ORDNANCE MISSILE AND MUNITIONS MMS SUBCOURSE NUMBER 701, TRANSISTORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS (28 Credit Hours) INTRODUCTION

TheannouncementofthefirsttransistorinJune1948broughtaboutmany revolutionary changes in the field of electronics. Compared to the then conventionalvacuumtube,thetransistorhasamuchhigheroperatingefficiency and is much smaller in size. Being a solidstate device, neither a special envelopetohouseavacuumnorspecialheatingelementstoprovideelectronsis required. The latter fact alone represents a considerable saving in power since,inmoststandardreceivingtubes,asmuchormorepowerisexpendedin heatingthefilamentasindrawingcurrentthroughthetubes. Although the transistor serves mainly as a replacement for the vacuum tube,itisnotenoughtothinkofitinsuchlimitedterms.Becauseitisa solidstate semiconductor, it has patterns of electron flow quite different from the conventional electron tube. It is important for anyone associated withthefieldofelectronicstounderstandthesepatternsandknowthegeneral advantagesandlimitationsofthetransistor. Semiconductor devices, as the transistor, are finding widespread application in such modern missile systems as the Lance, Pershing, TOW, and Hawk. Sinceallofthesesystemsrequiretheuseofamplifiers,oscillators, detectors, multivibrators, and countless other circuits, it is important to develop a basic knowledge of the application of the transistor and semiconductorinthesetypesofcircuits. This subcourse consists of the theory and application of transistors and semiconductorsinpowersupplies,amplifiers,oscillators,timingcircuitsand modulation and demodulation circuits. Special purpose semiconductor devices arealsocoveredinthissubcourse. The skills and knowledge taught in this subcourse are common to all missilerepairertasks. Thissubcourseconsistsofninelessonsandexaminationasfollows: Lesson1 Lesson2 Lesson3 Lesson4 Lesson5 Lesson6 Lesson7 Lesson8 Lesson9 Examination Introduction to Transistors and Semiconductors Theory of Transistors and Semiconductors SemiconductorDiodeRectifiersand TransistorAmplifierFundamentals BiasStabilization TransistorAmplifiers OscillatorsandMultivibrators TriggeredandGatingCircuits ModulationandDemodulation Special Purpose Semiconductor Devices 1hour 3hours 3hours 2hours 3hours 4hours 4hours 2hours 3hours 3hours

iii

PREFACE

The Army Institute for Professional Development (AIPD) administers the consolidated Army Correspondence Course Program (ACCP), which provides highquality, economical training to its users. The AIPD is accredited by the Accrediting Commission of the Distance Education and Training Council (DETC), the nationally recognized accrediting agency for correspondence institutions. Accreditation is a process that gives public recognition to educational institutions, which meet published standards of quality. The DETC has developed a thorough and careful evaluation system to assure that institutions meet standards of academic and administrative excellence before it awards accreditation. The many TRADOC service schools and DOD agencies that produce the ACCP materials administered by the AIPD develop them to the DETC standards. The AIPD is also a charter member of the Interservice Correspondence Exchange (ICE). The ICE brings together representatives from the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard to meet and share ideas on improving distance education.

LESSON 1. INTRODUCTION TO TRANSISTORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS

MMS Subcourse Number 701............... Lesson Objective.......................

Transistors and Semiconductors To introduce the student to transistors and semiconductors to include history, functions and construction. One

Credit Hours...........................

TEXT 1. GENERAL. Fundamentally,asemiconductordeviceisavalvethatcontrols theflowofcurrentcarriers(electricalchargesinmotion)throughthecrystal material of which it is made. A transistor's ability to control current carriers makes it potentially the most useful single element in modern electronic equipment. Transistors are used in military radio, sound, radar, telephone,missilecircuitryandcomputers. 2. HISTORY.

a. Crystal Rectifier.Thefirstuseofacrystalsemiconductor(figure 11)asarectifier(detector)wasintheearlydaysofradio. Acrystalwas clamped in a small cup or receptacle and a flexible wire (catwhisker) made light contact with the crystal. The receiver was tuned by operating the adjustingarmuntilthecatwhiskerwaspositionedonaspotofthecrystalthat resulted in a sound in the headset. Tuning the variable capacitor provided maximum signal in the headset; frequent adjustment of the contact point was required.

Figure 1-1.

Radio receiver using crystal rectifier.

b. Point Contact Diode. Pointcontactdiodes(figure12)(germanium rectifiers)wereusedduringWorldWarIItoreplaceelectrontubesinradarand otherhighfrequencyequipment. Thepointcontactdiodehasaverylowshunt capacitanceanddoesnotrequireheaterpower. Thesepropertiesaredefinite advantagesovertheelectrontubediode. Thepointcontactdiodeisidentical withthecrystalrectifierinthatitincludesasemiconductor,ametalbase, andametallicpointcontact.Theconnectionstothepointcontactdiodearean externalleadweldedtothemetallicpointcontact,andanexternalleadwelded tothemetalbase.

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Figure 1-2.

Physical construction of point contact diode.

c. Point Contact Transistor.Thepointcontacttransistor(figure13) was developed in 1948. The physical construction of the point contact transistorissimilartothatofthepointcontactdiodeexceptthatathird lead with a metallic point contact is placed near the other metallic point contactonthesemiconductor.Oneleadiscalledanemitterleadtheother,a collector lead. When appropriate voltages are applied to the two metallic points(properbiaswithrespecttothemetalbase)thepointcontacttransistor iscapableofproducingapowergain.

Figure 1-3.

Physical construction of point contact transistor.

d. Junction Diode.Thejunctiondiode(figure14),developedin1949, consists of a junction between two dissimilar sections of semiconductor material. One section, because of its characteristics, is called a Ptype semiconductor the other, an Ntype semiconductor. The connections to the junctiondiodeconsistsofoneleadtothePtypeandoneleadtotheNtype semiconductor materials. The junction diode can handle more power than the pointcontactdiodebutitalsohasalargershuntcapacitance.

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e. Junction Transistor. The junction transistor was developed about thesametimeasthejunctiondiodein1949.Thejunctiontransistorconsists oftwoPNjunctions(AandB,figure15).Operationofthejunctiontransistor is similarto that ofthe point contacttransistor. Thejunction transistor however,permitsmoreaccuratepredictionofcircuitperformance,hasalower signaltonoise ratio, and can handle more power than the point contact transistor.

Figure 1-4.

Physical construction of junction diode.

Figure 1-5.

Physical construction of PNP and NPN junction transistors.

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3.

TRANSISTOR FUNCTIONS.

a. Amplification.Thetransistormaybeusedasacurrent,voltage,or poweramplifier.Forinstance,astrongersignalcurrentmaybeobtainedfroma transistor(A,figure16)thanisfedintoit.Asignalof1milliamperefed intotheinputcircuitofthetransistormaybeamplifiedto20milliamperesat itsoutput.Theamountofamplificationdependsonhowthecircuitisdesigned. b. Oscillation. Thetransistorcanbeusedinanoscillatorcircuit becauseitcanconvertdirectcurrentenergyintoalternatingcurrentenergy. Whenitisconnectedinanoscillatorcircuit,thetransistordrawsenergyfrom adcsourceandgeneratesadcvoltagechangingatanacrate(B,figure16).

Figure 1-6.

Transistor used as amplifier or oscillator.

Figure 1-7.

Transistor used as (AM) modulator or (AM) demodulator.

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c. Modulation and Demodulation.Thetransistorcanbeusedincircuits thatprovideamplitudemodulation(variationinamplitudeofanRFsignal)(A, figure17)orfrequencymodulation(variationinfrequencyofanRFsignal)(A, figure 18). Conversely, demodulation or detection of amplitude modulated signals(B,figure17)andfrequencymodulatedsignals(B,figure18)canalso beaccomplishedwithtransistors.Thesecircuitsarewellsuitedforminiature transmittersintendedforshortrangeapplications. d. Miscellaneous.Thetransistormayalsobeusedtochangetheshape of signal waveforms. Waveform shaping is vital in various types of radar, teletypewriter,computer,andtelevisioncircuits. A,figure19,showshowa transistorcanbeusedinacircuittochangeasinewaveintoasquarewave.B of thefigure shows howa transistor canbe used ina circuit toremove the negativeorpositivealterationsofaseriesofpositiveandnegativepulses.

Figure 1-8.

Transistor used as (FM) modulator or (FM) demodulator.

Figure 1-9.

Transistor used to change waveforms.

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4.

USE IN MILITARY AND COMMERCIAL EQUIPMENTS.

a. Portable Equipment. Theuseoftransistorsopenedanentirelynew fieldinthedevelopmentofportableequipment.Thecompactnessandruggedness of transistorized equipment permits its application in a variety of portable equipments.Transistorsarenowbeingusedinmobileequipment,testequipment, taperecordings,meteorologicalequipment,andphotographicequipment.Various portable equipments in commercial use, such as tape recorders, radios, televisionsets,hearingaids,automobileradios,andmarineradiosnowemploy transistors. b. Fixed Equipments. Fixedequipmentsthatusesemiconductordevices takeuplessspace,anduselesspower.Militaryandcommercialequipmentsuch as wire systems (telephone or teletypewriter), facsimile, radar, computers, public address systems, intercommunications systems, television and radio receiversandtransmittersusetransistorized(semiconductor)circuitry. 5. COMPARISON WITH ELECTRON TUBES.

a. Efficiency and Voltage Requirements. The transistor power efficiencyisgreaterthanthatoftheelectrontubebecausethetransistordoes notrequireheaterpower.Inaddition,itdoesnotrequirewarmuptime,andit does not require a high dc voltage to operate. Other advantages of the transistorareitsusefullife(bbelow),itsnoiselevel(cbelow),andits sizeandconstruction. b. Useful Life. Lifeexpectancyisaveryimportantconsiderationin the application of any electronic device. A transistor that is hermetically sealedinglassormetalwillwithstandavarietyofsituationsthatanelectron tubecannotwithstand.Forexample,atransistor,eventhoughitisimmersedin water,willoperateforlongperiodsoftimewithverylittlenoticeableeffect onitsoperatingfrequency. Italsowillwithstandcentrifugalforcegravity and impact tests that would completely shatter an electron tube. Although transistorsareacomparativelynewdevelopment,ithasbeenestimatedthatthey canoperatecontinuouslyforapproximately8years.

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c. Noise Level. Noise, in this case, is an audible or observable disturbancecausedbytherandommotionofelectroniswithinthetransistorand itsassociatedparts.Thenoiselevelofatransistoratlowfrequencies(about 1000Hz)isbetterthanthenoiselevelofanelectrontube.Whenatransistor isusedathigherfrequencies,itsnoiselevelbecomesconsiderablylower. d. Size and Construction. Electron tubes are designed to permit efficientdissipationofheat.Theyaremuchlargerthantransistors.Although transistorsmustalsodissipateheat,theamountisverysmall.Theflangetype constructionofthetransistorcoverprovidesheatdissipation.Insomecasesa specialmetallicheatdissipatermustalsobeusedonatransistor. 6. TRANSISTOR MATERIAL. Materialssuchascopper,silver,gold,andiron, whichprovideagoodpathforelectronflowwithlittleopposition(resistance), are classified as conductors. On the other hand, materials such as rubber, porcelain,andglass,whichoffergreatoppositionanddonotprovideapathfor electron flow, are insulators. In between these two classifications are materials such as carbon in diamond form, germanium, and silicon the semiconductors. Semiconductors provide a path for electron flow but offer moderate opposition to it. Transistors are usually made of semiconductor material,suchasgermaniumorsilicon. 7. MINIATURE PARTS CAN BE USED WITH TRANSISTORS. One of the persistent problems with equipment that uses electron tubes is size. Compared with transistors,electrontubesarerelativelylarge.Theyrequirehighcurrentand voltagetooperateandthecircuitpartsusedwiththemhavetobelargealso. Incontrast,thecurrentandvoltageusedtooperatetransistorsisverylow. The circuit parts used with transistors may be very small. Miniature capacitors,resistors,coilsandtransformersmaybeused.Inaddition,printed circuitboardsareusedtoeliminate(asmuchaspossible)connectingwiresand tomakeequipmentmorecompact.

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MMS SUBCOURSE NUMBER 701, TRANSISTORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS EXERCISES FOR LESSON 1 1. Asemiconductormaybeexplainedasadevicethatcontrolselectrical chargesinmotionbyactingasa A. B. C. D. 2. amplifier. valve. pipe. limiter.

Whatisthefirstknownuseofasemiconductor? A. B. C. D. Junctiondiode Pointcontacttransistor Crystalrectifier Pointcontactdiode

3.

Thepointcontactdiode A. B. C. D. hasaverylowshuntcapacitance. requiresheaterpower. hasahighshuntcapacitance. doesnothaveanexternallead.

4.

Whatisanothernameforthepointcontactdiode? A. B. C. D. AMmodulator Crystalrectifier Ptypesemiconductor Germaniumrectifier

5.

In comparing the junction transistor with a junction diode, the junctiontransistor A. B. C. D. cannothandleasmuchpower. hasalowersignaltonoiseratio. hasagreatersignaltonoiseratio. hasonePNjunction.

6.

WhichisNOTafunctionofatransistor? A. B. C. D. Oscillation Waveformshaping Divider Modulationanddemodulation

7.

Whichisasemiconductormaterial? A. B. C. D. Copper Germanium Porcelain Gold

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8.

Transistorsareanimprovementovervacuumtubesbecauseof A. B. C. D. ruggedness. compactness. durability. alloftheabove.

9.

How does the noise level of a transistor used at high frequencies comparewithatransistorusedatlowfrequencies? A. B. C. D. Lower Higher Same Aboutdouble

10.

When comparing transistor operation with tube operation, which is true? A. B. C. D. Highercurrentandvoltagesareneeded Maybeoperatedwithsmallercircuitparts Transistorsrequiremoreconnectingwires Transistorsgeneratemoreheat

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LESSON 2.

THEORY OF TRANSISTORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS

MMS Subcourse Number 701............... Lesson Objective.......................

Transistors and Semiconductors To introduce the student to transistors and Semiconductors to include description, construction, and theory of operation. Three

Credit Hours...........................

TEXT

1.

CRYSTALS, DONORS, ACCEPTORS, AND HOLES.

a. General. In order to examine and discuss the theory of semiconductors, it is necessary to consider the nature of crystals. Most solids, except those that have a biological structure of cells such as the leavesoftreesandbones,haveacrystalstructure.Infact,manysubstances canbeseentohaveaspecificcrystalpatternwhenviewedthroughamicroscope. Theycanbeidentifiedbytheanglesandplanesoftheirsurfaceareas:some crystalmaterialsformascubes;andsomeformaslongneedlesandvariationsof hexagonalstructures.Whenasemiconductordeviceisexamineditisnotpossible toseethecrystal.Therefore,theatomicstructureofselectedcrystalswill bediscussedinordertobetterunderstandhowsemiconductorswork. b. Atomic Structure and Valence Electrons.

(1) Atomicstructure. Tobeginthediscussionofsemiconductors itisnecessarytolookattheatomicstructureofgermanium,silicon,aluminum, andphosphorous. NOTE In this discussion only the interaction of electrons and protons will be covered. Other particles within the atom are of no importance in this explanation. (a) Germanium atom. Part A of figure 21 shows that the nucleusorcoreoftheatomcontains32protonsorpositiveparticles;italso has41neutronsorneutralparticles.Notice,also,thatthereare32electrons ornegativeparticlesthattravelaroundthenucleusinfourrings(shells).

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Figure 2-1.

Structure of atoms.

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1. In its normal state the atom is electrically neutral; the number of negative particles (electrons) equals the number of positiveparticles(protons). Theinnerthreeringsarecompletewithatotal of28tightlyboundelectrons.Theouterringisincompleteandhasonlyfour electrons.Theseelectronsintheouterringarecalledvalenceelectrons;they arefreetomovearoundwithinthecrystalstructure. 2. The outer ring of a single germanium atom is incompletewithonlyfourelectrons.Itsouterringwouldbecompletewitheight electrons.Theproblemtherefore,istoincreasethenumberofelectronsinthe outerring. 3. Thesolutionistoallowthesingleatomtoshare its valence electrons with other adjacent atoms. Fortunately, the valence electronsattempttopairoffwiththoseofanotheratomtocompletetheouter shell. When this happensand atoms arebound together throughtheir valence electrons,itiscalledanelectronpairbond. Amorecommontermforatoms sharingelectronsinthismanneriscovalentbonding.

Figure 2-2.

Covalent bond structure of a perfect germanium or silicon crystal.

4. Figure22showsthecovalentbondingofadjacent atoms,hereeachatomsharesitsvalenceelectrons.Thenumberfourwithinthe nucleusindicatesthenumberofelectronsintheouterring. Notethatthis discussionisreallyaboutthevalenceelectronsonly,andtheotherelectrons ontheinnerringsoftheatomsareoflittleconcern.

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(b) Silicon atom. The silicon atom contains 14 electrons (B,figure21).Thesimilaritybetweenagermaniumatomandasiliconatomis that they both have four valence electrons. Semiconductor devices and transistorsmaybemadefromeithergermaniumorsiliconcrystals. (c) Aluminumatoms. Noticethatthereare13electronsin orbit(C,figure21).Thisatomcontainsthreevalenceelectrons. (d) Phosphorousatoms(D,figure21).Similartotheother atomsthathavebeencovered,itsouterringisalsoincomplete.Aphosphorous atomcontains5valenceelectrons. (2) Valenceelectrons. Thevalenceelectronsineachatomofa goodconductor,suchascopper,arelooselyboundtothenucleus. Underthe influence of an electric field, they move easily through the conductor. However,valenceelectronsthatarepartofacovalentbonddonotreadilybreak away from their bonds. That is why crystal materials such as germanium and siliconarepoorconductorsundernormalconditions. c. Electron Flow in Semiconductors.Sofar,onlytheatomicstructure ofsemiconductorsthatarenotinfluencedbyanyoutsideforcesuchasheator light,havebeenanalyzed.Withoutheatorlight,alloftheelectronsareheld in their orbits they are not able to break away to move within the crystal material.Therefore,semiconductorsatlowtemperaturesarenotexposedtoany otheroutsideforceareactuallynonconductors. (1) Atroomtemperaturethereisenoughheat(thermalenergy)to causethesemiconductorcrystalstovibrateandshakeloosesomeelectronsfrom theircovalentbonds. Thefewelectronssetloosearefreetomoveordrift aimlesslythroughoutthesemiconductorcrystal;theyarecalledfreeelectrons. (2) Afteranelectronbreaksawayfromitscovalentbond,theatom itleavesisthenmissingoneelectron.Theresultisthatwhentheatomloses one electron, it contains more protons (positive charges) than electrons (negativecharges). Thatparticularatomispositivelycharged. Butremember thatthefreeelectronisstillwithinthecrystalmaterialsothatthetotal numberofprotonsandelectronsinthecrystalstillbalanceeachother.Asfar as the overall piece of semiconductor material is concerned, it is still electricallyneutral.

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d. Electron-Hole Theory.Undercertainconditions,then,electronsmay breakawayfromtheirorbits.Thelossofanelectronintheouterringofan atomleavesaholeintheringandmakesthempositivelycharged.Thispositive atom may now attract an electron from another atom. When an electron from anotheratomfillstheholeofthepositivelychargedatom,wecansaythatthe firstatomisnowneutralandthesecondatomisnowapositivelychargedatom. (1) Aselectronstravelfromoneatomtoanother,theyfillthe holesinsomeatomsandleaveholesinotheratoms.Basically,twothingsare occurring: electronsare moving inone direction andholes are movingin the oppositedirection. (2) In A, figure 23, an electron leaves atom "A", making it a positivelychargedatom. Anelectronfromatom"E"breaksawayandfillsthe firstholeleavingthesecondatomwithahole. (3) In B,figure 23, thehole has movedfrom atom "A"to atom "E".Anelectronleavingatom"B"willfilltheholeinatom"E". (4) InC,figure23,anelectronfromatom"C"willfillthehole inatom"B",neutralizingthatatomandleavingaholeinatom"C". (5) D and E, figure 23, show additional hole and electron movementbetweenatom"C"andatom"H". (6) Noticethatthemovementofholesisoppositetothedirection ofthemovementoftheelectrons. Thecrystalmaterialisstillelectrically neutral,andthereisonefreeelectronatoneendofthecrystalandonehole attheotherend(F,figure23). e. Impurities.

(1) General. It is possible for atoms of elements, other than germaniumandsilicon,tojointhecrystalstructure.Theseelementsareadded intentionallyduringtheprocessingofgermaniumorsiliconandarereferredto asimpurities.

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(2) Donorandacceptorimpurities.Twogroupsofelementscanbe addedtothecrystalstructureofeithergermaniumorsilicon.Theelementsin onegrouparecalleddonors;inthesecondgrouptheyarecalledacceptors.

(a) Adonorelementoratomisclassifiedassuchbecauseit hasfivevalenceelectrons.Commondonorelementsarearsenic,phosphorous,and antimony(A,figure24). Whenadonoratomiscomparedwithagermaniumor siliconatom,anadditionalvalenceelectronisfound(AandB,figure24). (b) An acceptor element contains only three valence electrons.Aluminum,boron,galliumandindiumaretypesofacceptoratoms(C, figure 24). When the acceptor atom is compared with either germanium or silicon,onelessvalenceatomisfound.Thismissingatomisthenreferredto asahole(BandC,figure24). f. N-type Semiconductor Materials use Donor Impurities.

(1) Figure25showsasemiconductorcrystalinwhichoneofthe semiconductor atoms has been replaced by a donor atom. The donor impurity containsfivevalenceelectrons.Notethatfourofthevalenceelectronsforma covalentbondwithelectronsoffourofitsneighbors. Theelectronsofthe semiconductoratomsanddonoratomsthatenterintothecovalentbondsformvery stablestructuresandarenotreadilydisplaced. (2) The fifth valence electron of the donor atom cannot form a covalentbondandthenucleusofthedonoratomhasaveryweakinfluenceover thisexcesselectron.Theexcesselectron,therefore,ismobileandiscalleda free electron. At normalroom temperature, enoughthermal or heatenergy is presenttocausethisexcesselectrontobreakawayfromthedonoranddrift through the crystal structure. The result is that for each donor atom, we obtainwhatmaybeconsideredonefreeelectron. (3) Germaniumorsiliconmaterialcontainingdonorimpuritiesis referredtoasNtypematerial.TheletterNreferstothenegativechargeof the excess or free electrons. Impurities are added to Ntype semiconductor material in the proportion of one atom to several million semiconductor (germanium,silicon)atoms.

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Figure 2-3.

Movement of hole through crystal.

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Figure 2-4.

Comparing the valence of several atoms.

Figure 2-5. Semiconductor crystal with a donor atom.

Figure 2-6. Semiconductor crystal with an acceptor atom.

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(4) Aftertheexcessorfreeelectronleavesthedonoratom,the donor atom has a positive charge. This positive charge is balanced in the crystalstructurebythenegativechargeofthefreeelectron.Rememberthatan atomthateithergainsorlosesanelectroniscalledanion. (5) Notethatthesemiconductormaterialthatcontainsadonorion (positive)willalsocontainafreeelectron(negative). Thecrystalmaterial takenasawhole,therefore,iselectricallyneutral: ithasanetchargeof zero. g. P-type Semiconductor Materials Use Acceptor Materials.

(1) Figure26showsasemiconductorcrystalinwhichoneofthe semiconductor atoms has been replaced by an acceptor atom. The acceptor impurity contains three valence electrons that form covalent bonds with electronsofneighboringatoms. (2) Onevalenceelectronofthefourthneighboringsemiconductor atom cannotform a covalentbond because theacceptor has onlythree valence electrons. The position that would normally be filled with an electron is designatedahole. (3) Itispossibleforanelectronfromanadjacentcovalentbond toabsorbenoughenergytobreakitsbondandfillthehole.Whenthishappens, theholemovestoanewpositionandtwoimportantchangestakeplace. (a) Thefirstchangeisthattheacceptoratomisionized. Theacceptorhasacquired(oraccepted)anelectronandisnowanegativeion. (b) Thesecondchangeisthatthesemiconductoratom,which requiresfourvalenceelectrons,isleftwithonlythreevalenceelectrons.The semiconductoratom,lackinganelectron,hasanetpositivechargeequivalentto thenegativechargeoftheelectron.Thepositiveholemoveswithinthecrystal inthesamemannerthatafreeelectronmoveswithinthecrystal.Theconcept ofholesandtheirmovementisveryimportantinunderstandingtheoperationof transistors. (4) Notethatthesemiconductorcrystalthatcontainsanacceptor ion (negative) also contains a hole (positive). The entire semiconductor crystaltherefore,hasanetchargeofzero. (5) Germanium orsilicon crystals containingacceptor impurities are referred to as Ptype material. The letter "P" refers to the positive chargeofthehole.

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h. Electrons and Holes as Current Carriers.Whenavoltageisapplied across a semiconductor, conduction occurs by electron and hole movements. Electrons(negativecharges)areattractedbythepositivevoltageandrepelled by the negative voltage. Holes (positive charges) move in the opposite directionfromtheelectrons.Holesareattractedbythenegativevoltageand arerepelledbythepositivevoltage(A,figure27). (1) Electrons are attracted to the positive terminal of the battery(B,figure27). Foreveryelectronthatleavesthecrystal,another electronentersitfromthenegativeterminalofthebattery. (2) Whenanelectronleavesthecrystalitleavesaholebehind (C,figure27).Theholesleftbehindandallotherholesinthecrystalare attractedtothenegativeterminal(D,figure27). (3) Noticethatholesdonotflowintothebatterybutmoveonly insidethecrystal.Astheholesarriveatthenegativeterminaltheycombine with the incoming electrons. For every electron that leaves the crystal, anotherelectronentersandfillstheholethatitleavesbehind. (4) IfwereversethebatteryacrossasinglepieceofeitherN orPtypematerial,theamountofcurrentwillremainthesame.Electronswill stillmovetowardsthepositivebatteryterminalsandholeswillmovetowards thenegativebatteryterminal. Reversingthebatteryinfigure27willonly reversethedirectionofmovementoftheelectronsandholes. i. Majority and Minority Current Carriers.

(1) Ntype semiconductor material. The process of adding impuritiestoasemiconductoriscalleddopingandNtypematerialhasmanyfree electrons as a result of doping. A, figure 28, shows Ntype material containing many free electrons and a few holes. Holes exist in the Ntype material due to the breaking away of valence electrons when the material is subjectedtoheat,light,oranappliedvoltage. (a) The dashedlines indicate theformation of ahole and the valence electron that produced the hole. If the holes and the valence electronswithinthedashedlineswererecombined,onlythefreeelectronsfrom thedonoratomswouldbepresent. (b) B, figure 28, shows the same charges except that electronsareshownasnegativeparticlesandholesaspositiveparticles.If thenumberofpositiveholesandnegativeelectronsarecounted,itwillshow manymoreelectronsthanholes.

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Figure 2-7.

Conduction in N- or P-type semiconductor material.

Figure 2-8.

N-type semiconductor.

Figure 2-9.

P-type semiconductor.

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(c) WhenavoltageisappliedtotheNtypematerial,most of the current within the crystal is caused by the movement of electrons. Electrons are the majority current carriers in Ntype material. Some holes, however,alsocauseasmallcurrent;theyaretheminoritycurrentcarriers. (2) Ptype semiconductor material. As a result of doping (addition of acceptor atoms), Ptype material contains many free holes. A, figure29,showstheholesandalsoelectronandholecombinations(withinthe dashedlines)formedbyelectronsbreakingtheircovalentbonds.Theholesand electronsinthesamematerialareshownasnegativeandpositivechargesinB offigure29. (a) WhenavoltageisappliedtothePtypematerial,more holesmovethanelectronsbecauseitcontainsmoreholes. (b) Thus,themajoritycurrentcarriersinPtypematerial areholes;theminoritycurrentcarriersareelectrons.

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Figure 2-10.

PN junction.

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2.

PN JUNCTIONS.

a. PN Junction Fundamentals. WhentwosmallpiecesofNtypeandP typegermaniumorsiliconarebroughttogether,theircontactingsurfacesare calledaPNjunction. AnunusualandveryimportantactionoccursatthePN junction. This action at the junction ((1) through (6) below) permits the semiconductorstoduplicatetheoperationofmostelectrontubes. (1) InA,figure210,apieceofNtypematerialandapieceof Ptypematerialareshownjoined.Thesurfaceareasofthematerialsincontact witheachotheriscalledthejunction,hencethenamePNjunction.Notethatin figure 210 there are no external circuits or voltages connected to the semiconductormaterial. (2) Within each piece of semiconductor material, there is a constantmovementofelectronsandholesduetothermalenergy.Thismovement intheabsenceofanappliedelectricalfieldiscalleddiffusion.Lookingat thetwopiecesofmaterialthatwerejoined,wemightexpectalltheelectrons intheNtypematerialtocrossthejunctionandcombinewithalloftheholes inthePtypematerial. Andsomeelectronsdocrossthejunction. Butwhen theydo,theyproduceadepletionregion.Adepletionregionistheregionthat occursatthePNjunctioncausedbytheformationofnegativeandpositiveions. The depletion region prevents the free electrons in the Ntype material from combiningwiththefreeholesinthePtypematerial. (3) B and C, figure 210, shows that at the junction, the free electronofthedonoratomdiffuses(moves)towardtheholeintheacceptoratom andcombineswiththehole.Afteritlosesanelectron,thedonoratombecomes apositiveion(positivelychargedparticle).Also,theacceptoratomgainsan electronandbecomesanegativeion(negativelychargedparticle).D,figure2 10, shows the positive ion produced in the N material and the negative ion producedinthePmaterial. (4) E and F, figure 210, shows a second electron in the N material combining with a hole in the P material, producing another set of positiveandnegativeions.Thisactionwillcontinueforashorttimeinthe immediatevicinityofthejunctionuntilanumberofpositiveandnegativeions formonbothsidesofthejunction(G,figure210).Thisareaatthejunction is called the depletion region. The number of ions in the depletion region remainsfixed;theydonotcontributetocurrentthroughthesemiconductor.

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(5) Afterthedepletionregionisformed,anyadditionalelectrons that try to move across the junction are repelled by the negative ions now presentinthePmaterial(H,figure210).Asaresult,furtherrecombination ofelectronsandholesacrossthejunctioncannotoccur. (6) Thechargedatomsorionswithinthedepletionregionproduce thesameeffectasconnectingatinybatteryacrossthePNjunction.Ineffect, thepositiveterminalofthe"battery"isconnectedtotheNmaterialandits negative terminal to the P material (figure 211). That's why the voltage developed across the depletion region is called a potential barrier. The physicalwidthofthedepletionregionisverynarrowand,withgermanium,it producesonlyaveryweakpotentialbarrier,approximately0.1volt. Silicon requires600mV.

Figure 2-11.

Potential barrier across depletion region.

b. PN Junction Basic Diode Operation.Adiodeisthesimplestformof a semiconductor device and contains two elements (cathode and anode). A semiconductordiodecircuitiseasilyconstructedbyconnectingabatteryacross thePandNtypesemiconductormaterials.Byconnectingthepositiveterminal of the battery to the P material and the negative battery terminal to the N material, we cause a current to flow (A, figure 212). This method of connectingPNdiodesiscalledforwardbias. Biasisthedcvoltageexisting betweentwopointssuchasthecathodeandanodeofadiodeorbetweenthebase andemitterofatransistor.Biasisusuallydevelopedbyabiasvoltage.The totalbiasvoltageisequaltothebiasbatteryvoltageplustheappliedsignal voltage.Forwardbiasoccurswhenabatteryisconnectedacrossasemiconductor diodesothatalargecurrentflows.Reversingthepolarityofthebattery(B, figure 212)allows so littlecurrent to flowthat the amountis negligible. ThismethodofconnectingPNdiodesiscalledreversebias.

MMS 701, 2-P15

c.

PN Junction, Forward Bias.

(1) When an external battery is connected to a PN junction as shown in figure 213, current will flow. Electrons in the N material are repelledbythenegativeterminalofthebatteryandmovetowardsthejunction. HolesinthePmaterialarerepelledbythepositiveterminalofthebatteryand move towards the junction. Because of their acquired energy caused by the battery, many of the holes and free electrons are able to penetrate the depletion region and combine with their counterparts in the opposite type of material. (2) Foreachelectronthatcrossesthejunctionandcombineswith aholeinthePmaterial,anelectronenterstheNmaterialfromthenegative terminalofthebattery.EachelectronthatenterstheNmaterialmovestowards thejunction. Similarly,anelectronfromacovalentbondinthePmaterial, nearthepositivebatteryterminal,willbreakitsbondandenterthepositive batteryterminal. Foreachelectronthatbreaksitsbond,aholeiscreated whichmovestowardsthejunction. Recombination(electronsfillingholes)in and about the depletion region continues as long as the external battery is connected. (3) ThecurrentinthePmaterialconsistsofholes. Whenthis condition is achieved, the PN junction is said to biased in the forward direction.Thereisacontinuouselectroncurrentintheexternalcircuitandif the forward bias is increased (battery voltage increased), the current will increase.

Figure 2-12.

Forward and reverse biased diodes.

Figure 2-13.

Forward biased diode.

MMS 701, 2-P16

Figure 2-14.

Reverse biased diode.

(4) Normally,1to1voltsareusedtoforwardbiasaPNjunction diode. Iftoomuchforwardbiasisapplied,toomuchcurrentwillflow. The excessivecurrentwillcauseincreasingthermalagitationoftheatomsinthe semiconductoruntilthecrystalstructureofthediodebreaksdown. d. PN Junction, Reverse Bias.

(1) If the bias is reversed in a PN junction diode, the holes (majority current carriers) in the P material are attracted by the negative terminal of the battery; they move away from the junction (figure 214). Electrons (majority current carriers) in the N material are attracted by the positiveterminalofthebattery;theyalsomoveawayfromthejunction.Since thereareveryfew,ifany,holesorelectronsleftatthejunction,veryfew recombinationsoccurhere. (2) ThereversebiasedconditionattractsholesawayfromthePN junctioninthePmaterialcausingthatsideofthedepletionregiontobecome morenegative.Also,theelectronsleavingthejunctionintheNmaterialcause amorepositivechargeofthedepletionregionintheNmaterial(figure215). Sincethedepletionregionincreases,thepotentialbarrieralsoincreasesuntil itsvoltageequalstheexternallyappliedvoltage.Littleornocurrentflows becausethetwovoltagesopposeeachother.

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(3) Itispossibletoapplyareversebiasvoltagelargerthanthe potentialbarrier;however,thecrystalstructureofthediodewillbreakdown. If it is not damaged, the crystal structure will return to normal when the excessreversebiasisremoved. Infactsome diodesarespeciallymadeto operateinthisbreakdownregion.

