon, whlch expllcltly prohlblts speclfed acts
when carrled out for cry rccscr bcscJ cr Jisrrinircticr cj cry kirJ .."
oS
The
Commlttee polnted out that:
"1hc prctcrticr cj rcrtcir nircrity cr ncrirclizcJ irJiviJucls cr pcpu-
lcticrs cspcriclly ct risk cj tcrturc is c pcrt cj thc cblicticr tc prcvcrt
tcrturc cr ill trcctncrt. Stctcs pcrtics nust crsurc thct, irscjcr cs thc
cblicticrs crisir urJcr thc Ccrvcrticr crc rcrrcrrcJ, thcir lcws crc ir
prcrtirc cpplicJ tc cll pcrscrs, rccrJlcss cj .] scxucl cricrtcticr cr] trcrs-
crJcr iJcrtity .]. Stctcs pcrtics shculJ, thcrcjcrc, crsurc thc prctcrticr cj
ncnbcrs cj rcups cspcriclly ct risk cj bcir tcrturcJ, by jully prcscrutir
crJ purishir cll crts cj viclcrrc crJ cbusc ccirst thcsc irJiviJucls crJ
crsurir inplcncrtcticr cj cthcr pcsitivc nccsurcs cj prcvcrticr crJ
prctcrticr, irrluJir but rct linitcJ tc thcsc cutlircJ cbcvc".
o
0n several occaslons the Commlttee Agalnst Torture has expressed lts concerns for
allegatlons of torture and lll-treatment of certaln other vulnerable groups, lncludlng
o,. kyan 0oodman, "The lncorporatlon of lnternatlonal human klghts Standards lnto sexual orlentatlon
asylum clalms: cases of lnvoluntary 'medlcal' lnterventlon", ln clc lcw /currcl, vol. 1o, 0ctober 1, pp.
z,-z,.
oS. Commlttee Agalnst Torture, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2, "lnplcncrtcticr cj Artlcle 2 by Stctcs pcrtics", para.
zo.
o. lbiJ., para. z1.
sexual mlnorltles.
1o
Concernlng L08T detalnees, the Commlttee has also expressed
lts concerns about "dlscrlmlnatory treatment of certaln groups wlth regard to access
to the already llmlted essentlal servlces, notably on the basls of soclal orlgln or
sexual orlentatlon".
11
The Commlttee has recommended that States "r]emove all
amblgulty ln leglslatlon whlch mlght underpln the persecutlon of lndlvlduals because
of thelr sexual orlentatlon. Steps should also be taken to prevent all degradlng
treatment on the occaslon of body searches".
1z
The Commlttee has relterated the
duty of States to ensure that reports of brutallty and lll-treatment of members of
vulnerable groups, lncludlng persons of dlfferent sexual orlentatlon, by lts law-
enforcement personnel are lndependently, promptly and thoroughly lnvestlgated
and that perpetrators are prosecuted, brought to trlal and approprlately punlshed.
1

The Commlttee has recommended States bulld up and strengthen the system of
publlc defenders to protect vulnerable groups, lncludlng sexual mlnorltles.
1
Flnally, concernlng the lssue of rcr-rcjculcncrt, the uh Speclal kapporteur on
Torture has "drawn] attentlon to factors and clrcumstances that stem from condl-
tlons that may prevall ln a country and touch at the same tlme upon the vulnerablllty
of persons whose removal to such a country ls at stake. keference ls made here to
persons belonglng to any ldentlfable group or collectlvlty on .] gender or other
grounds, such as sexual orlentatlon, and who for that reason are targeted by the
authorltles or, wlth the connlvance of the authorltles, rlsk belng sub|ected to perse-
cutlon or systematlc dlscrlmlnatlon amountlng to torture or other cruel, lnhuman or
degradlng treatment or punlshment. These factors and clrcumstances also have to
be taken lnto account ln determlnlng the rcr-rcjculcncrt lssue".
1
5ummary
Fveryone ls entltled, wlthout any klnd of dlscrlmlnatlon and regardless of n
hls or her sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty, to the rlght to be free from
torture and lll-treatment,
1o. See irtcr clic: CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc Ccnnittcc ccirst 1crturc: Arcrtirc, CAT]C]Ck]]1, of 1o
0ecember zoo, para. 6, CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc Ccnnittcc ccirst 1crturc: Fypt, CAT]C]Ck]z],
of z 0ecember zooz, CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc Ccnnittcc ccirst 1crturc: 8rczil, A]6], of 16 May
zoo1, CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc Ccnnittcc ccirst 1crturc: FrucJcr, CAT]C]FCu]C0], of S February
zoo6, CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc Ccnnittcc ccirst 1crturc: uritcJ Stctcs cj Ancrirc, CAT]C]uSA]
C0]z, of z }uly zoo6.
11. CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs: cj thc Ccnnittcc ccirst 1crturc: 8rczil, A]6], of 16 May zoo1, para. 11.
1z. CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc Ccnnittcc ccirst 1crturc: Fypt, CAT]C]Ck]z], of z 0ecember zooz,
para. .
1. CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc Ccnnittcc ccirst 1crturc: uritcJ Stctcs cj Ancrirc, CAT]C]uSA]C0]z, of
z }uly zoo6, para. ,, CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc Ccnnittcc ccirst 1crturc: FrucJcr, CAT]C]FCu]
C0], of S February zoo6, para. 1,.
1. CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc Ccnnittcc ccirst 1crturc: FrucJcr, CAT]C]FCu]C0], of S February zoo6,
para. 1,.
1. lrtcrin rcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur cj thc Ccnnissicr cr huncr kihts cr tcrturc crJ cthcr rrucl,
irhuncr cr JcrcJir trcctncrt cr purishncrt, uh 0oc. A]]z, September 1, zoo, para. .
The rlght to freedom from torture and lll-treatment ls unlversally recognlzed n
and protected by lnternatlonal human rlghts law, both treaty and customary
law,
The rlght to freedom from torture and lll-treatment ls an absolute rlght, n
whlch must not be derogated from at any tlme or clrcumstance. The absolute
prohlbltlon of torture and lll-treatment ls a norm of jus rccrs. Torture and
lll-treatment are crlmes under lnternatlonal law,
Three elements whlch characterlse torture are: (a) the lnfllctlon, by act or n
omlsslon, of severe paln or sufferlng, whether physlcal or mental, (b) the
act or omlsslon must be lntentlonal, and c) the act must be lnstrumental to
another purpose prohlblted by lnternatlonal law, ln the sense that the lnfllc-
tlon of paln must be almed at reachlng a certaln goal,
Although lnternatlonal law does not provlde a deflnltlon, lll-treatment should n
be lnterpreted so as to extend the wldest posslble protectlon agalnst abuses,
whether physlcal or mental. lnternatlonal human rlghts |urlsprudence
provldes a llst of acts whlch constltute lll-treatment,
States have the obllgatlon to prevent, lnvestlgate and punlsh torture and lll- n
treatment and not to take recourse to methods of lnterrogatlon, condltlon of
detentlon or punlshment, whlch can amount to these prohlblted acts,
hobody shall be expelled, returned, deported n , surrendered, extradlted or
otherwlse sent to a State where there are substantlal grounds for bellevlng
that he or she would be ln danger of belng sub|ected to rcss human rlghts
vlolatlons, irrluJir tcrturc crJ ill-trcctncrt, jcr his cr hcr scxucl cricrtc-
ticr cr crJcr iJcrtity.
"p]lurclisn is .] built cr thc cruirc rcrcriticr cj,
crJ rcspcrt jcr, Jivcrsity crJ thc Jyrcnirs cj rulturcl
trcJiticrs, cthrir crJ rulturcl iJcrtitics, rcliicus
bclicjs, crtistir, litcrcry crJ scric-crcrcnir iJccs crJ
rcrrcpts. 1hc hcrncricus irtcrcrticr cj pcrscrs crJ
rcups with vcricJ iJcrtitics is csscrticl jcr crhicvir
scricl rchcsicr."
-Furopean Court of human klghts
16
vtt. Rights te freedem eI xpressien, Assemb|y and
Asseciatien
:. 5cepe and nature eI the rights
The urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr cj huncr kihts and the lrtcrrcticrcl Ccvcrcrt cr Civil
crJ Pclitircl kihts (lCCPk), as well as all the ma|or reglonal human rlghts treatles,
safeguard the rlght of peaceful assembly, freedom of assoclatlon and freedom of
expresslon, whlch lncludes both recelvlng and expresslng lnformatlon and ldeas.
1,

0ther human rlghts treatles and lnternatlonal lnstruments, both at the unlversal and
reglonal levels, also ensure and protect these rlghts and freedoms.
1S
16. }udgment of 1, February zoo, Case of Ccrzclik crJ 0thcrs v. PclcrJ, Appllcatlon ho. 1S]S, para. z.
1,. unlversal 0eclaratlon of human klghts Artlcles 1, zo, lCCPk Artlcles 1, z1, zz, Afrlcan Charter on human
and Peoples' klghts. Artlcles , 1o, 11, Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts, Artlcles , 1, 16, Furopean
Conventlon on human klghts. Artlcles 1o, 11, and Arab Charter on human klghts, Artlcles z, z.
1S. See irtcr clic: lnternatlonal Covenant on Fconomlc, Soclal and Cultural klghts (Artlcle S), Conventlon on the
klghts of the Chlld (Artlcles 1 and 1), lnternatlonal Conventlon on the Protectlon of the klghts of All Mlgrant
workers and Members of Thelr Famllles (Artlcles 1 and z), lnternatlonal Conventlon for the Protectlon of All
Persons from Fnforced 0lsappearance (Artlcle z,,), Conventlon relatlng to the Status of kefugees (Artlcle
1), 0eclaratlon on the human rlghts of lndlvlduals who are not natlonals of the country ln whlch they llve
(Artlcle (z) and S (1.b)), 0eclaratlon on the klght and kesponslblllty of lndlvlduals, 0roups and 0rgans of
Soclety to Promote and Protect unlversally kecognlsed human klghts and Fundamental Freedoms (Artlcles
1, , 6, ,, and 1z), 0eclaratlon on the klghts of Persons 8elonglng to hatlonal or Fthnlc, kellglous and
Llngulstlc Mlnorltles (Artlcle z), 8aslc Prlnclples on the kole of Lawyers (Prlnclple z), 8aslc Prlnclples on
the lndependence of the }udlclary (Prlnclples S and ), 0uldellnes on the kole of Prosecutors (0uldellnes
S and ), 0eclaratlon of Prlnclples on Freedom of Fxpresslon ln Afrlca, Afrlcan Charter on the klghts and
welfare of the Chlld (Artlcles , and S), Amerlcan 0eclaratlon of the klghts and 0utles of Man (Artlcles lv,
XXl and XXll), Addltlonal Protocol to the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts ln the Area of Fconomlc,
Soclal and Cultural klghts, Protocol of San Salvador (Artlcle S), lnter-Amerlcan Conventlon on the Preventlon,
Punlshment and Fradlcatlon of vlolence agalnst women (Artlcle ), 0AS 0eclaratlon of Prlnclples on Freedom
of Fxpresslon, Furopean Conventlon on human klghts (Artlcles , 1o and 11), Furopean Soclal Charter (Part
1, para. , Artlcles and 6), the Freedom of Assoclatlon and Protectlon of the klght to 0rganlse Conventlon,
1S (lL0), lndlgenous and Trlbal Peoples Conventlon, 1S (ho. 16) (Artlcle zo,z) and lL0 Conventlon ho.
11 concernlng Protectlon of the klght to 0rganlze and Procedures for 0etermlnlng Condltlons of Fmployment
ln the Publlc Servlce. See also the }ohannesburg Prlnclples on hatlonal Securlty, Freedom of Fxpresslon
and Access to lnformatlon, whlch were endorsed by the uh Speclal kapporteur on the rlght to freedom of
oplnlon and expresslon (uh.0oc. F]Ch.]16], appendlx) and the former uh Commlsslon on human
klghts referred to these prlnclples ln several resolutlons (see resolutlon zooo]S of zo Aprll zooo) as well
the lnter-Amerlcan Commlsslon on human klghts.
:.: freedem eI expressien
Freedom of expresslon ls a cornerstone of a democratlc soclety. Freedom of expres-
slon ls lndlspensable for the development of publlc oplnlon. lt ls also a rcrJitic sirc
quc rcr for the advancement of polltlcal partles, trade unlons, sclentlfc and cultural
socletles and, ln general, those who wlsh to communlcate cr ncss wlth the publlc.
lt represents, ln short, the means that enable the communlty, when exerclslng lts
optlons, to be suffclently lnformed. Consequently, lt can be sald that a soclety that
ls not well lnformed ls not a soclety that ls truly free.
1
The lnter-Amerlcan Court
of human klghts has underllned that the freedom of expresslon has also a soclal
dlmenslon and lmplles a collectlve rlght to recelve any lnformatlon whatsoever and
to have access to thoughts expressed by others.
zo
The protectlon of freedom of expresslon must encompass not only the fow of
"lnformatlon" or "ldeas" that are recelved favourably or wlthout offence, but also
expresslons that "offend, shock or dlsturb", such are the demands of plurallsm,
tolerance and broadmlndedness wlthout whlch there ls no "democratlc soclety".
z1

