Chapter 2 Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter

Principles of Steam Electric Generation
Chapter 2:
The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter
Chapter 2: The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter.................................i Chapter 2: The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter................................1 Introduction.............................................................................................................1 Composition of Matter.............................................................................................1 Elements.................................................................................................................3 Compounds.............................................................................................................3 Mixtures...................................................................................................................4 Chemical Changes of Matter..................................................................................4 Composition of Air...................................................................................................5 Composition of Water.............................................................................................8 States of Matter.......................................................................................................8 Molecular Motion of Matter...................................................................................10 Molecular Motion and Temperature......................................................................11 Molecular Motion and Pressure............................................................................13 Density or Specific Weight of Matter.....................................................................13 Buoyancy of Matter...............................................................................................15 Specific Gravity of Matter......................................................................................16 The Atmosphere...................................................................................................17 Viscosity or Mobility of Liquids..............................................................................18 Static Pressure or Force Per Unit Area................................................................18 Total Force on a Surface in a Liquid.....................................................................20 Balancing Fluid Columns......................................................................................20 Gauge and Absolute Pressure..............................................................................21 Differential Heads or Pressure..............................................................................22 The Bourdon Pressure Gauge..............................................................................22 Vacuum Gauges...................................................................................................23 Pressure of Confined Liquids................................................................................24 Transmission of Pressure by Confined Liquids....................................................25 Siphoning Action...................................................................................................26 Unit Pressures and Resultant Force.....................................................................27 Summary...............................................................................................................28 Review Questions.................................................................................................33 Progress Check....................................................................................................36 EXAMINATION.....................................................................................................42
The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter 09/20/12
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Chapter 2: The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter

Introduction
This chapter discusses the composition, structure, and molecular motion of matter or material things. Basic knowledge of these subjects is essential in order to understand the many changes such as temperature, pressure, density, and the like, which takes place in power generating and distributing systems. This knowledge should help to cope with these scientific phenomena and thus understand better their relationship to plant and station operating principles. Our universe is composed of many different kinds of matter or materials. These materials differ in their properties or characteristics. It is these differences which determine the usefulness of material things. From the different material in the universe, all the necessities to sustain life are obtained. Material wealth depends, to a large extent, upon knowledge of materials and how this knowledge is used to create useful things.
Composition of Matter
The word science is derived from the Latin verb meaning to know. There are many sciences, each being distinguished by the field of knowledge which it covers. For the purpose of this chapter, science is defined as an orderly management of facts and laws descriptive of a certain field of knowledge. Physics is the science dealing with natural laws, processes, and the states of matter and energy other than those restricted to living matter and chemical changes. One of the basic laws of physics states that matter, like energy, can neither be created nor destroyed. Its form or state may be changed, but it cannot be destroyed. The quantity of matter or energy in the universe remains constant. The differences in matter such as its density, and so forth, are largely due to differences in its composition. How is matter composed? All material things or substances in the universe are made up or built of tiny particles called atoms. An atom is the smallest unit into which matter or material things can be broken chemically. At present, man has discovered over 100 different kinds of atoms. The properties of any substance are determined by the atoms of which the substance is composed. The table on the following page lists The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter 09/20/12 Chapter 2 Page 1

some of the more common atoms, their symbol, atomic weight, density and melting point, each kind of atom has a different atomic weight. In atomic weight the hydrogen atom, which is the lightest known atom, is given a value of 1 and the atomic weights of the other atoms are determined by comparing their weights with that of hydrogen. Since the atomic weight of carbon is 12, the carbon atom is 12 times heavier than the hydrogen atom, oxygen is 16 times heavier than hydrogen, etc. In nature, substances may be composed of one kind of atom or of many different kinds of atoms. For example, water is made up of molecules, each containing two hydrogen atoms, and one oxygen atom. Atoms may be divided into protons, (positive charges of electricity), and into electrons, (negative particles of electricity).
COMMON ELEMENTS (In solid form and at room temperature, unless otherwise noted) Symbol Atomic Weight Density g/cm2 Al 26.98 2.70 @ 20C A 39.944 1.65 @ -233C Ba 137.36 3.5 @ 20C B 10.82 2.535 Br 79.92 4.2 @ -273C Ca 40.08 1.55 @ 20C C 12.011 2.25 (graphite) @ 20C Cl 35.457 2.2 @ -273C Cu 63.54 8.933 @ 20C F 19.00 1.5 @ -273C Au 197.00 19.3 @ 20C He 4.003 0.19 @ -273C H 1.008 0.763 @ -260C I 126.91 4.94 @ 20C Fe 55.85 7.86 Pb 207.21 11.342 @ 20C Mg 24.320 1.74 @ 20C Mn 54.94 7.3 Hg 200.61 14.193 @ -38.8C Ne 20.183 1.204 @ -245C Ni 58.71 8.8 N 14.008 1.14 @ -273C O 16.00 1.568 @ -273C P 30.98 1.83 (white) K 39.10 0.87 @ 20C Ra 226.05 5 Si 28.09 2.42 @ 20C Ag 107.88 10.492 @ 20C Na 22.99 0.9712 @ 20C Sr 87.63 2.60 S 32.066 2.07 Sn 118.70 5.75 (grey) @ 20C U 238.07 18.7 @ 13C Xe 131.30 Zn 65.38 6.92 @ 20C
Name Aluminum Argon Barium Boron Bromine Calcium Carbon Chlorine Copper Fluorine Gold Helium Hydrogen Iodine Iron Lead Magnesium Manganese Mercury Neon Nickel Nitrogen Oxygen Phosphorus Potassium Radium Silicon Silver Sodium Strontium Sulphur Tin Uranium Xeon Zinc
Melting Point C 660.1 704 2040 850 3500 1083 1063
327.3 650 1244
1453
700 1410 968.8 98 770 112.8 231.9 1133 419.5
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Elements
When like atoms are bound together chemically, they form molecules of an element. A molecule is the smallest division which can be made to a substance and still retain all the properties of the substance. In order to better understand the composition of matter or how it is built up, take two of the more common atoms, hydrogen and oxygen, and represent the hydrogen atom by a cube with an H and the oxygen atom by a cube with an 0. Hydrogen Atom H Oxygen Atom O Two common atoms of matter (a) If two like atoms of hydrogen are combined chemically, they form a molecule of the element known as hydrogen gas. In like manner, two oxygen atoms may combine together to form a molecule of the element known as oxygen gas. Elements are substances which are composed of one or more like atoms. Like atoms combine to form elements H + H = H H
Two hydrogen atoms combine to form a molecule of the element called hydrogen gas, or H2
(b)
Compounds
When unlike atoms are bound together chemically, they form a molecule of a compound. For example, if we take two atoms of hydrogen and combine them with one atom of oxygen, we form one molecule of the compound known as water. Water is a compound because water molecules are composed of two kinds of atoms, hydrogen and oxygen. A compound is any substance whose molecules are composed of unlike atoms. The molecules of elements are composed of like atoms, and the molecules of compounds of unlike atoms.
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Unlike atoms combine to form compounds H + H + 0 = H H O
Two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom combine to form a molecule of compound called water, or H20
Mixtures
When two different elements or compounds are mixed together and the molecules do not combine chemically, the substance is known as a mixture. For example, if salt and pepper are mixed the molecules of each retain their identity in the mixture. Hence, salt and pepper is a mixture.
Chemical Changes of Matter