Figure 2-15.

Reverse bias effect on depletion region.

e. Characteristic Diode Curve. Figure 216 is a curve of a PN semiconductordiodeshowingcurrentversusappliedvoltage. Notethatcurrent in the forward bias condition is high (measured in milliamperes). However, currentwithreversebias,althoughlow(measuredinmicroamperes)isnotzero. Ifthereversebiasishighenough,thejunctionbarrierbreaksdownandreverse currentincreasestoahighvaluereferredtoastheavalanchecurrent.Notice thatthevalueofavalanchecurrentcanvaryoverawiderangeasshownbetween points 1 and 2 without any change in voltage. This is known as the "Zener effect"andisusedforvoltageregulation. 3. TRANSISTORS. a. General

MMS 701, 2-P18

Figure 2-16.

Current flow in a PN semiconductor diode.

Figure 2-17.

Two diode sections of a transistor.

(1) Basically a transistor is a combination of two PN junction diodes (figure 217). One PN junction is forward biased and the other is reversebiased. (2) ByjoiningtwoPNjunctiondiodesatthePmaterialsurfacesa NPNtransistorisproduced(A,figure218). WhenjoinedattheNmateriala PNPtransistorresults(B,figure218).Onceformed,thedifferentsectionsof thetransistorareidentifiedbytheterms:emitter,base,andcollector. b. Emitter, Base, and Collector.

(1) Emitter.Thefunctionoftheemittersectionofatransistor istoemiteitherelectrons(majoritycurrentcarriers)inanNPNtransistoror holes Figure 218. Bias methods for NPN and PNP transistors. in a PNP transistor.Whenelectronsorholesleavetheemitter,theyareforcedthrough thebasesectiontowardsthecollector.

MMS 701, 2-P19

Figure 2-18. Bias Methods for NPN and PNP transistors. (2) Base. An important physical characteristic of the base is that it is extremely thin compared to the emitter and collector. It has a maximumthicknessof1/1000inch(figure219).Thebasehastwojunctions:an emittertobasejunction,andabasetocollectorjunction.

Figure 2-19.

Transistor construction.

(3) Collector.Dependingonthetypeoftransistor,thefunction of the collector is to collect either the electrons or the holes from the emittersection. c. NPN Transistor.

(1) As shownin figure 220,the emittertobase junctionof an NPN transistor must be forward biased. Electrons are the majority current carriersandcurrentflowsfromtheemittertothebase.Electronsthatenter thebaseareameettwoattractingforces:oneforceisthepositiveterminalof theemittertobasebattery;andtheotheristhepositiveterminalofthebase tocollectorbattery.

MMS 701, 2-P20

(2) Theemittertobasebatteryiscalledthebiasbatteryandhas a verylow voltage, forexample, 0.1 volt. The basetocollectorbattery is called thecollector battery andprovides a highervalue of voltagethan the biasbattery,forexample,6volts. (3) Electrons enter the base traveling at a high speed. Approximately 92%to 98% ofthem are attractedby the highervalue collector batteryvoltageandtravelthroughthebasetothecollector.Becausethebase crystalisextremelythin,electronsleavingtheemitterfinditeasytopass through it towards the collector. Some of the electrons, however, do not penetrate the base and are attracted to the positive terminal of the bias battery.Thesefewelectronsprovideaverysmallbasecurrent. (4) The electronsthat pass throughthe collector andenter the collectorbatteryproduceacollectorcurrent. Everyelectronthatleavesthe collectormustbereplacedbyanelectronfromtheemitter,andeveryelectron thatleavestheemittermustbereplacedbyanelectronfromthebiasbattery. Thisineffectproducesacontinuouselectronflow. (5) Atthispointthequestionmayariseofwhytwobatteriesand two PN junctions are necessary, when it appears that one battery and one PN junction also produces a continuous current. The most important thing to remember aboutNPN and PNPtransistors is thatthe bias batterycontrols the amount of collector current. If the bias battery voltage is increased by a smallamount,moreelectronsleavetheemitterandproducealargercollector current. Decreasing the biasvoltage decreases thecollector current. In a laterlesson,howtoreplacethebiasbatterywithavoltagedividernetworkor withasignalvoltage,willbeshown.Thesignalvoltagecontrolstheactionat theforwardbiasedemittertobasejunctionandproducesanamplifiedsignalin thecollectorcircuit.

MMS 701, 2-P21

Figure 2-20. d.

Movement of charges in the NPN transistor.

PNP Transistor.

(1) In thePNP transistor, theemitter and collectorare Ptype materialandthebaseisNtypematerial.Duringoperation,theemittertobase junctionisforwardbiased(figure221)andthebasetocollectorjunctionis reversebias(similartotheNPNtransistor).Theemitterisconnectedtothe positive side of the bias battery, and the collector is connected to the negativesideofthecollectorbattery. (2) The majority carriers in the PNP transistor are holes. Electrons flow from the external circuit into the collector and out of the emitter(disregardingthesmallbasecurrent). (3) Forwardbiasontheemittertobasejunctioncausesholesto acceleratetowardsthebase.Mostoftheholespenetratethethinbasecrystal and enter the collector. Holes that arrive in the collector are filled by electronscomingfromthenegativecollectorbatteryterminal.Theseelectrons move through the thin base crystal towards the emitter. In addition a few electronsenterthebasefromthebiasbatteryandcombinewiththoseholesthat donotpenetratethroughtothecollector.

Figure 2-21.

Movement of charges in a PNP transistor.

MMS 701, 2-P22

(4) Alloftheelectronsthatarriveattheemitterareattracted tothepositiveterminalofthebiasbattery. Everyelectronthatflowsfrom theemitterintothebiasbatteryleavesaholeinitsplace. Theholesthen movethroughtothebase,tothecollector,wheretheyrecombinewithelectrons enteringthecollector.AswiththeNPNtransistor,asmallsignalvoltagemay beappliedinplaceofthebiasbatterytoproduceanamplifiedsignalatthe collectoroutput. e. Comparing the Operation of NPN and PNP Transistors.

(1) NPNtransistors.TheoperationoftheNPNtransistordepends on electrons flowing through the crystal material and through the external circuit outside of the crystal material. Electrons enter the emitter, are forcedthroughthebase,andenterthecollector. Afewelectronsdonotget throughandleavethetransistorasasmallbasecurrent.Themajorityofthe electrons leave the collector as collector current to perform an amplifying functionintheexternalcircuit(A,figure222). (2) PNP transistor. The PNP transistor also depends upon electronsthatflowthroughthesemiconductormaterialandtheexternalcircuit. Sincethetransistorcrystalsectionsarereversed,theelectronflowiscaused bythemovementofholesandisreversed(B,figure222).Electronsenterthe collector, flow through the transistor, and leave the emitter to perform an amplifyingfunctionintheexternalcircuit.

Figure 2-22.

NPN-PNP electron flow.

MMS 701, 2-P23

MMS SUBCOURSE NUMBER 701, TRANSISTORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS EXERCISES FOR LESSON 2

1.

Howmanynegativeparticlesarefoundinasiliconatom? A. B. C. D. 32 41 28 14

2.

Whichatomhastheleastelectrons? A. B. C. D. Germanium Phosphorous Silicon Aluminum

3.

Whatisanothernamefortheouterringofelectronsinanatom? A. B. C. D. Nucleus Valence Proton Neutron

4.

Whatisanothernameforanelectronpairbond? A. B. C. D. Valence Acceptor Covalent Mobile

5.

Whichisadonoratom? A. B. C. D. Arsenic Aluminum Boron Gallium

6.

Whatisthechargeofanatomthatlosesoneofitselectronsfromits outerring? A. B. C. D. Negative Neutral Positive Eitherpositiveornegative

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7.

Whatisanatomcalledthateithergainsorlosesanelectron? A. B. C. D. Neutron Ion Minoritycarrier Majoritycarrier

8.

Ifavalenceofanatomcontainsthreeelectronsitisreferredtoas A. B. C. D. donor. Ptype. Ntype. PNtype.

9.

Conductionacrossasemiconductoroccursbecause A. B. C. D. electron(positivecharges)arerepelledbythenegativevoltage. holes(positivecharges)areattractedbythenegativevoltage. holesandelectronsmoveinthesamedirection. holes(negativecharges)areattractedbythepositivecharge.

10.

IfcurrentisreversedacrossasinglepieceofNorPtypematerial theamountofcurrent A. B. C. D. increasesslightly. decreasesslightly. remainsthesame. isdoubled.

11.

Movement of holes and electrons in a PN junction with no external voltageappliedisknownas A. B. C. D. thermalmovement. diffusion. conduction. thestaticcharge.

12.

Whatistheapproximatebarrierpotential,involts,acrossagermanium semiconductorjunction? A. B. C. D. 0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0

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13.

Whatrelationshipdescribesthenormalstateofanatom? A. B. C. D. Thenumberofelectronsplusthenumberofprotonsequals thenumberofneutrons Thenumberofelectronsplusthenumberofneutronsequals thenumberofprotons Thenumberofelectronsequalsthenumberofneurons Thenumberofelectronsequalsthenumberofprotons

14.

WhatarethecurrentcarrierswhenpotentialisappliedacrossaN typegermaniummaterial? A. B. C. D. Bonds Holes Electrons Protons

15.

WhatoccursifareversebiasvoltageisappliedacrossaPNjunction diode? A. B. C. D. Biasvoltageincreases Biasvoltagedecreases Barrierpotentialdecreases Barrierpotentialincreases

16.

HowisaPNjunctiondiodeforwardbiased? A. B. C. D. Positiveterminalofabatteryisconnectedtothepositiveside ofthebarrierpotential Negative terminal of the battery is connected to the positive sideofthebarrierpotential NegativeterminalofabatteryisconnectedtothePtypeside ofthejunction PositiveterminalofabatteryisconnectedtotheNtypeside ofthejunction

MMS 701, 2-P26

17.

Whatsubatomicparticlesarefreetomovebackandforthacrossthe junctionintheformationofthedepletionregion? A. B. C. D. Freeelectronsandpositiveions Negativeionsandholes Positiveionsandnegativeions Freeelectronsandholes

18.

When the reverse bias of a PN junction is high enough to cause avalanche current, what is this also known as when used in voltage regulation? A. B. C. D. Saturation Cutoff Zenereffect Breakdown

19.

Whatisthemaximumthickness,ininches,ofthebaseinatransistor? A. B. C. D. 0.1 0.001 0.01 0.0001

20.

Normally,whatpercentageofelectronsareattractedtothecollector inanoperationalNPNtransistor? A. B. C. D. 97 3 50 85

MMS 701, 2-P27

LESSON 3.

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE RECTIFIERS AND TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER FUNDAMENTALS

MMS Subcourse Number 701............... Lesson Objective.......................

Transistors and Semiconductors To provide the student with a general knowledge of various types of semiconductor rectifier and regulator circuits and transistor amplifier fundamentals. Three

Credit Hours...........................

TEXT

1.

RECTIFIER CIRCUITS. a. General.

(1) The application of semiconductor diode rectifiers for power supplies in electronic equipment continues to increase. The advantages of semiconductor diode rectifiers are: their small physical size, immediate operation without any warmup time, low operating temperature, and no requirementforfilamentvoltages. Copperoxide,coppersulfide,andselenium rectifiers are used primarily in low voltage applications. However, as electronicdevicescontinuetobeimproved,semiconductorrectifiersarebeing designed to operate at higher voltages. The small physical size of semiconductor rectifiers,especially the silicontypes, makes itpractical to combinetheseunitsinseriestohandlehigherinputvoltages. (2) ThesymbolforasemiconductordioderectifierisshowninA, figure31.Thetermdiodeindicatesthattherearetwoelements,whichwecall thecathodeandtheanode.Thearrowheadistheanodeandtheshortlinethat touchesthearrowheadiscalledthecathode.Electronsflowfromthecathodeto theanodewhenthediodeisforwardbiased(B,figure31).Biasisthevoltage appliedbetweentwoelementsofthediode(cathodeandanode). Theanodeis positive in respect to the cathode and electron flow is opposite to the directionindicatedbytheanode.Whenthediodeisreversebiased,theanode isnegativeinrespecttothecathode;electronsdonotflowthroughthediode andthediodeissaidtobecutoff(C,figure31).

MMS 701, 3-P1

(3) Most of the electronic equipment used today requires direct current(dc)voltages. Analternatingcurrent(ac)powersourcesuppliesthe input power and it must be converted or rectified to dc (figure 32). The semiconductor diode rectifier changes the ac input to a pulsating dc voltage (figure 33). To produce a smooth dc voltage of constant amplitude, it is necessary to filter the pulsating dc. Filtering eliminates the rising and fallingofthepulsatingdcsignal(figure34).

Figure 3-1.

Semiconductor diode rectifier.

MMS 701, 3-P2

Figure 3-2.

Converting ac to pulsating dc.

Figure 3-3.

Types of pulsating dc.

MMS 701, 3-P3

Figure 3-4.

Filtering pulsating dc.

Figure 3-5.

Half-wave rectifier circuit.

b. Half-Wave Rectifier.Atypicalhalfwaverectifiercircuit(figure 35)hasatransformer(T1),adiode(CR1),aloadresistor(RL),andafilter capacitor(C1). (1) An ac source voltage is applied to the primary winding of transformerT1.Duringthepositivehalfcycle,pointWispositiveinrespect topointX(A, figure36).

Figure 3-6.

Rectifying the ac voltage (half-wave).

MMS 701, 3-P4

(2) Avoltageoftheoppositepolarityisinducedinthesecondary windingoftransformerT1,andpointYisnegativeinrespecttopoint2. A negativepotentialisthereforeappliedtotheanodeandapositivepotentialis appliedtothecathodeofdiodeCR1.Thediodeisreversebiasedanddoesnot conduct. No current flows through resistor RL, and there is no voltage developedacrossresistorRL. (3) As the ac source voltage across the primary winding is developedduringthenegativehalfcycle,pointWisnegativewithrespectto pointX(B,figure36).Avoltageoftheoppositepolarityisinducedonthe secondary windingof transformer T1,and point Yis positive withrespect to pointZ. DiodeCR1isnowforwardbiased. Currentflowsthroughthecircuit and develops a voltage across resistor RL. The voltage across the resistor followstheacsourcevoltageandispulsatingdc.FiltercapacitorC1charges tothevoltageleveldevelopedacrossRLthroughdiodeCR1(A,figure37), withpolarityasshown.

Figure 3-7.

Filter action.

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(4) While the ac source voltage is in its positive half cycle, diodeCR1isreversedbiased(similartotheopencontactsofaswitch).Filter capacitorC1dischargesthroughloadresistorRL,maintainingapositivevoltage attheoutputterminal(B,figure37).Whentheinputacsourcevoltagechanges to its negative half cycle, filter capacitor C1 charges back to the voltage levelacrosstheloadresistor. Sincethisisacontinuingactionaslongas the input voltage is applied, the filter capacitor continues to charge and discharge.Forallpracticalpurposes,thefilternetwork(RLandC1)changes thepulsatingdcfromthedioderectifiertoasmoothdcvoltageoutput(figure 38).

Figure 3-8.

The filter changes the pulsating dc to a smooth dc.

c. Full Wave Rectifier. Atypicalfullwaverectifiercircuithasa centertappedtransformerT1,twodiodes(CR1andCR2),aloadresistorRLanda filter capacitor (C1) (figure 39). The centertapped transformer supplies operatingvoltagesforthetwodiodes. Becauseoftheactionofthecenter tappedtransformer,onthepositivehalfcycleoftheacinput,onediodeis forwardbiasedandconducts.Theotherdiodeisreversebiasedandcutoff.On the negative half cycle of the ac input, the opposite occurs and the diodes switchconduction/cutoffstates. Followingisadescriptionofthefullwave rectifier.

Figure 3-9. (1) transformerT1.

Full-wave rectifier circuit.

An ac source voltage is applied to the primary winding of

(a) Duringthepositivehalfcycle,pointVispositivein respect to point W (A, figure 310). A voltage of the opposite polarity is inducedonthesecondarywindingofthetransformer,andpointXisthemost negative point, while point Z is the most positive point. Point X is more negativethanpointY,andpointYismorenegativethanpointZ.DiodeCR1is reversebiasedbecausethenegativevoltageatpointXisonitsanode;diode CR2isforwardbiasedbecausethepositivevoltageatpointZisonitsanode.

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(b) Current through the circuit develops a voltage across loadresistorRL.Thecurrentpathisfromthecentertopofthesecondaryof transformerT1(pointY)throughresistorRL,throughdiodeCR2,andbacktothe secondary.FiltercapacitorC1(figure39)chargestothevoltagelevelofthe load resistorthroughdiodeCR2. (2) Astheacsourcevoltagechangestoitsnegativehalfcycle, pointYisnegativeinrespecttopointW(B,figure310).

Figure 3-10.

Rectifying the ac voltage (full-wave).

(a) A voltage of the opposite polarity is induced on the secondarywindingandpointXisthemostpositivepoint,whilepointZisthe mostnegative.PointXisnowmorepositivethanpointY,andpointYismore positivethanpointZ. DiodeCR1isnowforwardbiasedbecausethepositive voltage at point X is on its anode and diode CR2 is reverse biased by the negativevoltageatpointZ. (b) Current through the circuit continues to develop a voltagedropacrossloadresistorRL. Thecurrentpaththistimeisfromthe centertapofthesecondaryofthetransformer(pointY)throughresistorRL, through diode CR1 back to the secondary. Thus, the polarity of the voltage acrossRListhesameduringtheentireacinputcycle.

MMS 701, 3-P7

(c) The pulsating voltage developed across RL attempts to followtheinputacvoltage(inthepositivedirection). However,duetothe charging and discharging of the filter capacitor C1, the valleys between the pulseswillbefilledin(figure311). Afterfiltering,thedcoutputofa fullwaverectifierissmootherthanthatofahalfwaverectifier.

Figure 3-11.

The filter changes the pulsating dc to a smooth dc.

d. Bridge Rectifier. A typical solidstate bridge rectifier circuit (figure 312) has a transformer (T1), four diodes (CR1 through CR4), a load resistor (RL),and a filtercapacitor (C1). The bridge rectifiercircuit is similarinoperationtothefullwaverectifier;however,itdoesnotrequirea centertappedsecondarywindingontheinputtransformerasdoesthefullwave rectifier. Itsoutputvoltageishigherthanthefullwaverectifierbecause thefullsecondarywindingvoltageisappliedtothesemiconductordiodes.

Figure 3-12.

Bridge rectifier circuit.

(1) During the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, a negativevoltageisinducedatpointY,andapositivevoltageisinducedat point Z (A, figure 313). Current flow is from the negative side of the secondary(pointY),throughdiodeCR1,throughloadresistorRL,throughdiode CR3backtothepositivesideofthesecondary(pointZ).Itappearsthatthe current leaving the top of the load resistor has two paths back to the secondary;onethroughdiodeCR3,andtheotherthroughdiodeCR4. Youmust rememberthatthecurrentstartedfromthemostnegativepointofthesecondary andhastoreturntothemostpositivepoint.Ifthepathwerethroughdiode CR4,thecurrentwouldbereturningtothemostnegativepointofthesecondary. IfyoulookatthevoltagesappliedtodiodeCR4,youwillseethatdiodeCR4is reversebiased(negativeonitsanodeandpositiveonitscathode)andisan opencircuittothecurrentfromtheloadresistor.Therefore,diodeCR3isthe returnpathforcurrent. Thevoltageacrosstheloadresistorfollowstheac sourcevoltageduringitspositivehalfcycle.

MMS 701, 3-P8

(2) During the negative half cycle of the ac input, point Y is positive in respect to point Z (B, figure 313). Current flows from the negative side of the secondary (point Z), through diode CR2, through load resistorRL,andthroughdiodeCR4backtothepositivesideofthesecondary (pointY). ThereturncurrentpathatthejunctionofdiodesCR3andCR4is similar tothat during thepositive halfcycle, exceptthat now diodeCR3 is reverse biased; it does not offer a return path back to the secondary. The voltagedevelopedacrosstheloadresistorwillfollowthesourcevoltagebutin the positive direction. In effect, the negative half cycle of the input is changedtoapositivehalfcycleattheoutput.Filteractionisthesameasin thefullwaverectifier.

Figure 3-13.

Rectifying the ac signal (bridge rectifier).

e. Voltage Doubler Circuits. Voltage doubler circuits produce a higherdcoutputvoltagethana conventionalrectifiercircuit. Thevoltage doublerisnormallyusedwhentheloadcurrentissmallandvoltageregulation isnotcritical;itcanbeusedasapowersupplyinsmalltransistorradios, and in some transmitters as a bias supply. As the term voltage doubler implies,theoutputvoltageisapproximatelytwicetheinputvoltage.Twotypes ofvoltagedoublerareused:thehalfwaveandthefullwave.

MMS 701, 3-P9

(1) Operation of a halfwave voltage doubler (A, figure 314). Duringthepositivehalfcycleoftheinputacvoltage,pointYisatanegative potentialandpointZisatapositivepotential(B.figure314).Currentflows (asindicatedbythearrows)fromthenegativeterminal(pointY)tocapacitor C1, through diode CR1, and back to the positive terminal of the secondary windingpointZ.CapacitorC1chargestoEC1(B,figure315),achargealmost equalthepeakvalueoftheinputsourcevoltage.Duringthenegativehalfof theinputcycle,thepolarityacrossthesecondarywindingchanges(C,figure3 14). The voltage (EC1) across C1 is in series with the voltage across the secondarywindingandaddstothepeakvalueoftheinputvoltage.Currentnow flowsfrompointZthroughtheloadresistor,andCR2,toC1andbacktopointY ofthesecondary.DuringthishalfcycleC2chargestoEC2whichisequaltothe peakvalueoftheinputvoltageplusthechargeacrossC1. ThechargeEC2is approximatelydoublethevalueoftheinputsourcevoltage.C2ischargedonly onalternatehalfcyclesoftheinputvoltage;itdischargesthroughtheload resistorandproducesoutputwaveform(C,figure315).

Figure 3-14.

Half-wave voltage doubler.

MMS 701, 3-P10

Figure 3-15.

Half-wave voltage doubler waveforms.

(2) Fullwave voltage doubler. The voltage regulation of the fullwavevoltagedoublerisbetterthanthatofthehalfwavevoltagedoubler becauseofthefullwaverectification. Thiscircuitisgenerallyusedwhere the load current is small and relatively constant. In the fullwave voltage doubler, capacitors C1 and C2 are charged on alternate half cycles of the applied voltage; then their charges are added together to provide the output voltagetotheload(A,figure316).

Figure 3-16.

Full-wave voltage doubler.

MMS 701, 3-P11

(a) AssumethattheacinputvoltagemakespointYpositive inrespecttopointZofthesecondarywindingoftransformerT1(B,figure3 16).CurrentflowsfromthenegativepointZtocapacitorC1,todiodeCR1,and back to the positive point of the secondary. This charges capacitor C1 to approximatelythepeakvalueoftheappliedacvoltage.B,figure317,shows howcapacitorC1charges.

Figure 3-17.

Full-wave voltage doubler waveforms.

(b) During the next half cycle, point Y is negative in respect to point Z (C, figure 316). Current now flows from point Y, to capacitorC2,andbacktothepositivesideofthesecondarywinding,point2. During this half cycle, capacitor C2 also changes (EC2) to approximately the peakvalueoftheinputacvoltage(C,figure317). (c) CapacitorsC1andC2areconnectedinseriesandtheir combined voltage appears across resistors R1 and R2. Therefore, the voltage acrossbothresistorsequalsthechargeonbothcapacitors.Sincetheloadis connectedinparallelwiththecapacitorandresistorcombination,theoutput voltagetotheloadisequaltoapproximatelytwicethepeakvoltageoftheac voltageinput(D,figure317).

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f. Zener Diode.Ifwereversebiasasemiconductordiode,currentdoes notstop;itcontinuesatalowrate(afewmicroamperes)untilthebiasis increasedtothediodebreakdownvoltage. Ifthereversebiasiscontinually increased beyond the breakdown point, current suddenly increases. This is called the avalanche effect: it will destroy the diode due to overheating exceptinthespecialcaseoftheZener diode. (1) The Zenerdiode is aPN junction diode. While itis being manufactured, it is modified so that its breakdown voltage level can be controlledoverarangeoffrom2.5voltstoabout200volts.EachZenerdiode hasitsownspecificbreakdownvoltage,dependingonhowitismade,andmustbe selectedforthedesiredoperatingvoltage.ThesymbolfortheZenerdiodeis showninfigure318.

Figure 3-18.

Zener diode symbol.

(2) AvoltageregulatingcircuitusingaZenerdiodeisshownin figure319.IftheZenerdiodebreakdownvoltageis10voltsandthevoltage applied to the circuit is 12 volts, then the diode will conduct. Since the diode is rated at 10 volts and 12 volts are applied, then 2 volts will be developedacrossresistorR2whichisinserieswiththediode. Thevoltage developedacrosstheloadwillbe10volts(loadresistorR1isinparallelwith the diode). If the applied voltage increases to 15 volts, the diode will continuetooperateatitsbreakdownvoltageof10volts.Thevoltageincrease, now5volts,willbedevelopedacrossresistorR2.Thevoltageacrosstheload willbemaintainedat10volts.Thus,anyvoltagechangeabove10voltsappears acrossseriesresistorR2andtheloadvoltageremainsconstant.

MMS 701, 3-P13

Figure 3-19.

Voltage regulating circuit with a Zener diode.

2.

SEMICONDUCTOR VOLTAGE REGULATOR. a. General.

(1) Itissaidthatthefilteredoutputofarectifiersuppliesa constant dc voltage. However, the voltage output of a power supply may not always be constant; it can vary with fluctuations in the load that it is supplying, in the power supply itself, and in input ac line voltage. To compensate for possible fluctuations, voltage regulator circuits have been developedtokeeptheoutputofapowersupplyataconstantlevel. (2) Generally, a voltage regulator is a variable resistance, in factorineffect,andisconnectedinseriesattheoutputoftherectifier filtercircuit. Theregulator(variableresistance)andtheload(resistance) formavoltagedivider. Thevoltageacrosstheloadcanbeheldconstantby controllingthevariableresistanceoftheregulator. b. Basic Voltage Regulator.Asshowninfigure320,variableresistor Randtheloadresistanceformavoltagedivideracrosstheoutputterminalsof thepowersupply.Outputcurrentfromthepowersupplypassesthroughboththe load and the variable resistor and develops a voltage across both. If the outputvoltageofthepowersupplyincreases,thevoltageacrosstheloadwill increase in proportion to its resistance. To counteract this increase in voltageacrosstheload,theresistanceofRcanbeincreasedtodropmoreof theoutputvoltageacrossit. Thus,thevoltageacrosstheloadcanbeheld constant by varying the resistance of R each time the output voltage of the powersupplychanges.Toregulatetheoutputofthecircuitinfigure320,it wouldbenecessarytomonitorvoltmeterVconstantlyandmanuallyincreaseor decreasetheresistanceofReachtimetheoutputtriedtochange.

MMS 701, 3-P14

Figure 3-20.

Basic regulator circuit.

Thissametypeofactiontakesplaceinavoltageregulatorcircuit,exceptthat oncetheoutputvoltageissetatadesiredvalue,theactionoftheregulator isautomatic. c. Transistorized Voltage Regulator. TransistorQ1infigure321is calledaseriesregulatorbecauseitisconnectedinserieswithonesideofthe filtered output of the power supply. Transistor Q2 controls the amount of current through transistor Q1. By controlling the current through Q1, the resistance is also controlled. The more current that flows through Q1, the lower will be its resistance; the less current through Q1, the higher its resistance. The Zener diode and resistor R1 are used to provide a constant referencevoltageforthebaseoftransistorQ2.

Figure 3-21.

Transistor voltage regulator circuit.

(1) To see how this automatic voltage regulator circuit works, assumethattheoutputvoltagefromthepowersupplyincreases2volts.The2 volt increase is applied to the emitter of Q2, but the base voltage on Q2 remainssteadybecauseoftheZenerdiode. Theincreasedpositivevoltageon theemitterofQ2causesQ2toconductlessanditscollectorvoltagerisesina positivedirection.ThehigherpositivecollectorvoltageofQ2causesthebase ofQ1tobecomemorepositive,ineffectincreasingreversebiasonthebaseof Q1.Withahigherreversebias,theinternalresistanceofQ1risesjustenough todevelopanadditional2voltdropacrossittoabsorbthe2voltincreasein theoutputofthepowersupply.

MMS 701, 3-P15

(2) If the output voltage from the power supply drops 2 volts, thentheoppositeactionstakeplace. TheresistanceofQ1decreasessothat morecurrentissuppliedtotheloadandkeepstheloadvoltageconstant. In this case, the lower output voltage of the power supply is applied to the emitter of Q2. With its emitter voltage less positive (more negative), Q2 conductsmoreanditscollectorvoltagebecomeslesspositive(morenegative). The collector voltage from Q2 decreases the reverse bias of Q1; Q1 conducts more,itsinternalresistancedecreases,andallowsmorecurrenttobesupplied totheload. (3) Although theregulator circuit reactionsin a. andb. above happen inthe described sequence,they are instantaneous. The loaddoes not feel the fluctuations in the power supply and the voltage across the load remainsconstant.Atthesametime,variationsintheloaditselfproducethe same reactions in the regulator as if the output of the power supply were fluctuating. A decrease in the load (lower resistance, less voltage drop) causesthevoltageregulatortoreactasiftheoutputofthepowersupplytried to increase. An increase in the load produces an opposite reaction by the regulator. d. A Modified Voltage Regulator Circuit.Figure322showsaslightly modified version of the transistorized voltage regulator circuit. The differencesbetweenthiscircuitandtheonecoveredinparagraph2care: a ZenerdiodeprovidesaconstantvoltageontheemitteroftransistorQ2;and,a portion of variations of the load voltage is used to change the bias of transistor Q2. (1) AssumethatthevoltageacrossloadresistorsR2andR3tries to increase because of an increase in the output of the power supply. Immediately,thebaseofQ2becomesmorenegativeandcausesQ2toconductmore. ThecollectorvoltageofQ2becomesmorepositive(lessnegative)andincreases thereversebiasatthebaseofQ1.Q1conductsless;itsinternalresistance increases,causinganincreasedvoltagedropacrossQ1.Thisincreasedvoltage dropdecreasestheoutputofthepowersupply. Thustheloadvoltageremains constant. (2) If the voltage across the load tries to decrease, Q2 will conduct less. The collectorof Q2 willbecome more negative,increasing the forwardbiasofQ1.TransistorQ1willconductmoreanditsinternalresistance will decrease. Since less voltage will be developed across Q1, the voltage acrosstheloadwillremainconstant.

MMS 701, 3-P16

Figure 3-22.

Modified voltage regulated circuit.

3. TRANSISTOR SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS. The symbols used for PNP and NPN transistorsonschematicdiagramsareinfigure323.TheletterQfollowedby anumberdesignatesaparticulartransistoronaschematic.Asanexample,Q4is transistornumber4.ThesymbolalsoindicatesifthetransistorisanNPNora PNP.Theemittersymbolalwayshasanarrowheadthateitherpointsintoorout ofthetransistor. a. Pointing iN P.Ifthearrowheadpointsintothetransistor,thisis the symbol for a PNP transistor (A, figure 323). Within a PNP transistor, holes(majoritycurrentcarriers)mustflowfromtheemittertothecollector, sothecollectormustbenegativewithrespecttotheemitter.Intheexternal circuit, electrons flow opposite to the direction of the emitter arrow (B, figure323). b. Not Pointing iN. If the emitter arrow does not point into the transistor,thisisthesymbolofanNPNtransistor(C,figure323).Withina NPNtransistor,electrons(majoritycurrentcarriers)mustflowfromemitterto collector,sothecollectormustbepositivewithrespecttotheemitter. In theexternalcircuit,electronsflowoppositetothedirectionoftheemitter arrow(D,figure323).

MMS 701, 3-P17

Figure 3-23.

Transistor schematic symbols.

4. AMPLIFIER CONFIGURATIONS. Transistoramplifiersmaybeconnectedinany oneofthreebasicconfigurations.Theyarethecommonemitter(CE),thecommon base(CB),andthecommoncollector(CC).Thesethreearrangementscorrespondto three similar electron tube circuits. The common emitter is similar to a conventional amplifier. The common base is similar to a grounded grid amplifier. Thecommoncollectorissimilartoacathodefollower. Theterm common(orgrounded)indicatesthattheparticularelementofthetransistoris associatedwithboththeinputandoutputsignals. 5. COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER. Inthecommonemitteramplifiercircuit,the inputsignalisinjectedintothebaseandtheoutputsignalistakenfromthe collector.Mostcommonemitteramplifiersgivevoltagegains(amplifiedoutput signals)of300to1000.Thereisapolarityreversalinthisconfiguration;the outputsignalisoppositetotheinputsignalinpolarity. a. NPN Transistor in a Common Emitter Circuit. A basic NPN common emitteramplifierisshowninA,figure324.Electronflowisinthedirection ofthesmallarrows.Itworksasfollows: (1) Nosignalinput. Assumethatthereisnoinputsignal;the circuitisoperatinginitssteadyorquiescent(nosignal)state.Thebaseis atsomepositivepotentialcomparedtotheemitter,theamountdependingupon the values of the bias battery and base resistor (RB). Current through the transistordevelopsavoltageacrosstheloadresistor(RL).Sincethepositive terminalofthecollectorbatteryisinserieswithRLandthecollector,the voltage developed across RL lowers the positive potential at the collector. Notethatthevoltageacrosstheloadresistoropposesthecollectorbattery. For example, if the collector battery voltage is 24 volts and RL develops a voltagedropof12volts,thenthevoltageatthecollectoris+12volts.This isthesteadystate(nosignal)valueofcollectorvoltage.Ifthetransistor isallowedtoconductmore,thenRLwilldevelopalargervoltagedropandthe positivepotentialatthecollectorwillbelower.Ifthetransistorconducts less, then RL develops less voltage and the collector will have a higher positivepotential.

MMS 701, 3-P18

Figure 3-24.

Common emitter (CE) amplifier.

(2) Positivehalfinputcycle. Consideraninstantoftimewhen anappliedinputvoltageispositiveandaidstheforwardbiasoftheemitter tobasejunction.Theincreasedforwardbiasincreasesthecurrentthroughthe emitter. The collector andbase currents arealso increased. The increased currentthroughtheloadresistorcausesthetopoftheresistortobecomemore negative.Ineffect,thislowersthepositivepotentialofthecollector.For theentirehalfcyclethattheinputsignalgoespositiveandaidstheforward bias, the output signal goes in the negative direction (collector voltage becomeslesspositive). (3) Negativehalfinputcycle. Whentheinputsignalvoltageis negative and opposes the forward bias of the basetoemitter junction, the decreasedforwardbiasdecreasestheemittercurrent. Thecollectorandbase currents also decrease by corresponding amounts. The decreased collector currentthroughtheloadresistorcausesthetopoftheresistortobecomeless negative(lessoppositiontothecollectorbattery). Ineffect,thecollector voltagebecomesmorepositive.Fortheentirehalfcyclethattheinputsignal goesnegativeandopposestheforwardbias,theoutputsignalgoespositive.