The dlssemlnatlon of polltlcal ldeas that do not conform to the vlews of a rullng
ellte and are not lncompatlble themselves wlth the prlnclples of democracy cannot
be consldered themselves as |eopardlzlng the lntegrlty or the natlonal securlty of a
country. The State ls the ultlmate guarantor of the prlnclple of plurallsm.
zz
1. See irtcr clic: lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts, }udgment of z }uly zoo, Case of hcrrcrc-ullcc v. Ccstc
kirc, Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and Peoples' klghts, Communlcatlon ho. zz]zoo1, Case of lrtcrihts,
lrstitutc jcr huncr kihts crJ 0cvclcpncrt ir Ajrirc, crJ Asscricticr Mcuritcricrrc Jcs 0rcits Jc lhcnnc
v. lslcnir kcpublir cj Mcuritcric, Communlcatlon ho. z1z]S, Case of Anrcsty r/Zcnbic.
zo. }udgment of z }uly zoo, Case of hcrrcrc-ullcc v. Ccstc kirc, para. 1oS, }udgment of 6 February zoo1, Case
of lvrhcr-8rcrstcir v. Pcru, para. 16, }udgment of February zoo1, Case of "1hc lcst 1cnptcticr cj Christ"
(0lncJc 8ustcs ct cl. v. Chilc|, para. 6, and Advlsory 0plnlon 0C-]S of 1 hovember 1S, Jcr. rit., para.
o.
z1. Furopean Court of human klghts: }udgment of , 0ecember 1,6, Case of hcrJysiJc v. uritcJ kirJcn,
}udgment of S }uly 1, Case of Sbrck crJ 0zJcnir v. 1urkcy, Appllcatlons ho. zz,] and zz,,],
}udgment of z6 September 1, Case of vct v. Ccrncry, }udgment of o }anuary 1S, Appllcatlon ho.
1]16],z]1, Case of uritcJ Ccnnurist Pcrty cj 1urkcy crJ 0thcrs v. 1urkcy, }udgment of 1z }uly
zoo, Case of Cbrcri crJ 0thcrs v. 1urkcy, Appllcatlon ho. zS]S, 6o]S and z1]S, }udgment
of z1 }une zoo,, Case of Zhcrhcv v. 8ulcric, Appllcatlon ho. ,o]oo, }udgment of May zoo,, Case of
8crkcwski crJ 0thcrs v. PclcrJ, Appllcatlon ho. 1]o6, }udgment of May zoo,, Case of 0cnckrctik
kitlc Pcrtisi y Fli v. 1urkcy, Appllcatlon ho. 1zo], }udgment of 1z 0ecember zoo6, Case of lirkcv v.
Czcrh kcpublir, Appllcatlon ho.1oo]o, }udgment of z 0ctober zoo1, Case of Stcrkcv crJ thc uritcJ
McrcJcricr 0rcriscticr llirJcr v. 8ulcric, Appllcatlons ho. zzz1] and zzz], and }udgment
of 1o }uly 1S, Case of SiJircpculcs crJ 0thcrs v. Crccrc, Appllcatlon ho. ,]1,]S1]1o,. See also:
lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts, }udgment of February zoo1, Case of 0lncJc 8ustcs ct. cl v. Chilc
("lcst 1cnptcticr cj Christ"| and }udgment of z }uly zoo, Case of hcrrcrc-ullcc v. Ccstc kirc, lnter-Amerlcan
Commlsslon on human klghts, Annual keport on human klghts 1pp, "kcpcrt cr thc Ccnpctibility cj
0cscrctc lcws with thc Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts", 0FA]Ser.L]v]ll.SS., 0oc. rev (1).
zz. Furopean Court of human klghts, }udgment of z hovember 1, Case of lrjcrncticrsvcrcir lcrtic crJ
0thcrs v. Austric, Appllcatlon ho. 11]SS, 1o1]S, 1,1,]S, 1,,]S, 1,zo,]o, para. S.
:.z 1he rights eI peaceIu| assemb|y and asseciatien
The rlghts of peaceful assembly and assoclatlon are closely llnked wlth the rlght
to freedom of expresslon. Freedom of assembly focuses on the process of formlng,
expresslng and lmplementlng polltlcal oplnlons ln a democratlc soclety, whlle
freedom of assoclatlon entalls the rlght to choose, |oln and form assoclatlons whlch
often form and express thoughts and oplnlons. Thls lnter-relatlon has been affrmed
by the Afrlcan Commlsslon on human and Peoples' klghts as lt has stated that
the rlght to assoclate cannot be dlvorced from the rlght to assemble freely and
peacefully.
z
Llke freedom of expresslon, the rlghts of peaceful assembly and assoclatlon are key
components of a democratlc soclety. The human klghts Commlttee has affrmed
that "the exlstence and operatlon of assoclatlons, lncludlng those whlch peacefully
promote ldeas not necessarlly favourably recelved by the government or the ma|orlty
of the populatlon, ls a cornerstone of a democratlc soclety".
z
The Furopean Court
of human klghts added, "the rlght to freedom of assembly ls a fundamental rlght, lt
should not be lnterpreted restrlctlvely".
z
The human klghts Commlttee has polnted
out that States must not only safeguard rlghts to freedom of assembly and assocla-
tlon but also refraln from applylng unreasonable lndlrect restrlctlons upon those
rlghts.
z6
z. 0eregatiens, |imitatiens and restrictiens
The rlght of expresslon and the freedoms of assembly and assoclatlon are not abso-
lute rlghts under lnternatlonal human rlghts law and can be restrlcted ln tlmes of
normallty as well as ln tlmes of emergency.
z,
lnternatlonal human rlghts lnstruments protectlng the rlght of expresslon and
freedom of assembly and assoclatlon slmultaneously encompass restrlctlons on
these rlghts, notably on actlvltles that advocate war or lnclte hatred,
zS
threaten
natlonal securlty or publlc safety, health, order, or morals,
z
or lmplnge on the rlghts
z. Communlcatlon ho. z1]zooz, lcwycrs jcr huncr kihts v. SwczilcrJ.
z. vlews of 1 0ctober zoo6, Case of viktcr kcrrccrkc crJ 0thcrs v. 8clcrus, Communlcatlon ho. 1z,]zoo,
para. ,.. See also vlews of zo }uly zoo, Case of /ccr-Fur lcc v. kcpublir cj kcrcc, Communlcatlon
ho. 111]zooz, para. ,.z and vlews of 1, 0ctober zoo6, Case of 8cris Zvczskcv crJ 0thcrs v. 8clcrs,
Communlcatlon ho. 1o]zoo1, para. ,.z.
z. }udgment of zo February zoo, Case of 0jcvit Ar v. 1urkcy, Appllcatlon ho. zo6z]z, para. 6.
z6. lbiJ., Furopean Court on human klghts, }udgment of z6 Aprll 11, Case of Fzclir v. Frcrrc, lnter-Amerlcan
Commlsslon on human klghts, kcpcrt cr 1crrcrisn crJ huncr kihts, cp. rit., para. .
z,. The lCCPk (Artlcle ), the Furopean Conventlon on human klghts (Artlcle 1), the Arab Charter on human
klghts (Artlcle ) and the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts (Artlcle z,).
zS. The lCCPk (Artlcle zo) and the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts (Artlcle 1.).
z. lCCPk, Artlcles 1.(b). z1, Afrlcan Charter on human and Peoples' klghts, Artlcle 11, Amerlcan Conventlon
on human klghts Artlcles 1.z(b), 1., 1, Furopean Conventlon on human klghts Artlcles 1o.z, 11.z, Arab
Charter on human klghts, Artlcle z, z.
of others.
o
The clrcumstances ln whlch a State may llmlt the exerclse of any guar-
anteed rlght are set out elther ln a general clause authorlslng such restrlctlons or ln
speclfc provlslons relatlng to each rlght or freedom.
lnternatlonal human rlghts law speclfes the strlct condltlons under whlch such
restrlctlons on rlghts are posslble.
1
lt ls recognlsed that, any restrlctlons or llmlta-
tlons have to be: establlshed ln law, necessary ln a democratlc soclety to protect
natlonal securlty, publlc order, publlc health, morallty, or the rlghts and freedoms
of others, proportlonate to the lnterest to be protected and not lmpalr the essence
of the rlght ln questlon, and conslstent wlth other lnternatlonal obllgatlons and
the rlght to an effectlve remedy. when a State lmposes certaln restrlctlons on the
exerclse of freedoms or rlghts, these may not put ln |eopardy the freedom or rlght
ltself.
z
Flnally, ln order to be legltlmate any such restrlctlon or llmltatlon must comply wlth
both the substantlve and procedural requlrements of lnternatlonal law.
z.: Limitatiens and Restrictiens en Ireedem eI expressien
kegardlng the llmltatlons and restrlctlons of the rlght to freedom of expresslon, the
human klghts Commlttee has stated that the exerclse of thls rlght "carrles wlth lt
speclal dutles and responslbllltles and for thls reason certaln restrlctlons on the rlght
are permltted whlch may relate elther to the lnterests of other persons or to those
of the communlty as a whole. however, when a State party lmposes certaln restrlc-
tlons on the exerclse of freedom of expresslon, these may not put ln |eopardy the
rlght ltself ".
kestrlctlons must cumulatlvely meet the followlng condltlons: they

must be "provlded by law", they may only be such that are necessary for respect
of the rlghts or reputatlons of others, the lnterests of the communlty or the protec-
tlon of natlonal securlty, publlc order, publlc health or morals, and they must be
|ustlfed as belng "necessary" for the State ln questlon to achleve one of those
legltlmate purposes.
ln addltlon, under the Furcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr huncr

kihts, freedom of expresslon may be restrlcted "for preventlng the dlsclosure of
lnformatlon recelved ln confdence" and "for malntalnlng the authorlty and lmpartl-
allty of the |udlclary".
The human klghts Commlttee further consldered "that the

