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TheCeramicSequenceatNakbe,Guatemala
DonaldW.Forsyth
AncientMesoamerica/Volume4/Issue01/March1993,pp3153 DOI:10.1017/S0956536100000766,Publishedonline:10October2008

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Ancient Mesoamerica, 4 (1993), 31-53 Copyright 1993 Cambridge University Press. Printed in the U.S.A.

THE CERAMIC SEQUENCE AT NAKBE, GUATEMALA

Donald W. Forsyth
Department of Anthropology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, USA

Abstract The site of Nakbe, located approximately 13 km southeast of El Mirador in the far northern part of the Peten, has been investigated by the RAINPEG Project, directed by Richard Hansen, for the last four field seasons. The ceramic sequence from Nakbe has provided us with a much broader view of cultural development in the north-central Peten. We have defined a series of preliminary ceramic complexes that span Middle Preclassic through Late Classic times. The earliest complex at Nakbe, called Ox, which belongs to the Mamom horizon, is one of the two best represented at the site, and definitely associated, late in the period, with large-scale architecture. The principal ceramic groups are the Juventud, Chunhinta, and Pital. The main forms are bowls or basins with flaring walls and direct or everted rims, short-necked jars, cuspidors or semicuspidors, and composite-silhouette bowls. Particularly notable, although rare, are the types Muxanal Red-on-Cream and Tierra Mojada Resist. The Ox Complex is characterized by a high frequency of decoration executed by penetration methods, especially incision and chamfering. The unslipped pottery pertains to the types Achiotes Unslipped and Palma Daub. The latter is marked by a red wash applied to the exterior neck of the jar, the major form in these types. Daub is a form of decoration limited to the Middle Preclassic in this area, as is the chamfering technique on the slipped pottery. The ceramic complexes most similar to Ox are located to the south of Nakbe at Uaxactun and Tikal. The high frequency of chamfering, daub, and other traits strongly link Nakbe to these southern sites during the Middle Preclassic, while sites to the north and southwest, such as Seibal, Altar de Sacrificios, and Becan exhibit more tenuous connections. The Kan Complex belongs to the Late Preclassic period, and is characterized by the Sierra, Polvero, Flor, and Sapote Ceramic Groups. Although associated with the large structures in the site center, Kan ceramics are less abundant than Ox ceramics in our samples. Kan pottery corresponds closely to that of El Mirador and is similar to other complexes of the Chicanel horizon. Particularly noteworthy are everted rims with circumferential grooves and lateral, labial, and medial flanges and ridges. The unslipped pottery of the Kan Complex consists almost exclusively of jars bearing exterior striation from the shoulder to the base. The closest ceramic ties to Kan pottery continues to be with the southern complexes, especially Uaxactun and Tikal. Moreover, the similarity to Seibal is greater during Chicanel times, while Belize appears to differentiate itself ceramically from the Peten during this time. Nevertheless, the Chicanel horizon is the period in which the maximum geographical extent of a ceramic sphere is reached. "Protoclassic" ceramics are rare, but the small amounts recovered at Nakbe are similar to those from El Mirador. The major type is Iberia Orange, found in small quantities in surface contexts. Characterized by hollow, mammiform supports, hooked rims, and orange slip, this Nakbe pottery seems to be more similar to pottery at Seibal than to other complexes with Protoclassic pottery. Early Classic pottery is virtually nonexistent in our excavations, suggesting an insignificant occupation during this period. Late Classic pottery (Uuc Complex) appears in significant quantities at Nakbe, mainly in the outskirts of the site. All of the types and modes defined at El Mirador are found at Nakbe, principally Tinaja Red, Chinja Impressed, Infierno Black, and Carmelita Incised, as well as the polychrome types. Moreover, Codex-style polychrome was also found at the site. As at El Mirador, the Uuc ceramics are not found in association with large-scale architecture, and it appears that Nakbe was not a major center at this time. The major occupations at Nakbe pertain to the Middle and Late Preclassic periods. The abundance of architecture, ceramics, and other classes of artifacts from the Ox Complex provides us with an opportunity to investigate a Middle Preclassic occupation in which there was a much more complex social organization, at least at Nakbe, than had previously been suspected.

The site of Nakbe is located in the north-central region of the Peten, approximately 15 km from the northern border of Guatemala with Mexico and 13 km southeast of El Mirador (Figure 1). It is divided into two major zones by a depression, or arroyo. The western group (see Figure 2) is dominated by a large platform with a number of large structures. The largest of these is Structure 1, a triadic building and platform rising approxi31

mately 45 m. The site is connected to the larger site of El Mirador by a sacbe, or causeway, which, although as yet unexplored, can be seen from the air as a linear alignment crossing the bajo areas between the two sites (Figure 1). The investigations at Nakbe are part of a larger Regional Archaeological Investigation of the North Peten project (RAINPEG) (Hansen and Berger 1988), a long-term regional investi-

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gation under the direction of Richard D. Hansen of the University of California at Los Angeles under contract with the Guatemalan Instituto de Antropologia e Historia. Previous work at El Mirador (Copeland 1989; Demarest 1984; Forsyth 1989a; Hansen 1990; Hansen and Forsyth 1987; Howell 1989; Matheny 1986a, 1986b, 1993) demonstrated a large Late Preclassic development at the site. Enormous structures, such as the Danta, Tigre, Monos, and Central Acropolis, were constructed in Late Preclassic times. The structure and form of other large complexes, as yet untested, suggest that they too are Preclassic in date. Given that Nakbe is connected to El Mirador by a causeway, and has similar triadic architecture, Hansen (1990) assumed that it, and perhaps other surrounding sites, were satellite communities. The investigation of Nakbe and other sites, therefore, would provide an opportunity to investigate on a regional basis the emergence of Late Preclassic polities. From preliminary explorations at Nakbe in 1987 Richard Hansen (1987) of the University of California at Los Angeles determined that the characteristic triadic architecture, originally reported by Graham (1967:48,49; cf. Ricketson and Ricketson 1937:Figure 21; Hansen 1990:171-172) is common at the site (Structures 1,10,11,13,25,27,51, as well as 58,59, and 61), as well as suggesting an important Middle Preclassic occupation at the site. To date four full field seasons have been completed at Nakbe. On the basis of those seasons a preliminary set of ceramic complexes (Figure 3) has been defined at the site (Forsyth 1989b, 1992). Not surprisingly, they parallel to a significant degree the ceramic development previously found at El Mirador (Forsyth 1989a). However, unlike El Mirador, the Middle Preclassic complex, which Hansen and I (1987) labeled the Ox Complex, is surprisingly large and widespread at Nakbe, while the Late Preclassic Kan Complex, although well represented, is presently not as plentiful in our excavations. This is the reverse of what was found at El Mirador. Moreover, large-scale archi-

tecture, in the form of very large pyramidal structures and groups and quite distinct from subsequent triadic architecture, began in the latter portion of the Ox Complex.
NAKBE CERAMIC COMPLEXES