MMS 701, 3-P19

(4) Phaseinversion.TheoutputsignaloftheNPNcommonemitter amplifieris180degreesoutofphasewiththeinputsignal. b. PNP Transistor in a Common Emitter Circuit. B,figure324,showsa basicPNPcommonemitteramplifier.Electroncurrentisindicatedbythesmall arrows. ThePNPcommonemitteramplifiercircuitoperatessimilartotheNPN circuitexceptthatthetwobatteriesarereversed. (1) Nosignalinput.Withnoinputsignal,thecollectorvoltage is at some steady negative value due to the negative potential from the collectorbattery. (2) Positive half input cycle. During the time that the input signalispositive,itopposesthebiasbattery. Theforwardbiasisreduced and current through the transistor decreases. The voltage drop across load resistorRLdecreasesandthecollectorgoesinanegativedirection. (3) Negative half input cycle. When the input signal swings negative,itaidsorincreasestheemittertobaseforwardbias.Thetransistor conducts more and the voltage drop across load resistor RL increases. The collectorgoesinapositivedirection. (4) Phaseinversion. SimilartotheoutputoftheNPNcircuit, the output signal of the PNP common emitter amplifier is 180 degrees out of phasewiththeinput. 6. COMMON BASE AMPLIFIER. Inthecommonbaseamplifiercircuit,theinput signal is injected into the emitter and the output signal is taken from the collector.Thecircuithasalowinputresistance(30to160ohms)andahigh outputresistance(250kto550k).Thecommonbaseamplifierisanimpedance matching circuit used to match a low impedance circuit to a high impedance circuit. Ithasavoltagegainofabout1000andacurrentgainoflessthan one.Thereisnophasechangebetweeninputandoutputsignals.Boththeinput andoutputsignalsareinphase.

MMS 701, 3-P20

a. NPN Transistor in a Common Base Amplifier.A,figure325,showsa basicNPNcommonbaseamplifier.Electronflowisindicatedbythedirectionof thesmallarrows.

Figure 3-25.

Common base (CB) amplifier.

(1) Nosignalinput. Inthequiescentstate(nosignalinput), there is some positive voltage at the collector. The emitter is at some negativevoltagedeterminedbythevalueofthebiasbatteryandemittertobase resistor.

MMS 701, 3-P21

(2) Positiveinputcycle. Duringthepositivehalfofaninput cycle, the input signal opposes the forward bias of the emittertobase junction. Theforwardbiasisreducedandcausesreducedcurrentthroughthe circuit.Thereducedcurrentthroughtheloadresistorcausesasmallervoltage drop and the top of the resistor to become less negative (or more positive) comparedtothebottomoftheresistor.Anotherwayofstatingthisactionis thatlesscurrentthroughthecircuitraisesthecollectorvoltagetowardthe collectorbatterypositivepotential. Theresultisthatastheinputsignal swingspositive,theoutputsignalalsoswingspositive. (3) Negativehalfinputcycle. Duringthenegativehalfofthe input cycle,the input signalaids the emittertobaseforward bias. As the forwardbiasincreases,thetotalcurrentinthecircuitincreases. Theload resistordevelopsahighervoltagedrop,which,ineffect,reducesthepositive potential at the collector. The result is that as the input signal swings negative,theoutputsignalalsoswingsnegative. b. PNP Transistor in a Common Base Amplifier.B,figure325,showsa basicPNPcommonbaseamplifier.NoticethatthecircuitisthesameastheNPN except that the two batteries are reversed. When the input signal swings positive, the forward bias of the emittertobase junction increases. More currentflowsthroughthecircuitanddevelopsahighervoltageacrosstheload resistor. Thevoltageacrosstheloadresistoropposesthecollectorbattery, making the collector less negative (more positive). On the other hand, the negativehalfoftheinputcycledecreasestheemittertobaseforwardbiasand reducescurrentthroughtheloadresistor.Lessvoltagedroppedacrosstheload resistor causes a more negative voltage at the collector. As in the NPN circuit,theinputandoutputsignalsareinphasewitheachother.

7. COMMON COLLECTOR AMPLIFIER. Inthecommoncollectorcircuit(figure3 26),theinputsignalisinjectedintothebaseandtheoutputsignalistaken fromtheemitter.Thiscircuitisalsoknownasanemitterfollowerandisused for impedance matching and isolation of output stages. It matches a high impedancecircuittoalowimpedancecircuit. Theoutputsignalisinphase with and of the same polarity as the input. The circuit has a high input resistance(2kto500k)andalowoutputresistance(50to1500ohms). Its voltage gain is less than one but its current gain is about 25; its voltage outputisnevergreaterinamplitudethantheinput.

MMS 701, 3-P22

Figure 3-26.

Common collector (CC) amplifier.

a. NPN Transistor in a Common Collector Amplifier.AbasicNPNcommon collectoramplifierisshowninA,figure326.Electroncurrentisindicated bythedirectionofthesmallarrows. (1) No signal input. During the quiescent state, there is a positive potential with respect to ground at the top of the load resistor. However, withrespect to thebase, the emitteris at somenegative potential determinedbythevalueofthebiasbattery. (2) Positivehalfinputcycle.Whenthepositivehalfofaninput cycle is applied, input voltage aids the emittertobase forward bias which increases the total emitter current. The increased current through the load resistorcausesthevoltageatthetopoftheresistortobecomemorepositive (than it was during quiescence). The output signal is taken across the load resistor which is part of the emitter circuit. Thus as the input swings positive,thevoltageacrosstheloadresistorswingspositive.

MMS 701, 3-P23

(3) Negative half input cycle. When the input cycle swings negative,itopposestheemittertobaseforwardbiaswhichreducestheemitter current.Thereductioninemittercurrentcausesthetopoftheloadresistor to become less positive (than it was during quiescence). As a result, the outputsignalswingsnegativeastheinputswingsnegative. b. PNP Transistor in a Common Collector Amplifier.AbasicPNPcommon collectoramplifierisshowninB,figure326.Theoperationandthecircuit isthesameastheNPNcommoncollectoramplifierexceptthereversalofthetwo batteries. As the input signal increases or decreases the emittertobase forwardbias,thevariationsacrosstheemittercircuitfollowthesechanges. 8. SINGLE BATTERY BIAS ARRANGEMENTS. Proper biasing of a transistor amplifier, regardless of the circuit used, consists of forward bias on the emittertobase junction and reverse on the collectortobase junction. In previouscircuitexamplestwobatterieswereusedforbiasingvoltages.Itis possible,however,togetproperbiasingwithonlyonebattery. a. Common Base Single Battery Bias.Youneedavoltagedividernetwork tooperateacommonbaseamplifierwithasinglebattery(figure327). The transistorinthefigureisaPNPtype.Reversebiasisachievedbymakingthe collectornegativewithrespecttothebase.Notethatthecollectorconnects tothenegativebatteryterminalthroughresistorR2. Togetforwardbiasin theemittertobasecircuit,theemitterhastobepositivewithrespecttothe base. ResistorsR3andR4providetheforwardbiasneeded. Currentfromthe battery is through R3 and R4 and causes a voltage drop with the indicated polaritiesacrossthetworesistors.ThevoltagedropacrossR3makesthebase negativewithrespecttotheemitter(or,theemitterispositivecomparedto thebase).ForoperationoftheNPNtransistor,simplyreversethebattery.

Figure 3-27.

Common base amplifier with single battery bias.

MMS 701, 3-P24

b. Common Emitter Single Battery Bias. Thecommonemitteramplifier mayalsobebiasedwithasinglebattery(figure328). (1) ToforwardbiasanNPNtransistor,thebasehastobepositive inrespecttotheemitter(A,figure328).Thebase,beingphysicallybetween thecollectorandemitter,assumesavalueofvoltagebetweentheirvoltages. The base must be less negative than the emitter (positive compared to the emitter). Thevalueofthevoltagebetweentheemitterandbasemustbevery small, compared to that between the collector and base. Remember that internally,thetwoPNjunctionsactasavoltagedivider. Thecollectorto basejunctionrepresentsahighresistanceanddevelopsthelargervoltagedrop. Theemittertobasejunctionrepresentsalowresistanceanddevelopsthelower voltagedrop.

Figure 3-28.

Common emitter amplifier with single battery bias.

MMS 701, 3-P25

Current fromthe emitter tothe base (lowresistance) sets upa negativeto positive potential, with the base positive compared to the emitter. This potentialisapproximately0.1voltandeliminatestheneedforanexternalbias battery. (2) B,figure328,showsanothermethodofusingasinglebattery to provide bias for a common emitter amplifier. Resistors R1 and R2 form a voltagedividerandR2issmallerinvaluethanR1.Currentthroughthevoltage divider produces voltage polarities across the resistors as shown. The low voltage developed across R2 forward biases the emittertobase junction and eliminatestheneedforanexternalbiasbattery.Thehighervoltagedeveloped acrossR1reversebiasesthesecondPNjunction(basetocollector). (3) PNPtransistorscanalsobebiasedwithasinglebatteryasin (a)and(b)aboveexceptthatthebatterymustbereversed.

c. Common Collector Single Battery Bias. The common collector amplifiercanalsobebiasedwithasinglebattery(figure329).Thebaseto collectorreversebiasisestablishedbythebattery.Theforwardbiasofthe emittertobasejunctionisprovidedbycurrentthroughthesmallresistanceof theemittertobasejunction,withthepolarityasshown. TheNPNtransistor emitterisnegativecomparedtothebase(forwardbias).

Figure 3-29.

Common collector amplifier with single battery bias.

MMS 701, 3-P26

MMS SUBCOURSE NUMBER 701, TRANSISTORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS EXERCISES FOR LESSON 3

1.

Whatistheadvantage(s)ofasemiconductordioderectifier? A. B. C. D. Lowoperatingtemperature Norequirementforfilamentvoltages Smallsize Alloftheabove

2.

WhichisNEVERusedintheconstructionofarectifier? A. B. C. D. Copperoxide Phosphorous Selenium Coppersulfide

3.

Electronflowinasemiconductordioderectifier,whenforwardbiased, isfrom A. B. C. D. anodetocollector. basetocathode. cathodetoanode. anodetocathode.

4.

Whatwouldbetheoutputofthehalfwaverectifiershowninfigure35 ifcapacitorC1opens? A. B. C. D. Nochange Pulsatingpositivepulse Pulsatingnegativepulse Pulsatingpositivepulsewithreducedfiltering

5.

WhendoescapacitorC1infigure35discharge? A. B. C. D. Inputacsignalisinthepositivehalfcycle OnlywhenCR1conducts Inputacsignalisinthenegativehalfcycle WhenafixedchargeisattainedonC1regardlessoftheacinput

6.

IftheZenerinfigure319isratedat10volts,howmuchvoltageis droppedacrossresistorR2if15voltsisappliedtotheinput? A. B. C. D. 2 5 15 10

MMS 701, 3-P27

7.

Whenisthevoltagedoublernormallyused? A. B. C. D. Onlywhencriticalvoltageregulationisnecessary Whentheloadcurrentissmallandvoltageregulationis notcritical Normallywhenloadcurrentishigh Wheneveranincreaseinloadcurrentisneededalongwith criticalvoltageregulation

8.

ThevalleysintheoutputoftherectifiershowninBoffigure313 arefilledinbytheactionofanadditionalcomponent,namelya A. B. C. D. groundconnectiontothecenterofthetransformersecondary. secondcapacitortotheoutputcircuit. capacitoracrosstheloadresistor. diodeacrosstheloadresistor.

9.

Refertotherectifiercircuitshowninfigure312. IfpointZis positive,whichdiodesareforwardbiased? A. B. C. D. CR1andCR2 CR1andCR3 CR2andCR3 CR2andCR4

10.

WhatbestdescribesthefunctionofQ1infigure321? A. B. C. D. Variableresistor Amplifier Voltagedivider Outputsensor

11.

Infigure322,whatresistor(s)is/areutilizedasloadresistors? A. B. C. D. R1andR2 R1,R2,andR3 R3andR2 R3only

12.

Theoutputvoltageofthehalfwavevoltagedoublershowninfigure314 resultsfrom A. B. C. D. chargeofcapacitorC2throughCR2. inputvoltagepluschargeonC1. dischargeofC1throughCR1. breakdownofCR2duringapositivecycleinput.

MMS 701, 3-P28

13.

Inthethreebasicamplifierconfigurationsofcommonemitter,common base,andcommoncollector,thetermCOMMONreferstothetransistor leadthat A. B. C. D. isassociateddirectlywithboththeinputandoutputsignals. connectstotheinputofanothertransistorinthecircuit. isassociatedonlywiththeinputofthesametransistor. connectstoasimilarleadofanothertransistor.

14.

Whatisthephaserelationshipbetweentheinputandoutputsignalsof thecommonemitteramplifier? A. B. C. D. Inphase 45degreesoutofphase 90degreesoutofphase 180degreesoutofphase

15.

Intransistoramplifiers,theinputsignalisinjectedinonesection andtheoutputisremovedfromanothersection. Whichtwosections areusedinthecommonbaseamplifiercircuit? Input A. B. C. D. Base Base Emitter Emitter Output Emitter Collector Collector Base

16.

Thecommonemitteramplifierhasbothahighvoltagegainandahigh currentgain.Incomparison,thecommonbaseamplifierhasa A. B. C. D. lowvoltageandhighcurrentgain. highvoltageandhighcurrentgain. lowvoltageandlow,orno,currentgain. highvoltageandlow,orno,currentgain.

MMS 701, 3-P29

17.

In a commonbase amplifier circuit, a comparison of signals reveals thattheoutputandinputsignalsare A. B. C. D. inphase. 45degreesoutofphase. 90degreesoutofphase. 180degreesoutofphase.

18.

Describe the magnitude of input resistance relative to output resistanceinacommoncollectoramplifier. A. B. C. D. Ithasahighinputandahighoutputresistance Ithasalowinputandahighoutputresistance Ithasahighinputandalowoutputresistance Ithasalowinputandalowoutputresistance

19.

Proper biasing of a transistor amplifier, regardless of the circuit used,consistsof A. B. C. D. forwardbiasontheemittertobasejunctionandreverse biasonthecollectortobasejunction. reversebiasontheemittertobasejunctionandforward biasonthecollectortobasejunction. reversebiasontheemittertobasejunctionaswellason thecollectortobasejunction. forwardbiasontheemittertobaseandonthecollector tobasejunctions.

20.

The circuit in figure 327 shows a PNP transistor properly biased usingasinglebattery.Properbiasingconsistsof A. B. C. D. collectornegativeinrespecttothebaseandtheemitter positiveinrespecttothebase. collector positive in respect to the base and the base negativeinrespecttotheemitter. basepositiveinrespecttothecollectorandtheemitter negativeinrespecttothebase. collectorpositiveinrespecttothebaseandtheemitter positiveinrespecttothebase.

MMS 701, 3-P30

LESSON 4.

BIAS STABILIZATION

MMS Subcourse Number 701............... Lesson Objective.......................

Transistors and Semiconductors To provide the student with a general knowledge of voltage and current stabilization circuits using thermisters, semiconductor diodes, and transistors. Two

Credit Hours...........................

TEXT

1.

INTRODUCTION.

a. General. Biasisestablishedforatransistorbydeterminingthe quiescent(nosignal)valueofcollectorvoltageandemittercurrent. Ifthe transistor must be operated over a wide range of external temperatures, the biasvoltageandcurrentmustremainstable. Variationsofthereversebias collectorcurrentandtheemittertobasejunctionresistancewithtemperature changes, reduce the stability of the circuit. External compensating circuits mustbeusedtokeeptheoperationofthetransistorstabilized. (1) Reversebiascollectorcurrent(saturation). Thesaturation current varies from about zero to 10 degrees C to over 1 milliampere at 150 degreesC(figure41). Noticethatthesaturationcurrentisnoproblemat external temperatures below 10 degrees C. Saturation current in an NPN transistorconsistsofaflowofholesfromthecollectorregiontothebase region. Ifexternalresistorsconnectedtothebasearehighonohmicvalue, holes (positive charges) will accumulate in the base region. A high base resistance reduces the base current, therefore fewer holes combine with electronsattheexternalcircuitofthebase.Thiswillcauseanincreaseof electronsflowingfromtheemitterintoandthroughthebasetothecollector. Notethatmoreofthepositivechargesinthebaseattractmoreelectronsfrom theemitter.Collectorcurrentwillthenincreaseandraisethetemperatureat the collectortobase junction. This will increase the saturation current. Thecyclewillcontinueuntilthetransistorbecomesinoperative,ordestroys itself. This condition can be minimized by avoiding the use of high value resistors in the base lead. The same conditions exist for PNP operation, exceptthatelectronsandholesmoveintheoppositedirection.

MMS701,4P1

Figure 4-1.

Variation of saturation current with temperature.

(2) Emittertobase junction resistance. In the previous example, if only the reverse current caused the collector current variations with temperature, then the collector current should be constant below 10 degrees C. However it is found that the collector current does vary with temperatureevenwhenthereversecurrentisclosetozero.Thisvariationis caused by the decrease in the emittertobase junction resistance when the temperature is increased. Junction resistance is an inverse function of temperature;whentemperatureincreasesjunctionresistancedecreasesandvice versa. This reaction to temperature changes is called a negative temperature coefficientofresistance. (a) One method of reducing the effect of negative temperature coefficient of the junction is to use a swamping resistor (large valueresistor)intheemitterlead. Theresistanceofthejunctionisthen many times smaller in value than the emitter resistor. In effect, any variationoftheemittertobasejunctionresistanceisasmallpercentageof the total resistance of the emitter circuit. The nameswamping resistor is usedbecausetheexternalresistorissaidtoswamporovercomethevariations ofthejunctionresistance.

MMS701,4P2

(b) Another method of reducing the effect of negative temperature coefficient (sometimes called thermal runaway) is to reduce the emittertobaseforwardbiasasthetemperatureincreases. Conversely,ifthe temperaturedecreases,theemittertobaseforwardbiasshouldbeincreased. b. Base Resistance and Emitter Resistance. The effect on the stabilityofthecollectorcurrentbyvariouscombinationsofbaseandemitter resistancevaluesisshowninthegraphinfigure42. Theidealcurrentis represented by the dashed line. Notice that the collector current is very unstablewhentheemitterandbaseresistancesarebothzero(curveAA).There isaslightimprovementinstabilitywhenthebaseresistanceisapproximately 40 kilohms and the emitter resistance is zero (curve BB). The collector currentismoststablewhentheemitterresistanceisgreaterthanzero(about 2kilohms),andthebaseresistanceiszero(curveCC).

Figure 4-2.

Collector current variations.

2.

STABILIZING CIRCUITS THAT USE THERMISTORS.

a. General. It has been established that the bias current of the transistorissensitivetoexternaltemperaturechanges.Specifically,emitter current increases with an increase in temperature. However, emitter current can be stabilized by using external circuits with temperaturesensitivity elements.Onesuchelementisthethermistor,whichisthecontractionofthe words thermal and resistor. The thermistor has a negative temperature coefficientofresistance;itsresistancedecreasesastemperatureincreases.

MMS701,4P3

b. Emitter Voltage Control. A circuit that uses a thermistor to controlemitterbiasvoltageand,thus,theemittercurrent,isshowninfigure 43. Thethermistorreactstochangesintemperatureandcausestheemitter biasvoltagetochange. Inturn,thechangesinemitterbiascounteractthe effectsoftheexternaltemperaturechangesonemittercurrent.

Figure 4-3.

Thermistor control of emitter bias voltage.

(1) Thecircuitcontainstwovoltagedividers: oneconsistsof resistorsR4andR1;andtheotherconsistsofresistorR2andthermistorRT1. VoltagedividerR4R1appliesaportionofthecollectorbatteryvoltage(VC) tothebaseofthetransistor.Forwardbiasvoltageforthebaseisdeveloped acrossresistorR1. Reversebiasvoltagefortheemitterisdevelopedacross resistorR2.Theforwardbiasvoltageappliedtothebaseisgreaterthanthe reversebiasappliedtotheemitter.Atagiven(normal)externaltemperature, the resultant basetoemitter bias is in the forward direction. Collector currentflowsatasteady,predeterminedvaluewithnoinputsignalapplied. (2) Ordinarily,whenthetemperaturerises,thecollectorcurrent wouldtendtoincrease.However,asthetemperatureincreases,theresistance ofthethermistordecreases. Thiscausesmorecurrentthroughvoltagedivider RT1R2andincreasesthenegativepotentialattheemitter(topofR2becomes morenegative). Thisaction,inturn,increasesthereversebiasappliedto the emitter and, in effect, decreases the resultant emittertobase forward bias.Asaresultthecollectorcurrentdoesnotincreasewhenthetemperature rises. (3) Adropintheexternaltemperaturewillreversetheactionof thethermistorandpreventadecreaseincollectorcurrent.Theresistanceof thethermistorincreasesandcausesalessnegativepotentialatthetopofR2. This action increases the emittertobase forward bias and causes the transistor to conduct more. Thus, the thermistor compensates for both increasesanddecreasesintheexternaltemperature.Currentinthetransistor amplifieriskeptatasteadyreferencelevelandsignalsarenotdistortedin theamplificationprocess.

MMS701,4P4

(4) Other parts in the amplifier circuit are used as follows. CapacitorC1blocksthedcvoltageofthepreviousstageandappliestheinput signalintothebasecircuit.CapacitorC2bypassessignalvariationsfromthe emitter. ResistorR3isthecollectorloadresistoranddevelopstheoutput signal. CapacitorC3blocksthedccollectorvoltagefromaffectingthenext stageandalsocouplesthesignaloutput. c. Base Voltage Control. Anothermethodofstabilizingatransistor against external temperature changes is to vary the base voltage to control emittercurrent. (1) Thebasevoltagecontrolcircuit(figure44)hasavoltage divider consisting of resistor R1 and thermistor RT1. The voltage divider appliesaportionofthecollectorbatteryvoltage(VC)tothebasecircuit. Current through the voltage divider is indicated by the direction of the arrows. The thermistor develops a portion of the voltage, with polarity as shown,andforwardbiasestheemittertobasejunction.

Figure 4-4.

Thermistor control of base bias voltage.

(2) If the external temperature rises, the emitter current will alsotendtorise.However,theresistanceofthethermistordecreaseswitha riseintemperatureandmorecurrentwillflowthroughthevoltagedividerand causeR1todropagreatervoltage.Thevoltagedroppedacrossthethermistor isthenlessandreducestheemittertobaseforwardbias. Thus,theemitter currentdecreasesinproportiontotheincreaseintemperature. Theopposite actionsoccurwhentheexternaltemperaturedecreases.

MMS701,4P5

(3) In the circuit of figure 44, transformer T1 applies the input signal to the baseemitter circuit. Capacitor C1 bypasses signal variationsaroundthethermistor.TheprimarywindingoftransformerT2isthe collectorload,anddevelopstheoutputsignal. d. Thermistor Limitations.Theabilityofathermistortocontrolthe changes of collector current against variations in temperature is shown in figure45.Bycomparingthetwocurvesnoticethatthereisanimprovementin stability of the thermistorcontrolled circuit. The curve for a thermistor stabilized circuit approaches the theoretical ideal current. However, thermistor stabilization achieves ideal current at only three points: A, B, andC. Sincethethermistorisconstructedof3materialdifferentfromthat of the transistor, it does not change resistance in exact proportion to the emitter current change. Therefore "tracking" is not very good and true compensationoccursatonlyafewpointsalongtheidealcurrentcurve.Inthis respect, better stabilization can be obtained from semiconductor diode and transistorstabilizingcircuits.Thisisexplainedbelow.

Figure 4-5.

Non-stabilized and thermistor-stabilized graph.

3.

STABILIZING CIRCUITS THAT USE SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES.

a. General. Semiconductor (junction) diodes are similar to thermistorsinthattheyhaveanegativecoefficientofresistance.Itdoesn't matter if the junction is reverse or forward biased, the diode retains the negative coefficient of resistance characteristic. Semiconductor diodes are also temperature sensitive: external temperature changes affect the bias currentandtheresistanceofthePNjunction.Sosemiconductordiodescanbe usedintransistorstabilizingcircuitsjustasthermistorsareused.However, there is one advantage in using semiconductor diodes: they are made of the samematerialastransistors. Thispermitsthesemiconductordiodetorespond totemperaturechangesexactlylikethetransistordoessomethingathermistor cannotdo. Asaresult,betterstabilizationoftransistorcollectorcurrent is attained over a wide range of temperature changes by using semiconductor diodes.

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b. Forward Biased Single-Diode Stabilizing Circuits. Junction diode CR1 in the circuit in figure 46 is being used as a temperaturesensitive element. Itspurposeinthecircuitistocompensateforchangesinemitter tobasejunctionresistancecausedbychangesintheexternaltemperature.

Figure 4-6.

Single junction diode (emitter-base) circuit.

temperature

compensating

(1) Consider the voltage divider consisting of resistor R1 and junctiondiodeCR1. Thecurrent(1)throughthevoltagedividerflowsinthe direction shown, and develops a voltage across diode CR1 with polarity as indicated. Thisvoltageforwardbiasesthebasetoemitterjunction. Ifthe external temperature increases the collector current would tend to increase. However,anincreaseintemperaturedecreasestheresistanceofdiodeCR1and causesmorecurrentthroughthevoltagedivider.Asaresult,thevoltagedrop across resistor R1 increases. The voltage drop across diode CR1 is correspondinglydecreased,therebyreducingtheforwardbiasandthecollector current. (2) The effectiveness of this circuit in stabilizing collector current against temperature changes is indicated by curve BB of figure 47. ComparethiscurvewithcurveAAinwhichthetransistorisnotstabilized,and with the ideal current curve. Curve BB shows a marked improvement in the collector current stability for temperatures below 50 degrees C. This shows that the resistance of the junction diode changes (tracks) to compensate for changes in the emittertobase junction resistance of the transistor as the externaltemperaturechanges. Thesharpincreaseincollectorcurrent(curve BB,figure47)attemperaturesabove50degreesC,indicatesthatthesingle junctiondiodeCR1doesnotcompensatefortheincreaseinsaturationcurrent. Saturation current (collectortobase reverse bias current) flows out of the basethroughthesecondarywindingofT1,throughCR1,tothebatteryandback to the collector. Because saturation current is very small, it causes no appreciable voltage drop across CR1. To compensate for the increase in saturationcurrent,doublediodestabilizationisrequired.

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Figure 4-7.

Variation of collector current for non-stabilized and stabilized circuits.

c. Double-Diode Stabilization. As the name implies, doublediode stabilization uses two junction diodes as temperaturesensitive elements (figure48).DiodeCR1compensatesforthetemperaturevariationsthataffect the emittertobase junction resistance, and CR2 compensates for the temperaturevariationsthataffectsaturationcurrent. Thecircuitissimilar tothatinfigure46,exceptthatresistorR3anddiodeCR2(reversebiased) have been added. Resistor R1 and diode CR1 (forward biased) compensate for changesinemittertobasejunctionresistanceattemperaturechangesbelow50 degreesC. (1) ReversebiasedjunctiondiodeCR2(figure48)isconsidered tobeanopencircuitatroomtemperatureorbelow. Aboveroomtemperature, reversebiascurrent(Is)flowsthroughCR2inthedirectionindicated.CR2is selected so that its reverse bias current is greater than the saturation current (ICBO) of the transistor. Reverse bias current (Is) through CR2 consistsofsaturationcurrentplusthecurrentthroughR1.

Figure 4-8.

Double-diode temperature base) circuit.

compensating

(emitter-

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(2) Asthetemperaturecontinuestoincrease,saturationcurrent, reversebiascurrent,andcurrentI1increase. CurrentI1producesavoltage dropacrossR3(polarityasindicated),andreducestheforwardbiassetupby CR1 and R1. The net effect at higher than room temperature is to reduce (stabilize)thetotalcollectorcurrentbyreducingtheemittertobaseforward bias. The effectiveness of this circuit in stabilizing collector current at highandlowtemperaturesisindicatedbycurveCCoffigure47. d. Reverse Biased Single-Diode Stabilization. Transistor amplifiers can be stabilized by a reverse biased single junction semiconductor diode. Thiscircuitisusedwhenresistancecapacitancecouplingisusedastheinput fromthepreviousstage.

Figure 4-9.

Reverse biased junction diode compensating circuit.

(1) Inthecircuitshowninfigure49,reversebiasedjunction diode CR1 is the temperature sensitive element. This circuit provides two separatepathsforbasecurrent. Thebasetoemittercurrentflowsfromthe base region to the emitter, through resistor R2, collector battery (Vc), and resistor R1 back to the base. Saturation current (IcBO) flows from the base leadthroughCR1,basebattery(VB),collectorbattery(Vc),throughresistor R3,tothecollectorregion,andtothebaseregion.Thediodeisselectedso thatitsreversebiascurrentequalsthatofthetransistoroverawiderange oftemperatures. (2) As temperature increases, saturation current of the transistor increases. Saturation current of the diode also increases by an equalamount. Saturationcurrentofthediodeopposesthesaturationcurrent of the transistor and prevents an increase in the transistor emitter current (Ie). ThusCR1actsasagate,openingwidertoaccommodatetheincreasein saturationcurrentofthetransistor.

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4.

STABILIZING CIRCUITS THAT USE TRANSISTORS.

a. Emitter-to-Base Voltage Stabilization. The emitterbase junctionofatransistorhasanegativetemperaturecoefficientofresistance similartothatofaPNjunctiondiode.Itisthenpossibletousevariations of the emitterbase junction resistance of one transistor to control the emitterbase bias of a second transistor (figure 410). In the figure, the emitterbasevoltageoftransistorQ1isusedtobiastheemitterbasejunction of transistor Q2. Assuming zero resistance in the secondary winding of transformer T2, the base of transistor Q2 has a direct connection to the emitteroftransistorQ1.BatteryVEprovidesemittertobaseforwardbiasfor transistorsQ1andQ2. TransistorQ1istemperaturestabilizedbyuseofthe highvalueswampingresistorR1intheemitterlead. ResistorR1maintainsa relativelyconstantemittercurrentintransistorQ1.

Figure 4-10.

Two-transistor temperature stabilizing circuit.

(1) As the external temperature increases, the basetoemitter junctionresistanceofQ1decreases.Becausethecurrentthroughthejunction remainsconstant,thevoltagedropsacrossthejunctiondecreases.Adecrease in this voltage represents a decrease in the forward bias of Q2. Thus, the tendency of the Q2 collector current to increase with an increase in the externaltemperatureisoffset.IfacurveoftheQ2collectorcurrentversus temperaturewereplotted,itwouldbesimilartothedoublediodestabilization curve(curveCCC,figure47). (2) In the circuit, battery VE also supplies collector voltage forQ2.CapacitorC1bypassessignalvariationsaroundresistorR1andbattery VEandbatteryVCsuppliesthecollectorvoltageforQ1. b. Emitter-to-Collector Current Stabilization. A method of temperature stabilizing the emittertocollector current of one transistor by using the stabilized emittertocollector current of another transistor is showninfigure411. ThecollectorcurrentofQ1isstabilizedbyuseofa highvalueswampingresistorR2.ResistorR1isselectedsothatitsvalueis low;itlimitssaturationcurrentcarriersinthebaseregion.

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Figure 4-11.

Collector current temperature stabilizing circuit.

(1) The stabilized collector current of Q1 flows through Q2. NotethatthecollectorofQ1isconnectedtotheemitterofQ2. Thecurrent directionisindicatedbythearrows.Electronsthatflowfromtheemitterof Q1, travel through R2, VC, R4, collectortoemitter of Q2, and back to the collectorofQ1.Q1,ineffect,isstabilizingQ2. (2) In the circuit, Q1 is used as a common collector amplifier andQ2isusedasacommonemitteramplifier. R2isaloadresistorforQ1. ThecollectorofQ1getsitsvoltagefrombatteryVC,throughQ2andR4. c. Bias Variation With Collector Current. Figure 412 shows two stagesofadirectcoupledamplifier.Anincreaseincollectorcurrentcaused by a temperature rise in transistor Q1 will reduce the forward bias for transistorQ2.

Figure 4-12.

Two-stage temperature stabilized direct coupled amplifier.

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(1) Assume that the collector current of Q1 increases due to a riseinexternaltemperature. Theincreaseincollectorcurrentisshownby thedirectionofthearrows.Aportionofthisincreaseflowsthroughresistor R3, with polarities as indicated. Another portion of the increase flows throughR2anddevelopsavoltageasindicated.ThevoltagesacrossR2andR3 of importance in this description are those voltages used to compensate for increasesinthecollectorcurrentofQ1causedbyariseintemperature. (2) TheemittertobaseforwardbiasofQ2isequaltothesumof thevoltagesacrossR2,R3,andcollectorbatteryVC. ThevoltageacrossR3 aidstheforwardbiaswhilethevoltageacrossR2opposestheforwardbias.R2 andR3areselectedsothatthevoltagedropacrossR2islargerthanR3.In effectwhenthecollectorcurrentofQ1rises,duetoariseintemperature, theforwardbiasofQ2isdecreased. Thisactionlimitsthetendencyofthe collectorcurrentofQ2torisewhenthereisanincreaseintemperature.

5.

VOLTAGE STABILIZATION.

a. Voltage Stabilized Transistor Amplifier. TheZenerdiode(CR1)in the circuit in figure 413 has a positive coefficient of temperature and is usedforcollectorvoltagestabilization. Astheexternaltemperaturerises, theresistanceoftheZenerdiodeincreases. Current(I2)fromthecollector batteryVCdividesintoZenerdiodecurrentI1andcollectorcurrentIC.When the collector current of Q1 increases due to the increase of temperature, current I1 decreases by the same amount. The resistance of CR1 increases causing current through CR1 to decrease. The current (I2) therefore remains thesame,andthevoltageacrossR2remainsconstant. Thevoltageappliedto thecollector(batteryvoltagelessdropacrossR2)alsowillremainconstant. To avoid bypassing R2 by the low ac resistance (as low as 5 ohms) of Zener diodeCR1,ahighimpedancecoil(L1)isplacedinserieswiththediode.

Figure 4-13.

Zener diode collector voltage stabilization.

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b. Surge Protection by Junction Diode.Intransistoramplifiersusing input and output transformers, if an excessive emittertocollector voltage occurs when the normally forward biased basetoemitter junction is suddenly reversebiased,internaloscillationsmayoccur. Theoscillationscandestroy thetransistor.Ajunctiondiodecanbeusedtoprotecttheamplifier(figure 414)againstsuddenvoltagesurges.