o. lCCPk, Artlcle 1.(a), Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts Artlcles 1.z(a) and 1, Furopean Conventlon
on human klghts, Artlcles 1o.z and 11.z, Arab Charter on human klghts, Artlcles z and z.
1. See, among others, the human klghts Commlttee: Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 1c, FrccJcn cj cxprcssicr (Artirlc
1p|, para. and Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 1, Ncturc cj thc Ccrcrcl lccl 0blicticr lnpcscJ cr Stctcs Pcrtics
tc thc Ccvcrcrt, para. 6.
z. See, for example, the human klghts Commlttee: Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 1c, FrccJcn cj cxprcssicr (Artirlc
1p|, para. , and Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 2;, FrccJcn cj ncvcncrt (Artirlc 12|, para. 1.
. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 1c, FrccJcn cj cxprcssicr, para. .
. lbiJ., para. . See also vlews of S hovember 16, Case of kcbcrt Fcurisscr v. Frcrrc, Communlcatlon
o]1, paras. () and (6), and vlews of z1 }uly 1, Case of Albcrt wcnch Mukcr v. Ccncrccr,
Communlcatlon ho. S]11, para. .,.
. Artlcle 1o of the Furcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts.
legltlmate ob|ectlve of safeguardlng and lndeed strengthenlng natlonal unlty under
dlffcult polltlcal clrcumstances cannot be achleved by attemptlng to muzzle advo-
cacy of multl-party democracy, democratlc tenets and human rlghts".
6
however,
lt ls relevant to underscore that the "rlght to hold oplnlons wlthout lnterference",
accordlng to the human klghts Commlttee, "ls a rlght to whlch the lCCPk permlts
no exceptlon or restrlctlon."
,
z.z Limitatiens and Restrictiens en the rights te Ireedem eI assemb|y
and asseciatien
under the lCCPk, the llmltatlons and restrlctlons of the freedom of peaceful assembly
and assoclatlon must meet the followlng condltlons: (a) they must be provlded for
by law, (b) they may only be lmposed for one of the purposes set out ln paragraph
z of Artlcle zz the lCCPk - the lnterests of natlonal securlty or publlc safety, publlc
order (crJrc publir), the protectlon of publlc health or morals or the protectlon of
the rlghts and freedoms of others, and (c) they must be "necessary ln a democratlc
soclety" for achlevlng one of these purposes.
S
The lCCPk and the Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts, prohlblt propaganda for
war or advocacy of natlonal, raclal or rellglous hatred that constltute lncltement to
dlscrlmlnatlon, hostlllty or vlolence.
The Furopean Court of human klghts has also

stated that the clear lncltement of vlolence, hostlllty or hatred between cltlzens ls a
fundamental crlterlon for dlstlngulshlng between freedom of expresslon and prohlb-
lted propaganda or advocacy.
o
ln thls context restrlctlons on thls freedom may be
permltted on expresslons of a nature llkely to lnclte or strengthen antl-Semltlsm,
xenophobla, and slmllar sentlments.
1
States are obllged to take affrmatlve steps to protect expresslons of polltlcal oplnlon
that are so unpopular as to foreseeably provoke publlc dlsorder.
z
ln addltlon to
preventlng vlolence and strlfe, reasonable restrlctlons on assembly and expresslon
when thelr purpose ls to protect publlc safety and order are also legltlmate. Thus,
6. vlews of z1 }uly 1, Case of Albcrt wcnch Mukcr v. Ccncrccr, Jcr. rit., para. .,.
,. human klghts Commlttee, Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt Nc. 1c, Jcr. rit., para. 1.
S. vlews of 1 0ctober zoo6, Communlcatlon ho. 1z,]zoo, viktcr kcrrccrkc crJ 0thcrs v. 8clcrus, para.
,.z (uh.0oc CCPk]C]SS]0]1z,]zoo). Along the same llnes see also: Artlcles z6 (z) and o (z) of the
lnternatlonal Conventlon on the Protectlon of the klghts of All Mlgrant workers and Members of Thelr
Famllles, Artlcle 16 of the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts, Artlcle 11 of the Furopean Conventlon
on human klghts, and Artlcle S (1,b) of the 0eclaratlon on the human klghts of lndlvlduals who are not
hatlonals of the Country ln whlch They Llve.
. Artlcle zo of the lCCPk and Artlcle 1 () of the Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts.
o. }udgment of z hovember 1,, Case of Zcrc v. 1urkcy, and }udgment of S }une 1S, Case of lrrcl v.
1urkcy.
1. vlews of 1S 0ctober zooo, Case of Mclrcln kcss v. CcrcJc, Communlcatlon ho. ,6]1, and vlews of S
hovember 16, Case of kcbcrt Fcurisscr v. Frcrrc, Communlcatlon ho. o]1.
z. Furopean Court of human klghts, }udgment of zo 0ctober zoo, Case of 1cxc v. Crccrc, Appllcatlon ho.
,S]o1, paras. .
a routlne permlttlng process for assemblles, allowlng the authorltles to plan for
crowd control and traffc clrculatlon ls permlsslble so long as lt makes no dlstlnctlon
based on the assembly's polltlcal message.
kestrlctlons on assembly for presslng

reasons of health and safety are also legltlmate.
Thus, a government's declslon

to have rlot pollce forclbly evlct hunger-strlkers from a church they had been occu-
pylng was not lllegltlmate because the "hunger-strlkers' health had deterlorated
and sanltary condltlons had] become wholly lnadequate".
The Furopean Court has ruled that States may have an "obllgatlon to avold as far as
posslble expresslons that are gratultously offenslve to others and thus an lnfrlnge-
ment of thelr rlghts, and whlch therefore do not contrlbute of any form of publlc
debate capable of further progress ln human affalrs".
6
kellglous freedom ls not the
only rlght that can be protected by llmltlng the rlghts to expresslon and assembly.
The uh human klghts Commlttee affrmed a Canadlan school board declslon to reas-
slgn a teacher to a non-classroom |ob after he had galned notorlety for publlshlng
books crltlcal of }ews, slnce the "restrlctlons lmposed on hlm were for the purpose
of protectlng the 'rlghts or reputatlons' of persons of }ewlsh falth, lncludlng the rlght
to have an educatlon ln the publlc school system".
,
The regulatlon of expresslon, assoclatlon, or assembly wlth no speclfc purpose ls
not a legltlmate restrlctlon of those rlghts. The State has the burden show that a
restrlctlon on the freedom of expresslon, assoclatlon, or assembly ls necessary and
serves a legltlmate purpose compatlble wlth Artlcles 1, z1 and zz of the lCCPk.
S

The human klghts Commlttee found a vlolatlon of an actlvlst's rlghts to expresslon
and assembly where the government of 8elarus prohlblted hlm from dlstrlbutlng
coples of the urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr cj huncr kihts on a publlc street, and could
not "lnvoke] any speclfc ground on whlch the restrlctlons lmposed on the author's
actlvlty whlch, .] lt ls uncontested dld not pose a threat to publlc order".
The scope for restrlctlons of expresslon, assembly and assoclatlon ls very narrow ln
the area of polltlcal affalrs. kestrlctlons on polltlcal assoclatlons that do not advo-
. For example, human klghts Commlttee, vlews of 1 March 1, Case of kivcrncc v. FirlcrJ, Communlcatlon
ho. 1z]1o, para. .z.
. Furopean Court of human klghts, }udgment of Aprll zooz, Case of Cissc v. Frcrrc, Appllcatlon ho. 16],
para. z.
. lbiJ., para. 1.
6. Furopean Court of human klghts, }udgment of zo September 1, Case of 0ttc-Prcnircr-lrstitut v. Austric,
Appllcatlon ho. 1,o]S,, para. .
,. human klghts Commlttee, vlews of 1S 0ctober zooo, Case of kcss v. CcrcJc, Communlcatlon ho. ,6]1,,
para. 11..
S. See irtcr clic, human klghts Commlttee: vlews of 1o August zoo6, Case of Pctrirk Cclcncr v. Austrclic,
Communlcatlon ho. 11,]zoo, para. ,.: vlews of zo }uly zoo, Case of /ccr-Fur lcc v. kcpublir cj
kcrcc, Communlcatlon ho. 111]zooz, para. ,.z, vlews of z }uly zoo,, Case of AlckscrJcr 8clyctsky ct cl.
v. 8clcrus, Communlcatlon ho. 1z6]zoo, para. ,..
. human klghts Commlttee, vlews of zo 0ctober zoo, vclirhkir v. 8clcrus, Communlcatlon ho. 1ozz]zoo1,
para. ,..
cate for vlolent or non-democratlc change are usually deemed unlawful restrlctlons
on the freedom of expresslon, no matter how unpopular the assoclatlons' ldeas.
o

Curtallment on rlghts ln thls regard "must meet a strlct test of |ustlfcatlon."
1
Scope for restrlctlons of expresslon, assembly and assoclatlon vla prlvate matters
such as morals, rellglon and reputatlon appears wlder. The Furopean Court
reasoned that: "whereas there ls llttle scope .] for restrlctlons on polltlcal speech
or on debate of questlons of publlc lnterest, .] a wlder margln of appreclatlon ls
generally] avallable .] ln relatlon to matters llable to offend lntlmate personal
convlctlons".
z
Thls ls due both to the fact that such restrlctlons may serve to
protect "the rlghts of others", and because the great dlverslty of such convlctlons
among countrles makes lt more dlffcult for lnternatlonal human rlghts bodles, ln
thelr removed posltlon, to determlne whether such restrlctlons are approprlate or
excesslve.
however, when conslderlng the "rlghts of others" ln maklng llmltatlons

on the rlghts of assembly, expresslon or assoclatlon, "the prlnclple of the lndlvls-
lblllty of human rlghts" requlres that States must balance the rlghts equally, and may
not systematlcally favour one over the other.
The prlnclple of proportlonallty, as

well as evolvlng practlce ln other countrles, ls often persuaslve ln thls respect.
Llmltlng the rlghts of expresslon, assoclatlon and assembly ls broadest ln regards
to protectlon of the lnterests and well-belng of chlldren. The Furopean Court of
human klghts affrmed a wlde margln of appreclatlon ln respect to measures
restrlctlng expresslon to prevent "pernlclous effects on the morals of .] chlldren and
adolescents".
Thus, the declslon by the 8rltlsh 0overnment to destroy all coples