The Nakbe ceramics are being analyzed in terms of the TypeVariety system (Gifford 1976). The type names follow closely those established by Smith and Gifford (1966) for the central Peten, as well as those established for the El Mirador region by Forsyth (1989a). However, in some cases, I have modified some of the type names originally defined by Smith and Gifford (1966) to conform to their Spanish originals (e.g., Juventud Red rather than Joventud; Guitarra Incised rather than Guitara; Desprecio Incised instead of Deprecio; Zacatal Cream-polychrome rather than Zacatel).1
The Ox Ceramic Complex

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The Middle Preclassic ceramics at Nakbe have been recovered from both structural and trash deposits. Both have produced a considerable quantity of pure Mamom-horizon pottery, unlike El Mirador where ceramics of this period were generally mixed with later materials or were recovered in pure deposits from deep excavations in architectural complexes, although in small quantities. Nakbe has yielded a sufficiently large sample to provide a range of variation that is usually lacking in pottery of this early date. Even more surprising is the fact that toward the end of this period, Ox pottery is associated with architectural remains of considerable sophistication well beyond the simple village life previously associated with the Mamom period (Hansen 1992b). The main monochrome pottery belongs to the Juventud Ceramic Group, characterized by an orange-red, waxy slip. Juventud Red is the principal type, at least in terms of sherds. Characteristic of this type, and others of this time period, are flaring-walled dishes or bowls with direct, or everted rims (Figures 4a and Hal,3-4,6-7). They are the most common form. Sometimes they bear multiple, preslip, circumferential (/-shaped grooves (Guitarra Incised) on the upper surfaces of the everted rim (Figure 5bl-8). The form of these grooves is similar to that found on incised body sherds. Bases are generally flat. Another important Juventud Red form is the short-necked globular jar, slipped only on the exterior and on the interior neck (Figures 4b and 1 Ia2,5). Slip color ranges from a dark, strong red to a lighter orange-red, although the latter is the predominant color. Other forms include the cuspidor, near-cuspidor, and round-sided bowls, (Figure 4cl5). The cuspidor is a relatively deep bowl with incurved sides, a slightly everted rim, and a rounded basal angle, often with a medial break of some sort. It occurs in the type Juventud Red, but is found most frequently in the type Desvario Chamfered (Figures 5a9-14,17,23,30,31). Tecomate forms also occur (Figure 4c 13,14), but are rare in Juventud Red.
1 1 have made these changes because the original names, supposedly derived from geographical names in the Peten region, were misspelled in Smith and Gifford's (1966) publication, leading to confusion and, in some cases, embarrassment among Spanish-speaking colleagues. I see no reason to perpetuate errors. Besides, all of them involve only minor changes.

SOD S 700 BOO 900

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Figure 3. Ceramic complexes defined at Nakbe.

Ceramic sequence at Nakbe

35

14

15

20 21

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Figure 4 . a: ]uventud Red: JV, flaring-walled dish or bowl; b: Juventud Red: JV, short-necked jar; c: ]uventud Red: JV, various forms.

One of the most common types is Desvario Chamfered. The incidence of chamfering is very high in this complex, and serves as a ready marker for the Middle Preclassic period. Limited to the exteriors of vessels, chamfering exhibits considerable variation in the way it is executed. Sometimes it consists of a single, wide raised band (Figures 5al-8 and lla26-27), in other cases as multiple, narrow clapboarded bands (Figures 5a9-43 and llal7-25,30). In the latter case, the most common at Nakbe, the chamfering effect is often executed with such delicacy that it merges into incision or fluting (Figure 6a 1-7). Sometimes these other techniques are actually combined with chamfering (Figures 6a8-15 and 1 Ia24,29). The incision generally consists of preslip, medium-line [/-shaped grooves that penetrate very shallowly into the paste. The most common vessel forms are basal-break dishes or bowls with flaring sides, flat bottoms, and direct rims, as well as cuspidor or near-cuspidor shapes. Another important type is Guitarra Incised, marked by shallow, (/-shaped medium-line grooves (Figures 5b and Ila6-16). Sometimes the incisions are so delicate that they are difficult to see without close inspection. It has not been possible at this early stage of investigation to determine the full range of design pat-

terns associated with this incision. But it is clear that in addition to the most common form of incision, which consistsof sets of circumferential lines, there are also more complex designs, particularly on the interior bases of flat-bottomed dishes and bowls. Sometimes it is so subtly executed that it is necessary to rotate the sherd in the light to see the incision clearly. It is evident that incision is a treatment much more frequent on Middle Preclassic ceramics than it is on Late Preclassic ceramics. Moreover, fine-line, postslip incision also occurs, but it is not as common as the preslip variety. On deep bowls, it is often found as circumferential lines near or on rims, occasionally exhibiting a variant of the "double-line break," in which the incised line breaks to the rim of the vessel (Figure 16). Juventud Group pottery (as well as on other monochrome and dichrome pottery) is decorated almost exclusively by penetration. Moreover, decorative techniques are often combined to form, as yet unnamed, composite types; fluting and incising, chamfering and incising, fluting and chamfering, or all three, may be found on a single vessel (Figures 6a and 1 Ia29). In addition, different styles of incising, such as medium-line preslip and fine-line postslip, may occasionally be found on the same vessel. This is further complicated by the fact that the various

36

Forsyth

12*14

15

41

42

43

30

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20

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Figure 5. a: Desvario Chamfered: DV, various forms; b: Guitarra Incised: GV, various forms.