A chemical change is a change in the molecular structure of matter. They are made possible by the fact that the atoms from which all matter is composed vary in their attraction for each other. In chemical changes, the molecules are broken down into their atoms rearranged to form new molecular substances. H2O + SO3 = H2SO4 Chemical changes are affected by heat, pressure, turbulence, current flow, and, in some cases, by the presence of substances known as catalysts which serve as a vehicle for the change but undergo no change themselves. Heat, pressure and turbulence always hasten chemical actions.
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Oxygen is one of the most active elements known, while nitrogen is usually stable or inactive and seldom plays a part in chemical reactions. Chemical changes in which oxygen plays a part are often referred to as combustion or oxidation. Combustion is generally useful to us as in burning fuel to obtain heat energy. Oxidation is seldom beneficial since it results in the slow rusting away or disintegration of substances, such as the rusting of iron. The heat released in oxidation is quickly lost or of little value due to the slowness of the process. It is quite evident that chemical changes can be controlled, to a large extent, by controlling temperatures, pressures, the presence of undesirable elements, and by the use of catalysts. For example, oxygen is sometimes kept away from iron pipe by painting, thus preventing corrosion. The way in which employees use and care for the material substances around them determine the efficiency of plant operations and, ultimately, the many benefits they are able to derive from nature. Thus, the chemistry of matter is affected by the daily actions of plant and station personnel.
Composition of Air
The gaseous mass surrounding the earth or the earths atmosphere is a mixture known as air. At one time or another, air probably contains small traces of every known substance. Air is normally considered to be composed of approximately 21 percent oxygen and 79 percent nitrogen by volume. Oxygen is a very active gas which is necessary for combustion and also required for all forms of life except certain bacteria. Nitrogen is normally chemically inactive. It is required in plant growth and by certain bacteria. Air contains less than 1 percent of carbon dioxide (CO2). Carbon dioxide is released to the air when fuels are burned, in respiration and by plants at night. In the daytime plants absorb carbon dioxide from the air and through the energy from sunlight combine it with other elements to produce carbohydrates, thus helping to keep the percent of CO2 in the air balanced and reconverting it so the oxygen and carbon can be reused to sustain life. Air also contains small traces of argon, neon, helium, krypton, xenon, ozone, sulphur, ammonia, acids, bacteria, dust and varying amounts of water vapor. Sulphur normally exists in air as SO2, a gas which readily unites with water, forming H2SO3, an acid. The acids present in rain water slowly release the minerals in rock, etc., thus making them available for use as plant food. The dust in air causes erosion, it helps to spread disease, and it contaminates materials.
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The air surrounding the earth exerts a pressure on all objects unless they are placed in a vacuum. A vacuum is a closed space from which all air or gases has been removed. The air at sea level and 32O normally exerts a pressure of approximately 14.7 psi. The pressure exerted by the atmosphere is often referred to as atmospheric pressure. It varies depending on the altitude, temperature, etc.
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Content of the Air or Atmosphere
Substance Oxygen (O2) Quantity Approx.21% by volume Importance Used in combustion & respiration. Very active chemically. Substance Hydrogen (H2)
Composition of Water
Importance One of two elements making up pure water Combines with hydrogen to make pure water Nature of Substance The lightest known gas. Highly combustible and an important heat source. Unites with many elements to form impurities in water. Free H ions tend to make water acid. Very active and readily absorbed by water. Unites with many elements to form impurities in water. Causes corrosion of many substances and the conversion of chemical energy into heat energy. Free OH ions in water tend to make water alkaline. Readily absorbed by water. Unites with calcium, magnesium and other impurities in water forming complex compounds. Combines with H to form carbonic acid or H2CO3.
Nitrogen (N)
Approx. 79% by volume
Used by bacteria and by plants when fixed in soil. Inactive.
Oxygen (O2)
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Less than 1%
Argon (A)
Trace only
CO2, H2O and sunlight used by plants to make carbohydrates. The process releases oxygen to the air and stores up food for man. If CO2 accumulated it would cause suffocation. None
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
An impurity
Ammonia (NH3)
An impurity
Neon (Ne)
Trace only
None
Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Silica (Si) Iron (Fe) Salt (NaCl)
Helium (He)
Trace only
None
Kripton (Kr) Xenon (Xe) Ozone (O)
Trace only Trace only Trace only
None None Content increases during electrical storms and at night. A bleach and source of oxygen. Mineral used by plants for growth. Short in some areas and too much in others. Several common forms. Reacts with substances to release minerals from rocks and make them available for use by plants and animals. When water is changed to vapor it is purified, When vapor is condensed, it falls as rain to supply plants and man. Harmful in most cases. Dust laden winds erode land surfaces, cause lung trouble, etc.
Scale forming impurity Scale forming impurity An impurity An impurity An impurity
Reacts with water and the impurities present tending to make water alkaline. Causes corrosion of copper and brass tubing by union with metal oxides. Plugs tubes or pipes forming an insulating surface. Plugs tubes or pipes and forms an insulating surface. Changes to gaseous state at approximately 1475F.
Makes water highly conductive. Forms scale.
Sulphur (S)
Trace only
Oxide
Trace only
Water vapor
Content varies with temperature, pressure, winds, etc.
Bacteria, dust, etc.
Varies with winds, dryness, season, etc.
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Composition of Water
Water is one of the most universal solvents of matter. Chemically pure water is very rare. The word pure, when used to describe water may have any number of meanings depending on the sense in which it is used. It may mean water free of bacteria, water suitable for drinking, water which will not deposit scale, distilled water, etc. Water changes in composition so fast that it is almost impossible to find two samples which are exact duplicates, even when taken from the same source. The composition of water will generally depend upon the substances through which it has passed, or its treatment. Water normally contains varying amounts of impurities such as carbon dioxide, ammonia, calcium carbonate, silica, magnesium, iron, and salt. In water treatment the undesirable impurities are either removed, chemically stabilized, or chemically changed to less harmful substances.
States of Matter
Matter may exist in any one of three states: the solid, the liquid, and the gaseous. For instance, at a temperature of 32F or lower, water normally exists as ice, which is a solid. At temperatures between 32 and 212 degrees it exists as a liquid, and at 212 degrees or higher water exists as a gas or vapor. The state of matter is determined by two things: its temperature and its pressure. Sometimes heat is more effective in changing the state of matter and sometimes pressure is more effective. If it is desired to liquefy ice, it is heated; to liquefy oxygen gas, it is compressed in a steel cylinder.
When matter is in the solid state, the molecules are closely bound together but not permanently touching. Solids have a definite size and shape. They resist external forces tending to change their shape or volume, and they transmit force only in the direction in which the force is applied. In general, solid substances The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter 09/20/12 Chapter 2 Page 8

readily recover from a limited amount of distortion resulting from the application of an external force or they possess the property of elasticity.
Solids only transmit force in the direction of the acting force
Liquids have a definite size, but their shape is determined by the shape of the confining vessel.
When matter is in the liquid state it has a definite size but its shape is determined by the shape of the containing vessel. Liquids offer a high resistance to force tending to change their volume. However, in liquids the molecules are freer to move about. Liquids have practically no rigidity. They offer little resistance to forces tending to change their shape, and they are low in elasticity or the power to recover from distortion. When matter is in the gaseous state it has neither a definite size nor shape. Both its size and shape are determined by its containing vessel. The molecules of gases are not bound together molecularly. They dart off into space changing their direction as they collide with other gas molecules or as they collide with the containing surface. Gases have no rigidity and they can easily be compressed or expanded.
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Since liquids and gases have certain like properties, they are often classified under the heading of fluids to distinguish them from solids. Fluids are characterized by their ability to readily change their shape upon the application of an external force without separation of the mass, and they transmit an applied force equally in all directions. Thus fluids can be made to flow and to transmit force in any desired direction. These fluid properties are very important since they allow fluids to be used for certain mechanical purposes. Hydro power plant work, for instance, is concerned with utilizing the energy released by falling water to generate electric power. Fundamentally, the energy possessed by water is in three forms: energy due to pressure, energy due to elevation, and energy due to velocity or kinetic energy. It is the function of the hydraulic turbine to change these forms of energy into useful mechanical energy with as little loss as possible.
Molecular Motion of Matter