of a chlldren's reference book whose unorthodox vlews on sexuallty lt determlned
would have "a tendency to 'deprave and corrupt'" a good number of the chlldren
who read lt, dld not exceed lts margln of appreclatlon.
6
o. Furopean Court of human klghts: }udgment of o }anuary 1S, Case of uritcJ Ccnnurist Pcrty cj 1urkcy
crJ 0thcrs v. 1urkcy Appllcatlon ho. 1]16],z]1, paras. o-, }udgment of z 0ctober zoo1, Case
of Stcrkcv crJ thc uritcJ McrcJcricr 0rcriscticr llirJcr v. 8ulcric, Appllcatlons ho. zzz1] and
zzz], paras. SS-1o,.
1. human klghts Commlttee, Case of vclirhkir v. 8clcrus, Jcr. rit., para. ,..
z. Furopean Court of human klghts, }udgment of zz 0ctober 16, Case of wirrcvc v. thc uritcJ kirJcn,
Appllcatlon ho. 1,1]o, para. S.
. lbiJ., See also human klghts Commlttee, vlews of z Aprll 1Sz, Case of hcrtzbcr v. FirlcrJ, Communlcatlon
ho. 61]1,.
. lnter-Amerlcan Court of human klghts, Case of 1hc lcst 1cnptcticr cj Christ, Jcr. rit., para. 6k.
. Furopean Court of human klghts, }udgment of , 0ecember 1,6, Case of hcrJysiJc v. thc uritcJ kirJcn,
Appllcatlon ho. ],z, para. z.
6. lbiJ., para. ,.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. 1zo
y. freedem eI expressien, peaceIu| assemb|y and asseciatien
app|ied te sexua| erientatien and gender identity.
The rlght of freedom of expresslon, peaceful assembly and assoclatlon are cruclal to
L08T actlvlsm and hlv]Al0S advocacy. Clvll soclety ls consldered to be functlonlng
and healthy when lt lncludes the posslblllty of partlclpatlon of all cltlzens ln the
democratlc process. Thls may be achleved through peaceful assembly or belonglng
to assoclatlons ln whlch they may lntegrate wlth each other and pursue common
ob|ectlves collectlvely. ln the case of 8crzkcwski crJ cthcrs v. PclcrJ, the Furopean
Court of human klghts descrlbed the scope of the rlght to democratlc partlclpatlon
through assembly and assoclatlon as follows:
"c] cruirc crJ cjjcrtivc rcspcrt jcr jrccJcn cj csscricticr crJ csscnbly
rcrrct bc rcJurcJ tc c ncrc Juty cr thc pcrt cj thc Stctc rct tc irtcrjcrc,
c purcly rcctivc rcrrcpticr wculJ rct bc rcnpctiblc with thc purpcsc
cj Artirlc 11 rcr with thct cj thc Ccrvcrticr ir crcrcl. 1hcrc ncy thus bc
pcsitivc cblicticrs tc scrurc thc cjjcrtivc crjcyncrt cj thcsc jrccJcns
.] 1his cblicticr is cj pcrtirulcr inpcrtcrrc jcr pcrscrs hclJir urpcp-
ulcr vicws cr bclcrir tc nircritics, bcrcusc thcy crc ncrc vulrcrcblc tc
virtinizcticr".
,
ln 8crzkcwski crJ cthcrs v. PclcrJ, the authorltles banned a planned march and
slx statlonary assemblles. These were advocacy events to promote tolerance and
to protest dlscrlmlnatlon agalnst L08T persons. The appellate authorltles reversed
the frst-lnstance declslon and crltlclsed lt for belng poorly |ustlfed and ln breach
of the appllcable laws. The appellate declslon, however, was glven after the dates
of the planned march. The demonstratlon had been held on the planned dates. ln
golng ahead wlth the demonstratlon and assemblles the appllcants had taken a rlsk
glven the offclal ban ln force at that tlme.
The Furopean Court observed that the refusal to glve authorlsatlon could have had
a chllllng effect on the appllcants and other partlclpants ln the assemblles. lt could
also have dlscouraged other persons from partlclpatlng on the grounds that they
dld not have offclal authorlsatlon, and consequently no offclal protectlon agalnst
posslble hostlle counter-demonstrators would be ensured by the authorltles. The
court was further of the vlew that when the assemblles were held the appllcants
were negatlvely affected by the refusal to authorlse them. The legal remedles avall-
able to them could not have amellorated thelr sltuatlon as the relevant declslons
were glven by the appellate proceedlngs after the date on whlch the assemblles
were held. There had therefore been an lnterference wlth the appllcants' rlghts
guaranteed by Artlcle 11 of the Furopean Conventlon, and the lnterference wlth the
appllcants' rlght to freedom of peaceful assembly was not prescrlbed by law.
,. }udgment of May zoo,, Case of 8crzkcwski crJ cthcrs v. PclcrJ, Appllcatlon 1]o6, para. 6.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1z1
The Court declded that ln the assessment of the case lt could not dlsregard the
strong personal oplnlons publlcly expressed by the mayor on lssues dlrectly relevant
for the declslons regardlng the exerclse of the freedom of assembly. lt observed
that the declslons concerned were glven by the munlclpal authorltles actlng on
the mayor's behalf after he had made known to the publlc hls oplnlons regardlng
the exerclse of the freedom of assembly and "propaganda of homosexuallty".
Accordlngly, a vlolatlon of the dlscrlmlnatlon provlslon of Artlcle 1 ln con|unctlon
wlth Artlcle 11 of the Furcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts was found.
An lmportant element of the freedom of expresslon ls the freedom of gender
expresslon, especlally through dress, deportment and mannerlsm. The uh Speclal
kapporteur on the promotlon and protectlon of the rlght to freedom of oplnlon and
expresslon has noted arbltrary arrests owlng to gender expresslon:
"rcprcscrtctivcs cj crcrizcticrs cj scxucl nircritics crJ trcrsvcstitcs .]
rcpcrtcJ tc hin rcscs cj viclcticrs cj huncr rihts bcrcusc cj thcir scxucl
cricrtcticr. 1hc Spcricl kcppcrtcur wcs rcrrcrrcJ ct thc runbcr cj rcscs
cj viclcticrs cj huncr rihts cr crrcurt cj scxucl cricrtcticr. hc] wcs
irjcrncJ thct thc prcvirricl lcislcticr cllcws pclirc tc inpcsc Jctcrticr
cr scrrticrs jcr irjrcrticrs thct Jc rct rcrstitutc rrinircl cjjcrrcs. hc hcs
clsc bccr irjcrncJ thct ir scvcrcl prcvirrcs thcrc is c Ccrtrcvcrticr CcJc
whirh pcrclizcs thcsc whc crc JrcsscJ cs scncbcJy cj thc cppcsitc scx
with Jctcrticr jcr up tc 1 Jcys".
S
vlolatlons of the rlght to freedom of expresslon sometlmes manlfest themselves
through the threat of vlolence. The Speclal kepresentatlve on the sltuatlon of human
rlghts defenders noted that the rlghts of gays and lesblans ln }amalca, especlally
those ln a human rlghts lobby group called /cncirc Fcrun jcr lcsbicrs, All-Scxucls
crJ Ccys were at rlsk from both attempts by publlc authorltles to suppress thelr
exerclse of free speech and from vlolent attacks by homophoblc lndlvlduals. The
contents of the followlng letter by the Pollce Federatlon's Publlc kelatlons 0ffcer,
ln relatlon to a human klghts watch study on hlv]Al0S and how homophobla fuels
the dlsease, exempllfes thls sltuatlon:
"thc Pclirc FcJcrcticrs Publir kclcticrs 0jjircr rcrJcnrs] thc rclc cj thcsc
sc-rcllcJ huncr rihts rcups tc sprccJ lics crJ Jclibcrctcly nclir crJ
slcrJcr thc pclirc jcrrc crJ thc cvcrrncrt. hc rclls cr thc Miristcr cj
/ustirc tc cxcnirc thcsc cllccticrs crJ slcp cr scJiticr rhcrcs whcrc
rcrcsscry tc bcth jcrcir crJ lcrcl ccrts cj prcvcrcticr. lr stctir thct
thc Ccvcrrncrt crJ thc pclirc rcrrct bc hclJ rcspcrsiblc jcr .] thc
rulturcl rcspcrscs cj thc pcpulcticr tcwcrJs cys, thc lcttcr clsc cppccrs
tc rcrJcrc viclcrrc ccirst cys crJ lcsbicrs. 1his inprcssicr is irsuj-
S. kcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur cr thc prcncticr crJ prctcrticr cj thc riht tc jrccJcn cj cpiricr crJ
cxprcssicr: Missicr tc Arcrtirc, F]Ch.]zooz],]Add.1, 1, }anuary zooz, paras. 1z- 1z.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. 1zz
jiricrtly JispcllcJ by thc cssurcrrc thct cs lcw crjcrrcncrt cjjircrs wc try
cur utncst tc scrvc, tc rccssurc crJ tc prctcrt".
States obllgatlons lnclude provldlng educatlon and maklng lnformatlon avallable,