Figure 4-14.

Control of base-emitter circuit.

(1) If the input signal suddenly stops, or if excessive noise drives the basetoemitter junction into a reverse biased condition, the collector current is quickly cut off. The field surrounding transformer T2 collapses and produces a high emittertocollector voltage. This condition causesstrongoscillationsinthetransistorwhichcandestroyit.Toprevent this condition, a junction diode is used to prevent the basetoemitter junctionfrombeingreversebiased. ThevoltagedividerconsistingofR1and R2forwardbiasesthebasetoemitterjunctionofQ1andreversebiasesdiode CR1.UndernormaloperatingconditionsCR1isconsideredanopencircuit. (2) A strong surge voltage may occur at the input (assume polarity as indicated). If the surge voltage is greater than the voltage acrossR1,diodeCR1becomesforwardbiasedandconducts. AlthoughwhenCR1 conducts,anegligiblevoltageappearsacrossit,itsactionpreventsthebase toemitterjunctionofQ1frombecomingreversebiased.

MMS701,4P13

MMS SUBCOURSE NUMBER 701, TRANSISTORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS

EXERCISES FOR LESSON 4 1. Reversebiascollectorcurrentreferstothesaturationcurrentthat flowsthroughthereversebiasedcollectorbasejunction. Thisflow beginsandincreaseswithtemperatureabove10degreesC. Weavoid theresultingaccumulationofchargeinthebaseregionbyprovidinga leakage path through the external circuit from base to collector. Thiscanbedonebyavoidingtheuseofa A. B. C. D. 2. lowvalueresistorinthecollectorlead. highvalueresistorinthebaselead. lowvalueresistorinthebaselead. lowvalueinductorinthebaselead.

Emittertobase junction resistance refers to the resistance at the forwardbiasedemitterbasejunction.Theresistanceatthisjunction decreasesthetemperatureisincreased.Thisreactiontotemperature changeiscalleda A. B. C. D. reversetemperaturecoefficientofresistance. positivetemperaturecoefficientofresistance. negativetemperaturecoefficientofresistance. decreasingtemperaturecoefficientofresistance.

3.

Toneutralizetheeffectoftemperaturevariationsinatransistor,we use thermistors in the external circuit. What is unique about the thermistor? A. B. C. D. Itkeepsaconstanttemperature Itsresistancedecreasesastemperaturedecreases Itsresistancedecreasesastemperatureincreases Itkeepsaconstantresistanceevenwithtemperaturechanges

4.

Used as all emitter voltage control, the thermistor increases the reversebiasontheemitterresistorwhenthetemperatureincreases. Thisinturn,willdecreasethe A. B. C. D. forwardbiasofthebaseemitterjunction. reversebiasofthebaseemitterjunction. forwardbiasofthebasecollectorjunction. reversebiasofthebasecollectorjunction.

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5.

Whyisbettertrackingachievedoverawiderangeoftemperatureswhen junctiondiodesareusedinplaceofthermistors? A. B. C. D. Thedioderespondstotemperaturechangeasthethermistordoes Thediodehasanegativetemperaturecoefficient Thediodemaintainsaconstantcurrent Thediodecantoleratemoreheat

6.

Doublediode stabilization uses two junction diodes as temperature sensitive elements. In figure 48, diode CR2 compensates for the temperaturevariationsthataffect A. B. C. D. theemittertobasejunction. thesaturationcurrent. thermalrunaway. diodeCR1.

7.

Inthetwotransistortemperaturestabilizationcircuitoffigure4 10,theemitterbasebiasvoltageoftransistorQ1isalsousedasthe A. B. C. D. collectorvoltageforQ2. biasvoltageforthebasecollectorjunctionofQ1. biasvoltageforthebasecollectorjunctionofQ2. biasvoltagefortheemitterbasejunctionofQ2.

8.

AZenerdiodehasapositivecoefficientoftemperatureandisused for collector voltage stabilization in the circuit of figure 413. HowdoesthecollectorcurrentandtheZenerdioderesistancevaryas thetemperaturerises? CollectorCurrent A. B. C. D. Increases Decreases Increases Decreases ZenerResistance Increases Decreases Decreases Increases

9.

Infigure43,forwardbiasvoltageisdevelopedacross A. B. C. D. R2. RT1. R1. R3.

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10.

Infigure42,whichcurveshowsthemostunstablecollectorcurrent? A. B. C. D. AA BB CC Dottedline

11.

CR1infigure46NEVER A. B. C. D. ispartofavoltagedividerwithR1. biasesthebasetoemitterjunction. compensatesforanincreaseinsaturationcurrent. increasesresistanceastemperatureincreases.

12.

Whenisareversebiasedsinglediodeusedtostabilizeatransistor amplifiercircuit? A. B. C. D. Onlywithahighgainamplifier Ifsaturationisnotofgreatimportance Onlywhenexternaltemperatureisbelow10degreesC Whenresistancecapacitancecouplingisusedasaninput fromapreviousstage

13.

WhatisthemainpurposeofjunctiondiodeCR1infigure414? A. B. C. D. Provideemittertobasebias IncreaseforwardbiasoftransistorQ1 Protectamplifieragainstsuddenvoltagechanges Insurecapabilityofcircuittooscillate

14.

An increase in collector current in transistor Q1 in figure 412 (causedbyatemperatureriseinQ1)will A. B. C. D. increasetheforwardbiasofQ2. reducetheforwardbiasofQ2. havenoaffectonbiasofQ2. increaseforwardbiasonQ1.

15.

Whatcomponentinfigure411isusedtostabilizecollectorcurrent ofQ1? A. B. C. D. C3 R1 R2 R3

MMS701,416

LESSON 5.

TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERS

MMS Subcourse Number 701............... Lesson Objective.......................

Transistors and Semiconductors To provide the student with general knowledge of transistor amplifiers to include coupling networks, phase inverters, power amplifiers, and high and low frequency compensation circuits. Three

Credit Hours...........................

TEXT

1.

INTRODUCTION. a. General.

(1) Audioamplifiersareusedinequipmentsuchaspublicaddress systems, sound recorders, sound reproducers, and radio and television sets. Thefrequenciesoftheaudiosignalsamplifiedrangefrom10to20,000Hz. (2) Theinputcircuitofatransistoramplifiermaydrawcurrent from either the input device or the previous stage. In this respect, each transistor amplifier is considered as either a current or a power amplifier operating at a current or a power level higher than the previous stage and lowerthanthefollowingstage.Preamplifiersusuallyoperateatpowerlevels measuredinmicromicrowatts,ormicrowatts. Driverstagesusuallyoperateat power levels measured in milliwatts. Power stages usually operate at power levelsmeasuredinhundredsofmilliwattsorinwatts.Thesepowerlevelsare onlyapproximate;theequipmentinwhichthesestagesareuseddeterminesthe powerlevelsofthepreamplifier,thedriver,andthepowerstage. b. Classification of Amplifiers. Transistor amplifiers can be operatedclassA,classB,classAB,orclassC. (1) Class A. Class A amplifiers are operated on the linear portion of the collector current characteristic curve. The transistor amplifier is biased so that collector current flows continuously during the completeinputsignalcycle.Italsoflowswithoutaninputsignal(operating point).Audioamplifiers,operatedclassA,maybeusedinsingleendedorin pushpullapplications. (2) ClassB.ClassBamplifiersarebiasedforcollectorcurrent cutoff. Collectorcurrentcutoffmeansthatcollectorcurrentwillflowonly duringonehalfcycleoftheinputsignal. ClassBaudioamplifiersmustbe operated pushpull (covered later in this lesson) to avoid severe signal distortion. (3) ClassAB.Atransistoramplifierthatoperatesbetweenclass AandclassBiscalledaclassABamplifier.Collectorcurrentflowsformore thanhalfacyclebutlessthantheentireinputsignalcycle. MMS701,5P1

(4) Class C. Class C amplifiers are biased so that collector currentflowsforlessthanonehalfofacycleoftheinputsignal. ClassC amplifiers are generally used as radio frequency amplifiers (not as audio amplifiers)duetoseveresignaldistortion.Theyareusedwherealargepower outputisdesired. 2. COUPLING NETWORKS

a. General.Couplingasignalfromonetransistorstagetoanotheris accomplishedbyseveraldifferentmethods: byresistancecapacitancecoupling (A,figure51);bytransformercoupling(B,figure51);byimpedancecoupling (C,figure51);andbydirectcoupling(D,figure51).Current,voltage,and power gains of transistor stages are usually made adjustable by variable resistors in the coupling networks. These variable resistors are usually referredtoasgaincontrols.Ataudiofrequencies,thegaincontrolisalso calledthevolumecontrol. b. Resistance-Capacitance (RC) Coupled Amplifiers. The resistance capacitancenetwork(dashedline,A,figure51)betweentwotransistorstages consistsofacollectorloadresistor(R1),adcblockingcapacitor(C1),anda dcreturnresistor(R2)astheinputtothesecondstage.

Figure 5-1.

Interstage coupling networks.

(1) Due to the dissipation of dc power in the collector load resistor, the efficiency (rate of ac power output to dc power delivered to stage)oftheRCcoupledamplifierislow.Thedcblockingcapacitorprevents thedcvoltageofthecollectorofthefirststagefromappearingontheinput terminalofthesecondstage. Topreventalargesignalvoltagedropacross the dc blocking capacitor, the reactance of the capacitor must be small compared to the input resistance of the following stage with which it is in

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series. Since the input resistance of the following stage is low (usually lowerthan1000ohms),thecapacitancevaluemustbehigh.However,becauseof thelowvoltagesused,thephysicalsizeofthecapacitorcanbekeptsmall. (2) Theresistanceofthedcreturnresistorisusually7to15 times the input resistance of the second stage. This ratio is selected to prevent shunting the signal current around the input circuit of the second stage. (3) Resistancecapacitance coupling is used extensively with junctiontransistors.Highgain,economyofcircuitcomponents,andsmallsize can be achieved with RC coupling. By using emitter swamping resistors and selfbias, good temperature stability can also be achieved. This form of coupling is used in audio amplifiers, such as lowlevel, lownoise preamplifiersuptohighlevelamplifiersforpowerstages. c. Transformer Coupled Amplifiers. Interstage coupling by a transformerisshowninB,figure51. TheprimarywindingoftransformerT1 isthecollectorloadofthefirststage.Thesecondarywindingoftransformer T1introducestheacsignaltothebaseandalsoactsasthebasedcreturn path.Theverylowresistanceinthebasepathaidstemperaturestabilization ofthedcoperatingpoint. Withaswampingresistorintheemitterlead,the currentstabilityfactorisideal. (1) Sincethereisnocollectorloadresistortodissipatepower, the power efficiency of the transformer coupled amplifier approaches the theoretical maximum of 50 percent. For this reason, the transformer coupled amplifier is used extensively in portable equipment where battery power is used. (2) The frequency response (ability to pass many different frequencies) of a transformer coupled stage is not as good as that of a resistancecapacitancecoupledstage. Inadditiontopoorfrequencyresponse, transformers are more expensive, heavier, and larger in size compared to resistors and capacitors used for coupling. Use of transformers is normally confinedtothoseapplicationsrequiringhighpowerefficiencyandhighoutput power. d. Impedance Coupled Amplifier.Animpedancecoupledamplifierisone inwhicheitherorbothresistorsofaresistancecapacitancecoupledamplifier arereplacedbyinductors(C,figure51).Thecollectorloadresistormaybe replaced by an inductor. This provides high power efficiency, since the dc power loss is eliminated. The frequency response of the impedance coupled amplifierisbetterthanthatofthetransformercoupledamplifier,butnotas goodasthatoftheresistancecapacitancecoupledamplifier. e. Direct Coupled Amplifier.Thedirectcoupledamplifierisusedfor amplificationofdcsignalsandforamplificationofverylowfrequencies.In D, figure 51, an NPN transistor is shown connected directly to a PNP transistor.Thedirectionofcurrentisshownbythearrows.Ifthecollector current of the first stage is greater than the base current of the second stage,thenacollectorloadresistor(R1)mustbeused.Sincetherearevery few components required, maximum economy can be achieved. However there are severaldisadvantagestothiscouplingmethod. Thenumberofstagesthatcan be directly coupled is limited. In addition, temperature variation of bias current in one stage is amplified in all stages, causing severe temperature instability.

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f.

Volume Control.

(1) A volume control must be arranged so that it does not introduce noise into the circuit. To do this, we must avoid having large amounts of current through the control. Also, the volume control circuit should let us vary the signal level of the audio amplifier from zero to maximum. (2) Figure 52 shows that the collector signal output current (io)dividedatthemovablearmtosupplyvaryingamountsofinputcurrent(i in)tothebasetoemittercircuitofQ2. Sincethebasetoemitterjunction resistanceisextremelysmallcomparedtotheresistanceofR2,outputcurrent (IO)isequaltotheinputcurrent(iin)whenthevariablearmisintheupper position. Inthisposition,theentiresignalisappliedtothebaseofQ2, andthecontrolpermitsmaximumgain.Ontheotherhand,whenthevariablearm is in its lowest position, there is zero gain; there is no input signal developedacrossR2. (3) Avolumecontrolisoperatedeverytimethesoundonaradio ortelevisionsetisincreasedordecreased.Inordertomakethesoundlouder thevolumecontrolisturnedclockwise. Thismovestheadjustablearmupward on the figure so that more of the signal is developed across the variable resistor. In order to decrease the sound the volume control is turned counterclockwise. The adjustable arm moves down and less (or none) of the signal voltage is developed across the resistor. In the first case more resistanceandmoresignalvoltageisappliedtoQ2. Inthesecondcaseless resistanceandlesssignalvoltageisappliedtoQ2.

Figure 5-2. 3.

Volume control used as a voltage or current divider.

PHASE INVERTERS USED AS DRIVER STAGES. a. General.

(1) Thepurposeofanaudioamplifyingsectionistotakeaweak audiosignalandbuilditupuntilithasenoughpowertoperformsomeuseful function. Regardless of whether the audio section contains few or many amplifiers,thefunctionofeachstageistoincreasethesignallevel. (2) The last stage of an audio amplifier section is called the powerstage.Thedriverstageisthetermusedtodescribetheamplifierthat suppliesthe"driving"orinputsignaltothefinalorpoweramplifierstage. Incaseswherethepoweramplifierisapushpullcircuit,itisnecessaryto useaphasesplitterorphaseinverterasthedriverstage.Thepurposeofthe

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phaseinverteristosupplytwoequalamplitudeoutputsignals,outofphase 180degrees. b. Transformer Phase Splitter.

(1) Figure 53 shows an audio driver stage with a transformer phase splitter. The audio signal is coupled from volume control R1 to the input of the driver stage by capacitor C1. Resistors R2 and R3 establish a fixed base bias, while R4 and C2 provide emitter bias. As the input signal goesthroughitspositivealternation(PNPoperation),theforwardbiasofQ1 decreases with a resultant decrease in transistor conduction. Collector currentfromthecollectorbatterythroughtheprimaryofT1decreases. The collectorvoltage(terminal1oftheprimary)becomesmorenegative. Through transformeraction,terminal3ofT1goespositivewithrespecttothecenter tapofthesecondary(terminal4).Terminal5ofT1goesnegativewithrespect toterminal4. (2) Whentheinputsignalgoesthroughitsnegativealternation, the forward bias of Q1 is increased. Transistor conduction increases and terminal 1 of T1 goes in the positive direction (less negative). Through transformeraction,terminal3ofT1producesanegativeoutputatthistime, whileapositiveoutputappearsatterminal5. (3) Notice that the secondary output signals are of equal amplitude,butare180degreesoutofphasewitheachother.Thesetwosignals canbeusedastheinputtoapushpullamplifier. Althoughthetransformer phase splitter is a simple means of developing the required input signals, thereareotherwayswithbettereconomy,size,andweightcharacteristicsto getthesameresults.

Figure 5-3.

Driver stage with transformer phase splitter.

c. Split-Load Phase Inverter.Asplitloadphaseinverterisshownin figure54. Itsuppliesthetwoinputsignalstoapushpullpoweramplifier circuitwithoutusingatransformer.

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Figure 5-4.

Split-load phase inverter (one-stage).

(1) The output current of transistor Q1 flows through collector loadresistorR3andemitterloadresistorR2,R2andR3areequalinvalue. ResistorR1establishesthebasebiasvoltage. (a) When the input signal opposes the forward bias (base becomes more positive), the current through Q1 decreases. This decreased currentcausesthetopofR3tobecomemorenegativewithrespecttoground. ThetopofR2becomesmorepositivewithrespecttoground(lesscurrentflows throughR2). (b) When the input signal aids the forward bias (base becomes more negative) the output current increases. The top of R3 becomes morepositivewithrespecttoground.ThetopofR2becomesmorenegativewith respecttoground(morecurrentflowsthroughR2increasingitsvoltagedrop). (c) These actions produce two output signals that are 180 degreesoutofphasewitheachother. (2) One problem exists in this circuit arrangement. Since the collectoroutputimpedanceofQ1ishigherthanitsemitteroutputimpedance, the two output signals will not be of the same voltage amplitude. This is overcomebyaddingresistorR4(figure55).ThevalueofR4ischosensothat itsvalueandthatofR2(emitteroutputimpedance)willbalancethecollector outputimpedance.ThesignalvoltagelossacrossR4iscompensatedforbyalso makingR2higherinvaluethanR3. (3) NotethatemitterresistorR2isunbypassedtoallowsignal variationstoappearattheemitter. Becauseofthelargenegativefeedback voltagedevelopedacrossR2,alargesignalinputisrequiredtodrivetheone stagephaseinverter. Thisdisadvantagecanbeovercomebyusingatwostage phaseinvertercircuit.Inaddition,atwostagephaseinverterprovidesmore poweroutput. Thisisimportantifthedriverstagemustfeedalargeamount ofpowertoahigherlevelpushpullpoweroutputstage.

MMS701,5P6

Figure 5-5. d.

One-stage phase inverter with equalized output impedance.

Two-Stage Phase Inverter, Common Emitter Configuration.

(1) Figure56showsatwostagephaseinverterconsistingoftwo identical common emitter circuits. Assume that the input signal drives the baseofQ1positive(positiveinputalternation).Duetothe180degreephase reversal of a common emitter circuit, the collector of Q1 swings negative. ThisnegativegoingsignaliscoupledtothebaseofQ2throughcapacitorC2 andresistorR4.ThesignalisalsocoupledthroughC4tooneinputcircuitof apushpulloutputstage.ThenegativegoingsignalonthebaseofQ2produces apositivegoingsignalatthecollectorofQ2.Thispositivegoingsignalis coupledthroughC5totheotherinputcircuitofthepushpulloutputstage. Whentheinputsignalswingsinthenegativedirection,theoutputsofQ1and Q2changedirection.

MMS701,5P7

Figure 5-6.

Two-stage phase inverter using two CE configurations.

(2) ResistorR1providesbasebiasfortransistorQ1. Collector loadresistorR3developstheoutputsignalofQ1.ResistorR2istheemitter swampingresistorandR5providesbasebiasforQ2.CollectorloadresistorR6 develops the output signal of Q2 and R7 is its emitter swamping resistor. Sincetwoidenticalcommonemittercircuitsarebeingused,theimpedancesare equalforthetwoinputcircuitsofthepushpullstage. e. Two-Stage Phase Inverter, Common Emitter and Common Base Circuits.

(1) Atwostagephaseinverterwithacommonemitterandcommon base circuits is shown in figure 57. Assume that the input signal swings positive. Due to the 180 degree phase reversal of the common emitter, the collectorofQ1swingsnegative. Thesignalontheemitterwillswinginthe positivedirection.RememberthatapositiveinputtothebaseofQ1cutsdown thecurrentthroughthetransistor. LesscurrentthroughR2andtheemitter voltageapproachesthepositivevalueofthecollectortobasebattery.Q2is acommonbasecircuit;itsinputisappliedtoitsemitterwhiletheoutputis developedinthecollectorcircuit.Thereisnophasereversalinthiscircuit.

MMS701,5P8

Figure 5-7.

Two-stage phase inverter using a CE and CB configuration.

(2) TheinputtotheemitterofQ2isdevelopedbythesignalat the emitter of Q1. When the emitter of Q1 is swinging in the positive direction,apositiveinputisappliedtoQ2anditsoutputswingspositive. Therefore,onthepositiveinputalternationtothebaseofQ1,thecollector ofQ1developsanegativegoingsignal,whilethecollectorofQ2developsa positivegoingsignal. (3) The opposite conditions occur on the negative input alternationtothebaseofQ1. ThecollectorofQ1developsapositivegoing signal,whiletheemitterofQ1developsanegativegoingsignal.Theinputto theemitterofQ2isthenegativegoingsignalfromtheemitterofQ1andthe collectoroutputofW1isanegativegoingsignal.TheoutputofQ1andQ2are ofequalamplitudeand180degreesoutofphasewitheachother. (4) The resistors and capacitors in the circuit are used as follows.R1andR3establishthebasebiasforQ1andQ2,respectively.R4is the collector load for Q1 and R5 is the collector load for Q2. R2 is the emitterresistorforQ1anddevelopsthesignalappliedtoQ2. C1placesthe baseofQ2atacground.C2andC3couplethetwooutputsignalstotheinput circuitofthepushpullstage. 4. POWER AMPLIFIERS. a. General.

(1) It can be said that power amplifiers are not voltage amplifiers; or, that power amplifiers are current amplifiers. These are commonlyuseddescriptions. However,consideraloadsuchasaloudspeaker that requires a certain amount of power (watts) to operate. Assume that a power source or power amplifier is designed that will provide enough output power to operate the load even without an input signal. But simply feeding powertotheloadisnotenough;ithastobecontrolledpowerinthiscase controlledtovaryanaudioratesothatsoundcomesoutoftheloudspeaker. (2) The name "power amplifier" does not mean getting something for nothing; the fact is that when full (100 percent) power is applied to a poweramplifier,fromthesourceoperatingpower(Vc),onlyabout50percentof

MMS701,5P9

useful power is received from the stage. It uses about 50 percent of the suppliedpoweritself,tokeepoperating.Thisisameasureoftheefficiency of the "power amplifier"; figures prove out to 50 percent efficiency. The percentofefficiencywillvarydependingonthekindofpoweramplifierused. (3) There are two types of power amplifiers that will be discussed: thesingleendedandthepushpull. Bothtypes,becausetheyare poweramplifiers,arephysicallylargerthanvoltageamplifiersandareusually mounteddifferently(onthechassis)todissipatetheheatthattheygenerate. Inaddition,becausetheconcerniswithpowerratherthanvoltagegain,the valueofloadimpedanceismuchlowerthaninotherstages. b. Single-Ended Power Amplifier. One requirement of any audio amplifier is minimum distortion of the input signal. Consequently, single ended, audio power amplifiers must be operated class A. Figure 58 shows a simplified schematic of a singleended, class A, power amplifier. All components perform basically the same as in any amplifier, except that the outputoftransistorQ1isusedtodriveoroperatealoudspeaker.Resistors R1, R2, R3, and capacitors C1 and C2 are used as biasing and temperature stabilizationcomponents.

Figure 5-8.

Class A, single-ended power amplifier.

c. Class A, Push-Pull Power Amplifier. TheclassA,pushpullpower amplifier(figure59)hastwoNPNtransistorsbiasedforclassAoperation.

MMS701,5P10

Figure 5-9.

Class A, push-pull power amplifier.

(1) TransformerphasesplittercircuitT1appliestwo180degrees outofphase signals to the input of the pushpull amplifier. Resistor R1 limitsthebasebiascurrentandsetstheoperatingpointoftransistorsQ1and Q2.OnehalfoftheprimaryofT2isthecollectorloadforQ1andtheother halfisthecollectorloadforQ2.T2alsomatchestherelativelyhighoutput impedancesofQ1andQ2tothelowimpedanceofthespeakervoicecoil. (2) On the positive half of an input cycle, the voltage on the baseofQ1goesmorepositive,whilethevoltageatthebaseofQ2goesmore negative. Since both transistors are NPN's, these voltages on their bases causecurrentinQ1toincreaseandinQ2todecrease.Currentflowsfromthe collectorofQ1andQ2tothepositivesideofthebatterythroughthetopand bottomhalvesoftheprimarywindingofT2.Underquiescent(nosignalinput) operatingconditions,thesetwocurrentsareequal.Thevalueandpolarityof the voltage drops these collector currents produce is such that there is no differenceofpotentialbetweenpoints1and3ofT2.ThecentertapofT2is themostpositivepointbecauseitisconnecteddirectlytothepositiveside ofthebattery.Therefore,withnosignalinput,thevoltagesatpoints1and 3ofT2areequalandlesspositive(morenegative)thanthecentertap. (3) SincetheconductionofQ1increasesonthepositivehalfof theinputsignal,thevoltageatpoint1ofT2(sameascollectorofQ1)swings less positive (swings in the negative direction). At this time Q2 conducts less, causing the signal at the collector of Q2 to swing in the positive direction.Sincepoint1ofT2isbecomingmorenegativeandpoint3ofT2is becomingmorepositive,adifferenceofpotentialexistsacrosstheprimaryof T2.Effectivelythetipoftheprimarywillbemorenegativethanthebottom. Bytransformeraction,thispotentialdifferenceiscoupledtothesecondaryof T2,andisappliedtothespeakervoicecoil. Onthenegativealternationof the input signal, the reverse action occurs. The polarity of the voltage developedacrosstheprimaryofT2isreversed. (4) The power output from this class A, pushpull amplifier is morethantwicethatofasingleended,classAamplifier.TheclassA,push

MMS701,5P11

pullpoweramplifierfindsitsgreatestapplicationwhenminimumdistortionis the primary consideration and high power output and efficiency is not important. d. Class B, Push-Pull, Zero Bias Power Amplifier.Figure510showsa simplified circuit of a class B, pushpull amplifier, The emittertobase junctionsarezerobiased. Eachtransistorconductsonalternatehalfcycles oftheinputsignalandtheiroutputsignalsarecombinedinthesecondaryof T2.Thisamplifiergivesmaximumefficiencybutitdoesproducedistortion.

Figure 5-10.

Class B, push-pull amplifier with zero input bias.

(1) Arepresentationoftheoutputcurrentwaveformforagiven signal input is shown in figure 511. Assume that the two transistors have identical characteristics. The characteristic curve for one transistor is showninAofthefigure.Bofthefigureshowstheoverallcharacteristicfor thepushpullcircuitbyplacingthetwoindividualcurvesbacktoback. Note that the zero line of each curve is lined up vertically to reflect the zero biascurrentpoint. Cofthefigureshowstheinputsignalprojectedonthe characteristic curve. Corresponding points are projected to form the output collectorwaveform. (2) Note that severe distortion occurs, where the signal passes through the zero point. This is called crossover distortion and it becomes more severe with low signal input currents. Crossover distortion can be eliminatedbyusingasmallamountofforwardbiasonbothofthetransistors.

MMS701,5P12

Figure 5-11.

Characteristic curves of class B, push-pull amplifier with zero bias, showing input and output current waveforms.

e.

Class B, Push-Pull Low Bias Amplifier.

(1) Figure512showsasmallamountofforwardbiasappliedto the basetoemitter junctions of transistors Q1 and Q2. In the circuit,

MMS701,5P13

resistorsR1andR2areavoltagedividerforthebiasbattery(thearrowshows direction of current). The voltage developed across R1 provides the forward biasforbothtransistors.Forwardbiasingthetransistorseliminatescrossover distortion.

Figure 5-12.

Class B push-pull amplifier with small bias voltage.

(2) Thecharacteristiccurveoftheamplifier(figure513)shows that the crossover distortion is eliminated. Note that the characteristic curve is linear at the zero base current region. Points on the input base current curve are projected on the curve. Corresponding points are then projectedtoformtheoutputcollectorcurrentwaveform.Theresultshowsthat crossoverdistortiondoesnotoccurwhenasmallforwardbiasisapplied.

MMS701,5P14

Figure 5-13.

Characteristic curves of class B, push-pull amplifier with small forward bias, showing output current waveforms.

f. Complementary Symmetry, Class B. Junction transistors are availableasNPNandPNPtypes.Thedirectionofelectronflowofonetypeis oppositetothatoftheothertype.Ifthetwotypesareconnectedasshownin figure 514, the circuit is referred to as a complementary symmetry circuit. Thenameisderivedfromthefactthatthetwodifferenttransistortypescan be combined to operate as one stage. The complementary symmetry circuit provides all the advantages of conventional pushpull amplifiers without the need for a phaseinverter driver stage, or for a centertapped input transformer. (1) A positive input signal is required to forward bias Q2 and make it conduct. On the other hand, a negative input signal is required to forward bias Q1 to make it conduct. Thus, when one transistor conducts the other does not, because the input signal that forward biases one transistor reversebiasestheother.

MMS701,5P15

(2) WithnoinputsignalandclassBoperation(zeroemitterto base), neither transistor conducts and no current flows through the speaker coil.

Figure 5-14.

Class B, complementary symmetry.

(a) When the input signal swings positive, Q2 conducts. Thedashedlineindicatescurrentflowatthistime. Avoltageisdeveloped acrossthespeakercoilwithpolarityasindicated. (b) When the input signal swings negative, Q1 conducts. Current flow now changes to the top circuit and is indicated by the solid lines. Notice that the direction of current through the speaker coil has reversedandthepolarityacrossthecoilchanges. (c) Asinewaveinputtothecircuitproducesasinewave output across the speaker coil. Thus, the desired reproduction of the input signalisreceived. g. Complementary Symmetry, Class A.Figure515showsacomplementary symmetry circuit biased for class A operation: current flows through the circuitatalltimes.Assumethatallcomponentsarematched.ResistorsR1and R2 forward bias both Q1 and Q2. The input signal is applied to Q1 and Q2 throughcapacitorsC1andC2,respectively. (1) Duringthenoinputsignalcondition,bothQ1andQ2conduct equally.Twoequalcurrentsflowthroughthespeakercoilbutintheopposite direction.Thenetcurrentinthespeakercoiliszero.

MMS701,5P16

Figure 5-15.

Class A, complementary symmetry.

(2) Whenthepositivehalfoftheinputcycleisappliedtothe baseofQ1andQ2,Q1conductsless(PNP)andQ2conductsmore(NPN). There arestilltwocurrentsflowingthroughthespeakercoilinoppositedirections, butthegreatercurrentflowsthroughthecircuitofQ2(dottedline).Thetwo currentsopposeeachotherandthenetcurrentisthedifferencebetweenthe two;thevoltagedevelopedacrossthecoilhasthepolarityindicatedinthe bottomcircuit. (3) Whentheinputsignalswingsnegative,Q1conductsmorethan Q2.Therefore,thecurrentthroughthetopcircuitisgreaterthanthecurrent through the bottom circuit. The net current develops a voltage across the speaker coil with polarity as indicated in the top circuit. Thus, for each complete input cycle there is a corresponding signal developed across the speakercoil. 5. WIDEBAND AMPLIFIERS. a. General.

(1) A very important factor in certain applications of an amplifying device is its ability to amplify nonsinusoidal or pulseshaped signals. Nonsinusoidal signals, such as sawtooth, rectangular, and square waveformsconsistofafundamentalfrequencyandalargenumberofharmonicsor multiplesofthefundamental.Toproduceapulseshapedoutputsignalthatis anexactreproductionoftheinputsignal,theamplifiermustamplifyallof theharmonicswithuniformgain. Thistypeofamplifierisreferredtoasa widebandamplifier,avideoamplifier,orapulseamplifier. (2) The results of narrowband and wideband amplification of a nonsinusoidalinputsignalareshowninfigure516.Thenarrowbandamplifier in A does not amplify all of the harmonics and produces a distorted output. ThewidebandamplifierinBamplifiesalloftheharmonics;itsoutputisan exactreproductionoftheinputwaveform.

MMS701,5P17

Figure 5-16.

Distortion and reproduction of waveform by narrow-band and amplifiers.

sawtooth wide-band

b. Wideband Amplifier Coupling Circuits. Resistancecapacitance(RC) couplingisthepreferredmethodofcouplingwidebandamplifiers.Figure517 shows the frequency response curves of transformer and RC coupling. The frequency response curve in A of the figure is for a transformer coupled amplifier.Itsresponseisnotuniformoverawiderangeofinputfrequencies; itsvoltagegainvariesastheappliedfrequencychanges.BshowsthatwhenRC couplingisusedinthesameamplifier,itsresponsecurveisflatterovera much wider range of input frequencies. However, using special winding techniques,thefrequencyresponsecurvefortransformerscanbemadeasflat asdesired.Transformerscanthenbeusedintheinputandoutputstagesofa widebandamplifiercircuit.

MMS701,5P18

MMS701,5P19

Figure 5-17.

Frequency response curves for transformer or RC coupling.

c. High Frequency Compensation.InanyRCcoupledwidebandamplifier itisnecessarytocompensateforitshighfrequency(HF)limitationsandits effectonlowfrequencies. (1) HFlimitations. TheHFresponseofawidebandamplifieris limitedbythestrayshuntcapacitanceofitsinputandoutputimpedances.In figure518,thecapacitiveeffectsareshownbythedashedlineslabeledCo fortheoutputimpedanceandCifortheinputimpedance.Sincethereactances ofCoandCidecreaseasthefrequencyincreases,theoverallgainfallsoffat thehigherfrequencies.

Figure 5-18.

RC-coupled amplifier showing capacitive effect on high frequencies.

(2) HFshuntcompensation.Tocompensatefortheshuntingeffect ofCoandCi,inductorL1isaddedinserieswithloadresistorRL(A,figure 519). Capacitor Cc can be considered a short circuit at high frequencies. InductorL1andcapacitorsCoandCiformaparallelresonantcircuitwitha verybroadHFresponse.Thiscompensationisalsocalledshuntpeaking. (a) The resonant peak of the parallel resonant circuit maintainsapracticallyuniformgaininthehighfrequencyrange. (b) When frequency increases, the decrease in the total capacitivereactanceofCoplusCiiscompensatedforbytheincreaseinthe inductive reactance of L1. Thus the gain at higher frequencies remains relativelyhighandconstant.

MMS701,5P20

Figure 5-19.

Wideband amplifier, high frequency compensating coupling.