decorative techniques grade into each other; incising grades into fluting, which in turn grades into chamfering. This creates difficulty in sorting sherds into clear-cut type categories. Vessel forms are fairly simple and few in number. Although the number of different vessel shapes is limited (e.g., flaringwalled, flat-bottomed dishes and bowls), there is considerable variation in vessel size. Black-slipped pottery of the Chunhinta Group is the next most numerous class of monochrome pottery (Figures 6b and 7a, 1 lb). It appears to occur in similar vessel forms and bears decorative modes comparable to the Juventud Group, except that chamfering is relatively less common. Chunhinta Black (Figures 6bl-22 and l l b l ) is the most common type, but Desprecio Incised (Figures 6b23-49 and 1 lb2-5) occurs in some quantity. Postslip, fine-line incising seems to be somewhat more abundant in this type than in the Juventud Group, but preslip,

medium-line incision is also common. Desprecio Incised is particularly characterized by flaring-walled, flat-bottomed dishes with one to three fine-line, postslip, circumferential lines on the upper surface of the everted or direct rim (Figure 6b35-40, 4548). But the lines are also commonly located on the vessel interior just barely below the rim (Figure 6b41,44). Like Guitarra Incised, Desprecio Incised also exhibits incised designs in addition to the more common circumferential incising (Figure 1 Ib25). These are found principally on the exteriors of dishes and bowls, or on the interior bases of these vessels. It appears at present, however, that such designs are rarely found in both locations on a single vessel. The most common vessel shapes parallel those of Juventud Red, except that small tecomates seem to be much more prevalent in this ceramic group (Figure 6b 1734). Incised tecomates generally bear from one to two pre- or postslip circumferential lines near the rim (Figure 6b23-34).

Ceramic sequence at Nakbe

37

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Figure 6. a l - 7 : Juventud Ceramic Group, fluted or fluted/chamfered examples; a8-15: Juventud Ceramic Group, chamfered/incised examples; b l - 2 2 : Chunhinta Black: CV, various forms; b 2 3 - 4 9 : Desprecio Incised: DV, various forms; b5O-73: Chunhinta Ceramic Group, chamfered examples.

Although a separate type has not yet been designated, a chamfered type also occurs on vessels of the Chunhinta Group (Figures 6b50-73 and 12al-3). Like Desvario Chamfered, the most common form of chamfering is the clapboarded variety. Likewise, Centenario Fluted (Figure 7a), although relatively rare, also occurs. As with the Juventud Ceramic Group, there are a number of composite types in this group as well, representing various combinations of fluting, chamfering, and incising. Monochrome cream pottery of the Pital Group (Figures 7b-c and 12b) is much rarer than red or black-slipped ceramics. But the same decorative modes, including chamfering and incising,

occur. Flaring-walled bowls with slightly everted rims are one of the most common shapes in this group. They often bear two preslip, circumferential lines on the upper surface of the everted rim. But tecomates, sometimes bearing incising or chamfering or both, are not uncommon in the Pital Group. Particularly interesting is Muxanal Red-on-Cream (Figure 7d-e). This type shows areas that are slipped either red or cream in distinct zones. There are two fairly distinct decorative patterns exhibited on this type. The least common one is seen on vessels that are slipped red on the interior and cream on the exterior or vice versa (Figures 7d and 12c2). These are usually

38

Forsyth

my) \w\\\]

1 1 4 I I I

Figure 7 . a: Centenario Fluted: CV; b: Pital Cream: PV, various forms; d - 9 : Paso Danto Incised: PDV, various forms; clO-13: Pital Ceramic Group, chamfered examples; c14-15: Pital Ceramic Croup, chamfered/incised; d: Muxanal Red-on-Cream: MV, various forms of nonridged examples; e: Muxanal Red-on-Cream: M V , various forms of ridged examples; f-g: Muxanal Red-on-Cream incised flaring-walled nonridged vessels; h: Muxanal Red-on-Cream incised flaring-walled ridged vessels; i: Muxanal Red-on-Cream chamfered ridged vessels; jl-6,10: Muxanal Red-on-Cream chamfered vessels; J7-8: Muxanal Red-on-Cream fluted, ridged vessels; j9: Muxanal Red-onCream chamfered/incised vessel.

flaring-walled vessels with flat bottoms. The other decorative pattern is demonstrated by vessels slipped red on the interior and part way down the exterior. On the exterior, a raised ridge or abrupt change in contour encircles the vessel, from midway down the exterior to within a few centimeters of the basal break.

This ridge marks the boundary between the red slip above it and the cream below (Figures 7e and 12cl,3). In other cases, the edges of chamfers serve this function (Figure 7i). Like the monochrome types, this dichrome occurs in composite types that also involve incising, chamfering, and fluting (Figures 7f-j and 12d).

Ceramic sequence at Nakbe

39

Although apparently rare, Tierra Mojada Resist (Figure 8al9) also occurs in this horizon. This type is marked by an orange slip, similar in color to that of the Juventud Group, that has resist, buff to tan splotches. In the Nakbe samples most of the resist blotches form no apparent pattern, appearing as random blotches. But several examples exhibit an unequivocal hatched or other resist design. This type is an excellent horizon marker in the Peten region, being present at Uaxactun (personal observation, Museo Nacional, Guatemala; Smith 1955:60; Figure 14a 16-18), Tikal (defined as Ahchab Red-on-Buff by Culbert 1985:Tz-14), Altar de Sacrificios (Adams 1971:85; also see Sabloff 1975:71-73), and Seibal (Sabloff 1975:71-74). Timax Incised (Figure 8al0-12; cf. Sabloff 1975:73-74), as well as

chamfered (Figure 8al3-14 and 8b) and composite types occur with this same kind of resist effect. The fact that the resist pottery occurs with the same range and combination of decoration as that of the monochrome types strongly suggests that it formed part of the normal ceramic inventory of the site, and, despite its rarity, it was not just a trade item. Overall, the monochrome pottery is characterized by the high frequency of plastic manipulation of the vessel surfaces. Decoration of various sorts seems to occur much more frequently than it does on Late Preclassic monochromes from Nakbe, El Mirador, and other sites. Indeed, perhaps the apparent dominance of the undecorated types is a consequence of dealing with sherds that represent only portions of the vessel body. What

11)4

Figure 8 . a l - 9 : Tierra Mojada Resist; alO-12: Tierra Mojada Resist incised; a!314;b: Tierra Mojada Resist chamfered; c: Palma Daub: PV; d: Achiotes Unslipped: AV; el-12,14-18: Juventud/Sierra Red (Ox-Kan transition); e l 3 : Chunhinta/Polvero Black (Ox-Kan transition); f: Sapote Striated (Ox-Kan transition).