especlally ln relatlon to matters of sexuallty and health. Addresslng the matter of
Al0S ln Colombla, the Speclal kapporteur on the promotlon and protectlon of the
rlght to freedom of oplnlon and expresslon observed:
"lr crrcrJcrrc with thc rcturc crJ thc spirit cj his ncrJctc, thc Spcricl
kcppcrtcur rcrsiJcrs thct cll ritizcrs, rccrJlcss cj, irtcr clic, thcir scxucl
cricrtcticr, hcvc thc riht tc cxprcss thcnsclvcs, crJ tc scck, rcrcivc crJ
inpcrt irjcrncticr. 1hc Spcricl kcppcrtcur clsc rcrsiJcrs thct Ccvcrrncrts
hcvc thc cblicticr tc prcviJc ritizcrs with rclicblc irjcrncticr cr hcclth
issucs ir crcrcl crJ, bccrir ir nirJ thc cxtrcnc rcvity cj thc cpiJcnir,
cr Al0S ir pcrtirulcr. .]. Ccy crJ lcsbicr rcups crJ irJiviJucls riht tc
jrccJcn cj cpiricr crJ cxprcssicr is hirJcrcJ by thc cppcsiticr thcy jirJ
ir thc ncJic whcrc scxucl issucs, cspcriclly hcncscxuclity, crc trcctcJ ir c
pruJish crJ trcJiticrcl wcy crJ rcvcr brccJrcst cr princ tinc".
6o
Access to lnformatlon ls relevant to the rlght to health. Thls lnterdependence ls
noted by the Speclal kapporteur as follows:
"with rcspcrt tc crrcss tc irjcrncticr jcr thc purpcscs cj cJurcticr crJ
prcvcrticr cj hlv/Al0S, thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur wishcs jirst tc urJcrlirc thct
thc lcvcl cj prctcrticr cj huncr rihts ir c ivcr rcurtry hcs c Jircrt inpcrt
cr thc sprccJ cj thc cpiJcnir, crJ thct thc rcclizcticr cj huncr rihts, ir
pcrtirulcr cj spcrijir rcups surh cs wcncr, ycur pccplc, ncr crJ wcncr
wcrkir ir prcstituticr, ncr whc hcvc scx with ncr, nircrts, rcjuccs,
irtrcvcrcus Jru uscrs crJ cthcr vulrcrcblc rcups, is csscrticl tc rcJurc
vulrcrcbility tc hlv/Al0S".
61
ln hcrtzbcr ct cl v. FirlcrJ, edltors of the State-run Flnnlsh 8roadcastlng Company
complalned that the dlrector of the company had censored thelr programmes on
homosexuals because the Flnnlsh Penal Code made lt crlmlnal to "encourage lnde-
cent behavlour between persons of the same sex". The uh human klghts Commlttee
oplned that:
"lt hcs tc bc rctcJ, jirst, thct publir ncrcls Jijjcr wiJcly. 1hcrc is rc
urivcrsclly cpplircblc rcnncr stcrJcrJ. Ccrscqucrtly, ir this rcspcrt, c
rcrtcir ncrir cj Jisrrcticr nust bc crrcrJcJ tc thc rcspcrsiblc rcticrcl
. kcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcprcscrtctivc cj thc Scrrctcry-Ccrcrcl cr thc situcticr cj huncr rihts JcjcrJcrs,
F]Ch.]zoo]1o1]Add.1, 16 March zoo, paras. zo and zz.
6o. kcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur cr thc prcncticr crJ prctcrticr cj thc riht tc jrccJcn cj cpiricr crJ
cxprcssicr: Missicr tc Cclcnbic, F]Ch.]zoo]6]Add., z6 hovember paras. , and ,6.
61. kcpcrt cj thc Spcricl kcppcrtcur cr thc prcncticr crJ prctcrticr cj thc riht tc jrccJcn cj cpiricr crJ
cxprcssicr, F]Ch.]zoo]6,, o 0ecember zooz, para. ,.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1z
cuthcritics. .] 1hc Ccnnittcc jirJs thct it rcrrct qucsticr thc Jcrisicr cj
thc rcspcrsiblc crcrs cj thc Firrish 8rccJrcstir Ccrpcrcticr thct rcJic
crJ 1v crc rct thc cpprcprictc jcruns tc Jisruss issucs rclctcJ tc hcncscx-
uclity, cs jcr cs c prcrcnnc rculJ bc juJcJ cs crrcurcir hcncscxucl
bchcvicur. ArrcrJir tc crtirlc 1p (|, thc cxcrrisc cj thc rihts prcviJcJ jcr
ir crtirlc 1p (2| rcrrics with it spcricl Jutics crJ rcspcrsibilitics jcr thcsc
crcrs."
6z
ln an lndlvldual oplnlon appended to the Commlttee's vlews, one member oplned
as follows:
"c]lthcuh l crcc with thc rcrrlusicr cj thc Ccnnittcc, l wish tc rlcrijy
rcrtcir pcirts. 1his rcrrlusicr prcjuJcs rcithcr thc riht tc bc Jijjcrcrt
crJ livc crrcrJirly, prctcrtcJ by crtirlc 1; cj thc Ccvcrcrt, rcr thc riht tc
hcvc crcrcl jrccJcn cj cxprcssicr ir this rcspcrt, prctcrtcJ by crtirlc 1p.
urJcr crtirlc 1p (2| crJ subjcrt tc crtirlc 1p (|, cvcrycrc nust ir prirriplc
hcvc thc riht tc inpcrt irjcrncticr crJ iJccs - pcsitivc cr rcctivc - cbcut
hcncscxuclity crJ Jisruss cry prcblcn rclctir tc it jrccly, thrcuh cry
ncJic cj his rhcirc crJ cr his cwr rcspcrsibility".
6
As hcrtzbcr was declded ln 1,, lt ls debatable whether thls declslon would be
repeated by uh human klghts Commlttee today, glven slmllar facts. The rlght to
lnformatlon ln relatlon to sexuallty and lts lmpllcatlons for health have been acknowl-
edged by varlous uh human rlghts bodles. Thls unequlvocal llne of reasonlng would
challenge the lncllnatlon to conslder an educatlonal programme on homosexuallty
as llmlted by "publlc health or morals". Thls ldea was dlrectly re|ected ln the case of
Nirhclcs 1ccrcr v. Austrclic.
6
The notlon that freedom of expresslon and respect
of mlnorlty vlews also lncludes those that offend, shock or dlsturb the ma|orlty, has
solldlfed and ls consldered a feature of a democratlc and plurallstlc soclety.
ln 8crzkcwski crJ cthcrs v. PclcrJ the Furopean Court took note of statements
made by the Mayor of warsaw that a gay prlde parade constltuted "propaganda of
homosexuallty", and stated that:
"thc cxcrrisc cj thc jrccJcn cj cxprcssicr by clcrtcJ pclitiricrs, whc ct thc
scnc tinc crc hclJcrs cj publir cjjircs ir thc cxcrutivc brcrrh cj thc cvcrr-
ncrt, crtcils pcrtirulcr rcspcrsibility. lr rcrtcir situcticrs it is c rcrncl pcrt
cj thc Jutics cj surh publir cjjiricls tc tckc pcrscrclly cJniristrctivc Jcri-
sicrs whirh crc likcly tc cjjcrt thc cxcrrisc cj irJiviJucl rihts, cr thct surh
6z. human klghts Commlttee, vlews of z Aprll 1Sz, Case of hcrtzbcr ct cl v. FirlcrJ, Communlcatlon ho.
61]1,, paras. 1o. and 1o..
6. lbiJ., Appendlx lndlvldual oplnlon of Mr. Torkel 0psahl. Mr. ka|soomer Lallah and Mr. walter Surma
Tarnopolsky |olned the lndlvldual oplnlon.
6. human klghts Commlttee, vlews of 1 March 1, Case of Nirhclcs 1ccrcr v. Austrclic, Communlcatlon
ho. SS]1z.
Jcrisicrs crc ivcr by publir scrvcrts crtir ir thcir rcnc. hcrrc, thc cxcr-
risc cj thc jrccJcn cj cxprcssicr by surh cjjiricls ncy urJuly inpirc cr
thc crjcyncrt cj cthcr rihts ucrcrtccJ by thc Ccrvcrticr .] . whcr cxcr-
risir thcir jrccJcn cj cxprcssicr thcy ncy bc rcquircJ tc shcw rcstrcirt,
bccrir ir nirJ thct thcir vicws rcr bc rccrJcJ cs irstrurticrs by rivil
scrvcrts, whcsc cnplcyncrt crJ rcrccrs JcpcrJ cr thcir cpprcvcl".
6
5ummary
The rlghts of assoclatlon and peaceful assembly, and freedom of expres- n
slon, are cornerstones of a democratlc soclety. These rlghts are unlversally
recognlzed and protected by lnternatlonal human rlghts law,
All persons, regardless of, n irtcr clic, thelr sexual orlentatlon, have the rlght
to express themselves, and to seek, recelve and lmpart lnformatlon,
The rlghts of expresslon and the freedom of assembly and assoclatlon are n
cruclal to L08T actlvlsm and hlv]Al0S advocacy,
The rlght to freedom of expresslon lncludes the rlght to express thoughts and n
ldeas and the rlght to seek, recelve and lmpart lnformatlon and ldeas of all
klnds, regardless of frontlers, elther orally, ln wrltlng or ln prlnt, ln the form
of art, or through any other medla of one's cholce,
The protectlon of freedom of expresslon must encompass not only the flow n
of "lnformatlon" or "ldeas" that are recelved favourably or wlthout offence,
but also expresslons that "offend, shock or dlsturb", such are the demands
of plurallsm, tolerance and broadmlndedness wlthout whlch there ls no
"democratlc soclety",
The plurallsm necessary for the malntenance of a democratlc soclety requlres n
the free flow of lnformatlon and oplnlons, lncludlng those whlch the ma|orlty
may flnd shocklng. Assembly and assoclatlon are necessary for the forma-
tlon, development, expresslon and dlffuslon of polltlcal ldeas,
A State cannot conslder an oplnlon or the assoclatlon or assembly wlthln n
whlch lt ls expressed to |eopardlze the lntegrlty or the natlonal securlty of a
country, unless the oplnlon, assoclatlon or assembly ls lncompatlble wlth a
democratlc soclety,
Freedom of assembly focuses on the process of formlng, expresslng and n
lmplementlng polltlcal oplnlons ln a democratlc soclety, whlle freedom of
assoclatlon ls about the rlght to choose, |oln and form assoclatlons relevant
to the formatlon and expresslon of thoughts and oplnlons,
6. Case of 8crzkcwski crJ cthcrs v. PclcrJ, Jcr. rit., para. S.
The rlght to freedom of assoclatlon relates not only to the rlght to form an n
assoclatlon, but also guarantees the rlght of such an assoclatlon freely to
carry out lts statutory actlvltles,
The rlght of expresslon and the freedom of assembly and assoclatlon may n
be llmlted lf they advocate war or lnclte hatred, threaten natlonal securlty or
publlc safety, health, order or morals, or lmplnge on the rlghts of others,
The rlght of expresslon and the freedoms of assembly and assoclatlon can be n
restrlcted ln tlmes of emergency. however, llmltatlons or derogatlons of rlghts
ln tlmes of emergency must be based on the prlnclples of publlc declaratlon,
legallty, legltlmacy, non-dlscrlmlnatlon, necesslty and proportlonallty and
be of llmlted duratlon. human rlghts that are sub|ect to lawful llmltatlon ln
tlmes of emergency can never be deemed to have dlsappeared: derogatlon
does not mean obllteratlon,
The rlght to freedom of expresslon, and of assembly and assoclatlon can n
also be restrlcted ln tlmes of normallty. All llmltatlons, restrlctlons and
derogatlons must: be provlded for by law, not exceed the mlnlmum scope
necessary to protect the rlghts or reputatlons of others, be ln the lnterests of
the communlty, natlonal securlty or publlc order, health or morals, and they
must be |ustlfled as belng "necessary" for the State ln questlon to achleve
one of those legltlmate purposes.
SFXuAL 0klFhTATl0h, 0Fh0Fk l0FhTlT Ah0 lhTFkhATl0hAL huMAh kl0hTS LAw 1z,
"1hc Ccrvcrticr crJ Prctcrcl hcvc prcvcJ rcsilicrt ir
thc jcrc cj thc rhcrir rcturc cj pcrscruticr cvcr thc
lcst c yccrs. lr pcrcllcl, jcr irstcrrc, with irrrccscJ
cwcrcrcss cj thc prctcrticr rccJs cj rcrtcir rcups ir
scricty - irrluJir wcncr, irJicrcus rcups cr thcsc
with Jijjcrir scxucl cricrtcticr, whc crc ct risk - thc
Ccrvcrticr hcs bccr thc ncrhcrisn cllcwir prctcr-
ticr tc bc prcviJcJ tc surh rcups whc crc jcrrcJ tc
jlcc".
-Fxecutlve Commlttee of the unlted hatlons hlgh
Commlssloner for kefugees Programme
66
vttt. Asy|um and ReIuge
:. Lega| kature and 5cepe
The urivcrscl 0crlcrcticr cj huncr kihts recognlses that "e]veryone has the
rlght to seek and to en|oy ln other countrles asylum from persecutlon".
6,
The
uh 0crlcrcticr cr 1crritcricl Asylun also protects thls rlght.
6S
The world Conference
on human klghts, held ln vlenna ln }une 1, reaffrmed "that everyone, wlthout
dlstlnctlon of any klnd, ls entltled to the rlght to seek and to en|oy ln other countrles
asylum from persecutlon, as well as the rlght to return to one's own country".
6

Thls rlght ls also protected by reglonal human rlghts lnstruments: the Ajrircr
Chcrtcr cr huncr crJ Pccplcs kihts,
,o
the Prctcrcl tc thc Chcrtcr cr huncr
crJ Pccplcs kihts cr thc kihts cj wcncr ir Ajrirc,
,1
the Ancrircr 0crlcrcticr
cj thc kihts crJ 0utics cj Mcr,
,z
the Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts,
,

the Arcb Chcrtcr cr huncr kihts,
,
and the Chcrtcr cj FurJcncrtcl kihts cj thc
Furcpccr uricr.
,
lnternatlonal refugee law also protects these rlghts and provldes
the general legal frame of the legal status of refugees and thelr rlghts and dutles ln
thelr country of refuge, lncludlng the Ccrvcrticr kclctir tc thc Stctus cj kcjuccs
(11 Conventlon), the Prctcrcl kclctir tc thc Stctus cj kcjuccs (16, Protocol),
66. Nctc cr lrtcrrcticrcl Prctcrticr, uh doc. A]AC.6]1 of 1 September zoo1, para. .
6,. Artlcle 1 of the unlversal 0eclaratlon of human klghts.
6S. Adopted by the uh 0eneral Assembly resolutlon z1z (XXll) of 1 0ecember 16,.
6. vlenna 0eclaratlon and Programme of Actlon, adopted by the world Conference on human klghts ln vlenna
on z }une 1, para. z.
,o. Artlcle 1z (), Afrlcan Charter on human and Peoples' klghts.
,1. Artlcle 11, Protocol to the Charter on human and Peoples' klghts on the klghts of women ln Afrlca.
,z. Artlcle XXvll, Amerlcan 0eclaratlon of the klghts and 0utles of Man.
,. Artlcle zz (,), Amerlcan Conventlon on human klghts.
,. Artlcle zS, Arab Charter on human klghts.
,. Artlcle 1S, Charter of Fundamental klghts of the Furopean unlon.
PkACTlTl0hFkS 0ul0F ho. 1zS
the Stctutc cj thc 0jrc cj thc uritcJ Ncticrs hih Ccnnissicrcr jcr kcjuccs,
,6