The molecules of a substance do not permanently touch each other. Even the molecules of solids can be compressed or moved closer together by the application of pressure or a reduction of temperature. The molecules of substances are known to be in continuous vibration or motion. If you liberate a spoonful of ammonia in one corner of a room, the odor immediately spreads throughout the room. Place a drop of indigo color in a tank of still water and in a few hours the water in the tank is all colored. Place a sheet of lead on a sheet of gold and in a few years molecules of gold can be found in the lead. This mixing of the molecules of gases, liquid, and solids is known as diffusion. Diffusion tends to prove the theory regarding molecular movement in substances. The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter 09/20/12 Chapter 2 Page 10

Different kinds of molecules vary in their activity or speed of movement. The extent of molecular contact in a substance, or the average molecular speed of the molecules in a substance, varies depending on the state, pressure, and temperature of the substance. At 70F and atmospheric pressure, a molecule of hydrogen moves at 1850 miles per second, and a molecule of air at 450 miles per second. A molecule of a liquid moves fairly slowly and a molecule of a solid moves very slowly. At room temperatures, the molecules of solids which move very slowly when compared with the molecules of liquids and gases, are buzzing with activity. As they are heated, their activity or molecular speed is increased and the volume of the substance normally expands. As they are cooled, their molecular activity is reduced or they lose speed and the volume of the substance normally contracts. The increase in the speed of the molecules results in the expansion of the substance; if it is free to move and if it is confined, it results in an increase in the pressure or outward force exerted by the substance. In like manner, as the molecules of a substance lose heat, their activity or speed is decreased and the substance either contracts or loses pressure. The forces of expansion and contraction or the changes in the speed of the molecules of a substance must be taken into account to do our work safely and efficiently. For example, the handwheel of most valves should be turned down, one-half turn after the valve has been opened, to prevent temperature changes in the valve from locking the stem, thus making closing of the valve difficult.
Molecular Motion and Temperature

Temperature designates the degree of presence of heat in matter, and is a measure of the molecular motion of a substance. The greater the average speed of the molecules of a substance the higher the temperature of the substance.
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The two temperature scales most commonly used are the Fahrenheit scale and the Centigrade scale. The absolute scale, Rankine or Kelvin, is used when working with problems on the gas laws and in connection with very high or very low temperatures. The relation of these two scales is most commonly related to the degrees at which water freezes and boils at sea level pressure. On the Fahrenheit scale water freezes at 32 degrees and boils at 212 degrees, both above zero, a difference of 180 degrees. On the Centigrade scale water freezes at zero and boils at 100 degrees above zero, a difference of 100 degrees. Therefore the Fahrenheit scale, having more degrees for a given temperature difference, is a more finely graduated scale; it has 180 degrees for every 100 degrees Centigrade or 9 degrees for every 5 degrees Centigrade. From these relationships are written the equations for temperature conversion; that is, for finding the temperature on the Fahrenheit scale which corresponds to any given temperature on the Centigrade scale, or vice versa. F = C = 9 C + 32 5 5 (F 32) 9 or F = (C x 1.8) + 32 C = (F - 32) 1.8 R = F + 460 K = C + 273
or
The internal energy in matter, which is indicated by the existence of temperature, varies in amount with the temperature of the matter. If such heat energy is removed from matter, the lowest possible temperature will eventually be reached at which all heat energy has been removed. This lowest temperature is termed The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter 09/20/12 Chapter 2 Page 12

absolute zero and is the temperature at which, theoretically, all molecular motion ceases. It corresponds to minus 460F and to minus 273C, or 0R and 0K.
Molecular Motion and Pressure

Pressure is the force exerted by a substance on a unit of area, usually one square inch. If the molecules of a fluid are confined and heated, their speed will increase or there will be more molecular impacts on each square inch of the confining vessel. Also, if the number of molecules confined in a given space is increased by compression, there will be more molecular impacts on each square inch of the confining vessel. It is this change of molecular impacts per unit area either through heating or compression which causes the change in the pressure of a confined substance.
When a confined substance is heated, the pressure exerted by the substance normally increases with the temperature, or there is a definite temperature pressure relationship. Pressure temperature relationships do not hold true when the molecular impacts are due to compression alone. In compression, any resulting temperature rise is largely due to friction. Gases are compressible. Liquids and solids are largely non-compressible. Liquids can quickly rupture any confining vessel because of a rapid pressure rise if expanded or pressurized after the vapor space in the vessel is filled with liquid. This explains why extreme care must be used and hydrostatic pressures applied slowly through small fill lines when testing pressure vessels or pipe lines for leaks.
Density or Specific Weight of Matter

One of the most important factors effecting the movement of all substances is its density. In general, although not always, substances are more dense when in the solid state, and lightest when in the gaseous state. The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter 09/20/12 Chapter 2 Page 13
The density or specific weight of any substance is its weight per unit volume at some specified temperature and pressure. In the English system of measurement, density is usually expressed in terms of pounds per cubic foot (lbs./cu. ft.). In the metric system, density is usually expressed in terms of grams per cubic centimeter (grams/cu.cm.). Density = Total Weight Volume
The pressure condition commonly used in density problems is atmospheric pressure at sea level, and the temperature condition is the freezing point of water at sea level and atmospheric pressure. The unit of volume most commonly used in power plants and substations is the cubic inch and the cubic foot. A cube is a solid figure bounded by six equal squares. A cubic foot, then, is a volume equal to that of a cube which is 1 foot wide, 1 foot high and 1 foot long. The density of any substance is effected by the temperature of the substance and by the pressure exerted on a unit area of the substance. Normally, as the temperature of a substance rises, it expands or becomes less dense, and as the temperature falls, it contracts or becomes more dense (heavier) per unit volume. It is the change in the density of water when heated that causes the hot water to rise to the top of a water tank and the cooler water to settle to the bottom of the tank. Also, as the pressure exerted on a substance is increased, it is The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter 09/20/12 Chapter 2 Page 14

compressed or becomes more dense, and as the pressure is reduced it expands or becomes less dense. Some substances change very little in density while others change a great deal. The change in density of substances affects the forces exerted by substances and the energy required to move them such as pump loads, fan loads, and the like. The density of one cubic foot of water at atmospheric pressure and 32 degrees Fahrenheit is 62.4 pounds (usually expressed as 62.4 lbs./cu.ft.); the density of mercury is 848 pounds, and the density of air is .08 pounds. The density of a substance determines its buoyancy.
Buoyancy of Matter
Buoyancy is the power of matter to be floated by fluid substances. It is this apparent change in density or weight of wood when placed in a fluid, such as water, which causes wood to float or exert an upward pressure.
When any substance is suspended in a fluid it loses an apparent amount of weight equal to the weight of the displaced fluid, or its density per unit volume changes in accordance with the density of the suspending fluid. Thus, when any solid is placed in a heavier fluid, it appears to lose weight or becomes more buoyant. By being hallowed out and displacing large volumes of water, steel ships are able to float and carry heavy cargoes.
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Some fluids are more dense than water and others are less dense. Salt water is more buoyant than fresh water; or said another way, it has greater specific gravity. What is specific gravity and how is it used?
Specific Gravity of Matter