40 strikes the observer used to sorting Chicanel pottery is the frequency of surface manipulation on Ox pottery. Moreover, the ceramics are very well made and show considerable sophistication in both manufacture and decoration. The unslipped pottery consists primarily of short-necked, globular jars with plain and, very rarely, striated bodies Achiotes Unslipped (Figure 8d) and Sapote Striated, respectively, although the latter is very scarce. Commonly some of the unstriated jars also bear a red wash applied to the vessel neck. This is the type Palma Daub (Figures 8c, 12e, and 17), originally defined at Uaxactun (Smith 1955; Smith and Gifford 1966:160). The red wash was generally applied as a band on neck exteriors, and sometimes on neck interiors as well. The thin, sometimes streaky, wash was applied over the coarse surface of the unslipped vessels, so that they have a rough texture, although occasionally well-smoothed rims can be confused with Juventud Red jar necks. At Uaxactun, the red daub was sometimes also applied on the vessel body in the form of swirls and bands that often continued down from the neck band onto the shoulders and upper body of the vessel (Smith 1955:26, 111, 112; Figure 15cl-5; Ricketson and Ricketson 1937:232-235; Figure 147a2). An analogous decorative arrangement also occurs at Nakbe. The overall pattern seems to be a series of vertical bands that hang down from the horizontal red band at the neck (Figure 17), but in a few cases the pattern is more complex. On at least some of these sherds, the vessel bodies appear to have been covered with a whitish wash, or to have been fired a light color, over which the streaky red bands were applied. Often these bands are gray to black rather than red, perhaps due to smudging. However, on some examples both dark and red bands are interspersed with one another, suggesting a deliberate arrangement. Further study of this class of pottery will be necessary before the overall pattern is apparent, but some variant of Palma Daub is clearly represented. Striated surfaces on unslipped vessels (Sapote Striated), which in the Ox Complex consists more of brushing than striation, occurs in very small amounts, and appears late in the complex. It also differs from Sapote Striated of the Late Preclassic by bearing striation that generally continues right up to the rim on the exterior rather than stopping at the neck-shoulder junction. Although not indicated in Smith's (1955) report, this form of striation was also recovered from Maraom contexts at Uaxactun (personal observation, Mamom sherd samples, Museo Nacional de Arqueologfa y Etnologia, Guatemala, and Peabody Museum, Harvard University). Comparative analysis of previously studied sites indicates that the closest relationships of unslipped pottery from the Ox Complex is with Uaxactun, and to a lesser extent, perhaps with Tikal. The former site shares both vessel form and surface manipulation modes with Nakbe, as well as the rare occurrence of brushing on exterior surfaces. Comparisons to Tikal are more difficult, as Ox shares some characteristics with both Eb and Tzec. Both Achiotes Unslipped and Palma Daub occur at Tikal, but the latter appears to be rare in contrast to Uaxactun and Nakbe. The importance of striated pottery in the Eb Complex also differentiates Uaxactun and Nakbe from Tikal. Daub, as a form of decoration, is limited to the Middle Preclassic, or Mamom horizon, in the Maya Lowlands, and seems to have a unique distribution throughout the Peten and adjacent regions (Forsyth 1992). Daub decoration is common at Uaxactun (Smith 1955) and, to a lesser extent, at Tikal as well

Forsyth (Culbert 1985:Tz:12 and Tz:22). These vessels all belong to the same type, Palma Daub. Middle Preclassic ceramic complexes to the north and west of the north-central Peten, however, lack the daub technique (e.g., Becan, Altar de Sacrificios, Seibal, the Northern Lowlands). However, to the east in central Belize at Barton Ramie (Gifford 1976:68-69, 71-72), daub decoration is very common, although the ceramic types are generally distinct (Chacchinic Red-on-Orange-Brown and Sayab Daub-striated). In northern Belize, however, daub ware is seemingly uncommon, although it apparently occurs at Colha (Valdez 1987:5758, 79-80). On current evidence, then, daub as a form of surface treatment seems restricted to the central and east Peten as well as corresponding areas of western Belize. The Ox slipped pottery of Nakbe is most closely related to that of Uaxactun and Tikal, although there are important differences. Chamfering does not seem to be as common at Uaxactun as at Nakbe. Moreover, the predominant form of chamfering at Uaxactun consists of the single, wide raised band, whereas at Nakbe, although that form occurs, the principal form consists of multiple, clapboarded bands. Similarly, Muxanal Redon-Cream at Uaxactun is primarily of the opposite-side variant, whereas at Nakbe the raised-ridge form dominates. Likewise, Mars Orange Ware does not occur at Nakbe, while it is fairly common at Uaxactun and very common at Tikal (Bernard Hermes, personal communication 1991). Nevertheless, Uaxactun and Nakbe share their principal types and most of their predominate modes as well as minor types (e.g., Tierra Mojada Resist, which is present in the Uaxactun collections but not identified by Smith and Gifford 1966). Comparison with Tikal is much more difficult for several reasons. The Eb Complex is somewhat enigmatic in that it does not seem to correlate well with other known Middle Preclassic complexes. Moreover, the Tzec Complex appears to be transitional between Mamom (Eb?) and Chicanel (Chuen). Culbert (1985) chose to use type names assigned by Smith and Gifford (1966:170) to the Chicanel horizon for many of the Tzec types. Despite this problem of classificatory niceties, I consider many of the Tzec types that Culbert (1985:Tz9-10) assigned to the Sierra, Polvero, and Flor groups to closely approximate the late examples of Juventud, Chunhinta, and Pital ceramics at Nakbe. Moreover, the types Aimil Chamfered, Ahchab Red-on-Buff, and Boolim Red-onCream at Tikal almost certainly correspond to Desvario Chamfered, Tierra Mojada Resist, and Muxanal Red-on-Cream at Nakbe, as does Ahmaax Chamfered to an as yet unnamed Nakbe type. The Rio Pasion sites, Altar de Sacrificios and Seibal, differ to a greater extent than do Uaxactun and Tikal from the Ox Complex. The Escoba Complex (Sabloff 1975:61) at Seibal exhibits considerable typological similarity to Ox, but differs modally, particularly with respect to vessel form and the prevalence of certain forms of decoration. For example, although the occurrence of Tierra Mojada Resist and Timax Incised at Seibal (the type site for both) links Escoba and Ox, chamfering and red-on-white decoration are both apparently quite rare at Seibal, although fairly common at Nakbe. At Altar de Sacrificios there are modal similarities between Ox and both the Xe and San Felix complexes, but Altar seems less similar to Nakbe than Seibal. Corresponding ceramic complexes in Belize share some typological correspondence, as well as modal similarities in the slipped pottery. But on the whole, the ceramic inventories of the Belize sites (Gifford 1976; Kosakowsky 1987; Pring 1977; Rob-