the 0rcrizcticr cj Ajrircr uritys Ccrvcrticr Ccvcrrir thc Spcrir Aspcrts cj
kcjucc Prcblcns ir Ajrirc and other lnternatlonal lnstruments.
,,
Accordlng to the 11 Conventlon, a refugee ls a person who "owlng to a well-founded
fear of belng persecuted for reasons of race, rellglon, natlonallty, membershlp of a
partlcular soclal group or polltlcal oplnlon, ls outslde the country of hls natlonallty
and ls unable or, owlng to such fear, ls unwllllng to avall hlmself of the protectlon
of that country, or who, not havlng a natlonallty and belng outslde the country of
hls former habltual resldence as a result of such events, ls unable or, owlng to such
fear, ls unwllllng to return to lt".
,S
Thls defnltlon and crlterla determlnlng who ls entltled to refugee status, has been
expanded by the 16, Protocol
,
and legal lnstruments and guldellnes adopted by
the unlted hatlons hlgh Commlssloner for kefugees (uhhCk).
So
z. 5tates' eb|igatiens teward reIugees
0nce a refugee has establlshed a well-founded fear of belng persecuted, the
recelvlng State has an obllgatlon to grant them asylum or help them resettle ln a
thlrd country where they wlll be safe.
S1
8y grantlng asylum, a State obllges ltself
to extend the asylee permlsslon to work, as well as the protectlons of all lts laws,
speclfcally lncludlng the protectlons of labour leglslatlon and the benefts of soclal
,6. Adopted by kesolutlon zS (v) of the 0eneral Assembly on 1 0ecember 1o.
,,. See also irtcr clic, Cartagena 0eclaratlon on kefugees, zz hovember 1S, 0AS]Ser.L. ]v]ll.66, doc. 1o,
rev. 1, the Ccrvcrticr cr Asylun, (havana, 1zS), thc Ccrvcrticr cr Pclitircl Asylun, (Montevldeo, 1),
the Ccrvcrticr cr 0iplcnctir Asylun, (Caracas, 1), the Ccrvcrticr cr 1crritcricl Asylun, (Caracas,
1), Ccurril cj Furcpc, Pcrlicncrtcry Asscnbly, kcrcnncrJcticr ;; (1p;6| cr thc Situcticr cj Jc
jcrtc kcjuccs, z6 }anuary 1,6, Furcpccr uricr, Ccurril 0ircrtivc 2cc/8 cj 2p April 2cc cr nirinun
stcrJcrJs jcr thc quclijircticr crJ stctus cj thirJ rcurtry rcticrcls crJ stctclcss pcrscrs cs rcjuccs cr
cs pcrscrs whc cthcrwisc rccJ irtcrrcticrcl prctcrticr crJ rcrtcrt cj thc prctcrticr rcrtcJ, 0} L o,
o September zoo.
,S. 11 Conventlon, Artlcle 1(A)(z).
,. The Protocol relatlng to the Status of kefugees (16, Protocol) and the Statute of the 0fflce of the unlted
hatlons hlgh Commlssloner for kefugees both ellmlnate two llmltatlons lncluded ln the 11 Conventlon:
the llmltatlon on conslderlng as refugees only those persons who became before 1 }anuary 11 (Artlcle
1.z), and geographlc llmltatlons (Artlcle 1.).
So. See lnter alla: uhhCk, handbook on Procedures and Crlterla for 0etermlnlng kefugee Status under the
11 Conventlon and the 16, Protocol relatlng to the Status of kefugees, hCk]lP]]Fng]kFv.1 (znd ed.
1z), 0uldellnes on lnternatlonal Protectlon 1: 0ender-kelated Persecutlon wlthln the context of Artlcle
1A(z) of the 11 Conventlon and]or lts 16, Protocol relatlng to the Status of kefugees, hCk]0lP]oz]o1
(zooz), 0uldellnes on lnternatlonal Protectlon z: "Membershlp of a partlcular soclal group" wlthln the
context of Artlcle 1 A (z) of the 11 Conventlon and]or lts 16, Protocol relatlng to the Status of kefugees,
hCk]0lP]oz]oz (zooz), 0uldellnes on lnternatlonal Protectlon ho. 6: kellglon-8ased kefugee Clalms under
Artlcle 1A(z) of the 11 Conventlon and]or the 16, Protocol relatlng to the Status of kefugees, hCk]
0lP]o]o6 (zoo) , and 0uldellnes on lnternatlonal Protectlon ho. ,: The Appllcatlon of Artlcle 1A(z) of
the 11 Conventlon and]or 16, Protocol kelatlng to the Status of kefugees to vlctlms of Trafflcklng and
Persons at klsk of 8elng Trafflcked, hCk]0lP]o6]o, (zoo6).
S1. uhhCk, Nctc cr lrtcrrcticrcl Prctcrticr, u.h. 0oc. A]AC.6]1 (zoo1), paras. 6-1o6.
securlty.
Sz
ho State may expel a refugee to a country ln whlch he]her faces a real
rlsk of persecutlon or other gross human rlghts vlolatlons. Thls absolutely prohlb-
lted practlce ls known as "rcjculcncrt". The prohlbltlon of rcjculcncrt ls frmly
establlshed ln refugee law and several unlversal and reglonal human rlghts lnstru-
ments
S
as well as ln the lnternatlonal customary law, blndlng on all States, as a
jus rccrs norm.
States' rlght to expel a refugee lawfully ln thelr terrltory on grounds of natlonal
securlty or publlc order,
S
ls overrldden lf the lssue of rcjculcncrt comes lnto play.
ln addltlon to the prlnclple of rcr-rcjculcncrt, refugee law lmposes on the State
certaln procedural safeguards.
S
Accordlng to the prlnclple of rcr-rcjculcncrt,
States shall not "expel or return ('refouler') a refugee .] where hls llfe or freedom
would be threatened on account of hls race, rellglon, natlonallty, membershlp of
a partlcular soclal group or polltlcal oplnlon".
S6
A declslon by 8rltaln to expel an
lndlan mllltant asylee on the grounds that he represented a threat to 8rltlsh natlonal
securlty was ruled to be ln vlolatlon of the rcr-rcjculcncrt obllgatlon under Artlcle
of the Furopean Conventlon, as he faced a real rlsk of torture ln lndla.
S,
The court
took note that the rcr-rcjculcncrt obllgatlon applled regardless of the asylee's
threat to natlonal securlty.
SS
kefugees may, however, be voluntarlly repatrlated to thelr own countrles once thelr
fear of persecutlon has abated. voluntary repatrlatlon ls the preferred outcome
asylum.
S
voluntary repatrlatlon ends the valldlty of any outstandlng clalms to
Sz. 11 Conventlon, Artlcles 1z, 1,-1, z, z, lCCPk Artlcle 1, see also lccl Ccnncrtcry tc thc lC/ 8crlir
0crlcrcticr, cp. rit.
S. The 11 Conventlon relatlng to the Status of kefugees (Artlcle ), the 0AS Conventlon on Terrltorlal
Asylum (Artlcle lv), the 0rganlzatlon of Afrlcan unlty's Conventlon 0overnlng the Speclflc Aspects of
kefugee Problems ln Afrlca (Artlcle ll ()), the Conventlon Agalnst Torture and Cruel, lnhuman or 0egradlng
Treatment or Punlshment (Artlcle .1), the lnternatlonal Conventlon for the Protectlon of All Persons from
Fnforced 0lsappearance (Artlcle 16), the 0eclaratlon on Terrltorlal Asylum (Artlcle .1), the 0eclaratlon on the
Protectlon of All Persons from Fnforced 0lsappearances (Artlcle S), the Prlnclples on the Fffectlve Preventlon
and lnvestlgatlon of Fxtra-legal, Arbltrary and Summary Fxecutlons (Prlnclple ), the Amerlcan Conventlon
on human klghts (Artlcle zz.S), the lnter-Amerlcan Conventlon to Prevent and Punlsh Torture (Artlcle 1.),
the Arab Charter on human klghts (Artlcle zS) and the Furopean Conventlon of human klghts (Artlcle ).
Although the lnternatlonal Covenant on Clvll and Polltlcal klghts does not expllcltly provlde for lt, the human
klghts Commlttee has polnted out that the prlnclple of rcr-rcjculcncrt ls lnherent ln States' obllgatlon
under the Covenant to guarantee the rlght not to be sub|ected to torture or lll-treatment (Ccrcrcl Ccnncrt
Nc. 2c, para. ). See also, CcrrluJir 0bscrvcticrs cj thc huncr kihts Ccnnittcc: CcrcJc, CCPk]C]CAh]
C0], zo Aprll zoo6, para. 1.
S. Artlcle z (1) of the 11 Conventlon.
S. lbiJ., and Artlcle z (z) of the 11 Conventlon.
S6. Artlcle of the 11 Conventlon.
S,. Furopean Court of human klghts, }udgment of 1 hovember 16, Case of Chchcl v. thc uritcJ kirJcn,
Appllcatlon ho. zz1], para. 1o,.
SS. lbiJ., at paras. ,-So.
S. uhhChk, Nctc cr lrtcrrcticrcl Prctcrticr, u.h. 0oc. A]AC.6]1, para. ,. Also, uhhCk kS0 hcrJbcck
crJ CuiJclircs cr lrtcrrcticrcl Prctcrticr (http:]]www.unhcr.org]docllst]publ]dd111.html).
asylum, as lt ls assumed that a refugee's return home lmplles changed condltlons
there, allowlng for the asylum seeker's safety.
o
y. Asy|um and ReIugee 5tatus en the Creunds eI 5exua|
0rientatien and Cender tdentity
y.: Particu|ar secia| greup inc|uding sexua| minerities
"Membershlp of a partlcular soclal group", one of the fve grounds enumerated ln
Artlcle 1 of the 11 Conventlon, has encompassed lncreaslngly dlverse clalms.
1

Thls expandlng category has accommodated women, famllles, trlbes, occupatlonal
groups and homosexuals.
z
There ls no doubt that thls ground ls amenable to
advanclng refugee clalms based on sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty. Thls
ls expllcltly stated by the uhhCk ln lts 0uldellnes on lnternatlonal Protectlon on
"gender-related persecutlon":
"r]cjucc rlcins bcscJ cr Jijjcrir scxucl cricrtcticr rcrtcir c crJcr
clcncrt. A rlcincrts scxuclity cr scxucl prcrtircs ncy bc rclcvcrt tc c
rcjucc rlcin whcrc hc cr shc hcs bccr subjcrt tc pcrscrutcry (irrluJir
Jisrrinirctcry| crticr cr crrcurt cj his cr hcr scxuclity cr scxucl prcrtircs.
lr ncry surh rcscs, thc rlcincrt hcs rcjuscJ tc cJhcrc tc scriclly cr rultur-
clly JcjircJ rclcs cr cxpcrtcticrs cj bchcvicur cttributcJ tc his cr hcr scx.
1hc ncst rcnncr rlcins irvclvc hcncscxucls, trcrsscxucls cr trcrsvcs-
titcs, whc hcvc jcrcJ cxtrcnc publir hcstility, viclcrrc, cbusc, cr scvcrc cr
runulctivc Jisrrinircticr".
The uhhCk has also recognlsed States' obllgatlon to conslder the speclal rlsks
faced by refugees from persecutlon on the grounds of sexual orlentatlon and gender
ldentlty vla lts reference to the ogyakarta Prlnclples:
"w]ith rccrJ tc scxucl cricrtcticr, thc 2cc; cyckcrtc Prirriplcs cr
thc Applircticr cj lrtcrrcticrcl huncr kihts lcw ir rclcticr tc Scxucl
0ricrtcticr crJ CcrJcr lJcrtity cjjirn thc birJir irtcrrcticrcl lccl
stcrJcrJs cr this issuc cs JcrivcJ jrcn kcy jurJcncrtcl huncr rihts
irstruncrts".
o. For example, lmmlgratlon and kefugee 8oard of Canada, 0eclslon of 1S 0ctober zoo, Case of Applircrt v.
Miristcr, ho. dossler SPk vA-o11.
1. See for example, uhhCk, handbook, Alexander Alelnlkoff, "Protected characterlstlcs and soclal percep-
tlons: an analysls of the meanlng of 'membershlp of a partlcular soclal group'", ln kcjucc Prctcrticr ir
lrtcrrcticrcl lcw: 1hc uNhCks Clcbcl Ccrsultcticrs cr lrtcrrcticrcl Prctcrticr, Frlka Feller, edltors, volker
Turk and Frances hlcholson, Cambrldge unlverslty Press, zoo.
z. uhhCk, CuiJclircs cr lrtcrrcticrcl Prctcrticr 2, cp. rit. paras. 1, 6, ,, zo.
. uhhCk, CuiJclircs cr lrtcrrcticrcl Prctcrticr 1, cp. rit. para. 16.
. uhhCk, hcrJbcck jcr thc Prctcrticr cj wcncr crJ Cirls (zooS), p. ,z.
For the purpose of lmplementlng the 11 Conventlon, the Furopean unlon (Fu) has
adopted a defnltlon of "soclal group" that lncludes sexual orlentatlon, requlrlng Fu
member States to recognlse that "dependlng on the clrcumstances ln the country of
orlgln, a partlcular soclal group mlght lnclude a group based on a common character-
lstlc of sexual orlentatlon".
Thls standard applles to and has been lmplemented ln

every Fu member State except, through an anomaly of Fu law, 0enmark.
6
Fu legls-
latlon also encompasses gender ldentlty, although somewhat obllquely, notlng that
"g]ender related aspects mlght be consldered, wlthout by themselves alone creatlng
a presumptlon for the appllcablllty of thls Artlcle".
,
These standards replace the
earller Furopean |urlsprudence on whether sexual orlentatlon may defne a soclal
group.
S
ln the unlted States, the 8oard of lmmlgratlon Appeals has recognlsed "homo-
sexuals" as a partlcular soclal group,
and one appeals court has recognlsed an