Specific gravity is a comparison of the density of any substance with the density of water. In this comparison, the specific gravity of water at 4 degrees centigrade and atmospheric pressure is given a value of 1. Assume that a cubic foot of coal has a density of 124.8 pounds. Since this is twice the density of a cubic foot of water (62.4 lbs.) and since water has a specific gravity of 1, the coal has twice the specific gravity of water or a specific gravity of 2. Specific Gravity = Density of Object . Density of Equal Volume of Water
Specific gravity is useful in finding the weight of objects which cannot be weighed on scales, such as the weight of a concrete building foundation. By taking a sample of the concrete and weighing it in air and then in water, we can find the specific gravity of the concrete. Assume that the sample of concrete weighs 5 pounds in air and 3 pounds when suspended in water. According to the law of buoyancy, the weight of the water displaced in 5 minus 3, or 2 pounds. Specific Gravity = Weight in Air Weight in Air Weight in Water 5 5 = =2 53 2
Since the specific gravity of the concrete is 2 times that of water, one cubic foot of the concrete will weigh 2 times the weight of one cubic foot of water or 2.5 x 62.4 = 156 pounds. By taking 156 times the total cubic feet of concrete in the foundation, the total weight of the foundation can be determined.
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The specific gravity of liquids is commonly measured with a hydrometer or weighted glass tube designed to float upright, and graduated to give direct specific gravity readings. Among other things, specific gravity readings are used to determine the freezing point of liquids and the condition of the electrolyte in storage batteries.
The Atmosphere
The air surrounding the earth exerts a pressure on all objects unless they are placed in a vacuum. This pressure is commonly referred to as atmospheric pressure. A vacuum is a closed space from which all air or gases have been removed. Air at sea level, when at 32F, exerts a pressure of approximately 14.7 PSIA. The pressure results from the weight of the layer of atmosphere that surrounds the earth. The depth of this gaseous layer, called atmosphere, is about fifty miles or 264,000 feet. Consider it as an ocean whose bed is the earths surface. It will generally exert its greatest pressure at sea level because there it is usually deepest. Since 14.7 pounds represents the pressure per square inch of an atmosphere, which is fifty miles deep, it is obvious that this pressure will be less when measured at a higher altitude above sea level. The altitude above sea level is such a small part of fifty miles that for all practical purposes, the sea level value can be used when dealing with atmospheric pressure problems. At Denver or places where the atmosphere is much lighter, fans supplying ventilation air have to be sized somewhat larger in order to supply the same amount of air. Pressure vessels are only designed to withstand internal pressures. When the pressure in such vessels drops to zero PSIG, it is often necessary to open the vents to atmosphere to balance internal and external pressures and thus prevent a vacuum buildup. The air flow known as wind also demonstrates the force of the atmosphere. When the wind blows, it is because of the difference in atmospheric pressure between the point from which it blows and that towards which it blows. The pressure difference is due to the difference in temperature existing between these two points. At the point towards which the wind blows there is a rising column of warmer or lighter air. The weight of the atmosphere must often be
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taken into account in power plant operation. It affects pump suction heads, heater venting, etc. When free to move about, substances differing in density or specific gravity tend to arrange themselves in layers according to their density. The heavier substances, per unit volume, move to the bottom of a container or to the lower elevation and the lighter substances rise to the top.
Viscosity or Mobility of Liquids

Everyone is familiar with the fact that fluids offer very little opposition to changes in shape. There is, however, a certain amount of difference in the resistance of different fluids to changes in flow particularly in liquids. The resistance of a fluid to flow varies largely with the kind of fluid and also with the temperature of the fluid. Viscosity is a characteristic of a liquid that denotes the opposition to change in liquid flow or shape. The viscosity of liquids is an important factor when they are moved in confined or narrow channels such as pipes, bearing clearances, etc. For example, it requires more work to pump lubricating oil than water under similar operation conditions. This is because the oil is more viscous or has a higher viscosity than water. The oil offers a greater opposition to the shearing action between the molecules caused by flow. The viscosity of fluids must be taken into account when fluids are moved since it affects the total force required to cause fluid flow.
Static Pressure or Force Per Unit Area

If a block of water in the form of a cube having a dimension of one foot on each side is placed on a flat surface, it exerts a downward force of 62.4 pounds due to the pull of gravity. This force is evenly distributed over the 144 square inch area in contact with the base of the cube, and each square inch of area in contact with the base will receive 62.4 divided by 144 or 0.433 pounds of force. If the height of the cube is doubled, the total force downward, per unit area, is doubled and the pounds of force per square inch is 2 times 0.433 or 0.866 pounds. The pressure per square inch then equals the height in feet times the specific weight per cubic foot divided by 144. A cubic foot of mercury exerts a force of 848 divided by 144 or 5.902 pounds on each square inch of base area and each inch in the height of the mercury column exerts 5.902 divided by 12 or 0.491 psi. The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter 09/20/12 Chapter 2 Page 18
The pressure of a fluid at rest is due to the weight of the fluid column above a certain area. It is a force per unit area such as pounds per square inch. Static pressure is entirely due to the specific weight of a fluid and its depth, increasing uniformly as the depth increases. One of the most useful laws about static fluid pressures is that all points in a fluid which are at the same elevation are at the same pressure, and the static pressure at any point in a fluid is exerted equally in all directions. This explains why fluids seek the same level in communicating vessels. Normally, the water in an unheated tea kettle stands at the same level in the spout and in the kettle and the water in the drum water gauge stands at the same level as the water in the boiler drum. It also explains why water will back out of a sewer opening at a lower level when the sewer line becomes plugged at a lower elevation.
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Force per unit area or pressure may be designated in a number of ways so long as they are mutually convertible. Some of the common units used in designating pressure or force per unit area are pounds per square foot, pounds per square inch, inches of water, feet of water, and inches of mercury. The term head is used to denote the height of a liquid column. One foot of water height of a 1-foot head equals 0.433 psi, one inch of mercury equals 0.49 psi and mercury is 13.6 times heavier than water. It is necessary to know these pressure relationships in order to convert one pressure reading into other units.
Total Force on a Surface in a Liquid