(3) HF series compensation. In the series compensation (also knownasseriespeaking)circuit,inductorL2isaddedinserieswithcapacitor Cc(B,figure519).ConsideringCcasashortcircuitathighfrequencies,L2 and Ci form a series resonant circuit. As very high frequencies are approached,L2andCiapproachresonance.WhenthevoltageacrossRLbeginsto decrease, because of the decrease in the capacitive reactance of Co, current through Ci will increase. The increase occurs because L2Ci form a series resonant circuit with high current at resonance. Thus as the frequency increases, the attempted decrease in voltage across RL is compensated for by theincreasedcurrentflowfromtheresonantcircuitofL2Ci. (a) Thefrequencyresponsecurveisapproximatelythesame asfortheshuntpeakingcircuit. (b) The gain at higher frequencies of the series peaking circuitisabout50percentgreaterthanthatoftheshuntpeakingcircuit. (4) HF seriesshunt compensation. By adding L1 and L2 to the basiccircuitthecombinedeffectofseriesandshuntcompensation(C,figure 519),isreceived.Thistypeofcouplingisalsocalledcombinationpeaking.

MMS701,5P21

Thefrequencyresponseisaboutthesameasthatofeithertheseriespeaking, or shunt peaking coupling circuits. The gain at higher frequencies is approximately 80 percent greater than that of the series peaking coupling circuit. d. Low Frequency Compensation. A wideband amplifier must have good lowfrequency(LF)responsetoreproducesquarewavesoflongduration. (1) LFlimitations. Thefundamentalandlowfrequencyharmonics ofasquarewavesignalhavethegreatestamplitude. Forexample,thethird harmonic is onethird the amplitude of the fundamental and much higher in amplitude than higher frequency harmonics. Since the fundamental and low frequency harmonics have the greatest amplitude, any small variation in the phase of the lower frequencies is extremely noticeable. The effect on the higher frequency harmonics is negligible since their amplitudes are progressivelydecreased. (2) LFcompensation. Onthelowfrequencyendofthefrequency response range, the input and output capacitance of the transistor have no effectonthefrequencyresponse.Thelowfrequencyresponseislimitedbythe RCcouplingcircuitofcapacitorCcandresistorRg(figure520). Thetime constantofRgandCcmustbelongincomparisontothelowestfrequencytobe amplifiedtopreventthelowfrequencyresponsefromfallingoff. (a) The loss of gain at low frequencies is minimized by adding a compensating filter in series with load resistor RL. The filter consists of resistor RF and capacitor CF. For high frequencies, CF is practicallyashortcircuitandthecollectorloadimpedanceconsistsonlyof RL. Asthefrequencydecreases,thereactanceofCFincreases. Atverylow frequencies, CF is practically an open circuit, and the collector load impedanceconsistsofRLandRF.Thus,thefilterincreasesthecollectorload impedanceatlowfrequencies. (b) This combination extends the frequency response curve overamuchlowerrangeoffrequencies.Thegainbecomesmoreuniformoverthe lowfrequencyrange.

Figure 5-20.

Wideband amplifier, low frequency compensating coupling.

MMS701,5P22

MMS SUBCOURSE NUMBER 701, TRANSISTORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS EXERCISES FOR LESSON 5 1. Collector current flows during 360 degrees of the input cycle for classAamplifiers,approximately220degreesto320degreesforclass AB, 180 degrees for class B, and 90 degrees for class C. Which of thesefourclassesisusedinatransmitterthatprovidesahighpower output? A. B. C. D. 2. A B C AB

Whattypeofcouplingnetworkisusedinthecircuitillustratedin figure52? A. B. C. D. Direct Impedance Transformer Resistancecapacitance

3.

Whichcircuitshowninfigure51givesanidealtransistorcurrent stabilityfactorifaswampingresistorisusedintheemitterlead? A. B. C. D. A B C D

4.

Thetheoreticalmaximumpowerefficiencyofacouplingcircuitbetween amplifierstagesis50percent.Theamplifiercircuitshowninfigure 51thatprovidesthehighestefficiencyistheoneshowninpart A. B. C. D. A. B. C. D.

5.

What class of amplifier must operate pushpull in order to avoid severesignaldistortion? A. B. C. D. A AB B C

6.

Onlyoneofthecouplingnetworksisusedwithamplifierswheredcand very low frequencies must be amplified. This coupling network is called A. B. C. D. resistancecapacitance(RC)coupling. transformercoupling. impedancecoupling. directcoupling.

MMS701,5P22

7.

MaximumgainisprovidedbytransistorQ2infigure52whenthe A. B. C. D. outputofQ1isatmaximumamplitude. movablearmofresistorR2isatitslowestposition. movablearmofresistorR2isatitsuppermostposition. capacitive reactance of capacitor C1 exceeds the resistanceofR2.

8.

Alterationsmustbemadetothecircuitshowninfigure54sothat the circuit will produce the desired outputs. These alterations involveaddinganotherresistorinserieswith A. B. C. D. R1anddecreasingthevalueofR2. R3andincreasingthevalueofR1. C1anddecreasingthevalueofR1. C2andincreasingthevalueofR2.

9.

In the twostage phase inverter shown in figure 56, base bias is developed by resistors R1 and R5, and the two output signals are developedacrossresistors A. B. C. D. R2andR7. R3andR6. R4andR6. R6andR7.

10.

Intheinvertershowninfigure57,thedirectlycoupledinputtoQ2 isdevelopedacross A. B. C. D. R2. R3. R5. C1.

11.

Poweramplifierstagesarephysicallylargerandmounteddifferently than voltage amplifier stages. The reason for these differences is that A. B. C. D. lowerloadimpedancesarcused. greaterheatmustbedissipated. thestagesareonly50percentefficient. eachstagerequirestwiceasmanycomponents.

12.

UnderwhatcircumstanceswillyoufindaclassApushpullamplifier? A. B. C. D. Wheretheprimaryconsiderationisminimumdistortion,and highpoweroutputandefficiencyarenotimportant Wheretheprimaryconsiderationishighpoweroutput,and distortionandefficiencyarenotimportant Wheretheprimaryconsiderationismaximumefficiency,and highpoweroutputanddistortionarenotimportant Wheretheprimaryconsiderationishighpoweroutputand maximumefficiency,anddistortionisnotimportant

MMS701,5P23

13.

During what portion of the input signal to T1 (figure 59) will you measurea0voltdifferenceofpotentialbetweenterminals1and3ofT2? A. B. C. D. At0volt Atmaximum(+) Atminimum() Atonehalfofthepositivevalue

14.

Crossover distortion occurs in a class B, zero bias, pushpull amplifiercircuitbecausethe A. B. C. D. inputsignalismostdistortedwhenitisatzero. transistorsareoverdrivenatthecrossoverpoints. transistorshavedifferenttransfercharacteristics. circuit has nonlinear response curve for low input base currents.

15.

Howcanthecircuitshowninfigure510bemodifiedtoeliminatethe crossoverdistortionoftheoutputsignal? A. B. C. D. AddaforwardbiasingcircuitforQ1andQ2 AddareversebiasingcircuitforQ1andQ2 AddaswampingresistorintheemittercircuitsofQ1and Q2 Add a compensating filter in series with the collector loadofQ1andQ2

16.

TheoperationoftheclassBcomplementarysymmetrycircuitshownin figure514issimilartothatofthepushpullcircuitinfigure510 inthatonlyonetransistorpassescurrentatagiventime.Infigure 514thebaseemitterjunctionsofQ1andQ2areforwardbiasedby A. B. C. D. inputpositivehalfcycleonly. inputnegativehalfcycleonly. theinputpositiveandnegativehalfcyclerespectively. VC1andVC2.

17.

Complementary symmetry circuits may be used to obtain all of the advantages resulting from pushpull operation in audio power amplifiers.Anadditionaladvantagederivedfromusingcomplementary circuitsinplaceofconventionalpushpullamplifiersisthatthese circuits A. B. C. D. canuseeitherRCortransformercoupling. canbeoperatedeitherclassAorclassB. usedischargediodestoeliminatereversebias. do not require a phasesplitting circuit to divide a singleaudioinputsignal.

MMS701,5P24

18.

Whatcircuitfactorscancausepoorhighfrequencyresponseinatwo stageRCcoupledamplifier? A. B. C. D. Inputandoutputresistances Inputandoutputimpedances InputimpedanceandtimeconstantofRCcouplingnetwork OutputimpedanceandtimeconstantofRCcouplingnetwork

19.

What is the percentage gain of a combinationpeaking over series peakinghighfrequencycompensationcircuits? A. B. C. D. 30 50 80 100

20.

Wideband amplifiers must have low and highfrequency response to reproduce various nonsinusoidal waveforms. What best describes the compositionandplacementofalowfrequencycompensationcircuit? A. B. C. D. Series resistanceinductance (RL) circuit in series with thecouplingnetwork SeriesRCcircuitinparallelwiththebaseinputresistor Parallel RC circuit in series with the collector load resistor Parallel RL circuit in parallel with the interstage couplingcapacitor

MMS701,5P25

LESSON 6.

OSCILLATORS AND MULTIVIBRATORS

MMS Subcourse Number 701............... Lesson Objective.......................

Transistors and Semiconductors To provide the student with a general knowledge of LC resonant feedback, RC feedback, and free-running nonsinusoidal oscillators. Four

Credit Hours...........................

TEXT

1.

LC RESONANT FEEDBACK OSCILLATORS. a. General.

(1) Therapidalternatingmotion(oscillation)ofelectronsina conductorresultsinradiationofelectromagneticwaves.Thetermoscillateis definedas"toswingormovebackandforth." Anoscillatorisdefinedas"a devicewhichoscillatesorproducesoscillations."Thepurposeofatransistor oscillatoristoproducetherapidbackandforth,oralternating,motionsof electrons:itproducesalternatingcurrentfromadirectcurrentsupply. (2) All transistor oscillator circuits have the same basic requirements.Anoscillatormustuseanamplifierinwhichtheoutputpoweris greater than the input power to overcome circuit losses. There must be a frequencycontrollingdevicesuchasatankcircuit(coilsandcapacitors),a crystalcontrollednetwork,oranRCfeedbacknetwork.Also,thecircuitmust be arranged so that a portion of the output signal feeds an inphase signal backtotheinputtosustainoscillations(figure61).Thefeedbackiscalled regenerativeorpositivefeedback.

Figure 6-1.

Transistor oscillator showing application of feedback.

MMS701,6P1

(3) There are many types of transistor oscillators. The basic onesaretheArmstrong,Hartley,Colpittsandcrystalcontrolledoscillators. The oscillator can be of the NPN or PNP type, the only difference is the reversalofthebatterypotentials. Thechoiceofaparticularconfiguration (common base, common emitter, or common collector) is determined by the oscillatorrequirementsandtheadvantageofoneamplifierconfigurationover another. b. Basic Transistor Oscillator Circuits.

(1) Figure 62 shows different component arrangements for basic oscillatorcircuitswithPNPtransistors.Eachcircuitprovidesamplification, regenerative feedback, and inductancecapacitance tuning. Bias and stabilization components are not shown, but the dc voltage polarities for normaloperationareincluded. NPNtransistorsmaybesubstitutedinanyof thesecircuits,providedthatthedcpolaritiesarereversed.

Figure 6-2.

Basic transistor oscillator circuits.

MMS701,6P2

(2) ThecircuitsinAandB,figure62,aresimilar. Inboth casesthefeedbacksignaliscoupledfromthecollectortothebasethrougha transformer. CircuitBisashuntfedversionofcircuitA. Shuntfedmeans that the dc and ac components are separated and only ac flows through the collectortankcircuit.Sincethefeedbackpathisfromcollectortobase,the necessary phase inversion of the feedback signal is accomplished by the transformer which provides a 180 degree phase shift. In circuit C of the figure, regenerative feedback with zero phase shift is obtained in the tuned collectortoemitter circuit by proper connection of the transformer. In circuit D of the figure, a 180 degree phase shift is obtained from the transformer: the signal in the untuned collector winding is coupled and invertedinphasetothetunedbasewinding. (3) The circuits E and F, figure 62, use split inductances to provide the necessary feedback. In both circuits the collector circuit is tuned. Each half of the coil provides the necessary feedback of the proper phase.IncircuitE,thefeedbacksignaliscoupledfromthecollectortothe emitterwithnophaseshift.IncircuitF,thefeedbacksignaliscoupledfrom thecollectortothebasewitha180degreephaseshift.CircuitsGandHof thefigurearesimilartothoseinEandFexceptthatsplitcapacitorcircuits areusedforfeedbackinsteadofsplitcoils. c. Armstrong Oscillator (Tickler Coil), Tuned Base.

(1) Thecomponentswithinthedashedlinesonfigure63arethe transistor amplifier circuit. Resistors RB, RC, and RF provide the necessary bias conditions, and RE is the emitter swamping resistor, for stabilization. The shuntfeed arrangement of the collector prevents dc through the ticklet coilL1. ThefeedbackisthroughthemutualinductancebetweencoilsL1and L2. (2) The tank circuit consisting of L2 and C1 is the frequency determining deviceoftheoscillator.VariablecapacitorC1permitstuningthetankcircuit througharangeoffrequencies. CapacitorCccouplesthecollectorsinewave signal to the base of the transistor. Without capacitor Cc, the base bias condition wouldbedeterminedprimarilybythelowdcresistanceofcoilL2. Capacitor CE bypasses the ac signal around the emitter swamping resistor RE, andpreventsdegeneration.

MMS701,6P3

Figure 6-3.

Armstrong oscillator, tuned base.

(3) Theinstantthatpowerisapplied,thevoltagedividerofRF andRBforwardbiasesthetransistorintoconduction.Currentfromtheemitter to the collector is induced into the tank circuit (L2 and C1) and shocks it intooscillationatafrequencydeterminedbythesettingofC1.Asthesignal from the tank circuit swings positive, the forward bias of the transistor increases and causes it to conduct more. The signal at the collector will swinginthenegativedirection.Thereisa180degreedifferencebetweenthe baseandcollectorsignals.Inordertomaintainoscillationsitisnecessary tofeedaportionofthecollectorsignal,inphase,backtothetankcircuit. This is done by transformer action between coils L1 and L2 through C2. The transformeractionprovidesanother180degreephaseshift(foratotalof360 degrees) resulting in regenerative feedback. If an inphase portion of the signalisnotfedbacktothetankcircuit,theoscillationswouldstopaftera fewcycles(figure64).Whenthetankcircuitreversesitsdirection(charge anddischargeofCl),theconductionofQ1isreducedandthecollectorswings in a positive direction. This positive half cycle in turn, is inverted 180 degreesbytransformeractiontosustainoscillationsofthetankcircuit. (4) If the voltage (dc) developed across RE and CE is equal to the base voltage (dc), the oscillator operates at cutoff (class B). If the emittervoltageismorepositivethanthebasevoltage,theoscillatoroperates below cutoff (class C). If a defective resistor or capacitor in either the voltagedividerortheemittercircuitisreplaced,itisnecessarytousethe correctvaluecomponentorthebiasvoltagesmaychangetheclassofoperation.

MMS701,6P4

Figure 6-4.

Waveforms showing effects of insufficient power feedback.

sufficient

and

d.

Armstrong Oscillator, Tuned Collector.

(1) Thetunedcollectorcircuitisverysimilartothetunedbase circuit.Itsmajordifferenceisthatthefrequencydeterminingcircuitisin the collector rather than the base circuit. Figure 65 shows a seriesfed arrangement.Ashuntfedcircuitofthetunedcollectoroscillatorispossible withaslightcircuitmodification.

Figure 6-5.

Armstrong oscillator, tuned collector.

MMS701,6P5

(2) Resistors RF and RB establish the base bias. RF is the emitterswampingresistor.CapacitorsCBandCEbypassacvariationsaroundRB andRF. ThetankcircuitconsistsoftheprimarytransformerT1andvariable capacitorC1.CoilL1istheticklercoilandfeedsaportionofthecollector signal back to the base in the proper phase to sustain oscillations (regenerative feedback). The secondary of T1 couples the alternating signal output to the next stage. To change the frequency of the oscillator, the capacitanceofC1inthetankcircuitisvaried. e. Hartley Oscillator. TheHartleyoscillatorisanimprovementover the Armstrong oscillator. Although its frequency stability is not the best, the Hartley oscillator can generate a wide range of frequencies and is very easytotune. Therearetwoversionsofthisoscillator: theseriesfedand the shuntfed. The main difference between the Armstrong and Hartley oscillators is the feedback or tickler coil. In the Hartley oscillator a separatecoilisnotused. Thecoilinthetankcircuitisasplitinductor andapartofitisusedforfeedback.

Figure 6-6.

Series-fed Hartley oscillator.

(1) SeriesfedHartleyoscillator. Figure66showsoneversion ofaseriesfedHartleyoscillator.ThetankcircuitconsistsofcoilsL1,L2, andcapacitorC2.Thefeedbackcircuitisfromthetankcircuittothebaseof Q1throughC1. CapacitorC3bypassesthesinewavesignalaroundthebattery andswampingresistorREisusedtopreventthermalrunaway. Degenerationis preventedbyCEinparallelwithRE. Theamountofbiasisdeterminedbythe valuesofRB,theemittertobaseresistance,thesmallamountofdcresistance of coil L1 and the resistance of RE. Coupling capacitor C1 is necessary to preventthelowdcresistanceofL2fromplacingashortacrosstheemitterto basejunctionandresistorRE. (a) Whenavoltageisappliedtothecircuit,currentfrom thebatteryflowsthroughcoilL1,andtotheemitterthroughRE.Currentthen flowsfromtheemittertothecollectorandbacktothebattery.Thesurgeof current through coil L1 induces a voltage in coil L2 to start oscillations withinthetankcircuit.

MMS701,6P6

(b) WhencurrentfirststartstoflowthroughcoilL1,the bottomofL1isnegativewithrespecttothetopofL1. Thevoltageinduced intocoilL2makesthetopofL2positive.AsthetopofL2becomespositive, the positive potential is coupled to the base of Q1 by capacitor C1. A positivepotentialonthebaseresultsinanincreaseoftheforwardbiasofQ1 andcausescollectorcurrenttoincrease.Theincreasedcollectorcurrentalso increases the emitter current flowing through coil L1. Increased current throughL1resultsinmoreenergysuppliedtothetankcircuit,which,inturn, increases the positive potential at the top of the tank and increases the forward bias of Q1. This action continues until the rate of change through coilL1cannolongerincrease.TheincreasingcurrentthroughcoilL1andthe transistor cannot continue indefinitely or the coil and transistor will burn up. The circuit must be designed by proper selection of the transistor and associatedpartssothatsomepointisreachedwhenthecurrentcannolonger continuetoincrease. Atthispoint(shownasheavydotonbasewaveform), lessenergyissuppliedtothetankcircuitthroughnormaltankcircuitaction. Thepositivepotentialatthetopofthetankbeginstodecrease.Thiscauses adecreaseintheforwardbiaswhich,inturn,causesthecollectorandemitter currents to decrease. At the instant the potential of the tank circuit decreasestozero,theenergyofthetankcircuitiscontainedinthemagnetic fieldofthecoilandtheoscillatorhascompletedahalfcycleofoperation. (c) Next,themagneticfieldaroundL2collapses,capacitor C2 charges in the opposite direction and the top of L2 starts to become negative. ThisnegativepotentialiscoupledtothebaseofQ1,opposingits forwardbias. MosttransistoroscillatorsareoperatedclassA,thereforethe positiveandnegativesignalsappliedtothebaseofQ1willnotcauseittogo to saturation or to cutoff. When the tank circuit reaches its most maximum negativevalue,thecollectorandemittercurrentswillstillbepresentbutat someminimumvalue. Themagneticfieldwillhavecollapsedandthreefourths ofacyclewillhavebeencompleted. (d) At this point C2 will begin to discharge, decreasing thenegativepotentialatthetopofL2(potentialwillswinginthepositive direction).AsthenegativepotentialappliedtothebaseofQ1decreases,the opposition to the forward bias also decreases. This, in effect, causes the forwardbiastobeginincreasingandthereisaresultantincreaseinemitter current flowing through L1. The increase in current through L1 causes additionalenergytobefedtothetankcircuittoreplacelostenergy.Ifthe energylostinthetankisreplacedwithanequalorlargeramountofenergy, oscillations will be sustained. One cycle has now been completed which is repeatedoverandoveragain.

MMS701,6P7

(2) ShuntfedHartleyoscillator. Figure67showsaversionof a shuntfed Hartley oscillator. The parts in this circuit perform the same basicfunctionsasdotheircounterpartsintheseriesfedHartleyoscillator. Thechiefdifferenceintheshuntfedcircuitisthatdcdoesnotflowthrough thetankcircuit(solidarrowlines).Thispreventspossibleinjurytoanyone whomayaccidentallytouchthetunedcircuitcoilswhiletuningtheoscillator to a desired operating frequency. The shuntfed circuit operation is essentially the same as the seriesfed Hartley oscillator. When voltage is appliedtothecircuit,Q1startsconducting. AsthecollectorcurrentofQ1 increases, the change (increase) is coupled through capacitor C3 to the tank circuit,shockingitintooscillation.C3alsoactsasanisolationcapacitor topreventdcfromflowingthroughthefeedbackcoil.Theoscillationsatthe collector (shown as dotted arrows) will be coupled through C3 (feedback) to supplyenergylostwithinthetank.

Figure 6-7.

Shunt-fed Hartley oscillator.

f. Colpitts Oscillator. Both the Armstrong and Hartley oscillators have a tendency to be unstable in frequency. In comparison, the Colpitts oscillator has fairly good frequency stability, is easy to tune, and can be usedforawiderangeoffrequencies. (1) The Colpitts oscillator is very similar to the shuntfed Hartley oscillator, except that two capacitors are used in a tank circuit instead of a tapped coil (figure 68). The Hartley oscillator has a tap betweentwocoils,whiletheColpittshasatapbetween twocapacitors.FrequencycanbechangedintheColpittsoscillatoreitherby varying the inductance of the coil or by varying the capacitance of the two capacitors in the tank circuit. Notice that no coupling capacitor is used betweenthetankcircuitandthebaseofQ1.CapacitorsC1andC2ofthetank circuit are in parallel with the input and output interelement capacitances (capacitancebetweenemitter,baseandcollector)ofthetransistor.Thus,the inputandoutputcapacitanceeffectonthetankcircuitcanbeminimizedand better frequency stability is attained than with the Armstrong or Hartley oscillators.

MMS701,6P8

Figure 6-8.

Colpitts oscillator.

(2) Figure 69 shows a common base Colpitts oscillator using a PNP transistor as the amplifying device. Notice in this version of the Colpitts oscillator that regenerative feedback is obtained from the tank circuitandappliedtotheemitter.BasebiasisprovidedbyresistorsRBand RF. Resistor RC is the collector load resistor. Resistor RE develops the inputsignalandalsoactsastheemitterswampingresistor.Thetunedcircuit consistsofC1andC2inparallelwiththe12windingoftransformerT1.The voltagedevelopedacrossC2isthefeedbackvoltage.Eitherorbothcapacitors may be adjusted to control the frequency. In the common base configuration there is no difference between the signal at the collector and the emitter signal. Therefore, the phase of the feedback signal does not have to be changed.Whentheemitterswingsnegative,thecollectoralsoswingsnegative andC2chargesnegativelyatthejunctionofC1andC2. Thisnegativecharge acrossC2isfedbacktotheemitter.

Figure 6-9.

Common base Colpitts oscillator.

MMS701,6P9

g. Clapp Oscillator. By modifying the Colpitts oscillator, it is possibletoobtainstillanotheroscillatorcalledaClapposcillator(figure 610). The only difference between the Colpitts oscillator and the Clapp oscillator is the addition of a variable capacitor in series with the inductance of the tank circuit. The added capacitance further improves its frequencystability.

Figure 6-10.

Clapp oscillator.

h. Crystal Controlled Oscillator. Certain crystal materials can be usedtoreplacethecoilandcapacitorinthetankcircuitofanoscillator. Whenacrystalisused,theresultsareexcellentbecausetheoscillatorwill generate a precise, stable frequency. Quartz crystals are often used in oscillators. (1) Ifamechanicalforceisappliedtoacrystalandcausesit tovibrate,itgeneratesanacvoltage.Thisactionworkstheotherwayaround also.Ifanacvoltageisappliedtoacrystal,itwillcauseittovibrate. Therelationshipbetweenthemechanicalandelectricaleffectsisknownasthe pressureelectriceffector,morecommonly,thePiezoelectriceffect. (2) When a crystal is used in an oscillator circuit, it is mountedbetweentwometalplatesinaspecialholder. Voltageisappliedto themetalplatesandcausesthecrystaltovibrate.Onceitstartsvibrating, it begins to generate an ac voltage that is the output frequency of the oscillator.Tokeepthecrystalvibrating(ortosustainoscillations)asmall amountofvoltageisfedbackfromtheoutputoftheamplifier(regenerative feedback).

MMS701,6P10

(3) Basedonwhathasbeenstatedsofar,thecrystalmusthavea resonantfrequency. Itsanaturalresonantfrequencyanddependsonhowthe crystal is cut: the thickness of the crystal is its important feature. Differentsizecrystalsvibrate(resonate)atdifferentfrequencies. Thusto change the frequency of a crystal controlled oscillator, the crystal must be changed. The thinner the crystal, the higher will be its natural resonant frequency. Sincetheoutputacvoltagedependsontheresonantfrequencyof thecrystal,thethinnerthecrystal,thehigherwillbetheoutputacvoltage frequencyoftheoscillator.Onefacttoremember:atthespecificfrequency (of vibration) when the crystal. produces its highest amplitude of output voltage,itistheequivalentofaresonantcircuit. (4) Itmayseemtobeadisadvantagethatacrystalwillgenerate only one frequency. However, crystals can be switched into or out of an oscillatorveryeasily,whichincreasestheirversatility. Inaddition,there isaprocesscalledfrequencysynthesisinwhichmanydifferentfrequenciescan be obtained from the very stable output of a single, crystal controlled oscillator. i. How A Crystal Works As A Tuned Circuit. Aquartzcrystalandits equivalent circuit are shown in figure 611. Capacitor CS, inductor L, and resistorRrepresenttheelectricalequivalentofthequartzcrystal(B,figure 611). CapacitorCPrepresentsthecapacitancebetweenthecrystalelectrodes (A,figure611).Dependinguponthecircuitcharacteristics,thecrystalcan actasacapacitor,aninductor,aseriestunedcircuit,oraparalleltuned circuit. (1) At some frequency the reactances of equivalent capacitor CS and inductor L will be equal and the crystal will act as a series tuned circuit. Aseriestunedcircuithasaminimumimpedanceatresonance(figure 612). Above resonance the series tuned circuit acts inductively and below resonanceitactscapacitively.Inotherwordsthecrystalunithasitslowest impedanceattheseriesresonantfrequencyandtheimpedanceincreasesasthe frequencyisloweredbecausetheunitactsasacapacitor. Theimpedanceof thecrystalunitwillalsoincreaseasthefrequencyisraisedabovetheseries resonantpoint,becausetheunitreactsasaninductor.Therefore,thecrystal unitreactsasaseriestunedcircuit.

MMS701,6P11

Figure 6-11.

Quartz crystal and its equivalent circuit.

Figure 6-12.

The frequency response of a crystal unit.

(2) Sincetheseriestunedcircuitactsasaninductorabovethe seriesresonantpoint,thecrystalunitbecomesequivalenttoaninductorand isinparallelwithequivalentcapacitorCp(B,figure611). Therefore,at somefrequencyabovetheseriesresonantpoint,thecrystalunitwillactasa paralleltunedcircuit. Aparalleltunedcircuithasamaximumimpedanceat theparallelresonantfrequency,andactsinductivelybelowparallelresonance and capacitively above parallel resonance (figure 612). Therefore, at some frequencythecrystalunitwillactasaparalleltunedcircuit. j. Crystal Controlled Armstrong Oscillator. This circuit (figure 6 13)usestheseriestunedmodeofoperation. Itworksmuchthesameasthe Hartleyoscillatorexceptthatfrequencystabilityisimprovedbythecrystal (inthefeedbackpath). Tooperateatdifferentfrequencies,crystalsmaybe changed.

MMS701,6P12

Figure 6-13.

Crystal controlled Armstrong oscillator.

(1) Variable capacitor C1 makes the circuit tunable to the selectedcrystalfrequency.C1iscapableoftuningtoawidebandofselected crystalfrequencies. Regenerativefeedbackfromcollectortobaseisthrough themutualinductancebetweentransformerwindings12and34.Thisprovides thenecessary180degreephaseshiftforthefeedbacksignal.ResistorsRB,RF, andRC,providethebaseandcollectorbiasvoltages.CapacitorCEbypassesac variationsaroundemitterswampingresistorRE. (2) Atfrequenciesaboveandbelowtheseriesresonantfrequency of the selected crystal, its impedance increases and reduces the amount of feedbacksignal.This,inturn,preventsoscillationatfrequenciesotherthan itsseriesresonantfrequency. k. Crystal Controlled Pierce Oscillator. This oscillator uses a crystal unit as a parallel resonant circuit. The Pierce oscillator is a modified Colpitts oscillator; they operate in the same way except that the crystalunitreplacestheparallelresonantcircuitoftheColpitts. (1) Figure614showsthecommonbaseconfigurationofthePierce oscillator. Feedback is supplied from the collector to the emitter through capacitorC1.ResistorsRB,RC,andRFprovidetheproperbiasconditionsfor thecircuitandresistorREistheemitterswampingresistor. CapacitorsC1 andCEformavoltagedividerconnectedacrosstheoutput.Sincenophaseshift occurs in the common base circuit, capacitor C1 feeds back a portion of the output signal to the emitter without a shift in phase. The oscillating frequency is determined not only by the crystal but also by the parallel capacitancecausedbycapacitorsC1andCE. Theparallelcapacitanceaffects theoscillatorfrequency;anychangeincapacitanceofeitherC1orCEchanges thefrequencyoftheoscillator.

MMS701,6P13

Figure 6-14.

Pierce oscillator, common base configuration.

(2) Figure 615 shows the common emitter configuration of the Pierceoscillator. Theresistorsinthecircuitprovidetheproperbiasand stabilizationconditions. ThecrystalunitandcapacitorsC1andC2determine theoutputfrequencyoftheoscillator. Thesignaldevelopedatthejunction ofY1andC1is180degreesoutofphasewiththesignalatthejunctionofY1 andC2.Therefore,thesignalattheY1C1junctioncanbecoupledbacktothe baseofQ1asaregenerativefeedbacksignaltosustainoscillations.

Figure 6-15.

Pierce oscillator, common emitter amplifier configuration.

2.

RESISTANCE-CAPACITANCE (RC) FEEDBACK OSCILLATORS.

a. Phase Shift Oscillator.Thephaseshiftoscillatorisasinewave generator that uses a resistancecapacitance (RC) network as its frequency determining device. Besides determining the frequency, the RC network also providestheproperregenerativefeedbacktosustainoscillation.

MMS701,6P14

(1) Inanycommonemitterconfiguration(figure616)thereisa 180 degree phase difference between the base and collector signals. For regenerative feedback in the phase shift oscillator, a phase shift of 180 degrees between the output and input signals, is needed. An RC network consistingofthreesectionsprovidestheproperfeedbackandphaseinversion. Eachsectionshiftsthefeedbacksignal60degreesinphase.

Figure 6-16.

Phase shift oscillator.

(a) Since the impedance of an RC network is capacitive, currentinitleadstheappliedvoltagebyaspecificphaseangle. Thephase angle is determined by the amount of resistance and capacitance of the RC section. Different values of resistance and capacitance produce different phaseangles. (b) If the capacitance is a fixed value, a change in the resistancevaluewillchangethephaseangle.Iftheresistanceischangedto zero,amaximumphaseangleof90degreesisdeveloped. Butsinceavoltage cannot be developed across zero resistance, a 90 degree phase shift is impossible. (c) With a small value of resistance however, the phase angleorphaseshiftislessthan90degrees. Inthephaseshiftoscillator, therefore, at least three RC sections are needed to give the required 180 degree phase shift for regenerative feedback. The values of resistance and capacitancearegenerallychosensothateachsectiongivesa60degreephase shift. (2) In the figure, resistors RB, RF, and RC provide base and collectorbias. CapacitorCEbypassesacvariationsaroundswampingresistor RE. CapacitorsC1,C2,andC3andresistorsR1,R2,andRBformthefeedback and phase shifting network. Resistor R2 is variable for fine tuning to compensateforanysmallchangesinvalueoftheothercomponentsofthephase shiftnetwork.

MMS701,6P15

(3) When power is applied to the circuit, oscillations are startedbyanyrandomnoise. Achangeintheflowofbasecurrentresultsin an amplified change in collector current, phase shifted 180 degrees. The signal returned to the base is inverted 180 degrees by the action of the RC networkmakingthecircuitregenerative. A,figure617,showstheamountof phaseshiftproducedbyC1andR1.Bofthefigureshowstheamountofphase shiftproducedbyC2andR2(signalreceivedfromC1andR1),andCshowsthe complete phase shift as the signal leaves the RC network. With the correct amountofresistanceandcapacitanceinthephaseshiftnetwork,the180degree phase shift occurs at only one frequency. At any other than the desired frequency, the capacitive reactance increases or decreases and causes an incorrect phase relationship (the feedback becomes degenerative). Thus, the oscillatorworksatonlyonefrequency.

Figure 6-17.

Three section phase shifting RC network.

(4) AhighgaintransistormustbeusedwiththethreesectionRC networkbecausethelossesinthenetworkarehigh. UsingmorethanthreeRC sectionsactuallyreducestheoverallsignallosswithinthenetwork.Thisis because additional RC sections reduce the phase shift necessary for each section, and the loss for each section is lowered as the phase shift is reduced.Inaddition,anoscillatorthatusesfourormoreRCnetworkshasmore stabilitythanonethatusesthreeRCnetworks. Ina4partRCnetworkeach partshiftsthephase45degreestogivetherequired180degreesphaseshift. b. Wein-Bridge Oscillator. Another circuit that uses a resistance capacitance (RC) network to produce a sine wave output is the Weinbridge oscillator.Thisoscillatorisverystableanditsoutputsignalhasaminimum of distortion with very little amplitude variation. These three features frequency stability, minimum distortion, and amplitude stabilitymake the Weinbridgeoscillatorextremelyusefulasamastertimingoscillator.

MMS701,6P16

(1) TheWeinbridgeoscillator(figure618)hastwotransistors connectedinthecommonemitterconfiguration. Inthephaseshiftoscillator oneamplifierplusthephaseshiftnetworktoproducethedesired360degrees phaseshift,isused. Theamplifierproducedtheequivalentofa180degree phaseshiftandtheRCnetworkproduceda180degreephaseshiftforatotalof 360 degrees. Since one amplifier provides 180 degrees phase shift, two amplifiers can be used to get a 360 degree phase shift. The Weinbridge oscillator, then, is basically two RC amplifiers with proper feedback. To obtainitsdesirablequalities,bothregenerativeanddegenerativefeedbackare used.

Figure 6-18.

Transistor Wien-bridge oscillator.

