Electromagnetic Waves From Shortwave to Longwave o Cosmic Rays o X and Gamma Rays o Ultraviolet o Visible o Infrared o Radio, TV and

Radar Binding energy increases as the electron shells move closer to the nucleus, and decreases as the lectron shells move further away from the nucleus.(Coulombs Law) The electrons in orbit in the outer shells have a higher energy content(Electrical Potential Energy) than those which are closest to the nucleus. Atomic Number(Z)=The number of protons Mass Number(A)=Atomic Weight=The total number of protons and neutrons A A ElementZ Example : 238Uranium or 238Uranium92 92 Z Element or
N=AZ Example : N ( 238Uranium) 238 92 146neutrons 92

Isotope : Atoms of the same element but with different mass numbers. The target size in the anode affects the sharpness of the resultant radiographic image. The smaller the target or radiation source, the sharper the resultant radiographic image. Operating temperature of the tungsten is about 2270C. 97% - 99% of the kinetic energy is in the form of heat. The stream of electrons from the cathode to the anode is measured in mA. Actual Focal Spot : The area where the electrons impact on the target. Actual Focal Spot has to be as large as possible to avoid local overheating. But, the XRay beam has to be as small as possible to achieve maximum image sharpness. These conditions are achieved by Line Focus Principle. The high vacuum in the borosilicate(Pyrex) tube have two basic functions : o prevents collisions between the high speed electrons and air molecules. This would result in the slowing down of the electrons. o Prolongs the life of the filament by preventing oxidation and burning out of it. The negative charge on the cathode is greater than the negative charge of the freed electrons. Thanks to this difference, the freed electrons are repelled away by the cathode. The energy of an electron = The velocity of it. X-Rays are produced by two different interactions : o Bremstrahlung Radiation :The high speed negative electrons are atracted to the positive charge of the nucleus. This strong attraction causes them to lose speed or even change direction towards to the nucleus. Thus, the kinetic energy is converted to either heat or an electromagnetic wavelength type of energy. For example, X-Ray. o Characteristic Radiation : A high speed electron collides with and removes an orbital electron. This gap is immediately filled by an electron from an outer

Shell by dropping down. In this case, the outer Shell electron has excess energy fort he level. This excess energy is given off as an X-Ray. This energy corresponds to the difference in the orbital energies. The vast majority of X-Rays produced are Bremstrahlung or continuous rays.(give a heterogeneous beam which is called polychromatic. The percentage of X-Rays produced increases as the voltage on the tube increases. The heat on the tube is dissipated by ; o A circulating liquid, water or oil o By convection through the copper anode. Warm-up Cycle : A gradual warm-up schedule which should be followed before every use to prolong the life of an X-Ray tube. It is recomended by the manufacturer. Duty Cycle : A percentage of actual usage versus rest time. o 100% Duty Cycle, No rest required o 80% Duty Cycle, 20% rest versus 80% exposure o 50% Duty Cycle. 50% rest versus 50% exposure Use of the tube should be confined to 90% of the maximum kV rating. Physical Characteristic of X-Ray Beam ; o Quality (energy=penetrating ability) of radiation : The harder the electrons accelerate, the faster they will be moving so they will have more energy. If they have greater energy, the x-rays given off will have shorter wavelength and the greater penetrating ability. The quality(energy) of the electrons is increased or decreased with the kilovoltage(kV) control. 1 volt=1 keV X-ray energy levels are ususally expressed in the thousand electron voltage that correspond to keV. Photon : Electromagnetic radiation can be regarded as packets of energy called photon. Photon energy can be measured in electron volts(eV) instead of physical measurement of wavelength in A units. 1A=10-8 centimeters. o Quantity (intensity) of radiation : The number of x-rays being produced. The more electrons that travel per unit of time, the more x-rays that will be produced. The number of electrons(tube current) are increased or decreased with mA control. The amount(quantity=intensity) of x-radiation emitted is directly proportional to the tube current. The intensity of penetrating radiation is measured in units of Roentgens or Sieverts.But in x-ray tube, the intensity is measured by the use of the mA control. Exposure to radiation for a specimen is a product of Intensity x Time and it is expressed as; mA x minutes = milliampere-minutes (mAm)