The total force on a surface is equal to the average pressure upon it, multiplied by the area of the surface. On a horizontal surface, total force equals area times height times density. On any other surface, total force equals area times average height times density; average height equals height of liquid above midpoint of the surface. For example: What is the force on the bottom of a tank 4 ft x 4 ft filled to a depth of 4 ft with water? What is the force on each of the sides? Force = area x head x density F = 4 ft x 4 ft x 4 ft x 62.4 lbs F = 3993.6 lbs on bottom of tank Area of side = 4 ft x 4 ft = 16 sq ft Average head = x 4 ft = 2 ft F = area x average head x density F = 16 sq ft x 2 ft x 62.4 F = 1996.8 lbs on each side
Balancing Fluid Columns

One method of measuring pressure is by balancing two fluid columns. The 11.33 ft head of water causes a pressure of 4.91 PSI to exist at 0-0 and also causes The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter 09/20/12 Chapter 2 Page 20

the mercury head (hm) to be 10 inches. The pressure at the 0-0 line is the same in both legs of the U tube because all points at the same elevation in a liquid at rest are at the same pressure. Thus, the mercury leg above line 0-0 is equal to or exactly balances the water leg. By measuring the height of the mercury head in inches and multiplying by 0.491, the pressure at line 0-0 or the pressure of any unknown head (hw) can be determined.
Gauge and Absolute Pressure

The illustration showed a container of water to which a mercury manometer has been attached. The manometer is a U shaped tube containing mercury or some other suitable fluid of known specific density. Assume that the head of water in the container (hw) stands 11.33 feet above the line of separation between the water and mercury (0-0). The pressure at 0-0 is 11.33 times 0.433 or 4.9 PSI higher than the pressure of the surrounding atmosphere. This pressure reading is referred to as relative or gauge pressure, since it does not take into account the pressure exerted by the atmosphere. The weight of the atmosphere is also exerting pressure on the top of the water and mercury which is being transmitted through the fluids to point 0-0. In some cases, the weight of the atmosphere must be taken into account when dealing with pressure. When this is done, the pressure of the atmosphere is added to gauge pressure, and the resulting pressure is known as absolute pressure. If a pressure reading is taken on a vacuum gauge or a gauge which indicates pressure values below zero, such readings must be subtracted from atmospheric pressure to find the absolute pressure. The atmospheric pressure is constantly varying depending on altitude, The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter 09/20/12 Chapter 2 Page 21

temperature, winds, etc. In pressure calculations, where extreme accuracy is required, the changes in atmospheric pressure must be taken into account. In such cases, the atmospheric pressure is generally measured in inches of mercury using a barometer, and the barometric pressure reading used to calculate the absolute pressure. Assume that the pressure of the atmosphere is 14.7 PSI in the illustration. Then, the absolute pressure at 0-0 is equal to 4.91 plus 14.7 or 19.61 PSIA. Absolute pressures use absolute zero or a perfect vacuum as the datum line or zero point. Relative or gauge pressures use the local atmospheric pressure as the datum line or zero point. It is necessary to designate pressure as either gauge or absolute when dealing with both. Since plant and station work deals almost entirely with gauge pressures, it is common practice to drop the word gauge, and in the absences of any other designation, gauge pressure is implied.
Differential Heads or Pressure

Sometimes it is necessary to know the difference between two heads without knowing the value of either. This pressure differential can be determined by the closed manometer or simple U tube illustrated. Assume that A and B are two pipes which contain water at two different pressures. The pipes will support heads of water ha and hb and the difference between these heads (ha hb) is the quantity to be measured. If we connect the two pipes with a U tube containing mercury, the two different pressures will cause the mercury in the U tube to rise in one leg until the pressure at line 0-0 is equal in both legs. The difference in the mercury columns (hm) indicates the difference between the two pressures or pressure differential which can be measured. The difference between the two water heads (ha hb) equals the mercury head (hm) times the specific gravity of mercury minus 1 (13.6 1).
The Bourdon Pressure Gauge

The Bourdon pressure gauge is the most commonly used gauge for measuring pressures. The Bourdon mechanism is a sealed tube of elliptical cross section and semi-circular in shape. One end of the tube is fixed and the other connected by links and pins to a segmental rack which drives a pinion gear and pointer shaft. When pressure is applied internally into the tube, its elliptical cross section The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter 09/20/12 Chapter 2 Page 22

tends to become circular, which causes the tube to straighten somewhat. The movable end of the tube drives the pointer shaft in proportion to the applied pressure. One of the lever arms of the mechanism is adjustable. This feature, plus the ability to reset the pointer on the shaft, allows calibration of the instrument through its entire pressure range.
Vacuum Gauges
Vacuum gauges are gauges in which zero on the scale is atmospheric pressure and scaled to read pressure values below zero or atmospheric only. Vacuum gauges are usually scaled in inches of mercury (Hg) since mercury pressure units can normally be more easily converted to absolute pressure values. Vacuum readings must be distinguished from both gauge or absolute pressure readings by use of a minus sign or noting that the reading is a vacuum reading. To convert vacuum readings to absolute pressure, the reading must be subtracted from atmospheric pressure (30 Hg). Assume that the gauge reading is 11 inches Hg vacuum.
Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure vacuum reading = 30 Hg 11 Hg = 19 Hg per sq in absolute
Chapter 2 Page 23

Pressure of Confined Liquids
Until now most of the discussion has been limited to liquids which have a free surface or a surface exposed to atmospheric pressure . In power plant and station work, the concern is sometimes with liquids and gases which are confined either separately or together in closed vessels. The illustration at (a) shows a tank containing a gas at some pressure above atmospheric. For all practical purposes, the gauges at m and n will indicate the same pressure. If the tank space is partially filled with a liquid, as illustrated at (b), the gauge at m will read higher than the one at n by an amount equal to H1. In theory, the same holds true for the container of gas. The difference, however, is so small due to the low specific weight of gases that ordinary gauges will not detect the gas head in tanks.
In the case of liquids having a surface exposed to the atmosphere, it was said that the pressure per square inch equals the head in feet times the specific weight per cubic foot divided by 144. In the case of confined liquids, the static pressure exerted by the liquid must also include the pressure exerted by the gas on the upper liquid surface, or gauge m reading equals gauge n reading plus H1. Gauges are normally calibrated using the center line of the gauge as the datum. All entrapped gases should be vented from gauge lines when they are used to measure liquid heads. Since gases have a much lower specific weight than liquids, they will cause a gauge used to indicate liquid pressure to read inaccurately when the gauge line is not vented.
Chapter 2 Page 24

Transmission of Pressure by Confined Liquids
Pascals law states that a pressure exerted at any point upon a confined liquid is transmitted by the liquid undiminished in all directions. Thus, if a force F1 is applied by a piston to the surface area A1 of confined water, as illustrated below, a pressure is developed and transmitted undiminished by the liquid, and the pressure at all points on the same elevation or at surface areas A1 and A2 are equal.
Hence, the forces F1 and F2 exerted on the water by the pistons are directly proportional to the surface areas A1 and A2 or F1/F2 = A1/A2. If the area A2 is ten times the area A1, then the force F2 will be ten times the force F1. For example, a force of 100 lbs on the small piston, whose area is 2 sq in produces a pressure of 50 lbs per sq in. This pressure is transmitted undiminished to the large piston, whose area is 100 sq in. The total force on the large is, therefore, 100 sq in x 50 lbs/sq in = 5000 lbs, or Force on small piston = area of small piston Force on large piston area of large piston
Chapter 2 Page 25