(2) AlthoughAandB,offigure618,areessentiallythesame,A isarrangedsothefeedbackpathcanbeidentified,andBisarrangedsothe componentsofthebridgenetworkareshown.BothtransistorsQ1andQ2usethe same type of biasing and stabilization. Resistors RB1 and RF1 establish bias forthebaseofQ1andresistorsRB2andRF2establishbiasforthebaseofQ2. ResistorR2andthermistorRT1establishthefeedbackfordegenerationinQ1. RT1alsoactsasaswampingresistor. ResistorREisleftunbypassedtoget degeneration and increased output waveform stability for Q2. Capacitor CC couplestheoutputofQ1tothebaseofQ2.CapacitorC3couplesthesinewave outputtothenext.

MMS701,6P17

(3) ThefrequencyoftheWeinbridgeoscillatorisdeterminedby thevaluesofcapacitorsC1andC2,andresistorsR1andRB1. Tooperatethe oscillatorasavariablefrequencyselectorbridgenetwork.Oscillationsstart when power is applied. A charge in the base current of Q1 results in a amplifiedchangeincollectorcurrent,phaseshifted180degrees.Thesignalis then applied to the base of Q2. The amplified output of Q2 is also phase shifted180degrees.TheoutputofQ2isthenfedbacktothebaseofQ1to sustainoscillations. (4) The frequency selector circuit (bridge network) in the feedbackpathpreventstheoutputfrequencyfromchanging.Thefeedbacksignal is developed between the collector of Q2 and ground and is applied to the frequencyselectorcircuit(A,figure619).

Figure 6-19.

Frequency selector circuit simplified.

(a) An important point to remember about this circuit is that the output developed across C2 and RB1 is in phase with the feedback signalofQ2atonlyonefrequency.Ifthefrequencyappliedtothefrequency selector circuit increases, the signal across C2 and RB1 is affected in two ways (B, figure 619): the output signal will be out of phase with the incomingsignal;and,itsamplitudewilldecrease. (b) If the input frequency decreases (C, figure 619), againthereisanoutofphaseconditionandadecreaseinamplitude.Because oftheactionofthefrequencyselector,thesignalatthebaseofQ1willbe inphasewiththefeedbacksignalatonlyonefrequency.Ifahigherorlower frequencyisfedbacktothefrequencyselector,itwillcauseanoutofphase signalwithamuchloweramplitudetobeappliedtothebaseofQ1. Thisin turnwillpreventoperationoftheWeinbridgeoscillatorcircuit.

MMS701,6P18

(c) At the resonant frequency, the phase shift is 360 degrees (or zero degrees). At frequencies above and below the resonant frequency, a phase difference occurs and a positive (regenerative) feedback voltageisgreatlyreducedinvalue. (5) The degenerative or negative feedback circuit is simply a voltagedividerconsistingofR2andRT1(figure618).Thesignalappliedto this voltage divider is the same signal that is applied to the frequency selectorcircuit.TheamplitudeofthesignalbetweenR2andRT1isdetermined bytheirresistances. (a) Notice that this signal is tapped from the voltage dividerandappliedtotheemitterofQ1. Thefeedbackvoltageisdetermined primarily by resistor R2 (which can be made variable to control the output amplitude).Aboveorbelowtheresonantfrequencyagreaternegativefeedback voltage is applied to the emitter with respect to the signal applied to the base. (b) Therefore, if the feedback signal contains other than theresonantfrequency,theemittervoltagewillbehighwhilethebasevoltage willbelow.Thedegenerativeeffectwillcanceloutallfrequenciesexceptthe resonantfrequency,providingahighlystableoscillator. (6) TheemitterresistorofQ1isathermistor,withapositive temperature coefficient of resistance. In some circuits a lamp may be substitutedforthethermistor. Ineithercase,itsfunctionistostabilize theoutputamplitudeoftheoscillator. (a) Whentheamplitudeoftheoutputsignalincreasesabove itspredeterminedrange,anincreasedfeedbackvoltageresults.Asaresultof the increased feedback voltage, the current through the thermistor will increase, the resistance of the thermistor will increase, which, in turn, causesanincreaseinthenegativefeedbackvoltage. (b) Thisreducesthegainoftheamplifierandeffectively returns the output voltage to its correct level. Therefore, additional amplitude stabilization is provided. In Weinbridge oscillators that do not needthisadditionalstability,anordinaryresistormaybeusedastheemitter resistor.

MMS701,6P19

3.

FREE-RUNNING NONSINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS. a. General.

(1) An oscillator that has a nonsinusoidal output waveform is calledarelaxationoscillator. Therelaxationoscillatorusesaregenerative circuitinconjunctionwithresistancecapacitance(RC)componentstoprovidea switching action. The charge and discharge of the capacitors are used to produce either sawtooth, square, or other pulseshaped output waveforms. Multivibratorsandblockingoscillatorsareexamplesofrelaxationoscillators andtheyarefurtherclassifiedaseitherfreerunningordrive(triggered).A freerunningmultivibratorisoneinwhichtheoscillationsbeginoncepoweris applied; the oscillations then become continuous while the circuit is in operation. Triggered multivibrators are controlled by synchronizing or externaltriggersignals. (2) The following properties of a transistor amplifier circuit areusedinmultivibratorandblockingoscillatorcircuits. Theseproperties apply to the common emitter configuration; it is used because it has 180 degreesphaseshiftbetweenitsinputandoutputsignals. (a) Anincreaseintheemittertobaseforwardbiascauses an increase in collector current. A decrease in the emittertobase forward biascausesadecreaseincollectorcurrent. (b) An increase in collector current causes the collector voltage to decrease. A decrease in collector current causes the collector voltagetoincreasetowardsthevalueofthesourcevoltage. (c) A transistor is saturated when a further increase in basecurrentcausesnofurtherincreaseincollectorcurrent. (d) A transistor is cut off when either the base voltage polarity is reverse biased, or the collector voltage polarity causes reverse bias. (e) Capacitorsrequireadefiniteamountoftimetocharge or discharge through a resistor. The measure of this time, called the time constant,isdeterminedbymultiplyingtheresistancebythecapacitance.

MMS701,6P20

b. Free-Running Multivibrators. The freerunning or astable multivibrator is essentially a nonsinusoidal, twostage oscillator. Astable meansthatithastwostablestatesasexplainedbelow.Inthismultivibrator, onestageconductsuntilapointisreachedatwhichthestagesreversetheir conditions. That is, the conducting stage cuts off and the other (cutoff) stagebeginsconducting.Thisonoffprocessoscillatesbackandforthbetween thetwostagesandresultsinasquareorpulseshapedoutput. Theshapeof theoutputdependsontheoscillatorcircuitry. (1) The basic collectorcoupled multivibrator is a twostage RC coupledcommonemitteramplifier.Theoutputofthefirststageiscoupledto theinputofthesecondstage,andtheoutputofthesecondstageiscoupledto theinputofthefirststage(figure620).Sincethesignalinthecollector circuitofacommonemitteramplifierisreversedinphasewithrespecttoits input,aportionoftheoutputofeachstageisfedtotheotherstageinphase with the signal on the base electrode. This regenerative feedback with amplification is required for oscillation. Bias and stabilization are established identically for both transistors. Because of the variation in tolerancesofthecomponents,oneofthetransistorswilleitherconductbefore theother,orconductmoreheavilythantheother.

Figure 6-20.

Free-running multivibrator.

(2) Assuming transistor Q1 is conducting more heavily than transistor Q2, more current will flow in the base circuit of Q1 than in the base circuit of Q2. Collector current of Q1 increases rapidly, causing its collectorvoltageandthevoltageatthejunctionofresistorsRC1andRF1to decrease(becomemorepositive). Thisincreasingpositivevoltageisapplied throughcapacitorCF1tothebaseofQ2. (a) As the base voltage of Q2 becomes more positive, its forwardbiasdecreases,resultinginarapiddecreaseinitsbaseandcollector currents. The collector voltage of Q2 and the voltage at the junction of resistors RC2 and RF2 becomes more negative. This negatively increasing voltage is fed back through capacitor CF2 to the base of Q1, increasing its forwardbias. Thisprocesscontinuesuntilapointisreachedwherethebase voltageofQ2ismadesopositivewithrespecttoitsemitterthatQ2iscut off (reverse bias is applied) and Q1 is saturated. That is, the current through Q1 increases steadily as the current through Q2 decreases steadily untilQ2iscutoff.

MMS701,6P21

(b) Point A, figure 621, represents this action. The entireactionhappenssoquicklythatCF1doesnotgetachancetodischarge and the increased positive voltage at the collector of Q1 appears entirely acrossresistorRB2.

Figure 6-21.

Collector coupled multivibrator waveforms.

(c) During the period from A to B, the collector current and voltage of Q1 remain constant. Capacitor CF1 discharges through resistor RF1 and, as it does, the signal at the base of Q1 is at its most positive value. AsCF1continuestodischarge,thesignalatthebaseofQ2decreases to a negative value, decreasing the reverse bias on the base of Q2. This actioncontinuesuntilthetimeatpointBwhenforwardbiasisreestablished acrossthebaseemitterofQ2.

MMS701,6P22

(3) Transistor Q2 conducts and as its collector current increases,itscollectorvoltagebecomeslessnegative(morepositive). This voltage, coupled through capacitor CF2 to the base of Q1, drives the base positiveandcausesadecreaseincurrentthroughQ1.Theresultingincreased negativevoltageatthecollectorofQ1iscoupledthroughcapacitorCF1and appearsacrossresistorRB2.Therefore,thecollectorcurrentoftransistorQ2 increases.ThisprocesscontinuesrapidlyuntilQ1iscutoff.TransistorQ1 remainscutoff(andQ2conducts)untilCF2dischargesthroughRF2enoughto decreasethereversebiasonthebaseofQ2(pointC,figure621).Thecycle isthenrepeated. (4) The oscillating frequency of the multivibrator is usually determinedbythevaluesofresistanceandcapacitanceinthecircuit.Inthe collectorcoupledmultivibrator,collectorloadsareprovidedbyresistorsRC1 andRC2. BasebiasfortransistorQ1isestablishedthroughvoltagedivider resistors RB1 and RF2. Base bias for transistor Q2 is established through voltagedividerresistorsRF1andRF2. Stabilizationisobtainedwithemitter swamping resistor RE1 for Q1, and RE2 for Q2. Capacitors CE1 and CE2 are emitterbypasscapacitors. TheoutputsignaliscoupledthroughcapacitorCo tothenextstage. Theoutputwaveform,whichisessentiallysquare,maybe takenfromthecollectorofeithertransistorQ1orQ2. c. Saturable-Core Square Wave Oscillator.Transistors,functioningas highspeed switching elements; may be used in conjunction with transformers. Transistors can function as either switches or relays, and they switch from cutoff to saturation (open and close) faster than mechanical devices. This circuit operates with greater efficiency and at higher frequencies than the commonmechanicalvibratorusedinportablepowersupplies. Theoutputsquare wavemaybesteppedupordownandthenrectified,providingahigherorlower dcvoltagethantheavailablepowersource. Whenthecircuitisusedwitha fullwave rectifier, very little filtering is required because of its high frequencyandsquarewaveoutput. (1) The switching action that occurs in a mechanical vibrator circuitisshowninA,figure622.Vibratorcontactsaresimulatedbyganged switchesS1andS2. Theoperationissuchthatwhenoneisopenedtheother switch is closed. When switch S1 is closed, the battery voltage is applied across the 12 winding of transformer T1. The polarities of the voltages inducedintheotherwindingsareasindicated. Whentheswitchoperationis reversed, the battery voltage is applied across the 34 winding and the polarityisreversed. Thevoltageacrosssecondarywinding56willalsobe reversedfromthefirstcondition. Whenthemechanicalswitchingisrapid,a voltagewaveformacrosstheloadresistorRLwillessentiallybesquarewaveas showninBofthefigure.

MMS701,6P23

Figure 6-22.

Mechanical switching circuit.

(2) Basically, the operation of the saturablecore square wave oscillator(A,figure623)dependsontheswitchingactionoftransistorsQ1 andQ2.WhenQ1conductsheavily,itmaybecomparedtoclosingswitchS1(A, figure 622). At the same instant of time, Q2 will be cutoff (similar to switchS2beingopen).Thetransitionfromcutofftoheavyconductionandvice versaisextremelyrapidandgivesasquarewaveoutput. (a) Starting oscillations in the circuit depends on the unbalance existing between the apparently identical circuits of Q1 and Q2. Thisisduetoasmallunbalanceinbothexternalcircuitsandthetransistors themselves.Becauseofthissmallunbalance,morecurrentwillflowinoneof theprimarywindingsoftransformerT1thanintheother.Forthisexamplethe assumptionisthatmorecurrentflowsthrough34winding. (b) The starting point will be at point F (negative saturationregionoffluxinthetransformercore)onthehysteresiscurve(B, figure 623). Transistor Q1 conducts heavier and the core flux moves from pointFtowardpointB(positivesaturationregion),inducingavoltageinall other windings. Since the collector circuit current is from the negative terminalofthesourcevoltage,theinducedvoltageswillbepositiveatthe topofeachwindinginA,figure623.NoticethatthebaseofQ1ismademore negative,drivingittoheavyconduction.ThebasevoltageofQ2ismademore positive,drivingittocutoff. (c) Thefluxinthecorechangesatarelativelyconstant rate until point B is reached. At core saturation (point C), any further increase in current does not increase the flux in the core. Since the flux remains constant, no further voltage is induced in the primary and secondary windings of T1. The induced voltages quickly fall to zero and remove the negativepotentialfromthebaseofQ1. Q1willstopconductingandprevent currentflowinthe34windingofT1.

MMS701,6P24

(3) Whencurrentceasesinthe34winding,thefluxofthecore falls from point C towards point A (B, figure 623). Due to this small decrease of flux, voltages of opposite polarity of those that previously existedareinducedinallofthetransformerwindings.TransistorQ1willbe drivenfurtherintocutoffbythepositivevoltagenowappliedtoitsbase.The fluxofthetransformercorewillgotowardsnegativesaturation(pointAto pointE). Duringthisperiod,Q1isatcutoffandQ2conductsheavily. Once pointDisreachedonthecurve,anyfurtherincreaseincurrentwillnotcause an increase in flux in the negative saturation region. The switching of Q1 fromcutofftoconductionandQ2fromconductiontocutoffoccurs.Thecycle thencontinuestorepeatitself.

Figure 6-23.

Saturable-core square wave oscillator.

(4) The output voltage developed across winding 89 is essentially a square wave. This occurs because the core flux changes at a relativelyconstantratefrompointsFtoBandfromAtoE(B,figure623). The output frequency and voltage are determined by the turns ratio of the primaryandsecondarywindingsoftransformerT1,andbythesaturationfluxof thetransformercore.ResistorsRBandRFestablishtheinitialbiasvoltages forthebasesoftransistorsQ1andQ2.

MMS701,6P25

d. Blocking Oscillator. A blocking oscillator is often used as a master oscillator in equipment. It is capable of generating pulses of very shortdurationthatcanbeusedtotriggerandsynchronizeothercircuitsin theequipment.Blockingoscillatorsmaybeeitherfreerunningortriggered.

Figure 6-24.

Blocking oscillator.

(1) In the blocking oscillator circuit in figure 624, when voltageVcisappliedtotransistorQ1itstartstoconduct.Collectorcurrent flowsthroughtheprimarywinding34oftransformerT1. Themagneticfield thatbuildsupacrosstheprimarywindinginducesavoltageintotheothertwo windings. This results in a positive voltage on terminal 1 of T1 which is coupledthroughcapacitorCFandcausesQ1togointosaturation.(Theoutput voltageonterminal5alsogoespositiveatthistime.) CapacitorCFcharges quicklythroughthelowemittertobasejunctionresistanceofQ1,andassume the charge shown in A of figure 625. When Q1 reaches saturation, collector current stops increasing and remains at a constant value. Since current throughtransformerwinding34remainsconstant,themagneticfieldstartsto collapseandcapacitorCFstartstodischargethroughresistorRF(B,figure6 25). (2) When capacitor CF discharges through resistor RF it causes thebaseofthetransistortobecomenegativeanddrivesthetransistorinto cutoff.Thecapacitordischargingthroughtheresistor(alongtimeconstant) keepsthetransistorcutoff. Then,whenthecapacitorisalmostdischarged, thereversebiasisremovedfromthebaseandthetransistorstarts conduct again. This action keeps repeating itself and produces an output of sharp narrowpulsesthatcanbeusedtotriggerothercircuits.

MMS701,6P26

Figure 6-25.

Charge and discharge of blocking oscillator capacitor.

MMS701,6P27

MMS SUBCOURSE NUMBER 701, TRANSISTORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS

EXERCISES FOR LESSON 6 1. Whattypeofoscillatorisknowasaticklercoiltunedbase? A. B. C. D. 2. Hartley Colpitts Crystal Armstrong

Whichisnotarequirementforanoscillator? A. B. C. D. Regenerativefeedback Phaseinversion Amplification Frequencycontroldevice

3.

Whatcircuit(s)usesplitcapacitorcircuitsforfeedbackinfigure62? A. B. C. D. C G&H E&F B

4.

Whatcomponentsoffigure63providethenecessarybiasconditionsin theArmstrongoscillator? A. B. C. D. RF,RC,andRB Cc,RE,andRF RE,RC,andRF RB,RC,andRE

5.

What component provides the Armstrong oscillator in figure 63 regenerativefeedback? A. B. C. D. RC C2 ActionofcoilsL1andL2 Cc

6.

Where is the frequency determining circuit located in the Armstrong oscillatorshowninfigure65? A. B. C. D. BaseofQ1 EmitterQ1 AcrossRBandCB CollectorofQ1

MMS701,6P28

7.

What is the main difference between the Hartley and Armstrong oscillators? A. B. C. D. TheHartleyoscillatorusesatransformer TheHartleyoscillatordoesnotuseanamplifier TheArmstrongoscillatorusesasplitinductorcoilinthe tankcircuitforfeedback TheHartleyoscillatorusesasplitinductorcoilinthe tankcircuitforfeedback

8.

What components make up the tank circuit of the seriesfed Hartley oscillatorshowninfigure66? A. B. C. D. L1andC2 L1andL2 L1,L2,andC2 L1,L2,andC1

9.

Whatistherelationshipbetweenmechanicalandelectricaleffectsof acrystalknownas? A. B. C. D. Resonantfrequency Piezoelectric Frequencysynthesis Frequencystability

10.

What is the main difference between the Colpitts and the Clapp oscillators? A. B. C. D. Addition of a variable capacitor in parallel with the inductanceofthetankcircuitintheColpittsoscillator Addition of a variable capacitor in series with the inductanceofthetankcircuitintheColpittsoscillator Addition of a variable capacitor in series with the inductanceofthetankcircuitintheClapposcillator EliminationofthetankcircuitintheClapposcillator

11.

WhatisthepurposeofvariablecapacitorsC1andC2infigure69? A. B. C. D. Controlthefrequencyoftheoscillator Providefeedbackforthecircuit ControlthegainofQ1 Eliminatenoiseinthecircuit

MMS701,6P29

12.

Wheredoestheinput,ifany,enterthephaseshiftoscillatorshown infigure616? A. B. C. D. BetweenR1andground Thereisnoinput;oscillationsstartwhenpowerapplied byrandomnoise BetweenRBandground AtC1andground

13.

Whichstatementiscorrect? A. B. C. D. Inaparalleltunedcircuitthereisminimumimpedanceat resonance In a series tuned circuit there is maximum impedance at resonance Atresonanceminimumimpedanceisfeltinaseriestuned circuit In a parallel tuned circuit acts inductively above parallelresonance

14.

WhatistheminimumamountofRCsectionsnecessarytoget180degrees phaseshiftinaphaseshiftoscillator? A. B. C. D. 1 2 3 4

15.

Whatcomponentslocatedonfigure618determinethefrequencyofthe Weinbridgeoscillator? A. B. C. D. CCandRB2 C2,RB1,R1,C1 C1,C2,RT1,andR2 C1andR2

16.

Whatisanothernameforthenonsinusoidaloscillator? A. B. C. D. Relaxation Phaseshift Shuntfed Seriesfed

17.

Whatbestdescribesthefreerunningmultivibrator? A. B. C. D. Stabletwostageoscillator Tunedtwostageoscillator Astabletwostageoscillator Nonsinusoidaltwostageoscillator

MMS701,6P30

18.

Using a CE configuration of a transistor amplifier in a blocking oscillatorcircuit,whatstatementistrue? A. B. C. D. When the base voltage polarity is reverse biased the transistorissaturated An increase in collector current causes the collector voltagetoincrease When the collector voltage polarity causes reverse bias thetransistoriscutoff Saturationofatransistorwhenincreaseinbasecurrent causesdecreaseincollectorcurrent

19.

WhenthevoltageonthebaseofQ1,figure620,goespositive,the collectorvoltageofQ2 A. B. C. D. goespositive. goesnegative. remainsthesame. goestozerovolts.

20.

What resistor(s) on figure 620 provide the collector load for transistorQ1? A. B. C. D. RC1andRF1 RF1 RF1andRB2 RC1

21.

What is the prime reason transistors are preferred over a common mechanicalvibratorforswitchingpurposes? A. B. C. D. Smallerinsize Operatefaster Neverneedfiltering Longerlifeexpectancy

22.

Whenpowerisappliedtothesaturablecoresquarewaveoscillator,on figure623,whichtransistorwillconductfirst? A. B. C. D. Q1 Q2 Neither;onlywheninputsquarewaveisapplied Either; although both have identical circuits, one must haveasmallunbalanceandthisdeterminesthetransistor thatconducts

MMS701,6P31

23.

WhenQ1offigure623isconducting,whatarethepolaritiesfelton thebasesofQ1andQ2? A. B. C. D. PositiveonQ1andnegativeonQ2 Bothpositive NegativeonQ1andpositiveonQ2 Bothnegative

24.

What type of oscillator usually produces a trigger or synchronizing pulse? A. B. C. D. Clapp Blocking Saturablecore Weinbridge

25.

Onfigure624,iftheoutputatpin5ofthetransformerisgoing positive,whatwillbetheoperatingconditionofQ1? A. B. C. D. Cutoff Saturation Barelyconducting Conductingatahighrate

MMS701,6P32

LESSON 7.

TRIGGERED AND GATING CIRCUITS

MMS Subcourse Number 701............... Lesson Objective.......................

Transistors and Semiconductors To provide the student with a general knowledge of transistor switching characteristics and triggered circuits. Four

Credit Hours...........................

TEXT

1.

TRANSISTOR SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS. a. General.

(1) Pulse and switching circuits are used in radar, television, telemetering,pulsecodecommunication,andcomputingequipment. Thecircuits function as generators, amplifiers, inverters, frequency dividers, and wave shapers and they provide limiting, triggering, and gating and signal routing actions. Pulse and switching circuits are normally characterized by large signal(nonlinear)operationofthetransistor.Operationofthesecircuitsis normallygovernedbytheapplicationofapulse;orachangeinthelevelof voltageorcurrentappliedtothecircuit.Theinputsignals(triggerpulses) produceoutputsignalshavinglargeandsuddenchangesinvoltageorcurrent. Such nonlinear operation results in an output waveform which may differ considerablyfromtheinputwaveform. (2) Examples of pulse waveforms encountered in largesignal operationofthetransistorareshowninfigure71. Thechangesinvoltage levelswithtimeareconsideredinstantaneous,andrepresentatheoreticalor ideal pulse. A voltage which undergoes an instantaneous change in amplitude fromoneconstantleveltoanotheriscalledaunitstepvoltage.Inpulseand switchingcircuitapplicationswhentheunitstepvoltageistheresultofan appliedsignal,itisusuallyofsufficientmagnitudetocausethecircuitto changefromastateofconductingtooneofcutofforviceversa. Whenthe unitstepvoltageistheresultofanappliedsignaltoaswitchingcircuit, thecircuithaschangeditsstate. (a) A, figure 71, illustrates a positive unit step voltage.AttimeT1,thevoltagelevelisincreased(positively)bytheamount V. The voltage level does not have to necessarily increase from zero to a positive voltage. If the initial voltage level is a negative potential and thenchangestozero,apositiveunitstepvoltageoccurs.

MMS701,7P1

(b) B of the figure represents a negative unit step voltage.AttimeT2,thevoltagelevelisdecreased(negatively)bytheamount V.Inthisinstance,thechangeinlevelcouldbeeitherfromahighpositive potential to one that is less positive, or a change from zero to a negative level,orfromanegativeleveltoahighernegativelevel.

Figure 7-1.

Unit step voltage waveforms, showing formation of a pulse.

(c) C,figure71,showsasquareorrectangularpulse.At timeT1,thevoltagelevelisincreasedbytheamountV. BetweentimeT1and T2,anewconstantvoltagelevelisestablished.AttimeT2,thevoltagelevel isdecreasedbytheamountV.Thesquarepulsemaybereferredtoastwounit step voltages, one positive and one negative. Explanation of a unit step current is identical with that of unit step voltage. Current levels, rather than voltage levels, undergo instantaneous changes, either positively or negatively.

MMS701,7P2

b.

Large-Signal Operation.

(1) Duringlargesignal(nonlinear)operation,atransistoracts asanoverdrivenamplifier.Anoverdrivenamplifiercanbecomparedtoaswitch or relay and has three comparable states of operation. A transistor is consideredinthe"off"statewhenitisnotconducting. Thisisitscutoff regionofoperation. Atransistorisconsideredinthe"on"statewhenitis conducting and this is its saturation region of operation. The cutoff and saturationregionsareconsideredtobestableregionsofoperationinwhicha slightchangeintheappliedvoltagehasnosignificanteffectontheamountof conduction. (2) The third region of operation compares to the state of a switchwhenitisintheprocessofchangingitsbetweenonandoff.Thisis referred to as the active region of a switching transistor and it is very unstable.Itisthisunstableortransientregionthroughwhichthetransistor passeswhilechangingfromtheofftotheonstate,andfromtheontotheoff state. c. Transistor Switching Circuit. A typical transistor switching circuit is shown in A, figure 72. Switch S1 controls the polarity of the applied base voltage from battery VB1 or VB2. Resistors RB1 and RB2 are currentlimiting resistors. Ideally, with no applied voltage and no initial base current, there is zero collector current. The collector voltage equals battery voltage Vc and this is also the output voltage. Normal quiescent conditions for a transistor switch in the cutoff region require that the emitterbasejunctionbereversebiased.

Figure 7-2a.

Transistor switching circuit.

MMS701,7P3

Figure 7-2b.

Transistor switching circuit.

(1) WithswitchS1intheOFFposition,theemitterbasejunction isreversebiasedbybatteryVB2throughresistorRB2. Thisiscomparableto theapplicationofapositiveunitstepvoltageandcollectoremittervoltage VCE(outputvoltage)equalscollectorbatteryvoltageVc.Thetransientisin theOFF(cutoff)condition. (a) In the diode equivalent circuit of the transistor switching circuit (B, figure 72), diodes CRE and CRC represent the emitter baseandcollectorbasejunctions,respectively. DiodeCREisreversebiased byvoltageVBE;diodeCRCisreversebiasedbyvoltageVCB. (b) Ideally there is no current through load resistor RL and collectoremitter voltage VCE (output voltage) equals collector battery voltageVC.Thecircuit,asaswitch,isopen(C,figure72). (2) Operation of switch S1 to the ON position is comparable to theapplicationofanegativeunitstepvoltage.Forwardbiasontheemitter basejunctionisestablishedbybatteryVB1throughresistorRB1andcollector currentreachessaturation. Atthispointtheoutputvoltageiszerobecause thetransistor(atsaturation)hasnegligibleresistance.Thetransistorisin theON(conducting)condition. (a) In the diode equivalent circuit of the transistor switching circuit (B, figure 72), diodes CRE and CRC are forward biased. Diode CRE is forward biased by input voltage VBE. Voltage VCE drops to a smallernegativevaluethaninputvoltageVBE;thedifferenceinpotentialof thesevoltagescausestheforwardbias(VCB)ondiodeCRC.

MMS701,7P4

(b) The equivalent switch circuit (C, figure 72) is closed. Switches S1 and S2 close the circuit for battery VC through load resistorRL. Thecircuitmayalsobeswitchedfromtheonstatetotheoff stateinasimilarmanner. Smallinputvoltageorcurrentpulsesmaybeused tocontrollargeoutputvoltageorcurrentpulses. d. Three Regions of Operation.

(1) Activeregion. Theactivelinearregionistheonlyregion of normal amplification. If only enough voltage is applied to drive the transistor into this region, it would act similar to a normal amplifier. A slight change in applied voltage would cause a large change in the output voltage. Due to the design of the transistor, only a moderate amount of voltage change (approximately 3 volts or less) in the applied signal is requiredtodrivethetransistorfromcutofftosaturation,ortoreturnitto cutoff. Therefore, the output signal passes through the active region very rapidly. In switching circuits, this active region is important because it determinestheswitchingspeedofthecircuit. (2) Saturationregion. Inthesaturationregion,anincreasein base voltage does not cause an appreciable increase in collector voltage. Collector voltage VCD is at a minimum. This value of collector voltage is referred to as the saturation voltage, and is an important characteristic of the transistor. Deep saturation is generally avoided because it requires a large change in voltage to bring the transistor out of saturation. This producesapoortransientresponse.Whencollectorcurrentreachesitslimited valuethetransistorissaturatedandisintheonorconductingstate. (3) Cutoffregion. Thecutoffregionisquitestable,muchthe same as the saturation region. When the baseemitter junction is reverse biased,thetransistorconductssolittlethatitissaidtobecutoff.Any additional voltage that increases the amount of reversebiasing has little effect. e. Transistor Configuration As Switches. Regions of operation are similar for all transistor configurations used as switches. When the base emitter junction of a transistor is reverse biased (cutoff condition), the output current is very low and the output voltage is high. When the base emitterjunctionisforwardbiased(saturatedcondition),theoutputcurrentis highandtheoutputvoltageislow.

MMS701,7P5

(1) Common base. For largesignal operation, the common base (CB)configurationactsasaseriesswitch.Theoutput(collector)currentis essentiallyalargepercentageoftheinput(emitter)current. Forpractical purposes, these currents may be considered equal. The transient response of this configuration is better than that of the other configurations and makes the CB configuration best for use in highspeed switching circuits. In addition,itslowinputresistanceandhighoutputresistancemakeiteffective forimpedancematchingpurposes. (2) Commonemitter. Whenusedinpulseandswitchingcircuits, the common emitter (CE) circuit acts as a shunt switch. That is, the input (base)currentactsonlytoregulateorcontroltheoutput(collector)current. Because the transient response of the CE configuration to an input pulse is poorer than that of the CB configuration, it causes a large drop in current gain at high frequencies. Thus, the CE configuration is generally used at lower frequencies more than the CB configuration (assuming the same type of transistor is used). Despite its lower frequency response, however, the CE configuration is preferable in many applications because of its high power gain.Inaddition,onlythisconfigurationprovidesphaseinversion. (3) Commoncollector.Thecommoncollector(CC)configurationis anemitterfollowercircuit.SimilartotheCEconfiguration,itfunctionsas ashuntswitch. Itsvoltagegainisessentiallyunity. Thepropertiesofa highinputimpedanceandlowoutputimpedanceoftheCCcircuitinitsactive regionmakeitgenerallyusefulasabufferandforimpedancematching. f. Large-Signal Pulse Characteristics.WhenswitchS1inA,figure7 2,isoperatedinsequencefromOFFtoONandthenbacktoOFF,theresultant input current pulse is similar to that in A, figure 73. In largesignal operation, a rectangular input signal drives the transistor from cutoff to saturationandbacktocutoff. Thedistortedoutputcurrentpulse(B,figure 73)resultsbecausethetransistorcannotrespondinstantaneouslytoachange insignallevel. Theresponseofthetransistorduringriseandfalltimeis calledthetransientresponseofthecircuit. (1) Risetime. Therisetime(Tr,alsoreferredtoasbuildup timeorturnontime)isthetimerequiredfortheleadingedgeofthepulseto increase in amplitude from 10 to 90 percent of its maximum value. Nonlinear characteristics of the transistor, the external circuit, and energy storage effectsallcontributetothetime.Carriersmovingfromemittertocollector collide and disperse and do not reach the collector at the same time. Overdrivingthetransistorresultsindecreasedrisetime.

MMS701,7P6

Figure 7-3.

Current pulse characteristics, switching circuit.

(2) Pulse time. The pulse time (Tp), or duration time, is the length of time that the pulse remains at, or near, its maximum value. The pulsetimedurationismeasuredfromthepointontheleadingedgewherethe amplitudeofthepulsehasreached90percentofitsmaximumvaluetothepoint on the trailing edge where the amplitude falls to 90 percent of its maximum value. (3) Storage time (minority carrier storage). When the input currentiscutoff,theoutputcurrentdoesnotimmediatelyfalltozero,but remains almost at its maximum value for a length of time before falling to zero. Thisperiodiscalledthestoragetime(Ts)orsaturationdelaytime. Storagetimeresultsfrominjectedminoritycarriersbeinginthebaseregion of the transistor at the moment when the input current is cut off. These carriers require a definite length of time to be collected. The length of storagetimeisessentiallygovernedbythedegreeofsaturationintowhichthe transistor is driven and the time spent in saturation. The base current reversalthatoccursbetweenpointsXandY,attheendoftheinputpulse,is theresultofthestoredcurrentcarriers.

MMS701,7P7

(4) Falltime. Duringthefall(tf)ordecaytimeofthepulse, theamplitudefallsfrom90to10percentofitsmaximumvalue. Thefalltime ofthepulseisessentiallydeterminedbythesamefactorsthatdetermineits rise time. Falltime may be slightly reduced through the application of a reversecurrentattheendoftheinputpulse. g. Diode Limiters and Clippers. Thereisawidevarietyofcircuits usedtocontrolsignalamplitudesandvoltagelevels;theyarecalledlimiters and clippers. The distinction between limiters and clippers is difficult to determine and therefore these circuits are called by either name because basically, they perform similar functions. For purposes of this discussion, call the circuit either a limiter or clipper, based on the following definitions. (1) A limiter is a circuit in which the output voltage is proportional to the input voltage up to a predetermined level, and is maintained at a constant value for all input voltages above this level. A, figure 74, shows a limiter inputoutput characteristic graph in which the outputvoltageneverexceeds+5volts.Whentheinputvoltageis3volts,the outputvoltageis3volts. Whentheinputvoltageisincreasedto+3volts, theoutputvoltageis+3volts,andsoonupto+5volts.Allinputvoltages above+5voltsappearattheoutputas+5volts. (2) A clipper is a circuit in which the output voltage is proportionaltotheinputvoltageatapredeterminedlevel,andismaintained at a constant value for all input voltages below this level, B, figure 74, showsaclipperinputoutputcharacteristicgraphinwhichtheoutputvoltage neverdropsbelow1.5volt.Itshowsthatwhentheinputvoltageis+6volts, theoutputvoltageis+6volts.Whentheinputvoltageis+2voltstheoutput voltageis+3voltsandsoondownto1.5volt.Atinputvoltagesbelow1.5 volt,theoutputvoltageremainsat1.5volt. (3) Alimiterclippercircuitactsasbothalimiterandclipper. In this circuit the output voltage is held constant at both the higher and lowerlevelsofthepredeterminedlimitingandclippinglevels.C,figure74, showsalimiterclippercharacteristicgraph.Iftheinputvoltagerisesabove +5volts,itislimitedatthe+5voltlevel. Iftheinputvoltagedecreases tolessthen3volts,itisclippedatthe3voltlevel. (4) The input signal to limiter/clipper circuits may be a positivesignal,anegativesignal,oracombinedsignalhavingeitherthesame or different waveforms on either the positive or negative alternation. The output signal may be a positive signal with the negative portion completely eliminated; or, a negative signal with the positive portion completely eliminated.Theoutputsignalmaycontainonlyaportionofthepositivepeaks withtheremainderofthepositiveandallofthenegativesignaleliminated. Itmaycontainonlyaportionofthenegativepeakwiththeremainderofthe negativeandallofthepositivesignaleliminated.Finally,theoutputsignal may contain both positive and negative signals with both the positive and negativepeakseliminated.