Ceramic sequence at Nakbe

41

ertson-Freidel 1980; Valdez 1987) reported to date, as well as from Becan (Ball 1977) differ considerably more from Ox than do the sites to the south of Nakbe. Because the Ox material is still undergoing analysis, it is not yet possible to describe the full range of variation of this ceramic complex, but it appears clear that there was a significant Middle Preclassic occupation at Nakbe that continued analysis and further excavation will clarify. Numerous figurine fragments, virtually identical to those found at Uaxactun (personal observation, Museo Nacional, Guatemala) have been found with this material as well (Figures 19-20). Thus, this complex at Nakbe is extremely similar, in both modal and typological terms, to the Mamom pottery at Uaxactun (Smith 1955; Smith and Gifford 1966) and other sites. However, Nakbe represents the first occurrence of such pottery in architectural contexts of considerable size and sophistication (Hansen 1992b). It suggests that the Middle Preclassic hardly represented the simple village culture that has been projected for Lowland Maya culture during this time period.2
The Ox-Kan Transition

Because of the large sample of Ox pottery that has been recovered at Nakbe, it is possible to detect some of the sequential changes that took place in the transition from Ox to Kan. The initial changes in Ox pottery tend toward larger vessel sizes and thicker vessel walls (Figures 8e and 12f 15). Flaring-walled dishes or bowls with widely everted rims (3-6 cm) and often multiple, preslip rim grooving are particularly diagnostic of this period (Figures 8el-13 and 12fl-4). Particularly noticeable is the decrease in the number of sherds bearing surface manipulation, although some of the Ox decorative modes such as incising and chamfering continue to be occasionally utilized on vessel forms that later become characteristic of Sierra Red. Incurved-rim bowls (Figures 8el4-16 and 12f5), which become very numerous in Kan times, begin in the transition between Ox and Kan, occasionally bearing Ox-style incising. Virtually lacking, however, are the diagnostic ridges and flanges so prominent on Kan pottery. These latter appear only in the full Kan complex. Likewise, such characteristic Chicanel types as Alta Mira Fluted, particularly the florero vases, and mushroom stands with unslipped crescent-shaped impressions do not tend to occur in this transitional period. It is during this time, also, that unslipped striated jars (Sapote Striated) (Figures 8f and 12f6) start to appear, gradually replacing Achiotes Unslipped and Palma Daub. Architecturally, the transition period follows the late Ox pattern, consisting of elongated structures lacking architectural masks. Only in the subsequent complex does the characteristic triadic architecture with associated masks, so common at El Mirador, appear.
The Kan Ceramic Complex

The Kan Complex pertains to the Late Preclassic period at Nakbe (Chicanel horizon). Ceramics from this period have not yet been recovered in the same quantities as the Ox Complex
2 Uncorrected radiocarbon dates from Ox and early transition levels at Nakbe range from about 1000 B.C. to 450 B.C. (Hansen 1992a, 1992b).

and have not yet been completely analyzed, but excavations in 1990, and particularly 1991, have demonstrated that Kan ceramics are unequivocally associated with the construction of the largest structures at the site (Structures 1, 13, 27, and 59). The central building surmounting Structure 1, at least its outermost version, pertains to this period, and bears the remains of carved stone armatures that served as the base for stucco masks, now deteriorated. Likewise, as revealed by the 1991 season's excavations, the outermost construction of the basal pyramid of Structure 1, bearing an enormous mask covering the lower facade, dates to the Kan phase. Extensive tunneling during the 1991 season in Structure 13, which faces Structure 1 across the main plaza, revealed that it also was built during Kan times. Structure 27, with architectural masks on the facade of the upper structure, was constructed during this period as well. A looters' trench placed into the heart of the basal pyramid of Structure 27 at ground level suggests that the whole structure was built in a single construction phase. Likewise, in 1990 Juan Luis Velasquez uncovered a series of small structures, including a small round pyramid, on the southeast corner of the basal platform of Structure 1 that also date to this period. Typologically the ceramics clearly pertain to the Chicanel Ceramic Sphere. The Sierra and Polvero Ceramic Groups conform to those found in large quantities at El Mirador (Forsyth 1989a:21-49), although the typological and modal variation is not as great, probably due to the difference in sample size from the two sites. Sierra Red (Figures 9a-e, f 1-15 and 12g) is the principal slipped type, followed in quantity by Polvero Black (Figure 9g) and Flor Cream (Figure 9hl-4). These types are characterized by the conspicuous presence of flanges, ridges, everted rims with characteristic grooving, as well as other diagnostic traits (Figure 9a-b, d, g3-5, hl-2). The most common forms are flaring-sided dishes or bowls with everted rims, often bearing multiple, parallel circumferential grooving on the everted rim (Figure 9b). But flaring-sided vessels with direct or thickened rims (Figure 9f 1-10) are also common, as are lateralflange or ridge dishes or bowls (Figures 9a and 12gl), and lownecked jars (Figure 9c). The latter feature a smooth curvature of the neck that differs from many of the Juventud examples, which tend to have a more sharp or angular neck eversion (Figure 4b). Minor types in the Sierra Group identified so far are Laguna Verde Incised (Figure 9f 16), and Alta Mira Fluted and Hongo Composite, but they are not common. Black and creamslipped (Figure 9g-h) pottery is not common, but occurs consistently in the collections. The unslipped pottery of the Kan Complex consists almost exclusively of jar forms in the type Sapote Striated. Whereas striation is rare on Ox pottery, the reverse is true for Kan ceramics. Achiotes Unslipped (Figure 10a) is rare in the Kan collections, whereas Sapote Striated (Figure 10b) virtually constitutes the whole content of the unslipped pottery. In contrast to Ox pottery, Kan pottery is marked by a dramatic reduction and disappearance of surface manipulation. Incising, fluting, chamfering, and grooving nearly disappear, except for preslip incision or grooving on the everted surfaces of vessel rims. Moreover, what incision does occur on Kan vessels differs in execution and location from Ox examples. For example, incised designs on the interior base of flat-bottomed vessels disappear almost entirely, as does incision on the exterior walls of vessels. Likewise, the high percentage of composite types involving fluting, incising, grooving, or chamfering

42

Forsyth

Figure 9. a-fl5: Sierra Red: SV; f!6: Laguna Verde Incised; g: Polvero Black; hl-4: Flor Cream; h5: Mateo Red-on-Cream.