In confined liquids, the applied pressures are usually much greater than the liquid head variation due to the elevation. Hence, the requirement that the piston surfaces be at the same elevation when applying Pascals law is often disregarded since the resulting error is generally small.
Siphoning Action
A siphon is an inverted U shaped tube used to draw a liquid over the side of its container and discharge it to a lower elevation. Once a siphon is filled with liquid or primed, flow will continue through the siphon until the siphon is broken or until the two liquid levels reach the same elevation. By siphoning action, a barrel of oil can be emptied without tipping it over, and pumping heads can often be reduced.
What causes a siphon to transmit a liquid from a higher to a lower elevation? The liquid is held in the top of the siphon, as illustrated by the pressure of the atmosphere (14.7 PSI) resting on the liquid surfaces X and Y. Whenever the head a or b in the siphon becomes greater than the atmospheric pressure resting on the liquid surfaces X and Y, the siphon will break and siphoning action will cease. As long as head a and head b are equal and they do not exceed atmospheric pressure, the siphon will stay primed, providing there are no air leaks, but no flow will take place. The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter 09/20/12 Chapter 2 Page 26

The only force required to move a liquid through a siphon is that force necessary to overcome the static head of the liquid and the friction head of the siphon tube. These two forces are usually small in most siphons. If one of the heads (b) is greater than the other, flow through the siphon will take place in the direction in which the greater head or force is acting, or down in leg b as illustrated. The greater the difference between the two heads, the greater the rate of flow will be. The flow of a siphon will continue until either the siphon is broken or until the two heads a and b become equal. Liquid flow is caused by pressure differential due to pumping action, by a head differential due to position or elevation as in the siphon and by the pull of gravity as in the tea kettle spout or gauge glass due to the fact that liquids tend to seek their own level when free to move.
Unit Pressures and Resultant Force

Until now the discussion has dealt in unit pressures which are forces per unit areas such as pounds per square inch. Occasionally it is necessary to consider the effects or force of a unit pressure acting over some larger given area such as the force acting on the larger piston, shown earlier, the force acting to burst a boiler drum, or the force acting to burst a dam or reservoir. This total effect is actually a force measured in pounds. The resultant force on any plane surface immersed in a liquid is equal to the product of the specific weight of the liquid, the area of the surface, and the head on the center of gravity of the surface. If F is the total force on the immersed plane surface, W is the specific weight of the liquid in lb per cu ft, A is the area of the surface in sq ft and hcg is the head on the center of gravity of the surface in feet, the equation would be: F = W x A x hcg The above equation applies to any plane surface, regardless of the shape of its boundary or the position of the surface. In case of an inclined surface, the value of A is the actual area of the surface, but the head (hcg) is always a vertical distance.
Chapter 2 Page 27

What is the resultant force of the water on the end of the container? F = W x A x hcg = 62.4 x 5 x 8 x 4 = 9984 pounds The total force on a vertical surface area is not affected by the amount or volume of liquid exerting the force. It is only affected by the surface area in contact with the liquid, the specific weight of the liquid and the pressure on the center of gravity on the surface. A one inch sheet of water against the upstream face of a dam will exert the same total force on the dam as a lake of water 50 miles long.
Summary
In a summary of the chapterall material things are composed of atoms. An atom is the smallest unit into which matter or materials can be broken chemically. Man has discovered over 100 different kinds of atoms. Atoms differ in their weight, the way they combine, etc. The lightest known atom, or hydrogen, is given an atomic weight of 1 and the atomic weight of other atoms is determined by comparing their weight with that of hydrogen. Elements are substances composed of one or more like atoms. A molecule is the smallest particle into which any substance can be divided without changing the properties of the substances. A compound is any substance whose molecules are composed of unlike atoms. A mixture is a substance which is composed of different kinds of molecules which are not chemically combined. A chemical change is a change in the molecular structure of matter. It is the rearrangement of the atoms in matter. Oxygen atoms are very active, and nitrogen atoms are rather stable. Chemical changes in which oxygen plays a part are often referred to as combustion or oxidation depending on the rate of the reaction. In combustion, the union with oxygen is very rapid and useful amounts of heat energy are released, while in oxidation the union with oxygen is very slow, eventually causing materials to rust away. Operators often control the rated of chemical changes by regulating temperatures, pressures, turbulence, etc. The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter 09/20/12 Chapter 2 Page 28

Elements are seldom found in the chemically pure form due to the action of winds, water, gravity, etc. The air, fuel, and water we use in generating power contain many impurities or undesirable elements. Air or the gaseous envelope which surrounds the earth is normally considered to be composed of 21% oxygen and 79% nitrogen by volume. It also contains a varying amount of water vapor and small traces of other elements or impurities such as argon, helium, neon, krypton, xenon, carbon dioxide, dust spores, etc. A vacuum is a closed space from which all air or gases have been removed. The air or atmosphere at sea level and 32F normally exerts a pressure 14.7 psi. The pressure exerted by the atmosphere is known as atmospheric pressure. It varies with the altitude, temperature, etc. Matter may exist in any one of three states the solid, the liquid, and the gaseous. The state of matter is determined by its temperature and pressure. Solids are rigid because the molecules are closely bound together. Liquids are fluid because the molecules are free to flow over one another. Their volume is relatively fixed, but their shape is determined by the shape of their containing vessel. Gases have neither size nor shape, the molecules being free to move about in space. Gases are not rigid and their volume is not fixed. Liquids and gases are classified as fluids to distinguish them from solids. Fluids are characterized by their ability to change shape and transmit force equally in all directions. All molecules are free to move to a certain extent, depending on the state, pressure, and temperature of a substance. The higher the pressure or temperature of a substance, the faster the molecules move. As molecules speed up, substances normally expand; and as they slow down, they contract. The forces of expansion and contraction often affect our work. The common thermometer is a device for indicating temperature through the expansion of a liquid at constant pressure. It is based upon the fact that most liquids expand at a fairly uniform rate as the temperature changes. On the Fahrenheit thermometer, the melting point of ice is marked 32 and the boiling point of water 212. On the centigrade thermometer, the melting point of ice is marked zero degrees and the boiling point of water 100. C = 5/9 (F-32) or C = (F - 32) 1.8
Absolute zero or the temperature where all molecular motion would theoretically cease is -460F. Pressure is the force exerted by a substance on a unit of area, usually one square inch. When a substance is confined, its pressure is a measure of the The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter 09/20/12 Chapter 2 Page 29