mA x seconds = milliampere-seconds (mAs) One Electron Volt : the amount of voltage that is necessary to energize and displace one electron Conventional x-ray tubes are rated up to 400 kVp. Low energy tubes, up to 200 kVp can be portable. 300-400 kVp tubes are usually found in laboratory exposure rooms because they are physically large, heavy, and need more efficient cooling Maximum 3 inches thick steel can be inspected with a conventional 400 kVp x-ray tube. To inspect thicker parts such as castings(up to 24 inches thick may be encountered), extremely short wavelength is needed. This is obtained from; o Betatron : Operates on the magnetic induction effect. A circular tube that contains the electrons rotates for many thousand revolutions. The electrons are ejected into tube and accelerated in a circular path, so they gain a large amount of energy before striking the target. They can reach 24 MeV x-rays. o Linear Accelerator(Linacs) : The electrons are accelerated down a guide by means of radio frequency voltages. In the multi-million volt range. There are two types of linacs in use today, Travelling Wave Method Standing Wave Method o Van de Graaf Generator : The radiation energy above 400 kV is considered to be high-energy X-radiation. High energy sources provide more efficiency up to 40% x-rays. . Equipment producing high-energy x-rays : o X-ray tubes with a resonance-type transformer o Betatrons o Linear accelerators o Van de Graaff generators Sources Thickness range in steel Iridium 192 0.500 to 1.50 Cesium 137 0.650 to 2.0 Cobalt 60 1.0 to 5.0 The intensity or quantity of radiation is a function of the applied milliamperes. The activity or the amount of radiation that is given off by a source, is expressed in curies or becquerels. The specific activity of a source is expressed in curies per gram. The greater the number of curies for a given physical size, the higher the specific activity. The major benefit of a high specific activity source is small physical size. Industrial x-ray equipment by energy groups : o Up to about 125 kV..Low Energy o From 125 up to 400 kVMedium Energy(Most widely used) o Above 400 kV..High Energy The first gamma ray source used in industrial radiography was radium.

Variables : o Energy o Exposure time o mA (x-ray) or curies (gamma ray) o Material type and density o Material thickness o Type of film o Screens used o Film processing (procedure development time and temperature, etc.) o Film density o Distance from the radiation source to the object o Distance from the object to the film o Physical size of the target (x-ray) or source (gamma ray)

Film is made up o Base - Polyester o Emulsion Gelatin(a Porous substance) Silver Halide If an X or Gamma ray passes through the film, ionization occurs and this changes the crystal structure of silver bromide to black metallic silver. This is called latent image. This latent image is made visible by a chemical reaction when the film is developed in a dark room. Silver Bromide o Silver.........Positive ion o Bromide.....Negative ion

Developer An alkaline solution Soften the coating so that the chemicals can get in Change(reduce) the exposed silver halides to black metallic silver. Does not act on unexposed silver halides Normal developing time is five (5) minutes at 68F(20C). mn The activity of the developing solution decreases even when it is not used due to oxidation. If the temperature more than recomended the developing time must be reduced to avoid eccessive fog and increased graininess. Low developing temperatures, less than 64 F(18 C) causes hydroquinone(produces contrast) to be less active. Stop Bath An acidic solution of acetic acid and water. Immediately stops the action of the developer solution. Prevents contamination of fixer and developing solution. This prolongs the life of fixer. Otherwise, the alkaline will neutralize the acidic fixer solution.

Agitate the film in stop bath, temperature 68 F(20 C), leave the film in the bath from 30 seconds to 1 minute If an acidic stop bath is not available, then the developed film can be immersed in running water 2-3 minutes.(immerse= daldrmak) Fixer Bath An acidic solution Removes the unexposed, undeveloped silver halide from the emulsion. Hardens the emulsion Stops all the development Two Specific Phases of the Fixing of the Radiographic Film The clearing time : to remove to unexposed silver Halides from the emulsion. The yellow milky cloudiness to disappear. The total fixing time : should be at least three times the clearing time. The film is agitated to ensure all areas are covered and development stopped. Temp. 68 F(20 C)