characteristic of the Ox Complex vanishes in the Kan Complex. In unslipped pottery, unslipped plain surfaces, as well as daubing disappear, while striation becomes the almost exclusive surface treatment mode. Comparatively, Kan ceramics are, not surprisingly, most similar to those at El Mirador. Like Ox Complex pottery, Kan ceramics are likewise closely related to southern complexes like Uaxactun and Tikal. Similarities to described complexes to both

east and west are not as great. Corresponding complexes in Belize, such as Barton Ramie (Gifford 1976), Cuello (Kosakowsky 1987; Pring 1977), Cerros (Robertson-Freidel 1980), and Colha (Valdez 1987), share many types and modes with the central Peten, but also demonstrate important differences. Barton Ramie evidenced considerable difference from the central Peten even in Mamom times. Such differences continued in the subsequent Barton Creek Complex, marked by the importance of

Ceramic sequence at Nakbe

43

10

Figure 10. a: Achiotes Unslipped; b: Sapote Striated: SV; d - 1 4 : Iberia Orange: IV; c15-18: Protaclassic Unslipped Plain; d: Aguila Orange: AV; e l : Dos Arroyos Orange-polychrome; e 2 - l l : Early Classic weathered sherds.

Society Hall ceramics and the Hillbank Ceramic Group. By late Chicanel times, Barton Ramie had diverged considerably from the central Peten (Mount Hope Ceramic Complex). More northerly Belize sites, although less divergent than Barton Ramie, also exhibit strong differences in the form of Society Hall pottery, as well as the continuation of Chicago Orange Ware, none of which occurs in the central Peten. Ties to the Pasion region are closer than to Belize in that the Pasion and the Kan and Cascabel (El Mirador) complexes share the overwhelming majority of their constituent types. There are important differences

with respect to vessel form, however, as well as in slip characteristics, although Seibal, in many respects, appears to me more similar to Nakbe than does Altar. Despite regional variation, however, the Chicanel horizon represents a time of considerable ceramic similarity on both the typological and modal level. Even minor types are shared with sites considerable distances apart, suggesting extensive sharing of ceramic standards. Compared to the earlier Mamom-horizon complexes, Chicanel particularly seems to be a period of intense sharing of ceramic inventory.

44
The "Protoclassic"

Forsyth

As at so many other sites in the Maya Lowlands, pottery generally classified as Protoclassic is present, but, in our samples, exceedingly rare. Not generally recovered in unmixed deposits, some of it was recovered in superficial contexts on Structures 27 and 51. It consists primarily of small amounts of pottery similar to that described for the Paixbancito subcomplex at El Mirador (Forsyth 1989a:51-59), except that the range of variation is greater at El Mirador, almost certainly due to the size of the sample. Mammiform pods (Figure 10c8-13), the hookedrim mode (Figure 10cl-2; cf. Forsyth 1989a:Figure 18S-JJ), orange slip, and some polychromy mark these materials. Iberia Orange (Figure 10cl-14) is clearly present, and, given the small sample size, the rest of the collection could easily be lost among the Paixbancito pottery from El Mirador. Although vessel surfaces of this pottery are usually badly eroded, Iberia Orange is marked by the presence of a double slip a cream-colored underslip, and an orange over slip which results in a bright orange surface. Flaring-sided vessels with Z-angles and basal breaks occur. The unslipped pottery is often marked by a circumferential groove on the upper surface of the lip (Figure 10cl5-18; Forsyth 1989a:Figure 2011). Although rare, the virtual identity of Nakbe Protoclassic pottery in terms of ceramic types, shapes, paste, and decoration with that found at El Mirador might suggest that the two sites were sharing similar sources of pottery production, at least with respect to "Protoclassic" pottery. Chemical analysis of pottery from both sites would perhaps clarify this issue. Unlike Chicanel-horizon pottery, Protoclassic ceramics are not common at most sites, and have not been well described either typologically or modally (Forsyth 1989a:51-52), and there seems to be considerable variability from site to site. At both Nakbe and El Mirador the elaborate polychrome vessels are rare, whereas the monochrome type, Iberia Orange, dominates. This is usually the type that bears the mammiform tetrapods, which are generally small with poorly executed teats, rather than the large, bulbous, well-formed mammiforms from others sites such as Altar de Sacrificios (Adams 1971:Figures 25d, h, f, 27, and 28e) or Naj Tunich (Brady 1987). The closest similarities to the north-central Peten with respect to Protoclassic pottery seem to be with Seibal (Sabloff 1975), as Iberia Orange is the dominant "Protoclassic" type. Also shared are the red-on-orange (Picoleros Red-on-Orange at El Mirador and Nakbe) and blackon-orange (Sacluc Black-on-Orange at all three sites) types. Similarities to other sites are primarily modal in nature.
The Early Classic

ing the 1991 field season (cf. Figure lOel). To date, however, Early Classic ceramics at Nakbe suggest only a small occupation at the site. Even at El Mirador, although Early Classic (Acropolis Complex) ceramics were recovered in restricted contexts, they occurred in some quantity. At Nakbe, they appear to be extremely rare.
The Uuc Ceramic Complex

Also rare in the excavations to date is Early Classic pottery. Only a small number of sherds have been recovered, primarily from Operations 18 and 52. The principal type represented is Aguila Orange, present in the form of rounded Z-angle bowls (Figure 10dl-6), cylindrical-necked jars (Figure 10d7-ll), and basins (Figure 10dl3). A few ring-stand bases have also been recovered (Figure 10dl4). Much of this material has been recovered from a single, small structure, excavated by Gustavo Martinez, in Operation 18, east of Structure 1. Martinez uncovered a restorable polychrome basal-flange bowl (Dos Arroyos) on the floor of this structure, and another was recovered dur-