molecular impacts of the substance on a unit of area. As a confined substance is heated or compressed, its pressure normally rises or there is a definite pressure temperature relationship of confined substances when they are heated. Liquids quickly rupture any confining vessel if heated or compressed after the vapor space in the vessel is filled with liquid. Substances are more dense when in the solid state and lightest when in the gaseous state. The density of a substance is its weight per unit volume at some specified temperature and pressure, or it is the total weight of a substance divided by its volume. A cube is a solid figure bounded by 6 equal squares. The density of a substance is affected by the temperature and by the pressure exerted on the substance. As the temperature increases or the pressure drops, a substance normally expands or becomes less dense, and as the temperature drops or the pressure increases, it contracts or becomes more dense. The density of matter determines its buoyance. Buoyancy is the power of matter to be floated by fluid substances. When any substance is suspended in a fluid, it loses an amount of weight equal to the weight of the displaced fluid, or it changes in density in accordance with the density of the suspending fluids. The greater the density of a fluid the greater its buoyancy. Specific gravity is a comparison of the density of any substance with the density of water. In this comparison, the specific gravity of water at 4C, and atmospheric pressure is given a value of one. The specific gravity of a substance equals the density of the substance divided by the density of an equal volume of water. The specific gravity of liquids is commonly measured with a hydrometer. The resistance of a fluid to flow varies with different kinds of fluids and with the fluid temperature. Viscosity is a characteristic of a liquid that denotes the opposition to change in liquid flow or shape. It is an important factor in moving liquids, in bearing clearances, etc. Static pressure or the pressure of a fluid at rest is due to the weight of the fluid column above a certain area. It is a force per unit area such as pounds per square inch. Static pressure is due to the specific weight of a fluid and its depth, increasing uniformly as the depth increases. All points at the same elevation in a fluid are at the same pressure. The static pressure at any point in a fluid is exerted equally in all directions. One foot of water head equals 0.433 psi, one inch of mercury head equals 0.491 psi and mercury is 13.6 times heavier than water. One way of measuring pressure is by balancing two fluid columns or by the U tube manometer.
Chapter 2 Page 30

Relative or gauge pressure readings do not take into account the pressure exerted by the atmosphere. When the pressure of the atmosphere must be considered, it is added to gauge pressure and the resulting pressure is known as absolute pressure. If a pressure reading is taken on a vacuum gauge, the vacuum reading must be subtracted from atmospheric pressure to find the absolute pressure. Absolute pressures use absolute zero or a perfect vacuum as the datum line or zero point. Relative or gauge pressures use the local atmospheric pressure as the datum line or zero point. When dealing with vacuum, absolute and gauge pressure readings, the pressures must be designated as either a vacuum, gauge or absolute reading as well as the units the pressure is being read in. In the absence of another designation, gauge pressure is implied. By connecting the two legs of a U tube containing mercury to two different pressure points, we can measure the difference between the two pressures. Differential pressures are used in flow indicating and control equipment. The Bourdon pressure gauge is the most common type used in the plant. Vacuum gauges are gauges in which zero on the scale is atmospheric pressure and scaled to read pressure values below zero. They are usually scaled in inches of mercury or Hg. To convert a vacuum reading to absolute pressure, subtract the reading from the atmospheric pressures. Furnace draft gauges are calibrated in inches of water and normally indicate both positive and negative gauge pressures. Compound gauges are those having more than one scale. When reading a compound gauge which is scaled both above and below zero, the readings below zero must be indicated by either using a minus sign or by noting that the readings are vacuum readings to distinguish them from those taken from the scale above zero. All entrapped gases should be vented from gauge lines when they are used to measure liquid heads to eliminate errors. This is due to the large difference between the densities of gases and liquids. The pressure exerted at any point upon a confined liquid is transmitted by the liquid undiminished in all directions. The law of pressure transmission by confined liquids is utilized many places in the plant such as in power cylinders, air operated diaphragm valves, etc. A siphon is an inverted U shaped tube used to conduct a liquid from a higher to a lower elevation. A siphon only operates when the pressure of the water in either leg is less than atmospheric pressure. When the water pressure becomes greater than atmospheric pressure, the siphon will break since it is atmospheric pressure which holds the water legs up in a siphon. Siphon flow is caused by the differential pressure between the two legs and the fact that liquids tend to seek their own level.
Chapter 2 Page 31

The total force acting on a plane surface immersed in a liquid is equal to the product of the specific weight of the liquid, the area of the surface and the head on the center of gravity of the surface. The total force is not affected by the volume or amount of liquid exerting the force.
Chapter 2 Page 32

Review Questions
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. What is an atom? How is the atomic weight of different atoms determined? What is an element? What is a molecule? What is a compound? What is a mixture? What is a chemical change? What is the difference between combustion and oxidation? Why are elements seldom found in the pure state? Of what is air composed? What is a vacuum? What is atmospheric pressure? What is pure water? What are some of the impurities commonly found in water? What are the three states in which matter may exist? 16. What determines the state of matter? 17. Why are solids rigid? 18. What determines the shape of liquid? 19. How do fluids differ from solids? 20. How are fluids characterized? 21. Why are changes in matter important to plant operators?
Chapter 2 Page 33

22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. What determines the speed of molecular movement of a substance? How does the speed of molecules affect the volume of a substance? What is a thermometer? How is the Fahrenheit thermometer marked? How is the centigrade thermometer marked? What is absolute zero? What is pressure? How does the heating or compression of confined substances affect their pressure? Why is the expansion or compression of liquids in a closed vessel, which has no vapor space, dangerous? What is density? What is a cube? How does temperature and pressure affect the density of a substance? What is buoyancy? How does the density of a fluid affect its buoyancy? What is specific gravity? What is a hydrometer used for? What is atmospheric pressure at sea level and 32F? What is viscosity? What is static pressure? What are the relationships between water, mercury and pounds per square inch? What is a U tube manometer used for? Chapter 2 Page 34

43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. How does absolute pressure differ from gauge pressure? How are gauge pressure readings changed to absolute pressures? What must be given when recording pressure readings? How can differential pressure be measured? Of what use are differential pressures? What is a vacuum gauge? How are vacuum readings converted to absolute pressure readings?
50. How is a pressure exerted upon any point of a confined liquid transmitted? 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. What is a siphon? What holds the water in the siphon legs? What causes flow through a siphon? How is the total or resultant force on a plant surface determined? Is the total force on a plane surface affected by the amount of liquid exerted the force?
Chapter 2 Page 35

Progress Check
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. T F A basic law of physics states that matter cannot be destroyed but its form may be changed. T F The properties of any substance are determined by the atoms of which the substance is composed. T F The weights of other atoms are determined by comparing their weights with that of water. T F Iodine is about 10 times heavier than chlorine. T F Water is composed of two parts of oxygen and one part of hydrogen. Fill in (insert the missing word or words) 6. Air is normally considered to be composed of approximately ________________percent oxygen and _______________percent nitrogen by volume. The state of matter is determined by two things; its______________ and its___________________. The energy possessed by water is in three forms; energy due to ______________, energy due to________________, and energy due to ______________. The speed of the molecules in gas______________________when heated. A comparison of the total weight of a substance to its volume is a measurement of its _______________________________. Selection (underline one choice) 11. 12. As a gas is compressed, the volume (decreases) (increases) and the pressure (increases) (decreases). The specific gravity of salt water is (greater) (less) than that of fresh water. Chapter 2 Page 36
7. 8.
9. 10.