asylum clalm based on gender ldentlty, "concludlng] as a matter of law that gay men
wlth female sexual ldentltles ln Mexlco constltute a 'partlcular soclal group'".
6oo
The uhhCk has developed a standard of "partlcular soclal group" that lncludes
two separate but complementary approaches for establlshlng such a group's
exlstence:
"c pcrtirulcr scricl rcup is c rcup cj pcrscrs whc shcrc c rcnncr rhcr-
crtcristir cthcr thcr thcir risk cj bcir pcrscrutcJ, cr whc crc pcrrcivcJ
cs c rcup by scricty. 1hc rhcrcrtcristir will cjtcr bc crc whirh is irrctc,
urrhcrccblc, cr whirh is cthcrwisc jurJcncrtcl tc iJcrtity, rcrsricrrc cr
thc cxcrrisc cj crcs huncr rihts".
6o1
The frst approach ln thls standard ls the "protected characterlstlcs" or "lmmu-
tablllty" approach, whlch examlnes whether a group ls unlted by an lmmutable
. Councll 0lrectlve zoo]S]FC, cp. rit.
6. For example, CuiJclircs jcr lrvcsticticr crJ Fvclucticr cj Asylun Ccscs ir whirh Pcrscruticr 8cscJ
cr Civcr Scxucl 0ricrtcticr (Sweden) (zooz), avallable at www.unhcr.org]cgl-bln]texls]vtx]refworld]
rwmaln!docld=fSc1af, kcjucc Art (lreland) para. z (16).
,. lbiJ., see also lL0A Furope, "Prctcrtir lC81 Pccplc Scckir Asylun: CuiJclircs 0r 1hc kcjucc
Stctus 0ircrtivc" (zoo), p. 11 (notlng that the "nccrir cj this stctcncrt is jcr jrcn rlccr. .] l]t ncy
bc pcssiblc tc Jcncrstrctc thc cxistcrrc cj c trcrscrJcr rcnnurity/iJcrtity, but this will rcquirc
rcsc-by-rcsc Jctcrnircticr"). See: http:]]www.llga- europe.org]europe]publlcatlons]non_perlodlcal]
guldellnes_on_the_refugee_status_dlrectlve_october_zoo__1
S. See generally Furopean Councll for kefugees and Fxlles (FCkF), "Flcrc kcsccrrh Pcpcr cr Scxucl
0ricrtcticr As c CrcurJ Fcr kcrcriticr cj kcjucc Stctus" (1,), avallable at www.ecre.org]resources]
Pollcy_papers]o.
. unlted States 8oard of lmmlgratlon Appeals, 0eclslon of 1z March 1o, Mcttcr cj 1cbcsc-Aljcrsc, zo l&h
0ec. S1, 1o wL ,1S (8lA 1o).
6oo. unlted States Court of Appeals for the hlnth Clrcult, 0eclslon of z August zooo, Case of hcrrcrJcz-Mcrticl
v. lNS.
6o1. 0uldellnes on lnternatlonal Protectlon: "Membershlp of a partlcular soclal group" wlthln the context of
Artlcle 1A(z) of the 11 Conventlon and]or lts 16, Protocol relatlng to the Status of kefugees, para. 11,
uhhCk 0oc. hCk]0lP]oz]oz of , May zooz.
characterlstlc or by a characterlstlc that ls so fundamental to human dlgnlty that
a person should not be compelled to forsake lt.
6oz
A declslon-maker adoptlng thls
approach would examlne whether the asserted group ls defned by:
an lnnate, unchangeable characterlstlc, n
a past temporary or voluntary status that ls unchangeable because of lts n
hlstorlcal permanence, or
a characterlstlc or assoclatlon that ls so fundamental to human dlgnlty that n
group members should not be compelled to forsake lt.
Applylng thls approach, courts and admlnlstratlve bodles ln a number of |urlsdlctlons
have concluded that homosexuals, amongst others, can constltute a partlcular soclal
group wlthln the meanlng of Artlcle 1A(z). ln the case of kc C/,
6o
hew Zealand's
kefugee Status Appeals Authorlty ruled ln favour of an lranlan man who argued
that he had a well-founded fear of persecutlon based on hls homosexuallty. The
authorlty found that homosexuals formed "a partlcular soclal group" and that sexual
orlentatlon ls elther an lnnate or unchangeable characterlstlc or so fundamental
to ldentlty and]or human dlgnlty that lt ought not to change. ln thls analysls, the
trlbunal offered a basls for the conslderatlon of sexual orlentatlon as constltutlng "a
partlcular soclal group" deservlng of |udlclal protectlon. A deeply felt sense of one's
gender ldentlty goes to the core of one's ldentlty as a human belng to the extent
that one should not be forced on to forsake lt. Therefore, gender ldentlty may also
constltute a partlcular soclal group.
The second, "soclal perceptlon", approach examlnes whether or not members of a
group share common characterlstlcs constltutlng a recognlzable group whlch sets
them apart from soclety at large. The uhhCk 0uldellne on "Membershlp of a partlc-
ular soclal group" cltes women, famllles and homosexuals as examples recognlzed
under thls analysls as partlcular soclal groups, dependlng on the clrcumstances of
the soclety ln whlch they exlst.
6o
Fxpresslons of gender ldentlty could concelvably
be lncluded ln thls approach. 0ender expresslon ls vlslble and can be a source of
ldentlfcatlon, especlally when, through characterlstlcs such as dress, mannerlsms
and modlfcatlons of the body lt subverts tradltlonal expectatlons of gender expres-
slon. ln the ln the case of 0urbih, the Councll of State (Ccrscil JFtct| of France
found that transsexuals may constltute a partlcular soclal group. ln lts declslon, the
6oz. See for example, Supreme Court of Canada, Case of Attcrrcy Ccrcrcl cj CcrcJc v. wcrJ, 1, z SCk 6S.
The Court has stated that: "The meanlng asslgned to 'partlcular soclal group' .] comprlses] three posslble
categorles: (1) groups deflned by an lnnate or unchangeable characterlstlc, (z) groups whose members
voluntarlly assoclate for reasons so fundamental to thelr human dlgnlty that they should not be forced
to forsake the assoclatlon, and () groups assoclated by a former voluntary status, unalterable due to lts
hlstorlcal permanence. The flrst category would embrace lndlvlduals fearlng persecutlon on such bases as
gender, llngulstlc background and sexual orlentatlon.]".
6o. Avallable at http:]]www.refugee.org.nz]rsaa]text]docs]11z-.htm
6o. 0uldellnes on lnternatlonal Protectlon: "Mcnbcrship cj c pcrtirulcr scricl rcup" withir thc rcrtcxt cj
Artirlc 1A(2| cj thc 1p1 Ccrvcrticr crJ/cr its 1p6; Prctcrcl rclctir tc thc Stctus cj kcjuccs, para. 1.
Consell d'Ftat re|ected the declslon of the body of appeal (Ccnnissicr Jcs rcrcurs
Jcs rcjuics| to deny the clalm of 0urblh, an Algerlan transsexual, fndlng that the
body had not properly examlned the evldence to determlne whether transsexuals
were regarded as a soclal group ln Algerla "by reason of the common characterlstlcs
whlch defne them ln the eyes of the authorltles and of soclety".
6o
Accordlng to the uhhCk 0uldellnes on "Membershlp of a partlcular soclal group",
"a] partlcular soclal group cannot be defned excluslvely by the persecutlon that
members of the group suffer or by a common fear of belng persecuted".
6o6
however,
there ls no requlrement that a partlcular soclal group be "coheslve", that ls to say,
known to each other or assoclate wlth each other.
6o,
hot all members of the group
need be at rlsk for an lndlvldual clalm to succeed.
6oS
The slze of the purported soclal
group ls not a relevant crlterlon ln determlnlng whether the partlcular soclal group
exlsts.
6o
y.z Persecutien
y.z.: 5cepe eI persecutien
To glve rlse to refugee status persecutlon must be more severe than harassment,
dlscrlmlnatlon or threats, although lt does not have to glve rlse to a threat to llfe.
61o