Late Classic ceramics occur in considerable quantity at Nakbe. Found primarily in small mounds located on the periphery of the site and in a larger-scale Late Classic area on the northwestern outskirts of Nakbe that we have called the Codex Group, this pottery was recovered from four major contexts. The first is from looters' trenches where monochrome vessels and other kinds of pottery that lacked commercial value were left. Although few in number, most of these are whole or reconstructable. The second is from excavations in Late Classic structures carried out by Roberto Lopez (1992), in the Coral Group, the Benson Plaza, and especially in the Codex Group. The third context is from the area around Stela 1, in the eastern portion of the site, where the remains of literally hundreds of Late Classic vessels appear to have been purposely smashed in what looks like some sort of termination rite. The fourth context comes from small Late Classic structures erected on top of earlier massive architecture. Although the ceramics from around the stela represent a whole range of ceramic types, including even minor types, there seems to be a much heavier proportion of slipped, incurved-rim basins. These are large basins with strongly incurved rims (tecomate-\ike) that bear a circumferential thumb-impressed band on the exterior near the rim (Figure 13a-d). The interior is slipped either red (Chinja Impressed) or black (Tres Micos Impressed). The exterior is slipped the same color from the rim to the thumb-impressed band. Below this band the exterior is usually unslipped, and the bases are flat. Also noteworthy, particularly but not exclusively in burials, are black to brown slipped composite-silhouette vessels (Figures 13e-h, 14c, e, h, j , 1, and 15c) bearing incised monkeys or geometric designs (Carmelita Incised). The most common forms are basal-break dishes or plates with flat bottoms or tripod feet (Figure 14a-b, d, f-g, i, k), large basins (Figure 13a-d), interior offset dishes or plates (Figure 13i; cf. Forsyth 1989a:Figures 31P-KK and 37BB-VV), globular jars with restricted hyperboloid necks (Figure 15b), vase forms, and deep composite-silhouette bowls with small, flat-to-concave bases sometimes bearing small nubbin tripod supports (Figures 13h and 14c, e, h, j , 1). The range of Late Classic types and modes at Nakbe, representing the Tepeu 1-2 horizon, are virtually identical to those found at El Mirador (Forsyth 1989a:79-117). The principal types are Tinaja Red (Figures 13i,14f-g, i, k, and 15a), Chinja Impressed (Figure 13a-d), Infierno Black (Figure 14a-b,d), and Carmelita Incised (Figures 13e-h,14c, e, h, j , 1, and 15c). But all of the other types noted first at El Mirador are also present, including the polychromes (Figure 15e-j) and even minor types. It is clear, therefore, that Nakbe and El Mirador were participating in the same system of ceramic procurement during the Late Classic. We do not know the extent of the Late Classic occupation at Nakbe, but the finding of a large amount of pot(Text continues on p. 50.)

Figure 11. al-5: Juventud Red: JV; a6-13: Guitarra Incised: GV; al7-23, 25-28, 30: Desvario Chamfered: DV; a24, 29: Juventud Ceramic Group, chamfered/incised; bi: Chunhinta Black: CV; b2-5: Desprecio Incised: DV.

' ' * ; ,

g
Figure 12. a: Chunhinta Ceramic Group, chamfered vessels; b l : Pital Cream: PV; b 2 - 3 : Paso Danto Incised; PDV; c l : Muxanal Redon-Cream incised; c2: Muxanal Red-on-Cream: M V ; c3: Muxanal Red-on-Cream, incised; d: Muxanal Red-on-Cream, chamfered/incised; e: Palma Daub: PV; fl-5: ]uventud/Sierra Red (Ox-Kan transition); f6: Sapote Striated (Ox-Kan transition); g: Sierra Red: SV (Kan).

0 1 I

I I

S I I

Figure 13. a-d: Chinja Impressed: CV; e-h: Carmelita Incised: Maculis variety; i: Tinaja Red: Nanzal Variety.

0
1
1 1 1 4

5
1

Figure 14. a-b,d: Infiemo Black: Bolocantai variety; c, e, h, j , I: Carmelita Incised: Maculis Variety; f-g,i,k: Tinaja Red: Nanzai Variety.

Figure 15. a: Tinaja Red: Nanzal Variety; b: Pantano Impressed: PV; c: Carmelita Incised: Maculis Variety; d: Carro Modeled: CV; e: unidentified polychrome; f: Zacatal Cream-polychrome; g-j: Palmar Orange-polychrome.

50

Forsyth

pattern which generally parallels the one at El Mirador. The population may not have been insignificant during this period, but it is not marked by the kind of intensive building program seen at major Late Classic sites.
CONCLUSION

Figure \6. Desprecio Incised: DV with incised double-line break on top of rim.

tery associated with a single event has produced a sample of sufficient size to give us a good idea of the range of ceramic variation at Nakbe. Likewise, we do not know the extent of this particular regional variant of the Late Classic Tepeu Ceramic Sphere in the Nakbe-El Mirador region, but examples of identical Late Classic pottery have been recovered from, or noted in, looters' trenches at such sites as Tintal, Giiiro, and Zacatal all sites within the research area. Of particular interest is the recovery of several examples of Codex-style polychromes (Hansen, Bishop, and Fahsen 1991), including one partially reconstructable vessel (Figure 18). To date, the Codex-style vessels have been found in looters' leavings at Nakbe, rather than in primary context. However, neutron-activation studies of the Codex sherds, along with other, non-Codex pottery from Nakbe, should help determine if they were manufactured locally or represent imports from some other locale. Neither Late Classic monuments nor evidence of large-scale architectural complexes have yet been discovered at Nakbe, a

Although our investigations have just begun, Nakbe has already produced unexpected and important results. The occurrence of a substantial Middle Preclassic occupation, undisturbed in some cases by subsequent occupation promises to provide a much clearer understanding of this period. Where Middle Preclassic pottery has been found at other sites, it generally has restricted contexts usually in deep levels of test pitsyielding small sample sizes. At Nakbe, the nearness of this material to the surface has yielded large samples, revealing a wide range of the ceramic inventory of this period. Moreover, the investigation of architecture and other features associated with this period also promises to provide a much clearer picture of the size and scope of Middle Preclassic culture. On the basis of preliminary evidence, it appears that the current view of this period as representative of small-scale village life, lacking substantial architecture and organization, seems questionable, at least at Nakbe. The Late Preclassic Kan Complex now appears to have also been an important period of occupation at Nakbe. At this time a considerable number of the large structures at the site were constructed or earlier ones refurbished. Subsequent to Kan times, however, the apparent lack of substantial occupation at the site, at least until the Late Classic period, may be due to the restricted investigations carried out so far. On the other hand, the site might not have been an important one in the region until Late Classic times, when evidence of both modest architecture and a moderate, though undetermined, population once again appear.

Figure 17. Palma Daub sherds showing pendent lines.

Ceramic sequence at Nakbe

51

Figure 18. Codex-style "scribe" vessel from Nakbe.

Figure 19. Ox Complex figurine fragments.

Figure 20. Ox Complex figurine fragments.