13. 14. 15. Any substance suspended in a fluid (loses) (gains) an amount of weight equal to the weight of the displaced fluid. A hydrometer is normally used to measure the (density) (specific gravity) of liquids. A water column 10 ft. high and 2 inches in diameter exerts a force per unit area (greater than) (equal to) a water column of the same height but of smaller diameter.
Chapter 2 Page 37

Matching (match Col.I with description in Col. II) Col. I 16. 17. 18. 19. Viscosity Force ________ ________ (a) (b) (c) (d) ________ (e) (f) (g) Col. II area x height x density area x height x specific gravity substances composed of one or more like atoms a substance whose molecules are composed of unlike molecules do not combine chemically total weight divided by volume a comparison of the density of a substance with the density water the power of matter to be floated by fluid substances opposition to change in liquid flow or shape height x density fluids seek the same level in connecting vessels gage pressure + 14.7 psi gage pressure 14.7 psi a device for measuring pressure differentials a tube used to move a liquid from a higher to a lower elevation
Absolute Pressure ________ Density
atoms 20. Pressure 21. 22. of 23. 24. 25.
Closed Manometer ________ Siphon Specific Gravity Compound Element ________
_________ (h) _________ (i) _________ (j) _________ (k) _________ (l) _________ (m) _________ (n) _________ (o)
Chapter 2 Page 38

Answer Key Chapter 2 The Structure, Properties, and Behavior of Matter 1. True 2. True 3. False 4. False 5. False 6. 21 79 7. temperature pressure 8. pressure elevation velocity 9. increase 10. density 11. decreases increases 12. greater 13. loses 14. specific gravity 15. equal to 16. (i) 17. (a) 18. (l) 19. (f) 20. (j) The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter 09/20/12 Chapter 2 Page 39

21. (n) 22. (o) 23. (g) 24. (d) 25. (c)
Chapter 2 Page 40
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Chapter 2 Page 41

NAME_______________________________________DATE_______________ LOCATION ______________________________________________________
EXAMINATION
1. When two or more atoms combine chemically, the particle thus formed is a --A B C D 2. molecule nucleus mixture proton
A compound is formed when the atoms of two or more elements become--A B C D closely mixed together chemically bonded divided into simpler particles changed within their kernels
3. 4.
Water is--Which of the four elements listed is the lightest per cubic foot? A B C D carbon calcium barium aluminum
5.
Our air (or atmosphere) is composed by volume of--A B C D 21% nitrogen and 79% oxygen 21% oxygen and 79% carbon dioxide 21% oxygen and 79% nitrogen 21% oxygen and 79% hydrogen
Chapter 2 Page 42

6. Atmospheric pressure at sea level is normally considered to be approximately--A B C D 7. 4.17 psi 7.14 psi 14.7 psi 17.4 psi
Liquids offer a high resistance to any force tending to change their---A B C D fluidity volume specific gravity temperature
8.
When the temperature of a substance increases, the substance becomes less dense because--A B C D the mass of each molecule decreases its volume decreases there are fewer molecules per unit volume the molecules become more closely packed
9.
A characteristic of a fluid which indicates its opposition to a change in flow or shape is its---A B C D specific gravity buoyancy density viscosity
10.
A pound is a unit of--A B C D energy tenacity force density
Chapter 2 Page 43

11. Fluid pressure might be expressed properly by-A B C D 12. area area X height lbs/in2 lbs/in3 force
Water has a density of 62.4 lbs/ft3. The volume of 1,000 pounds of water is---A B C D 16 ft3 43.3 ft3 433 ft3 62,400 ft3
13.
Specific weight most nearly means -A B C D gravity volume force density
14.
A temperature reading of 59F is equivalent to-A B C D 145.8C 50.1C 48.6C 15C
15.
The volume of a vertical cylindrical tank having inside measurements of 36 in diameter and 10 high is-A B C D 70.686 ft3 47.124 ft3 282.744 ft3 282.744 in3
16.
If the tank in question #15 is filled to the top with oil whose density is 72 lbs/cu ft, what pressure in pounds per square inch is being exerted on its base? A 5 psi B 7.2 psi
Chapter 2 Page 44

C D 72 psi 720 psi
Chapter 2 Page 45

17. What is the total force being exerted over the butterfly valve area when the head tank is filled with water? A less than 20,000 lbs B between 20,000 and 30,000 lbs C between 30,000 and 40,000 lbs D greater than 80,000 lbs 18. The term viscosity most nearly means -A resistance to fluid flow B ability to support an object C the ability to exert force D the tendency for molecules to stick together 19. To convert gauge pressure to absolute pressure at sea level conditions-A B C D 20. subtract 14.7 add 14.7 add 17.4 add (14.7 X 0.433)
A deaerating heater storage tank conveys water to the boiler feed pumps located 100 feet below the level of the deaerator storage tank. The pressure at the boiler feed pump suction due to the head from the storage tank is most nearly -A B C D 433.3 psi 112.6 psi 43.3 psi none of these Chapter 2 Page 46

21. The pressure upward at any given point in a liquid is -A B C D less than the same as greater than unrelated to
the downward pressure at that point 22. Pressure in lbs/in2 against the large piston of a hydraulic press is -A B C D 23. proportional to area proportional to diameter the same as that against the small piston greater than that against the small piston
A piece of concrete weigh 400 lbs in air and 350 lbs in water. What is its specific gravity? A B C D 80 50 8 .8
24.
Density is a ratio between weight and -A B C D mass water volume velocity
Chapter 2 Page 47

25. When an object is suspended in water the weight that appears to be lost is -A B C D negligible equal to the weight of water that it displaces always greater than its own weight equal to its density
Chapter 2 Page 48

Chapter 2 Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter

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Chapter 2 Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter

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Principles of Steam Electric Generation

The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter

The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter 09/20/12

Principles of Steam Electric Generation

Chapter 2: The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter

Principles of Steam Electric Generation

Melting Point C 660.1 704 2040 850 3500 1083 1063

327.3 650 1244

700 1410 968.8 98 770 112.8 231.9 1133 419.5

The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter 09/20/12

Principles of Steam Electric Generation

The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter 09/20/12

Principles of Steam Electric Generation

Chemical Changes of Matter

The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter 09/20/12

Principles of Steam Electric Generation

The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter 09/20/12

Principles of Steam Electric Generation

The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter 09/20/12

Principles of Steam Electric Generation

Approx. 79% by volume

Used by bacteria and by plants when fixed in soil. Inactive.

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Kripton (Kr) Xenon (Xe) Ozone (O)

Trace only Trace only Trace only

Scale forming impurity Scale forming impurity An impurity An impurity An impurity

Makes water highly conductive. Forms scale.

Content varies with temperature, pressure, winds, etc.

Bacteria, dust, etc.

Varies with winds, dryness, season, etc.

The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter 09/20/12

Principles of Steam Electric Generation

Principles of Steam Electric Generation

Solids only transmit force in the direction of the acting force

The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter 09/20/12

Principles of Steam Electric Generation

Molecular Motion of Matter

Principles of Steam Electric Generation

Molecular Motion and Temperature

The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter 09/20/12

Principles of Steam Electric Generation

Principles of Steam Electric Generation

Molecular Motion and Pressure

Density or Specific Weight of Matter

Principles of Steam Electric Generation

Principles of Steam Electric Generation

The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter 09/20/12

Principles of Steam Electric Generation

Specific Gravity of Matter

The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter 09/20/12

Principles of Steam Electric Generation

The Structure, Properties and Behavior of Matter 09/20/12

Principles of Steam Electric Generation

Viscosity or Mobility of Liquids

Static Pressure or Force Per Unit Area

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Total Force on a Surface in a Liquid

Balancing Fluid Columns

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Gauge and Absolute Pressure

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Closed Manometer Siphon Specific Gravity Compound Element