MMS701,7P8

Figure 7-4. h.

Limiter, clipper, and limiter-clipper input-output.

Series Diode Limiter And Clipper.

(1) Series diode limiter. This circuit is called a series circuit because diode CR1 (A, figure 75) is in series with the output. Currentmustflowthroughthediodetoproduceanoutputvoltage.Inorderfor thediodetoconduct,theanodemustbemorepositivethanthecathode. When the input signal contains a positive pulse (B, figure 75), the diode is reverse biased because the cathode is more positive than the anode and no currentflowsthroughthediodeorthroughresistorR1.Whentheinputsignal goes negative the cathode is more negative than the anode and the diode conducts.CurrentthroughR1producesthewaveformshowninC,figure 75.

MMS701,7P9

Figure 7-5.

Series diode limiter.

(2) Seriesdiodeclipper.IfdiodeCR1isreversed(A,figure7 6), the circuit now becomes a series diode clipper. When the applied input voltage(B,figure76)ispositivetheanodeismorepositivethanthecathode and current flows through R1 and CR1. The output waveform (C, figure 76) containsthepositivegoingpulse.Whentheinputsignalswingsnegative,CR1 isreversebiasedandnocurrentflowsthroughR1.

MMS701,7P10

Figure 7-6. i.

Series diode clipper.

Parallel Diode Limiter And Clipper.

(1) Parallel diode limiter. This circuit is called a parallel diodelimiter(A,figure77)becausediodeCR1isplacedinparallelwiththe output,andthesignalvoltageisdevelopedacrossthediode. Whentheinput signalispositive(B,figure77)theanodeismorepositivethanthecathode and the diode conducts. When the diode conducts it acts as a short circuit across the output terminals and the output voltage is zero (C, figure 77). WithCR1conducting,allofthevoltageoftheinputsignalisdevelopedacross R1. When the input signal drops back to zero or becomes negative, CR1 is reverse biased and no current flows through the circuit, causing the output voltagetofollowtheinputvoltage. (2) Parallel diode clipper. By reversing the diode connections oftheparalleldiodelimiter,thecircuitbecomesaclipper(A,figure78). Apositiveinputsignal(B,figure78)makesthecathodeofCR1morepositive thantheanodeandCR1isreversebiased.NocurrentflowsthroughR1andthe outputvoltageequalstheinputvoltage(C,figure78).Whentheinputsignal goes negative, CR1 is forward biased and conducts. The signal is developed acrossR1whilethediodepresentsashortacrosstheoutputterminals.

MMS701,7P11

Figure 7-7.

Parallel diode limiter.

Figure 7-8a.

Parallel diode clipper.

MMS701,7P12

Figure 7-8b. j.

Parallel diode clipper.

Biased Parallel Diode Limiter.

(1) Paralleldiodelimiterwithpositivebias.Inthepreviously discussed limiter circuits it was possible to limit the signal at the zero referenceline.Byaddingabatteryinserieswiththediodeitispossibleto changethelimitingleveloftheoutputsignaltoanydesiredvalue(A,figure 79). Whentheinputsignalisatzero(B,figure79),diodeCR1isreverse biased.Thereiszerovoltsontheanodewhilethecathodeisat+5voltsThe diodedoesnotconductuntiltheinputsignalexceeds+5volts.Withthediode reversebiasedtheoutputsignalequalstheinputsignal(C,figure79)When the input signal reaches +5 volts, the diode conducts (effective short circuit) and the output equals the voltage of the bias battery. The output signal remains at +5 volts until the diode is reverse biased by the input signal.

Figure 7-9a.

Parallel diode limiter with positive bias.

MMS701,7P13

Figure 7-9b.

Parallel diode limiter with positive bias.

(2) Paralleldiodelimiterwithnegativebias. Inthiscircuit (A,figure710),diodeCR1has5voltsonitscathodeandwillconductonly whentheanodeismorepositivethan5volts. Withtheinputatzerovolts (B, figure 710), the anode is more positive and CR1 conducts. With CR1 conducting(effectiveshortcircuit)theoutputsignalis5volts,thevalue of the bias battery (C, figure 710). When the input signal becomes more negativethan5volts,thediodeisreversebiasedandiscutoff. Atthis time the output signal equals the value of the input signal. The output waveformwillvaryfrom5voltsto7.5voltsasCR1conductsandcutsoff.

Figure 7-10.

Parallel diode limiter with negative bias.

MMS701,7P14

k. Double-Diode Limiter-Clipper. The function of this circuit (A, figure711)istoeliminateunwantedportionsoftheinputsignal,aboveand belowaspecificlevel. Whentheinputsignalisatzerovolts,bothdiodes CR1andCR2arecutoff.CR1haszerovoltsonitsanodeand+10voltsonits cathode. CR2haszerovoltsonitscathodeand10voltsonitsanode. The outputsignalwillthenfollowtheinputsignaluntiltheinputsignalexceeds +10volts(B,figure711).CR1willconduct,keepingthemaximumoutputvolts to+10volts(C,figure711).Whentheinputdropsbackbelow+10volts,CR1 reversebiasedagain.Whentheinputvoltageismorenegativethan10volts, CR2willconductkeepingthemaximumnegativevoltageat10volts.

Figure 7-11.

Double-diode limiter-clipper.

l. Cutoff And Saturation Clamping. When a transistor is driven to saturation and cutoff, it may introduce undesirable effects in the output waveform. Variations in collector voltage occur when either the temperature dependentcutoffcurrentortheloadchanges.Thischangeincollectorvoltage may cause erratic operation of the succeeding stages. When a transistor is driventosaturation,minoritycarrierstoragedelayisintroduced. Junction diodes are used to avoid undesirable transistor operation at cutoff or at saturation. Twoalternatemethodsofdiodedampingthathavebeendevisedto avoid saturation of the transistor are collectoremitter clamping and collectorbaseclamping.

MMS701,7P15

m. Collector-Emitter Clamping.Inthecircuitshowninfigure712,a PNPtransistorisusedintheCEconfigurationasasimpleswitchingcircuit. CurrentIBisassumedtobeheavyenoughtodrivethetransistorfromcutoffto saturationundernormalconditions(thatis,withclampingdiodesCR1andCR2, andtheirrespectivebiasbatteriesVcoandVcs). Inthisexample,collector biasbatteryvoltageVcis12volts. CR1andbiasbatteryVcoareusedfor cutoff clamping. CR2 and its bias battery Vcs are used for saturation clamping. Clamping the upper and lower levels of the output permits the substitutionofonetransistorforanotherinthiscircuit.

Figure 7-12.

Cutoff and saturation clamping.

(1) Cutoffclamping. AssumethatinputcurrentIBhasbegunto fall. Thecollectorvoltageincreasesnegativelyfromabout2voltsatthis point.Asindicated,thebiaspotentialappliedtodiodeCR1bybatteryVcois 8volts. Asthecollectorvoltageincreasesfrom2voltstoward8volts,CR1 remainsreversebiased(nonconducting). (a) Whenthecollectorvoltagereaches8volts,CR1becomes forwardbiasedandbeginstoconduct. FurtherdecreasinginputcurrentIBto zero has no effect on the collector voltage, which remains fixed at 8 volts eventhoughcollectorcurrentICdecreases(VcoholdsVceat8volts). (b) Current through load resistor RL, however, is maintained about 1 ma and consists of collector current IC and the current throughforwardbiaseddiodeCR1andbatteryVco. ThevoltagedropacrossRL is equal to the difference (approximately 4 volts) between the voltages of batteryVcandbatteryVco.

MMS701,7P16

(c) AnychangeincollectorcurrentIc,iscompensatedfor intheamountofcurrentdrawnfrombatteryVc.Equilibriumismaintainedand the output voltage is fixed at 8 volts. During this action, CR2 remains reversebiasedandiseffectivelyanopencircuit. (2) Saturation clamping. Assume that input current IB is increased to 150 ma. Diode CR1 and its bias battery Vco can be disregarded because they are involved only in establishing the collector cutoff voltage. Thecollectorcurrentincreasesandthecollectorvoltagechangesfrom8to2 volts. (a) The collector voltage is clamped at 2 volts by the bias voltage provided by battery Vcs. An additional slight increase in collector current (Ic)due to an increase in driving current (IB)further decreases the negative voltage on the collector, and CR2 is forward biased. ThiseffectivelyplacesbiasbatteryVcsbetweenthecollectorandground.The currentthroughloadresistorR1isthusfixedtoprovidethenecessaryvoltage dropsothatthecollectortogroundpotentialisequaltothatofbiasbattery Vcs. (b) Although the collector current may increase further becauseofanincreaseinbasecurrent,thevoltageofthecollectorremains fixed at 2 volts. When the driving current is again reduced to zero, the collector current (Ic) falls rapidly from its maximum value, and the output voltageincreasesagainfrom2to8volts. (3) Combination clamping. The effect of cutoff and saturation clamping is to keep the collector voltage in the range of 2 and 8 volts, therebypreventingcutofforsaturationandtheresultantwaveformdistortion. n. Collector-Base Saturation Clamping. More efficient switching action is obtained through the use of the singlediode and doublediode collectortobaseclamp. (1) Singlediode clamping. In the cutoff condition of the transistor,diodeCR1(A,figure713)andtheemitterbasediodearereverse biasedbythevoltagedividernetworkconsistingofresistorsR1,R2,andRBin serieswithcollectorandbasebiasbatteriesVcandVBB. WhenbatteriesVc andVBBareequal,thesumoftheresistancesofR1andR2ismadeslightly greaterthantheresistanceofRB.Thisprovidestherequiredinitialreverse biasfortheemitterbasejunction.R1isverymuchlargerthanR2,theratio ofthetworesistorsbeingdeterminedbythedesiredclampingvoltagewhenthe transistorisconducting.

MMS701,7P17

Figure 7-13.

Single-diode and double-diode (collector-base) saturation clamping.

(a) Assumethatanappliedsignal(Iin)forwardbiasesthe emitterbase junction, and drives the circuit to saturation. The voltage at thejunctionofR1andR2isnegativeandeffectivelyfixedneartheverylow saturation voltage of the transistor used. The collector voltage decreases fromitshighnegativevalue(Vc)tothevalueofthevoltageatthejunction ofR1andR2.Duringthisperiod,CR1isnonconductingandbasecurrentIBis equaltotheinputcurrent,Iin.LoadcurrentILisequaltocollectorcurrent Icandistheamplifieddrivingcurrent,Iin. (b) When the collector voltage decreases just below the voltagevalueatthejunctionofR1andR2,CR1conducts.AsinputcurrentIin increasesfurther,basecurrentIBremainsessentiallyconstantandtheexcess current is shunted through R2 and CR 1. Collector current Ic increases by approximatelythesmallvalueoftheexcessinputcurrentratherthanbythe amplifiedinputcurrentpriortotheclampingeffect.

MMS701,7P18

(2) Doublediodeclamping.BatterypowerdissipatedbyR1andR2 (A, figure 713) is avoided by using doublediode clamping. Diode CR1 (B, figure 713) functions as a clamping diode forwardbiased diode CR2 is substitutedforR2.TheemitterbasejunctionisreversebiasedbybatteryVBB throughRB.CollectorreversebiasisprovidedbybatteryVcthroughRL.CR2 remainsforwardbiasedthroughoutthefunctioningofthecircuit. Anegative signal must be applied to the base to drive the transistor into conduction. Generally,agermaniumdiode,withalowforwardvoltagedrop,isusedasthe clamping diode (CR1), and a silicon diode, with a slightly higher forward voltagedrop,isusedasthebiasingdiode(CR2). (a) For example, in a typical application, CR1 provides a forwardvoltagedropof1voltandCR2providesaforwardvoltagedropof1.2 volt.Thisessentiallymaintainsareversebiasof0.2voltbetweencollector andbaseafterclampingactiontakesplace. (b) Circuit functioning is similar to that of the single diodeclampingcircuit.AllofinputcurrentIinisappliedtothebasewhile CR1remainsreversebiased.ThisconditionexistsuntilloadcurrentILdrops thecollectorvoltagejustbelowthevoltagevalueatthejunctionofCR1and CR2. Thebasevoltageismorepositivethanthevoltageatthispointbythe valueofthevoltagedropacrossCR2. (c) CR1 becomes forward biased and shunts the excessive inputcurrenttothecollector.ThesmallervoltagedropacrossCR1maintains thereversecollectorbasebiasatthedifferencebetweentheforwardvoltage dropsacrossCR1andCR2. (d) During the clamped condition, collector current Ic is equaltothesumofloadcurrentILandtheshuntedportionofinputcurrent Iin.Thiscurrentissmallandnotanamplifiedcurrent.Thus,itcontributes littletooutputpulsewidening. 2. TRIGGERED CIRCUITS.

a. General. Atriggeredcircuitisonethatinstantaneouslychanges itsoperatingstatewhenanexternalsignalisappliedtoit.Oncetheapplied signalortriggerpulsestartsthechangeinitsoperatingstate,thecircuit itself completes the action; it is a triggered action. Triggered circuits operateintheastable,monostable,orbistablemodesofoperationasexplained below. Each mode of operation passes through stable regions (cutoff and saturation)andunstableregions(activeortransition).

MMS701,7P19

(1) Astable operation. Astable circuits are freerunning circuits and trigger pulses are used only for synchronizing purposes. The astable mode of operation results in relaxationtype oscillations and the operating point for this mode is in the active region. The freerunning multivibratorisanexampleofatypicalastablecircuit. (2) Monostable operation. The quiescent operating point of the monostablemodeisinoneofthestable(saturationorcutoff)regions. When themonostablecircuitistriggeredbyanexternalpulse,itsoperatingpoint moves from its initial stable region to the other stable region. The time constantofthecircuitelementsholdstheoperatingpointinthenewstable region for a period of time and then the operating point moves back to the originalstateofitsownaccord.Amonostablemultivibratorisalsoreferred toasaoneshot,singleshot,orsingleswingmultivibrator. (3) Bistable operation. The quiescent operating point of the bistablemodeofoperationisalsoineitherofthestableregions. Whenthe circuitistriggeredbyanexternalpulse,itsoperatingpointmovesfromone stableregiontotheother. Thecircuitremainsinthissecondstateuntila second trigger pulse is applied (the circuit then returns to its original state). Operation of this type of circuit is also referred to as flipflop action.Thatis,twotriggerpulsesarerequired;onetoflipthestateofthe circuit and the second to flop the circuit back to its original state. The EcclesJordanmultivibratorisanexampleofthebistablemodeofoperation. b. Monostable Multivibrator. A basic monostable multivibrator is shown in figure 714 and its circuit voltage waveforms are in figure 715. BiasarrangementsholdtransistorsQ2insaturationandQ1atcutoffduringthe quiescent or steady state period. When a trigger pulse is applied, the multivibratorfunctionsuntilonefullcycleiscompleted. (1) Quiescent condition. Battery Vc provides the necessary collectorvoltagefortransistorsQ1andQ2.Anegativevoltageisappliedto thebaseofQ2throughresistorRF1causingQ2toconductatsaturation.When Q2conducts,itscollectorvoltageiseffectivelyzero. BatteryVBBandthe voltagedevelopedacrossresistorsRB1andRF2causeapositivevoltageatthe baseofQ1.Therefore,Q1iscutoffandQ2isconducting.Thevoltageatthe collector of Q1 is at its most negative point and is equal to the value of batteryVc.

MMS701,7P20

Figure 7-14.

Monostable multivibrator.

(2) Circuitoperation. Tochangethestatesofthetransistors, Q1 is started conducting by applying a negative trigger pulse to its base through capacitor Cc. Capacitor CF1 couples any signal changes from the collectorofQ1tothebaseofQ2. (a) The negative trigger at the base of Q1 overcomes the reversebiasofbatteryVBB,forwardbiasesthebasetoemitterjunction,and causesQ1tostartconducting. Thehighnegativevoltageofthecollectorof Q1startstodecrease(becomesmorepositive).Thispositivegoingvoltageis coupledtothebaseofQ2,decreasingitsbasetoemitterforwardbias.Current throughQ2startstodecrease,andthevoltageatthecollectorofQ2becomes morenegative.AportionofthisnegativevoltageisappliedtothebaseofQ1 through resistor RF2, increasing the basetoemitter forward bias of Q1. In effect,therapidchangeinthestateofbothtransistorsiscausedbydriving Q1intosaturationandQ2intocutoff. (b) When Q1 started to conduct, capacitor CF1 was fully chargedandstartedtodischarge.Itsdischargepathisthroughthecollector toemitter(lowresistancepath)ofQ1,throughbatteryVcandresistorRF1, producing the waveform Vb2 in figure 715. The initial discharge of CF1 producesthelargestpositivevoltageacrossRF1andasthecapacitorcontinues todischarge,thepositivevoltagedecreases. (c) When the base voltage (Vb2) of Q2 becomes slightly negative, Q2 again conducts. The collector voltage of Q2 increases in the positivedirection(waveformVc2)andiscoupledtothebaseofQ1,drivingit intocutoff. (d) Q1isagainatcutoff,andQ2isatsaturationwithits collector voltage almost at zero. This stable condition is maintained until anothernegativepulsetriggersthecircuit.

MMS701,7P21

Figure 7-15.

Monostable multivibrator waveforms.

(e) The output is taken from the collector of Q2 and is essentiallysquare. Thewidthoftheoutputnegativegoingpulseisprimarily determinedbythetimeittakesCF1todischargethroughRF1(timeconstantof CF1andRF1).

MMS701,7P22

(f) The frequency of this multivibrator is determined by thefrequencyoftheinputtriggerpulse.Ifthetriggerpulseisappliedata constantfrequency,thentheoutputofthemultivibratorwillbeatthesame frequency. If the trigger pulse is applied at random intervals, then the output of this multivibrator will be at the same frequency. If the trigger pulse is applied at random intervals, then the output of this multivibrator will be random and contain one output square pulse for every input pulse. Also,theinputtriggerpulsecanbeverynarrow;thewidthoftheinputpulse doesnotdeterminethewidthoftheoutputpulse. c. Triggered Blocking Oscillator. The major difference between the triggeredmonostableblockingoscillatorinA,figure716,andtheastableor freerunningblockingoscillatorisitsbiasarrangement.Inthefreerunning modeofoperation,thebaseemitterjunctionisforwardbiasedandthecircuit functionsassoonasdcpowerisapplied.Inthemonostablemodeofoperation, the baseemitter junction is reverse biased and the transistor is held at cutoff. Theoutput(B,figure716)isasinglecycleforeachinputtrigger pulse. (1) Typical blocking oscillator (A, figure 716). In the quiescentstate,thetransistorisheldatcutoffbythereversebiasbetween the base and emitter (supplied by battery VBB). Transformer T1 provides regenerativefeedbackandcouplestheoutputsignaltotheload.CapacitorCF actsasadcblockingcapacitorandcapacitorCccouplestheinputsignalto thebaseofthetransistor. (a) Whenanegativetriggerpulseisappliedattheinput, thetransistorbeginstoconduct.Collectorcurrentthroughtransformerwinding 34 induces a voltage of opposite polarity in winding 12. This voltage is coupled through capacitor CF to the base of the transistor as regenerative feedback.Thisactioncontinuesuntilthetransistorisdrivenintosaturation andcollectorcurrentceasestoincrease.

Figure 7-16a.

Triggered blocking oscillator.

MMS701,7P23

Figure 7-16b.

Triggered blocking oscillator.

(b) At saturation when the collector current becomes constant,nofeedbackvoltageisinducedintransformerT1andthereversebias frombatteryVBBcutsoffthetransistor.Thecollectorcurrentcontinuesfor averyshortwhilebecauseofminoritycarrierstorage. (c) Whenthecollectorcurrentstops,thecollapsingfield around transformer winding 12 induces a voltage in winding 34 that exceeds batteryvoltageVc(B,figure716).Insomeinstances,thisbackswingvoltage mayexceedthecollectorbreakdownofthetransistor. Drivingthetransistor intothesaturationregionintroducestheundesiredeffectofminoritycarrier storage. (2) Blocking oscillator with clamping diodes. A triggered blocking oscillator can be modified with clamping diodes (figure 717) to preventvoltagebreakdownandreducetheeffectsofminoritycarrierstorage. The circuit operates the same as the one described above except for the followingdifferences.

Figure 7-17.

Triggered blocking oscillator with clamping

MMS701,7P24

(a) The basetoemitter junction is reverse biased by batteryVBB. ThecombinedvoltageofbatteriesVC1andVC2providecollector voltage. DuringthequiescentconditionCR1isreversebiasedandCR2hasno bias (the same voltage appears at the cathode and anode). When a negative trigger pulse is applied to the base of Q1, the transistor is driven from cutoff to conduction. Collector current increases rapidly as a result of regeneration.Thecollectorvoltage,swingsinthepositivedirectionuntilit equalsthevoltageofbatteryVc1. (b) As the collector voltage of the transistor decreases (becomeslessnegative),CR2becomesreversebiased.TheeffectofCR2maybe neglected as long as it remains reverse biased (open circuit). The initial reversebiasvoltagethathadbeenappliedtoCR1decreasesuntilthecollector voltage equals the voltage of battery Vc1. A further increase in collector current causes a further decrease in the collector voltage. This action resultsinforwardbiasingCR1,whichwillnowconductandmaintainaconstant voltage, equal to the value of battery Vc1, at the collector. When CR1 conductsitactsasashortcircuitaroundthe34windingofT1andprevents thetransformerfromgoingintosaturation.Whenthemagneticfieldbeginsto collapse, the collector voltage becomes more negative (B, figure 716); the biasvoltageacrossCR1revertstoitsnonconductingstatevaluewhenthevalue of Vc1 is exceeded. The collector voltage increases negatively until it reaches the value of Vc1 and Vc2. Any attempt by the induced voltage to further increase the negative voltage at the collector is overcome by the conductionofCR2. Thechargeintransformerwinding34isthendischarged throughthisdiode,andthuspreventsexcessivevoltagebetweenthecollector andtheemitter. ThenegativegoingvoltagedoesnotdropbelowvoltageVc, andthevoltageswingbelowVciseliminatedbyCR2. d. Bistable Multivibrator Circuits. A bistable circuit is initially atrestineitheroneofitsstablestates.Whentriggeredbyaninputpulse, the circuit switches to its second stable state where it remains until triggeredbyanotherpulse. (1) Conventional bistable multivibrator. A basic EcclesJordan bistablemultivibratorisshowninfigure718.Thiscircuitdiffersfromthe astablemultivibratorprimarilyinthebaseemitterarrangement.Inthestable state,eithertransistormaybeintheonstatewhiletheotherisoff. The statesofthetransistorsareswitchedwhenatriggerpulseisapplied.

MMS701,7P25

Figure 7-18.

Conventional bistable multivibrator.

(a) Cutoffandsaturationconditions. Whenpowerisappliedto the circuit, one transistor will turn on and the other will cut off. Each transistorisheldinitsparticularstatebytheconditionoftheother.When a transistor is cut off, its collector current is effectively zero, and its collector voltage is equal to the value of collector battery Vc. In the figure,assumethattransistorQ1iscutoffandtransistorQ2isconductingat saturation. The collector voltage of Q1 is approximately 26v. Notice the voltagedividerconsistingofresistorsRF1andRB2;atthistimeoneendof RF1isat26vandoneendofRB2isat+2v(A,figure719).Thetotalvoltage acrossthedivideris28volts. AssumethatRF1hasa21voltdropacrossit andRB2hasa7voltdrop. Thejunctionsofthesetworesistorsprovidebase biasforQ2.TheeffectivebiasonthebaseofQ2is5voltswithrespectto ground(voltagedropacrossRB2lessvoltageatVBB). WiththebaseofQ2at 5volts,Q2willconductatthesaturationlevel.WhenQ2conducts,collector currentthroughresistorRL2causesthevoltageofthecollector(Q2)todrop tozerovolts. ThereisanothervoltagedividerfromthecollectorofQ2to batteryVBBmadeupofresistorsRB1andRF2(B,figure719).Oneendofthis divider is at zero volts and the other end is +2 volts; the total voltage acrossthedivideris2volts. AssumethatRF2drops1.5voltandRB1drops 0.5volt.Thejunctionbetweenthetworesistorsprovidesbiasforthebaseof Q1.Thisvoltage(+1.5volt)willreversebiasthebaseofQ1andcauseitto cutoff. (b) Circuit operation (figure 718) The conditions described above establish one of the two stable states of the multivibrator. Two separatenegativeinputsareshown.AtriggerpulseatinputAwillchangethe stateofthecircuit. Oncethestateofthecircuitischanged,aninputof thesamepolarityatinputB,oraninputofoppositepolarityatinputA,will againtriggerthecircuit.

MMS701,7P26

Figure 7-19.

Voltage divider networks showing Q1 cut off and Q2 saturated.

1. AssumethatQ1iscutoffandQ2isconducting. WhenanegativetriggerpulseisappliedatinputA,Q1beginstoconduct.The riseinthecollectorcurrentofQ1causesitscollectorvoltagetogotozero volts.ThischangeincollectorvoltageiscoupledtothebaseofQ2,through capacitorCF1;itreducestheforwardbiasofQ2andconductioninQ2beginsto decrease. The collector current of Q2 decreases, and its collector voltage changesfromzerotoanegativevalue(approachingthevalueofbatteryvoltage Vc). ThischangeinvoltageiscoupledtothebaseofQ1,throughcapacitor CF2, making its base more negative; conduction in Q1 increases. This regenerativefeedbackcontinuesuntilQ1isatsaturationandQ2iscutoff. Afterbothtransistorshavechangedstates,theactionsandeffectsofthetwo voltagedividersreverse.ResistorsRF1andRB2willnowreversebiasthebase ofQ2to+1.5volt,keepingQ2cutoff. ResistorsRF2andRB1willforward bias the base of Q1 to 5 volts, keeping Q1 conducting at saturation. To change the circuit back to the first stable state simply apply a negative triggerpulseatinputB. ThiswillstartQ2conductingagain,andinturn, willcauseQ1toreturntoitscutoffcondition.

MMS701,7P27

2. Essentially, the time constants of capacitor CF1andresistorRF1andofCF2determinetheswitchingtime(fromconduction to cutoff) of Q1 and Q2, respectively. In addition, the capacitors quickly couplethechangingvoltagestothebasesofthetransistorstoinsurerapid switching action. The output, taken between collector and ground, is a unit stepvoltagewhenonetriggerisapplied.Asquarewaveoutputcanbeobtained bycontinuoustriggering. (2) Direct coupled bistable multivibrator. A directcoupled bistablemultivibratorisshowninA,figure720.Itisalsocalledabinary counteroracountbytwocircuitincomputingandcountingapplications. In the circuit shown, transistors Q1 and Q4 are not considered part of the bistablemultivibrator;theyprovideinputcontroloftheconductingstateof the circuit. The collectortoemitter voltage for the off transistor is the lowbaseemittervoltageoftheontransistor.Operationofthecircuitisas follows:

Figure 7-20.

Direct-coupled bistable multivibtator.

(a) AssumethattransistorQ2iscutoffandtransistorQ3 isconducting. ThecollectorvoltageoftheoffQ2isthesamevoltage(Vc) that is applied to the base of Q3. The circuit is triggered by effectively groundingthecollectoroftheoffQ2.AttimeT1(B,figure720),anegative inputpulseisappliedtothebaseofQ1,causingittoconduct.Thecollector voltage of Q1 rises toward ground potential (equal to the voltage developed acrossresistorRL1). ThebasevoltageofQ3willapproachgroundpotential causingQ3tocutoff(basevoltageofQ3isthesameascollectorvoltageof Q1).WhenQ3cutsoff,itscollectorvoltageapproachesthenegativevalueof theappliedvoltage.ThenegativecollectorvoltageofQ3isapplieddirectto thebaseofQ2,causingQ2toconduct.Thevoltagesappliedbetweencollectors andbasesofQ2andQ3resultintherapidchangeofstateofthecircuit.The circuitreachesastateofequilibrium;Q2isnowconductingandQ3iscutoff.

MMS701,7P28

(b) At time T2 a negative input pulse is applied to the base of transistor Q4, causing it to conduct. The conduction of Q4 through resistor RL2 causes the collector of Q3 and base of Q2 to approach ground potential.TransistorQ2willcutoffanditscollectorvoltageappliedtothe base of Q3 causes Q3 to conduct. Transistor Q2 is now cut off and Q3 is conducting which was the state of both transistors before input pulses were appliedtoQ1andQ4.Thecircuitwillremainstableuntilanotherinputpulse isappliedtothebaseofQ1. ThenegativepulseattimeT1maybecalleda setpulse,andtheinputpulseattimeT2maybeconsideredaresetpulsethat bringsthecircuitbacktoitsoriginalstate. e. Trigger Pulse Steering.Severalmethodsareavailableforapplying thetriggeringpulseonpulsestoabistablemultivibratorcircuit.Themethod selectedisdeterminedbythepolarityandmagnitudeofthetriggerpulse.The triggerpulseisusuallyeitherapulseofextremelyshortdurationoraunit stepvoltage. (1) Triggeringmethods. Thetriggerpulsemaybeappliedtothe base or to the collector of either transistor in a bistable multivibrator circuit. Triggeringmaybeaccomplishedinoneoffourfollowingways. The fourmethodsdescribedareforPNPtransistors;allpolaritiesmustbereversed forNPNtransistors. (a) Anegativetriggerpulseisappliedtothebaseofthe off transistor (figure 718). This pulse drives the transistor out of cutoff intoconduction. (b) Apositivetriggerpulsemaybeappliedtothebaseof theontransistortocutitoff. (c) A negative trigger pulse may be applied to the collector of the on transistor (figures 718 and 720). This pulse is also appliedtothebaseoftheofftransistor,causingittoconduct.

MMS701,7P29

(d) A positive trigger pulse may be applied to the collectoroftheofftransistor(figures718and720). Thispulseisalso appliedtothebaseoftheontransistor,causingittocutoff. (e) Inallcasesthetriggerpulsesmustbeofsufficient amplitudetoreversethestablestatesofthetransistors. (2) Diodesteering,singleinput.Incertainapplications,itis desirable to trigger a bistable multivibrator (figure 721) on and off repeatedly with input pulses of the same polarity. If the same pulse were applied simultaneously to both the off and on transistors, the circuit would notrespondquicklyenoughandswitchingtimewouldbedelayed. Usingpulse steeringdiodes,theinputpulseisquicklydirectedtothepropertransistor.

Figure 7-21.

Bistable multivibrator with negative-pulse

(a) Negativepulsesteering(A,figure722).ResistorsR1 and R2 form a voltage divider so that the cathodes of both diodes are at a positivepotential.Asshowninthefigure,diodeCR1isinitsnonconducting state because of the applied reverse bias. Diode CR2 is conducting due to forward bias (its anode is more positive than the small positive voltage appliedtothecathode).Whenanegativetriggerpulseisappliedtocoupling capacitorCc,reversebiaseddiodeCR1preventsthepulsefrombeingappliedto thebaseoftheontransistor. ForwardbiaseddiodeCR2allowsthenegative triggerpulsetobeappliedtothebaseoftheofftransistor,causingitto conduct. Theswitchingfunctionofthemultivibratortakesplaceandtheon transistorisnowoffwhiletheofftransistorisnowon. DiodeCR1isnow forwardbiasedandCR2isreversebiased.Thenextnegativetriggerpulsewill be applied to the off transistor through forward biased diode CR1 and will causethecircuittogobacktoitsoriginalstate.

MMS701,7P30

(b) Positive pulse steering (B, figure 722). In the circuit, the diodes are reversed and a negative source voltage is used. ResistorsR1andR2formavoltagedividerandapplyanegativevoltagetothe anodesofdiodesCR1andCR2. DiodeCR1isforwardbiasedwhilediodeCR2is reversebiased.Apositivetriggerpulseis,therefore,appliedthroughCR1to thebaseoftheontransistor,drivingittocutoff. ThereversebiasonCR2 prevents the trigger pulse from being applied to the base of the off transistor.Oncethecircuitswitchesstate,thebiasconditionsofthediodes are reversed and a second positive pulse is directed through forward biased diodeCR2tothebaseoftheontransistor. Ifanegativetriggerpulseis appliedtothiscircuit,itwillonlyincreasethereversebiasofthereverse biaseddiodeandhavenoeffectontheoperationofthecircuit.

Figure 7-22.

Pulse steering diodes.

MMS701,7P31

(3) Transistorpulsesteering.Theamountoftimeforthechange ofstateofabistablemultivibratormaybedecreasedbyusingasymmetrical transistorforpulsesteering(figure723). Asymmetricaltransistor(Q3)is oneinwhichtheemitterbaseandcollectorbasejunctionsareidentical. If the bias on each junction is reversed the transistor continues to function except that the direction of current is reversed. When the collectorbase junctionisforwardbiasedandtheemitterbasejunctionisreversebiased,the collectorfunctionsastheemitterandtheemitterfunctionsasthecollector. Thisreversalofcurrentpermitstriggerpulsesteering.

Figure 7-23.