Thls can sometlmes be a fne llne to ad|udlcate on. Past persecutlon must establlsh
a presumptlon of future persecutlon. lt ls not by ltself suffclent to establlsh a cred-
lble fear of belng persecuted.
611
Persecutlon must also conslst of acts commltted by
or wlth the acqulescence of the authorltles.
y.z.z Persecutien in re|atien te sexua| erientatien and gender identity
An asylum-seeker does not need to show that he or she outwardly conforms to a
stereotype or llves wlth an openly "homosexual" ldentlty ln order to demonstrate the
potentlal for persecutlon. Courts have acknowledged the unlque pressures that L08T
asylum-seekers have to conceal thelr ldentlty and how thls factors ln the assessment
of thelr clalm. A person cannot be refused asylum on the basls that he or she could
6o. Consell d'Ftat, SSk, 0eclslon ho. 1,1SS, z }une 1, (0rlglnal ln French, free translatlon).
6o6. 0uldellnes on lnternatlonal Protectlon: "Mcnbcrship cj c pcrtirulcr scricl rcup" withir thc rcrtcxt cj
Artirlc 1A(2| cj thc 1p1 Ccrvcrticr crJ/cr its 1p6; Prctcrcl rclctir tc thc Stctus cj kcjuccs, para. 1.
6o,. lbiJ., para. 1.
6oS. lbiJ., para. 1,.
6o. lbiJ., para. 1S.
61o. unlted States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Clrcult, 0eclslon of 1 }une zoo, Case of liu v. Ashrrcjt.
611. lbiJ., para. z,.
avold persecutlon by modlfylng behavlour that ls the sub|ect of the persecutlon. ln
the Fngllsh case of 0cricr v. SSh0, Lord }ustlce Slmon 8rown oplned:
"i]r cll csylun rcscs thcrc is ultinctcly c sirlc qucsticr tc bc cskcJ: is
thcrc c scricus risk thct cr rcturr thc cpplircrt wculJ bc pcrscrutcJ jcr
c Ccrvcrticr rccscr? .] ij rcturrcJ, wculJ thc csylun scckcr ir jcrt crt
ir thc wcy hc scys hc wculJ crJ thcrcby sujjcr pcrscruticr? lj hc wculJ,
thcr, hcwcvcr urrccscrcblc hc niht bc thcuht jcr rcjusir tc crrcpt thc
rcrcsscry rcstrcirt cr his libcrtics, ir ny juJncrt hc wculJ bc crtitlcJ tc
csylun".
61z
An uS lmmlgratlon |udge who denled the asylum appllcatlon of an Albanlan because
he "dld not dress or speak llke or exhlblt the mannerlsms of a homosexual" was
censured by an appeals court for baslng hls declslon on a "personal and lmproper
oplnlon", and was removed from the case.
61
The hlgh Court of Australla has slmllarly reasoned that appllcants' prlor ablllty to
avold persecutlon by keeplng thelr sexual orlentatlon secret should have no bearlng
on a declslon as to whether an asylum seeker has a reasonable fear of future perse-
cutlon based on sexual orlentatlon. The court ruled:
"thcrc is c rcturcl tcrJcrry .] tc rccscr thct, bcrcusc thc cpplircrt hcs rct
bccr pcrscrutcJ ir thc pcst, hc cr shc will rct bc pcrscrutcJ ir thc juturc.
1hc jcllcry urJcrlyir this cpprccrh is thc cssunpticr thct thc rcrJurt cj
thc cpplircrt is urirjlucrrcJ by thc rcrJurt cj thc pcrscrutcr".
61
ln other words, "lf such a person were requlred to keep hls homosexuallty secret ln
order to avold persecutlon, that ln ltself was a persecutory actlon".
61
The Australlan
Court ruled that, slnce an lmmlgratlon trlbunal had found that two asylum seekers
"were dlscreet about thelr relatlonshlp only because they feared that otherwlse they
would be sub|ected to persecutlon, lt must therefore] conslder what mlght happen
to the appellants ln 8angladesh lf they llved openly as a homosexual couple".
616
The kefugee Status Appeals Authorlty of hew Zealand (kSAA) has adopted thls
reasonlng, concludlng that the Ccrvcrticr rclctir tc thc Stctus cj kcjuccs
requlres that: "l]f the rlght proposed to be exerclsed by the refugee clalmant ln
61z. Court of Appeal (Clvll 0lvlslon), }udgment of zS 0ctober 1, Case of 0cricr v. Scrrctcry cj Stctc jcr thc
hcnc 0cpcrtncrt, 1] lhLk , pp. ,0, SC, S0 (unlted Klngdom). See also generally, /cncirc v. Scrrctcry
cj Stctc jcr thc hcnc 0cpcrtncrt, Asylum and lmmlgratlon Trlbunal ] lmmlgratlon Appellate Authorlty, C0
zoo] uKAlT oo16S.
61. unlted States Court of Appeals, Flghth Clrcult, 0eclslon of z Aprll zoo,, Case of Shchircj v. Ccrzclcs,.
61. Appcllcrt Sp/2cc2 v. Miristcr jcr lnnircticr crJ Multirulturcl Ajjcirs, zoo hCA ,1, para. .
61. Court of Appeal (Clvll 0lvlslon), Case of Z v. 1hc Scrrctcry cj Stctc jcr thc hcnc 0cpcrtncrt, zoo] FwCA
Clv 1,S, (unlted Klngdom).
616. hlgh Court of Australla, }udgment of 0ecember zoo, Case of Appcllcrt cj Sp/2cc2 v. Miristcr jcr
lnnircticr crJ Multirulturcl Ajjcirs, para. .
the country of orlgln ls at the core of the relevant entltlement and serlous harm ls
threatened, lt would be contrary to the language context, ob|ect and purpose of the
kefugee Conventlon to requlre the refugee clalmant to forfelt or forego that rlght and
to be denled refugee status on the basls that he or she could engage ln self-denlal
or dlscretlon on return to the country of orlgln".
61,
ln the case of a homosexual appll-
cant from lran, the kSAA ruled that, slnce an exerclse of dlscretlon would vlolate the
"fundamental rlghts" of prlvacy and non-dlscrlmlnatlon guaranteed by the lCCPk,
and llvlng openly as a homosexual would entall "severe |udlclal or extra-|udlclal
punlshment", asylum had to be granted.
61S
An lnltlal reluctance to dlsclose sexual orlentatlon at the beglnnlng of the clalm
process, or even durlng lts lnltlal stages, should not be grounds for susplclon by an
lmmlgratlon trlbunal. ln a case called Mccb, a uS appeals court found "lt reason-
able that Mr. Moab would not have wanted to mentlon hls sexual orlentatlon at hls
lnltlal alrport lntervlew] for fear that reveallng thls lnformatlon could cause further
persecutlon as lt had ln hls home country of Llberla".
61
Cases of persecutlon on the grounds of sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty often
lnvolve rlsks of harm from non-State actors. ln such cases, the clalm for asylum ls
valld where there ls a real fear of persecutlon from a non-State actor, and where
the State ls unwllllng or slmply unable to protect the clalmant. ln lts CuiJclircs
cr lrtcrrcticrcl Prctcrticr: crJcr-rclctcJ pcrscruticr, the 0ffce of the unlted
hatlons hlgh Commlssloner for kefugees has stated that:
"w]hcrc hcncscxuclity is illccl ir c pcrtirulcr scricty, thc inpcsiticr cj
scvcrc rrinircl pcrcltics jcr hcncscxucl rcrJurt rculJ cncurt tc pcrsc-
ruticr, just cs it wculJ jcr rcjusir tc wccr thc vcil by wcncr ir scnc
scrictics. Fvcr whcrc hcncscxucl prcrtircs crc rct rrinirclizcJ, c rlcincrt
rculJ still cstcblish c vcliJ rlcin whcrc thc Stctc rcrJcrcs cr tclcrctcs
Jisrrinirctcry prcrtircs cr hcrn pcrpctrctcJ ccirst hin cr hcr, cr whcrc thc
Stctc is urcblc tc prctcrt cjjcrtivcly thc rlcincrt ccirst surh hcrn".
6zo
ln the unlted States of Amerlca, an asylum appllcant seeklng to avold deportatlon
ls "not requlred] .] to provlde evldence that he or she would be slngled out lndl-
vldually for .] persecutlon lf (l) .] there ls a pattern or practlce of persecutlon of a
group of persons slmllarly sltuated to the appllcant on account of .] membershlp
ln a partlcular soclal group, and .] (ll) t]he appllcant establlshes hls or her own
61,. kefugee Status Appeals Authorlty, 0eclslon of }uly zoo, kcjucc Appccl Nc. ;66/c, para. 11.
61S. lbiJ., paras. 1z, and 1z.
61. unlted States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Clrcult, 0eclslon of 1 September zoo,, Case of Mccb v.
Ccrzclcs.
6zo. 0fflce of the unlted hatlons hlgh Commlssloner for kefugees, CuiJclircs cr lrtcrrcticrcl Prctcrticr: crJcr-
rclctcJ pcrscruticr withir thc rcrtcxt cj crtirlc 1 A (2| cj thc 1p1 Ccrvcrticr crJ its 1p6; Prctcrcl rclctir
tc thc Stctus cj kcjuccs, uhhCk doc. hCk]0lP]oz]o1 of , May zooz, para. 1,. See also uh worklng 0roup
on Arbltrary 0etentlon, 0plnlon ho. ,]zooz (Fgypt) of z1 }une zooz, Case of csscr MchcncJ Sclch ct cl.
v. Fypt, para. z,, ln uh 0oc. F]Ch.]zoo]S]Add.1.
lncluslon ln and ldentlfcatlon wlth such group .] that lt ls more llkely than not that
hls or her llfe or freedom would be threatened upon return".
6z1
Applylng thls regula-
tlon, a uS appeals court has ruled that, lf an asylum seeker has "shown evldence of
a pattern of persecutlon agalnst the soclal group of homosexuals" and can "show
hls lncluslon ln the soclal group of 'homosexuals'", he need not "provlde evldence
that he or she would be slngled out lndlvldually for such persecutlon".
6zz
Although "rlghts attachlng to marrlage, shall be respected by" States partles to
the 11 Conventlon,
6z
the questlon of whether a refugee may sponsor a same-sex
partner ls unsettled. Practlces vary: ln the unlted States refugees granted asylum are
not permltted to brlng wlth them thelr same-sex partners,
6z
whereas ln Canada refu-
gees are entltled to brlng wlth them thelr same-sex "spouse, common-law partner
or con|ugal partner".
6z
however, glven that many refugees' persecutlon lncludes
forced physlcal separatlon from thelr partners, there remaln questlons as to how
many refugees would be able demonstrate the "con|ugal" or "common law" llnks
unltlng the two of them.
6z6
5ummary
Fveryone has the rlght to seek and to en|oy ln other countrles asylum from n
persecutlon, except ln the case of prosecutlons genulnely arlslng from
serlous non-polltlcal crlmes, from acts contrary to the purposes and prln-
clples of the unlted hatlons, crlme agalnst peace, a war crlme, or a crlme
agalnst humanlty,
A refugee ls a person unable to return to hls country due to a well-founded n
fear of belng persecuted for reasons of race, rellglon, natlonallty, polltlcal
oplnlon, or membershlp of a partlcular soclal group,
Sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty may constltute a "partlcular soclal n
group". Constltutlng as such due to elther lnnate or unchangeable charac-
terlstlcs or characterlstlcs so fundamental to ldentlty or human dlgnlty that
they ought not to change. Sexual orlentatlon and gender ldentlty may also
6z1. S C.F.k. zoS.16 (b)(z) "wlthholdlng of removal under sectlon z1(b)()(8) of the Act and wlthholdlng of
removal under the Conventlon Agalnst Torture", of the CcJc cj FcJcrcl kculcticr.
6zz. unlted States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Clrcult, 0eclslon of , }anuary zooS, Case of Fkc v.
Mukcscy.
6z. Artlcle 1z, 11 kefugee Conventlon.
6z. 0cjcrsc cj Mcrricc Art, 1 u.S.C. ,, Cj. vlsas for Cohabltatlng Partners, lmmlgratlon Fquallty, avallable at
www.lmmlgratlonequallty.org]template.php!pageld=1 (zoo,) (notlng that forelgn natlonals on temporary
work vlsas are the only class of persons allowed by u.S. law to obtaln vlsas for thelr same sex-partners).
6z. lnnircticr crJ kcjucc Prctcrticr kculcticrs, S.0.k.]zooz-zz,, part ,, dlvlslon 1.
6z6. Lavlolette, hlcole, "Comlng 0ut to Canada: The lmmlgratlon of Same-Sex Couples under the lmmlgratlon
and kefugee Protectlon Act", MrCill lcw /currcl, vol. , ho. , zoo, Mc0lll unlverslty, Canada, pages
SS-1.
deflne a partlcular soclal group because they are deflned as such ln the eyes
of the authorltles and of soclety,
Persons persecuted for hls]her sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty have n
the rlght to seek and en|oy asylum. Persecutlon on the grounds of sexual
orlentatlon or gender ldentlty ls grounds for asylum,
An asylum seeker does not need to show that he or she outwardly conforms n
to a stereotype ln order to obtaln asylum. hor can he or she be denled asylum
on the grounds that he or she could avold persecutlon by keeplng hls or her
sexual orlentatlon or gender ldentlty a secret,
Accordlng to the prlnclple of n rcr-rcjculcncrt, States must not expel or
return a refugee to a country ln whlch he]her faces a real rlsk of persecutlon
or other gross human rlghts vlolatlons. States must grant a refugee asylum
or resettle them ln safe a thlrd country,
The prlnclple of n rcr-rcjculcncrt lncludes a prohlbltlon to expel lesblans and
gays to countrles whlch are known to engage ln persecutlon for thelr sexual
orlentatlon or gender ldentlty,
8y grantlng asylum, a State obllgates ltself to extend the asylee permlsslon n
to work, as well as the protectlons of all lts laws, lncludlng labour, soclal
securlty and famlly law.

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Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and International Human Rights Law - A Practioners Guide

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Practitioners Guide No. 4

Practitioners Guide No. 4

0ther contemporary cultures dld not condemn sodomy, and lt was

ln 1S,6 Austrlan psycholo-

o. wllllam haphy, cp. rit., p. ,6.

Fven ln socletles where punlshments for soclal dlsorders

ulrlchs called these people

Sex changes, usually compulsory, were

ln the unlted States

and federal States of others fve countrles

They have further

the Ancrircr Ccrvcrticr cr huncr kihts prohlblts arrests

0eprlvatlon of llberty that does not meet these

0uslnskly was the holder of State decoratlon, a few

ln accordance wlth thls vlew, }ustlce Sachs of the

vague morallty codes and laws clrcumscrlblng publlc heath, morallty

ln a later case lnvolvlng Cameroon,

Fallure to take such preventatlve steps,

v. 1he Right te LiIe

levels, prohlbltlon of the death

Sensatlonallst medla coverage of

ln addltlon, several lnternatlonal

and ls now an lntegral part of human

as well as ln the lnternatlonal customary law that

kestrlctlons must cumulatlvely meet the followlng condltlons: they

ln addltlon, under the Furcpccr Ccrvcrticr cr huncr

The human klghts Commlttee further consldered "that the

The Furopean Court of human klghts has also

kestrlctlons on assembly for presslng

Thus, a government's declslon

however, when conslderlng the "rlghts of others" ln maklng llmltatlons

The prlnclple of proportlonallty, as

Thus, the declslon by the 8rltlsh 0overnment to destroy all coples

States obllgatlons lnclude provldlng educatlon and maklng lnformatlon avallable,

Thls standard applles to and has been lmplemented ln

and one appeals court has recognlsed an

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