RESUMEN

El sitio de Nakbe, ubicado aproximadamente a 13 km al sureste de El Mirador en el extremo norte del Peten, ha sido investigado por el Proyecto PRIANPEG, encabezado por Richard Hansen, durante las ultimas tres temporadas de campo. La secuencia ceramica de Nakbe nos ha proporcionado una vision amplia del desarrollo cultural de la zona nor-central del Peten. A la fecha hemos definido una serie de complejos ceramicos preliminares que abarcan desde el preclasico medio hasta el clasico tardio. El complejo mas temprano de Nakbe, que se denomina Ox, y que pertenece al horizonte Mamom, es uno de los dos complejos mejor

representados en el sitio y, en la fase terminal del periodo, definitivamente se asocia con conjuntos arquitectonicos de gran escala. Los grupos ceramicos principales son el grupo Juventud, y los grupos Chunhinta, y Pital. Las formas principales son fuentes o cuencos con paredes recto-divergentes y bordes directos o evertidos, ollas con cuellos cortos, "cuspidores" o semi-cuspidores, y fuentes o cuencos de silueta compuesta. Especialmente notables, aunque escasos, son los tipos Muxanal Rojo sobre crema y Tierra Mojada Negative El complejo Ox se caractiza por una alta frecuencia de decoracion ejecutada por metodos de penetration, especialmente la incision y el achaflanado.

52
La ceramica sin engobe pertence a los tipos Achiotes Sin Engobe y Palma Pintarrajeado. La ultima se distingue por un bano rojo aplicado al cuello exterior de las ollas, la forma mayoritaria en estos tipos. El pintarrajeado es una decoration limitada al preclasico medio en esta zona como lo es tambien el achaflanado en la ceramica engobada. Los complejos ceramicos mas semejantes a Ox se encuentran al sur de Nakbe en Uaxatun y Tikal. La alta frecuencia de achaflando, pintarrajeado y otros rasgos vinculan estrechamente a Nakbe con los sitios al sur de Nakbe durante el preclasico medio mientras los sitios al norte y suroeste, tal como Ceibal, Altar de Sacrificios y Becan, evidencian conexciones mas tenues. El complejo Kan pertenece al preclasico tardio, que se caracteriza por los grupos Sierra, Polvero, Flor, y Sapote. Aunque se asocia con las grandes estructuras del centro del sitio, la ceramica Kan es menos abundante que la ceramica Ox en nuestras muestras. Ella corresponde estrechamente con la ceramica de El Mirador y se asemeja a otros complejos del horizonte Chicanel. Especialmente llamativos son los bordes evertidos con incisiones circunferenciales y las pestanas y cejas laterales, labiales y mediales. La ceramica burda del complejo Kan consiste casi exclusivamente en ollas cuya superficie lleva estrias del hombro a la base. Los lazos ceramicos mas intimos de la ceramica Kan siguen siendo con los complejos del sur, especialmente Uaxactun y Tikal. No obstante, las semejanzas a Ceibal son mas importantes durante la epoca Chicanel, mientras que Belice parece alejarse del Peten durante este tiempo. Sin embargo, el horizonte Chicanel representa un periodo en que la extension de la esfera ceramica se amplia al maximo.

Forsyth La ceramica denominada "protoclasica" es rara, pero la pequen; muestra recuperada se equipara a la de El Mirador. El tipo principal e Iberia Naranja. Se encuentra en cantidades escasas en contextos super ficiales. Caracterizada por soportes huecos mamiformes, bordes "encorvados," y un engobe anaranjada, esta ceramica de Nakbe parece asemejarse mas a Seibal que a otros complejos que manifiestan ceramica protoclasica. La ceramica del clasico temprano es casi inexistente en nuestras excavaciones, lo cual parece sefialar que no hubo una ocupacion significativa durante esta epoca. La ceramica del clasico tardio (complejo Uuc) aparece en cantidades significativas en Nakbe, principalmente en las afueras del sitio. Todos los tipos y modos definidos en El Mirador occuren en Nakbe, principalmente Tinaja Rojo, Chinja Impreso, Infierno Negro, y Carmelita Inciso, asi como los tipos policromos. Ademas, se encontro ceramica del estilo "codice" en Nakbe. Al igual que en El Mirador, la ceramica Uuc no se encuentra asociada con arquitectura de gran escala, y parece que Nakbe no fue un centro principal durante esta epoca. Las ocupaciones principales de Nakbe corresponden al preclascio medio y tardio. La abundancia de arquitectura, ceramica, y otras clases de artefactos del complejo Ox nos proporciona una oportunidad de investigar una ocupacion del preclasico medio, periodo en que hay una organization social mas elaborada de lo que previamente se habia sospechado, por lo menos en Nakbe.

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Ceramic sequence at Nakbe temala. Papers of the New World Archaeological Foundation 60. Brigham Young University, Provo, UT. Kosakowsky, Laura J. 1987 Preclassic Maya Pottery at Cuello, Belize. Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona 47. Tucson. Lopez, Roberto 1992 Excavaciones en el grupo Coral y algunas relaciones internas con otros grupos tardios en Nakbe, Peten. V Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueologicas en Guatemala, pp. 121-128. Museo National de Arqueologia y Etnologia, Guatemala. Matheny, Ray T. 1986a Early States in the Maya Lowlands during the Late Preclassic Period: Edzna and El Mirador. In City-States of the Maya: Art and Architecture, edited by Elizabeth P. Benson, pp. 1-44. Rocky Mountain Institute for Pre-Columbian Studies, Denver. 1986b Investigations at El Mirador, Peten, Guatemala. National Geographic Research 2:332-353. 1993 El Mirador, Peten, Guatemala: Introduction. Papers of the New World Archaeological Foundation 59. Brigham Young University, Provo, UT. Pring, Duncan 1977 The Preclassic Ceramics of Northern Belize. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Institute of Archaeology, London University, London.

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Ricketson, Oliver G., and Edith B. Ricketson 1937 Uaxactun, Guatemala: Group E-1926-1931. Publication 477. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC. Robertson-Freidel, Robin A. 1980 The Ceramics from Cerros: A Late Preclassic Site in Northern Belize. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA. Sabloff, Jeremy A. 1975 Excavations at Seibal, Department of Peten, Guatemala. Memoirs of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 13, No. 12. Harvard University, Cambridge, MA. Smith, Robert E. 1955 Ceramic Sequence at Uaxactun, Guatemala. Publication 20. Middle American Research Institute, Tulane University, New Orleans. Smith, Robert E., and James C. Gifford 1966 Maya Ceramic Varieties, Types, and Wares at Uaxactun: Supplement to "Ceramic Sequence at Uaxactun, Guatemala." Publication 28. Middle American Research Institute, Tulane University, New Orleans. Valdez, Fred 1987 The Prehistoric Ceramics ofColhd, Northern Belize. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.