Bistable multivibrator using a transistor for

(a) When transistor Q1 operates near saturation and Q2 is cutoff,thecollectorvoltageofQ1isneargroundpotentialandthecollector voltageofQ2equalsthesourcevoltage(Vc).Withthisconditionandwithno inputsignalapplied,Q3isconducting.Current(directionofarrows)isfrom batteryVc,throughresistorRL2andtothecollectorofQ3. Currentleaves theemitter(Q3)andgoestothecollectorofQ1,thenfromtheemitter(Q1) throughresistorREandbacktoground. (b) Anegativetriggerpulseappliedattheinputincreases theconductionintransistorQ3.Theincreasedcollectorcurrentfrombattery VcthroughloadresistorRL2causesthecollectorvoltageofQ2tobecomemore positive (less negative). This increased positive voltage is applied to the baseofQ1throughthenetworkofCF2andRF2,anddrivesQ1intocutoff.When circuit equilibrium is reached, Q1 is at cutoff and Q2 is at saturation. Because of this, a reversal of transistor bias is established across the junctionsofQ3. Currentatthistimeisfromthenegativebatteryterminal, throughloadresistorRL1,throughtheemitterofQ3tothecollectorofQ2. CurrentleavestheemitterofQ2andgoestogroundthroughemitterresistor RE. If another negative trigger pulse is applied to Q3, then the circuit revertsbacktoitsinitialcondition.

MMS701,7P32

f. Squaring Circuit (Schmitt Trigger). ASchmitttriggerisanother multivibratorthatmusthaveapulseappliedattheinputtoobtainanoutput pulse. The Schmitt trigger differs from the conventional bistable multivibratorinthemethodofcouplingbetweenitstwostages.Theoutputof this circuit is a square wave no matter what the shape of the input pulse (figure 724). Thus, the Schmitt trigger circuit converts distorted input squarewavesignalstoundistortedsquarewaveoutputsignals.

Figure 7-24.

Examples of input signals to the Schmitt trigger.

(1) Circuitoperation. ResistorsR1,R3,andR4formavoltage dividerbetweenground(themostnegativepoint)andsupplyvoltageVc(figure 725).CurrentthroughresistorR4developsapositivevoltageatthebaseof transistorQ2. Duringthequiescentperiod,thispositivebasevoltagecauses Q2toconduct.ResistorR5isacommonemitterresistorforbothtransistors, and current through either transistor develops a voltage across R5. The voltagedevelopedacrossR4isgreaterthanthevoltageappliedtotheemitter ofQ2byR5.Therefore,Q2isforwardbiased.TransistorQ1isreversebiased by the voltage developed across R5 because the emitter of Q1 is positive comparedtoitsbase. Thus,whenyouturnontheSchmitttriggercircuit,Q1 isdriventocutoffandQ2isdriventosaturation. (2) Inputtriggerpulse. Tocausethecircuittochangestate, transistor Q1 must be driven into conduction and Q2 must be cut off. Any positivetriggersignalappliedtothebaseofQ1,largeenoughtoovercomethe emitterbias,willchangetheoperationofbothtransistors.Assumethatanac sinewaveisusedasthetrigger.

MMS701,7P33

(a) When the positive half cycle increases enough to overcome its emitter bias, Q1 starts to conduct. As Q1 conducts toward saturation, its collector current increases. When the collector current throughresistorR1increases,thevoltagedevelopedacrossR1alsoincreases. RememberingthatR1ispartofavoltagedividerwithresistorsR3andR4,if morevoltageisdevelopedacrossR1,thenlessvoltageisavailableacrossthe othertworesistors. AsthevoltageacrossR4decreases,thebasetoemitter biasonQ2decreasesuntilthetransistorisreversebiasedandcutsoff.The circuitremainsinthisconditionaslongastheinputsignalvoltageonthe baseofQ1isgreaterthanthebiasonitsemitter(figure726). Whenthe signal voltage on the base of Q1 falls off enough to make the base less positivethantheemitter,thecircuitswitchesbacktoitsoriginalstate.

Figure 7-25.

Quiescent condition of Schmitt trigger.

(b) When the signal voltage on the base of Q1 approaches the voltage of the emitter, collector current through Q1 starts to decrease. ThereislesscurrentthroughR1which,inturn,developslessvoltage.IfR1 developslessvoltage,thenmorevoltageisavailableacrossR3andR4. The increasedvoltageacrossR4willagainforwardbiasQ2andcauseittoconduct. ThiscontinuesuntilQ1iscutoffandQ2conductstosaturation. Theoutput waveformofthecircuitresemblesasquarewave.

MMS701,7P34

Figure 7-26.

Schmitt trigger waveforms.

MMS701,7P35

MMS SUBCOURSE NUMBER 701, TRANSISTORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS EXERCISES FOR LESSON 7 1. In the ideal pulse and switching circuit the current A. B. C. D. 2. will lead the voltage by 90 degrees. undergoes instantaneous changes in step with voltage changes. lags the voltage by 90 degrees. is of little importance since all transistors are voltage handling devices.

What does a transistor act as during a large-signal nonlinear operation? A. B. C. D. Inverter Attenuator Filter Overdriven amplifier

3.

What is the operating condition of the transistor in figure 7-2 (A) when S1 is placed in the ON position? A. B. C. D. Cutoff Reversed bias Conducting due to forward biasing of the emitter-base junction Shorted

4.

Which region(s) of transistor operation acts similar to a normal amplifier? A. B. C. D. Saturation Active and cutoff Active Cutoff

5.

What does the common emitter configuration act as when used in pulse and switching circuits? A. B. C. D. Series switch Class A amplifier Shunt switch Peaking circuit

6.

In figure 7-3 the pulse is the length of time that the pulse remains at, or near, its maximum value. What percentage of its maximum amplitude is this pulse measured? A. B. C. D. 97 95 90 85

MMS701,7P36

7.

What type of circuit would you use if you wanted the output voltage to be held constant at both higher and lower levels? A. B. C. D. Limiter-clipper Limiter Clipper Clamper

8.

In figures 7-5 and 7-6, what is the condition of diode CR1 when acting as a series clipper? A. B. C. D. Conducting when a negative pulse is present at the input Cathode is more positive than the anode Reverse biased with a positive signal input Conducting when a positive pulse present at the input

9.

At what input voltage in figure 7-9 does the diode CR1 conduct? A. B. C. D. 0v Exceeds +5v From 0v to +5v Never conducts

10.

Which of the following statements is true concerning figure 7-7? A. B. C. D. A parallel diode clipper is illustrated in figure 7-7 In figure 7-7 the signal voltage is developed across resistor R1 When the input signal goes positive CR1 will not conduct in figure 7-7 In figure 7-7 the signal voltage is developed across diode CR1

11.

When the input signal of figure 7-11 is zero volts, what diode(s) conducts? A. B. C. D. CR1 CR2 CR1 and CR2 Neither diode conducts

12.

What is introduced in the operation of a transistor when it is driven to saturation? A. B. C. D. A ringing effect The transistor develops a short Minority carrier storage delay is introduced The transistor will overheat and break down

MMS701,7P37

13.

What component(s) is (are) used for saturation clamping in figure 7-12? A. B. C. D. RL and VC Vcs and CR2 CR2 CR1 and Vco

14.

In figure 7-13 the single-diode collector base saturation is clamping when bias batteries Vc and VBB are equal. What must the relation be between the bias resistors? A. B. C. D. RB resistance is slightly less than the resistance of R2 and R1 R1 and R2 resistance is slightly less than resistance RB RL is one-half the total of resistances R1, R2, and RB RB resistance is twice that of resistance R2

15.

What component on figure 7-13 in the double-diode configuration is substituted for R2 in the singlediode configuration? A. B. C. D. RB CR1 CR2 RL

16.

A free-running circuit that uses a trigger only for synchronizing purposes is called A. B. C. D. a monostable circuit. a bistable circuit. a one-shot circuit. an astable circuit.

17.

On figure 7-14, what is the initial condition of transistors Q1 and Q2 during the steady state period? A. B. C. D. Both transistors are conducting Q1 is in saturation and Q2 is cutoff Q2 is in saturation and Q1 is in cutoff Both transistors are cutoff

18.

On figure 7-14, what determines the width of the monostable multivibrator? A. B. C. D. Width of the input pulse Discharge time of CF1 Size of resistor RB1 Size of resistor RL2

MMS701,7P38

19.

What is the operating condition of Q1 at the highest point of the positive pulse shown in figure 7-16, part B? A. B. C. D. Saturated Cutoff At a high conduction rate At a low conduction rate

20.

When CR1 on figure 7-17 conducts, it acts as a short circuit A. B. C. D. across Q1. across Vc2. around winding 3 and 4 of T1. CR2.

21.

What voltage would be monitored at the junction of RL2, CF2, and RF2 of figure 7-18 when Q1 is conducting? A. B. C. D. -5 volts 0 volts +26 volts -26 volts

22.

Using figure 7-20 with Q2 conducting and Q3 cut off, what voltages will be monitored at the base of Q3 and the collector of Q4? A. B. C. D. Base of Base of Base of Base of Q3 is -Vc, and collector of Q4 is -Vc Q3 is 0v, and collector of Q4 is-Vc Q3 is -Vc, and collector of Q4 is 0v Q3 is 0v, and collector of Q4 is 0v

23.

In order to trigger a bistable multivibrator circuit, the trigger must be A. B. C. D. a a a a positive pulse applied to the collector of the off NPN transistor. negative pulse applied to the collector of the off PNP transistor. negative pulse applied to the on PNP transistor base to cut it off. negative pulse applied to the base of the PNP off transistor. What is the condition of the

24.

Q1 on figure 7-21 is conducting and Q2 cutoff when CR2 opens. multivibrator when the next trigger pulse is applied to the circuit? A. B. C. D. Q1 conducts and Q2 cutoff Q1 and Q2 cutoff Q1 and Q2 conducts Q1 cutoff and Q2 conducts

25.

What is the key for successful operation of the transistor pulse steering of a bistable multivibrator on figure 7-23? A. B. C. D. All transistors must be symmetrical Trigger pulses must be alternately positive and negative Use a symmetrical PNP transistor for pulse steering Design of circuit allows both Q1 and Q2 to conduct at the same time

MMS701,7P39

LESSON 8.

MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

MMS Subcourse Number 701............... Lesson Objective.......................

Transistors and Semiconductors To provide the student with a general knowledge of transistorized modulation and demodulation circuits. Two

Credit Hours...........................

TEXT

1.

MODULATION.

a. General. The three basic types of modulation are amplitude modulation, frequency modulation, and phase modulation. Since frequency and phasemodulationareverysimilar,onlyamplitudemodulation(AM)andfrequency modulation(FM)willbediscussedinthislesson.Amplitudemodulationcanbe accomplished by applying a carrier signal to an amplifier and varying the amplifierbiasatthemodulatingrate.Frequencymodulationcanbeaccomplished by varying the frequency of an oscillator at the modulating rate. There are various methods of modulating an oscillator to obtain either AM or FM modulation. b. Amplitude Modulation.

(1) Amplitudemodulated amplifier. The waveform analysis of an amplitudemodulatedamplifierisshowninA,figure81.Thecarriersignalis applied to the amplifier; and, the bias, which varies the gain of the amplifier, is varied by the modulating signal input. The output of the amplifier is an amplitudemodulated carrier. As the carrier signal passes through the amplifier, the gain of the amplifier is increased or decreased. When the amplifier gain is increased, the output is increased and when the amplifiergainisdecreased,theoutputisdecreased. Thus,theamplitudeof thecarriersignalisvariedatthemodulatingrate. (2) Amplitudemodulatedoscillator. Thewaveformanalysisofan amplitudemodulatoroscillatorisshowninB,figure81. Thecarriersignal is generated by the oscillator and the modulating signal varies the bias. Changingthebiasoftheoscillatorchangesthegainandtheoperatingpointof the transistor. Changing the bias provides amplitude changes to the output frequencyoftheoscillator.

MMS701,8P1

Figure 8-1. c.

Amplitude modulation of an amplifier and an oscillator.

Methods Of Amplitude Modulating An Amplifier.

(1) General. An amplifier may be AM modulated by injecting a modulating signal into either its base, emitter, or collector (figure 82). Eachmethodwillvarythegainofthetransistor. (a) TransformerT1A,T1B,orT1Cprovidesbase,emitter,or collectorinjection,respectively.Anychangeinbiaschangesthegainofthe transistor, which results in amplitude variations in the output signal. The carriersignal,coupledthroughtransformerT1,isappliedtothebasecircuit of amplifier Q1. Capacitor C1 and the primary of transformer T2 form a parallelresonantcircuitfortheamplifiedcarriersignal.

MMS701,8P2

(b) The signal on the collector is increased in amplitude when the bias is increased, and decreased in amplitude when the bias is decreased. The result is an amplitudemodulated carrier coupled through transformer T2 to the following stage. If the strength of the RF carrier signalisgreaterthantheemitterbasebias,whentheamplifierismodulated bybaseinjectionoremitterinjectionthemodulatedoutputwillbedistorted. Undertheseconditions,theRFcarriersignalmustdeterminetheemitterbase biasinsteadofthemodulatingsignal. Thus,thestrengthoftheRFcarrier mustalwaysbelessthantheemitterbasebiaswhenanamplifierismodulated withbaseinjectionoremitterinjection.

Figure 8-2.

Methods of injecting amplitude signal into amplifier circuit.

modulating

(2) Amplitudemodulatedamplifier(baseinjection). Thecarrier signalinputiscoupledthroughtransformerT1tothebasecircuitofamplifier Q1 (figure 83). The modulating signal, coupled through capacitor C1, is developedacrossresistorR1.

Figure 8-3.

Amplitude-modulated amplifier with base injection.

MMS701,8P3

(a) ThebiasdevelopedacrossresistorR1isincreasedwhen the modulating signal increases and decreases when the modulating signal decreases. Thus, the baseemitter bias is increased and decreased as the modulatingsignalincreasesanddecreases. (b) Since the baseemitter bias is changing at the modulating rate, the collector current and the gain are changing at the modulatingrate. Asthegainincreases,theamplitudeofthecarriersignal increases; and, as the gain decreases, the amplitude of the carrier signal decreases. Theamplitudechangingcarriersignal(modulatedcarriersignal), present in the parallel resonant circuit of capacitor C4 and the primary of transformerT2,iscoupledthroughthetransformertotheoutput. (3) Amplitudemodulated amplifier (emitter injection). Emitter injectionisverysimilartobaseinjection;bothmethodsvarytheemitterbase bias.ThecarriersignalinputiscoupledthroughtransformerT1totheemitter circuit of amplifier Q1 (figure 84). The modulating signal, coupled through capacitorC1,isdevelopedacrossswampingresistorR3.

Figure 8-4.

Amplitude-modulated amplifier with emitter injection.

(a) When the voltage drop (modulating signal voltage) across resistor R3 aids the voltage drop across series resistor R1, the emitterbasebiasincreases.Whenthevoltagedrop(modulatingsignalvoltage) across resistor R3 opposes the voltage drop across series resistor R1, the emitterbasebiasdecreases.Whentheemitterbasebiasincreases,thegainof amplifierQ1increasesandwhenthebiasdecreases,thegaindecreases. (b) As the gain increases, the amplitude of the carrier signalonthecollectorincreases;and,whenthegaindecreases,theamplitude ofthecarriersignaldecreases.Themodulatedcarriersignal,presentinthe parallelresonantcircuitofcapacitorC4andtheprimaryoftransformerT2,is coupledthroughthetransformertotheoutput.

MMS701,8P4

(4) Amplitudemodulatedamplifier(collectorinjection).Inthis circuit,theemitterbasevoltageisheldconstantandthevoltagebetweenthe emitterandthecollectorisvariedatthemodulatingrate.Thecarriersignal isappliedthroughtransformerT1tothebasecircuit(figure85).Amplifier Q1amplifiesthecarriersignal.

Figure 8-5.

Amplitude-modulated amplifier with collector injection.

(a) The carrier signal is developed across the resonant circuit consisting of capacitor C2 and the primary of transformer T2. The modulatingsignalisappliedthroughtransformerT3tothecollectorcircuit. ThemodulatingvoltageacrossthesecondaryoftransformerT3isinserieswith collectorbatteryvoltageVc. (b) Whenthemodulatingvoltageisinserieswithandaids thebatteryvoltageVc,itincreasestheemittercollectorvoltage. Whenthe modulating voltage is in series with and opposes battery voltage Vc, it decreases the emittercollector voltage. As the emittercollector voltage increases, the gain of amplifier Q1 increases; and, as the emittercollector voltage decreases, the gain decreases. Thus, when the gain of amplifier Q1 increases, the amplitude of the carrier signal increases; and when the gain decreases,theamplitudedecreases. d. Methods Of Amplitude Modulating An Oscillator.

(1) General. An oscillator may be modulated by injecting a modulating signal into the base, the emitter, or the collector (figure 86). Each method will change the gain and the operating point of the transistor. Thisresultsinamplitudechangesandfrequencychangesintheoutputofthe oscillator.TransformerT1A,T1B,orT1Cprovidesbase,emitter,orcollector injection,respectively. AmplifierQ1providestheamplificationrequiredfor oscillationandwinding34oftransformerT2providestherequiredfeedback. Capacitor C1 and winding 12 of T2 provide the required resonant circuit. Winding56ofT2couplestheoutputsignaltothefollowingstage.

MMS701,8P5

Figure 8-6.

Methods of injecting amplitude-modulating signal into oscillator circuit.

(2) Amplitudemodulated oscillator (base injection). The modulating signal voltage from microphone M1 is developed across variable resistor R1 (figure 87). The amount of modulating signal voltage is determinedbythesettingofR1andisappliedtothebasecircuit. Inductor L1andcapacitorC1,seriesresonantatthecarrierfrequency,actasanopen circuitforthemodulatingsignalvoltageandbypassthecarriersignalaround R1.

Figure 8-7.

Amplitude-modulated oscillator with base injection.

(a) An aiding modulating signal voltage increases the emitterbase bias and an opposing modulating signal voltage decreases the emitterbasebias.AnincreaseinthebiasincreasesthegainoftransistorQ1 andadecreaseinthebiasdecreasesitsgain.AnincreaseinthegainofQ1 increasesitsamplificationofthegeneratedsignal,andadecreaseinthegain decreases the amplification. The generated signal is therefore amplitude modulatedatthemodulatingrate.

MMS701,8P6

(b) AnincreaseingainofQ1alsodecreasesitscollector voltage,whichincreasescapacitanceCCE;and,adecreaseinthegainincreases the collector voltage, which decreases CCE. Capacitance CCE is in parallel with the resonant circuit consisting of capacitor C3 and winding 12 of T1. Increasing capacitance CCE decreases the resonant frequency of the resonant circuit, and decreasing capacitance CCE increases the resonant frequency. Sincethefrequencyofoscillationisdeterminedbythisresonantcircuit,the outputfrequencyoftheoscillatorischangingatthemodulatingrate. Thus, the output signal of the amplitudemodulated oscillator is amplitude and frequencymodulatedatthemodulatingrate. e. Establish Frequency Modulation.

(1) General. The input and output waveforms of a frequency modulatedoscillatorareshowninfigure88.InanFMtransmitter,modulation is accomplished at the oscillator stage. A transistor oscillator can be frequencymodulatedbyvaryingtheoscillatorgainatthemodulatingrate.The sameamplitudemodulatedoscillatorusedinanAMtransmittercanbeusedinan FM transmitter. The unwanted amplitude changes can be removed by a limiter stagebeforethecarriersignalisincreasedinfrequencyandstrength.

Figure 8-8.

Block diagram of frequency-modulated oscillator.

(2) Frequencymodulated oscillator. A typical frequency modulated oscillator stage is shown in figure 89. In this application, frequency modulationisaccomplishedbyreactancemodulation. Themodulating signal, coupled through transformer T2, varies the emitterbase bias of reactancemodulatorQ2. (a) Since the bias is increasing and decreasing at the modulating rate, the collector voltage also increases and decreases at the modulating rate. As the collector voltage increases, output capacitance CCE decreases;and,asthecollectorvoltagedecreases,CCEincreases.Whenoutput capacitanceCCEdecreases,theresonantfrequencyoftheoscillator(Q1)tank circuit(capacitorC1andwinding13oftransformerT1)increases. WhenCCE increases,theresonantfrequencyoftheoscillatortankcircuitdecreases.

MMS701,8P7

Figure 8-9.

Oscillator circuit, frequency reactance modulator.

modulated

by

(b) The resonant frequency of the oscillator tank circuit is therefore increasing and decreasing at the modulating rate. Thus, the frequency of the signal generated by the oscillator is increasing and decreasingatthemodulatingrate.Theoutputoftheoscillatoris,therefore, afrequencymodulatedcarriersignal. 2. DEMODULATION.

a. General.ThethreebasictypesofdemodulationordetectionareCW detection,AMdetection,andFMdetection. (1) CWdetection. CWdetectionisaccomplishedbycombiningthe carrier signal with the output of an oscillator to produce an audio signal. The oscillator stage used for this purpose in a superheterodyne receiver is called a beat frequency oscillator (bfo). The bfo frequency is adjusted to differ from the intermediate frequency of the receiver by a low audio frequency. (2) AMdetection.ThewaveformsandtheAMdetectorareshownin A,figure810. TheamplitudemodulatedcarriersignalisappliedtotheAM detector. The AM detector rectifies and filters the amplitude variations of thecarriersignal.TheoutputoftheAMdetectorisanaudiosignal.

MMS701,8P8

(3) FM detection. FM detection may be accomplished by using a discriminator or a slope detector as an AM detector. The waveforms of FM detectionareshowninB,figure810.Thefrequencymodulatedcarriersignal is applied to the FM detector which rectifies and filters the frequency variationsofthecarriersignal. TheoutputoftheFMdetectorisanaudio signal.

Figure 8-10. b.

Input and output waveforms for AM and FM detection.

AM Demodulation With A Transistorized Detector.

(1) Commonemittercircuit. Acommonemitterdetectorisshown in figure 811. The signal applied to the base emitter circuit (biased for nonlinear operation) is rectified by the diode portion (baseemitter) of detector Q1. Resistor R1 acts as the diode load resistor and capacitor C2 filters the IF voltage changes. The input circuit acts as a voltage output diode detector. The baseemitter bias (audio voltage) developed across resistor R1 causes the collector current to vary at the audio rate. The amplified audio signal developed across resistor R4 is coupled through capacitorC5tothefollowingstage.

Figure 8-11.

Common emitter detector circuit.

MMS701,8P9

(2) Common base circuit. A common base detector is shown in figure812. Detectiontakesplaceintheemitterbasecircuitoftransistor detectorQ1;and,amplificationtakesplaceinthecollectorbasecircuit.When thesignalispositiveattheemitter,thereiscurrentthroughtheemitter basecircuit. CapacitorC2chargesonthepositivealternationanddischarges throughresistorR1onthenegativealternation.ThelongtimeconstantofC2 and R1 does not allow C2 to completely discharge during the negative alternation. Then, the next positive alternation again recharges C2. The resultisthatthepeaksofthepositivealternationarefilteredbyC2.The biasbetweentheemitterandthebaseis,therefore,adcvoltagewithanaudio voltagecomponent. Thus,theamplitudechangesofthesignalaredetectedin theemitterbasecircuitofdetectorQ1. Sincethebiasoftheemitterbase circuitischangingattheaudiorate,thecollectorcurrentalsochangesat the audio rate. The detected audio signal is coupled to the output through transformerT2.

Figure 8-12.

Common-base detector circuit.

c. FM Demodulation Using A Discriminator Circuit. Adiscriminatorin an FM receiver performs the same function as a detector in an AM receiver. Figure 813 shows a transistorized version of an amplifier stage and a discriminator.AmplifierQ1amplifiesthesignalappliedtothediscriminator. CapacitorC2andtheprimaryoftransformerT1formaparallelresonantcircuit forthesignal;T1alsocouplesthesignaltothediscriminator.CapacitorC3 couples the signal to the secondary of T1 for phase shift comparison. The signal,coupledacrosscapacitorC3,isdevelopedacrosscoilL1.CapacitorC4 andthesecondaryoftransformerT1formaresonantcircuit. Thetophalfof transformer T1 secondary, diode CR1, coil L1, load resistor R2, and filter capacitor C5 form onehalf of a comparison network. The bottom half of the transformer T1 secondary, diode CR2, coil L1, load resistor R3, and filter capacitorC6formthesecondhalfofacomparisonnetwork.Theaudiooutputis coupled through capacitor C7 to the primary of transformer T2. The audio signal,coupledthroughtransformerT2,isappliedtothefollowingstage.

Figure 8-13.

Amplifier and discriminator stage.

MMS701,8P10

d.

FM Demodulation Using A Slope Detector.

(1) Aslopedetectorconvertsthefrequencychangesofacarrier signalintoamplitudechanges. Theamplitudechangescanthenbedetectedby an AM diode detector or an AM transistor detector. The input and output waveformsofaslopedetectorandanAMdiodedetectorareshowninfigure8 14. Theinputsignalwithfrequencydeviationsisappliedtoslopedetector Q1.TheoutputofslopedetectorQ1,withamplitudeandfrequencydeviations, is applied to diode detector CR1. The resultant output is an audio signal whichisequivalenttothefrequencydeviationsoftheinputsignal. (2) TheFMinputsignaliscoupledthroughtransformerT1tothe base circuit of Q1. This signal is developed across resonant circuit consisting of coil L1 and capacitor C2. This resonant circuit is tuned slightlyhigherthantheFMcarrier. (a) WhentheFMcarrierfrequencydeviation(containingthe intelligence) approaches the resonant frequency of L1C2, a large amount of signalvoltageisdeveloped. Ontheotherhand,whenthefrequencydeviation goeslowerthantheresonantfrequency,asmalleramountofsignalvoltageis developed.

Figure 8-14.

Slope detector and diode detector.

(b) Thevoltagethusdevelopedacrosstheresonantcircuit (L1C2) is in series with the emitterbase bias voltage developed across R1. Theresultisthattheemitterbasebiasvoltagevariesataratedeterminedby thedeviationoftheFMcarrier. (c) Since the bias of slope detector Q1 changes at the frequency deviation rate, its gain also changes at the frequency deviation rate. Thus,theoutputoftheslopedetectorisasignalthatischangingin amplitudeandfrequency. (d) TheoutputofQ1isappliedtodiodedetectorCR1.The detectedoutputsignalisanaudiovoltagedevelopedacrossresistorR4.

MMS701,8P11

MMS SUBCOURSE NUMBER 701, TRANSISTORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS

EXERCISES FOR LESSON 8 1. Whatarethebasictypesofmodulation? A. B. C. D. 2. Frequencyandamplitude Frequencyandphase Amplitudeandphase Amplitude,phase,andfrequency

What is the primary difference between the amplitudemodulated amplifierandtheamplitudemodulatedoscillatorconfigurations? A. B. C. D. IntheAMamplifierthecarriersignalisgeneratedwithin theamplifier IntheAMoscillatortheoutputishalftheamplitudeof theAMamplifier ThecarriersignalisinjectedintheAMamplifier,butis generatedwithintheAMoscillator The AM oscillator converts to a modulated signal at a higherspeedthantheAMamplifier

3.

IftheRFcarrierstrengthisgreaterthanthemodulatingsignalinput intoanAMamplifiercircuit,usingbaseoremitterinjection,what wouldresult? A. B. C. D. Outputwouldbeattenuated Outputwouldbedistorted Amplifierwouldgointosaturation Amplifierwouldcutoff

4.

Whatcomponentsonfigure87comprisethetankcircuit? A. B. C. D. R1,C4,L1,andC1 C2andR4 CCE,C3,andT1windings34 T1windings12andC3

5.

Using figure 89 what happens to the resonant frequency when transistoroutputcapacitancedecreases? A. B. C. D. Remainsthesame Increases Decreases Amplitudeofthecarriersignaldecreases

MMS701,8P12

6.

Whatarethebasictypesofdetection? A. B. C. D. FMandPM CWandQW CW,FM,andAM AM,PM,andQW

7.

WhatistheoscillatorstageofaCWdetectioncircuitcalled? A. B. D. C. Beatfrequencyoscillator Freerunningoscillator Highfrequencyoscillator Carrieroscillator

8.

Whatcomponent(s)onfigure811rectifiesthesignalinput? A. B. C. D. C4andR4 R1andR2 BaseemitterofQ1 C3

9.

Whatfunctiononfigure813isperformedbyC2andtheprimaryofT1? A. B. C. D. Groundsalllowfrequencies Formsaparallelresonantcircuit Groundsallhighfrequencies Formsaseriesresonantcircuit

10.

Usingfigure814whatfunctionisperformedbytheslopedetector? A. B. C. D. Convertstheaudiosignalintoacarriersignal Changes the operating level of Q1 into a high gain amplifier Developsthesignalinputintofrequencydeviations Convertsthefrequencychangesofthecarriersignalinto amplitudechanges

MMS701,8P13

11.

Using figure 814 what will happen if the FM carrier frequency, approaching the resonant frequency of L1C2, is lower than the resonantfrequency? A. B. C. D. Alargeamountofsignalvoltageisdeveloped Asmallamountofsignalvoltageisdeveloped Thesignalisgrounded Thesignalwillbedistorted

12.

WhatisthefunctionperformedbyCCEonfigure87? A. B. C. D. Changestheresonantfrequencyoftheresonantcircuit Changestheoperatingfrequencyofthemodulatorcircuit Maintains constant output frequency for amplitude modulation Maintains constant output frequency for frequency modulation

13.

What best describes the bias between the emitter and the base on figure812? A. B. C. D. Anacvoltage Adcvoltage Adcvoltagewithanaudiovoltagecomponent Anacvoltagewithanaudiovoltagecomponent

14.

WhatduplicatesthesamefunctionasadiscriminatorinaFMreceiver? A. B. C. D. AdetectorinanAMreceiver AdamperinanAMreceiver ThemodulatingrateinanAMoscillator FilterinanAMmodulator

15.

Whichtypeofmodulationvariesthefrequencyofanoscillatoratthe modulatingrate? A. B. C. D. AM PM CW FM

MMS701,8P14

LESSON 9.

SPECIAL PURPOSE SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

MMS Subcourse Number 701............... Lesson Objective.......................

Transistors and Semiconductors To introduce the student to the various applications and uses of semiconductors and integrated circuit modules. Three

Credit Hours...........................

TEXT

1.

GENERAL. a. Introduction.

(1) Sincethedevelopmentofthetransistor,continuousresearch in the field of semiconductors has provided many additional semiconductor devices.Someofthesedevices,nowconsideredasinnovationsinmilitaryand commercialequipment,maybecomeascommonplaceasthejunctiontransistoris today. (2) The junction transistor was really the second phase in transistordevelopment;thepointcontacttransistorwasdiscoveredbeforeit. Butthejunctiontransistorprovedmuchmoreversatilethanthepointcontact andrapidlycameintowidespreaduse.That'swhytheprecedinglessonsofthis subcourseareaboutthetheoryandapplicationofjunctiontransistorcircuits. In this lesson, applications of the pointcontact transistor, other semiconductordevices,andintegratedcircuitswillbediscussed. b. Point-Contact Transistor.

(1) ThepointcontacttransistorconsistsofasinglepieceofP typeorNtypematerial.Thebasecontactformsalargearea(lowresistance) connection, but the emitter and the collector contacts form small area (high resistance)connections. (2) Although the pointcontact transistor can be made of Ntype or a Ptype material, small Ptype or Ntype layers, respectively, are used under the contact points (figure 91). The P or N layers under the contact points are formed during the manufacturing process. For biasing polarities, theNtypepointcontacttransistor(A,figure91)maybeconsideredsimilar to a PNP junction transistor; and, the Ptype pointcontact transistor (B, figure 91), may be considered similar to an NPN junction transistor. The emitter is biased in the forward direction with respect to the base and the collectorisbiasedinthereversedirectionwithrespecttothebase.

MMS701,9P1

Figure 9-1.

Bias for N-type and P-type point-contact transistor.

(3) The positive potential of the emitter (figure 92) causes holesintheemittertomoveacrossthenarrowNregionofthebasebetweenthe contactpoints. Thenegativecollectorpotentialattractstheholesfromthe emitterwheretheycombinewithelectronsenteringthecollectorfromthepower source. Relativelyfewholes combinewithelectronsintheNregionbetween the contact points to produce a small value of base current due to the bias voltage.

MMS701,9P2

Figure 9-2.

Current flow through N-type point-contact transistor.

(4) Two metal "cat whiskers" are used as the contacts of the pointcontact transistor. The contacts are shaped to provide a springlike pressureonthecrystalsurface. Theshapingbetweenthecontactsmaybeas littleas2/1000inch,andthediameterofthecontact5/1000inch. (5) Thespacingbetweenthecontactpointsaffectsthefrequency response of pointcontact transistors. The spacing affects the transit time required for holes to flow from the emitter to the collector; reducing the spacebetweenthecontactpointsincreasesthefrequencyresponse. (6) Because of their physical construction, pointcontact transistors are not suitable for handling power in excess of one watt. The limitationresultsfromthefactthattheemitterandcollectorelectrodesare very fine wires pressed against a semiconductor wafer. High current or heavy surgesdamagethetransistorbecausethecontactpointsoverheat. c. Photosensitive Semiconductors.

(1) General. In a photosensitive semiconductor, light energy causesthemovementofthecarriers.Tocontrolthemovementofcarriersina photosensitive semiconductor, the light energy must be concentrated on a sensitive area of the semiconductor. When the concentrated beam of light strikesthesensitivearea,thecurrentthroughthesemiconductorincreases.As the intensity of the light energy is varied, the current through the semiconductorvaries. Anincreaseordecreaseintheintensityofthelight causes a proportional increase or decrease in the current through the semiconductor. Because of this characteristic, photosensitive semiconductors (pointcontactandjunctiontypes)areusedinvariouscircuitsfordetection, translation,switching,etc.

MMS701,9P3

(2) Pointcontact type. To operate the pointcontact photosensitivesemiconductorshowninA,figure93,energyfromalightsource isconcentratedintoabeambythelensandstrikesthesensitivearea.Note thatthesemiconductormaterialishollowgroundononesidesothatthelight energy may be concentrated on the sensitive area. As the intensity of the light source is increased and decreased, current through the load resistor changes proportionally. Thus, the light energy is converted into electrical energyandanoutputsignalisdevelopedacrosstheloadresistor.

Figure 9-3.

Photosensitive semiconductors.

MMS701,9P4

(3)

Junctiontype.

(a) Single (photodiode). A singlejunction photosensitive semiconductorcircuitisshowninB,figure93.Theoperationofthiscircuit is identical with that described above except for the photosensitive semiconductor. The sensitive area is located at the PN junction and may be locatedineitherofthesemiconductormaterials. (b) Double (phototransistor). A doublejunction photosensitivesemiconductorcircuitisshowninC,figure93. Itworksthe sameasthesinglejunctiontypeexceptthatitmaybecomparedtoajunction transistoramplifier. Thelightenergy,whichstrikesthefirstPNjunction, isequivalenttoasignalappliedtotheemitterbasejunctionofatransistor amplifier.CurrentamplificationtakesplaceinthesecondPNjunction,which isequivalenttothecollectorbasecircuitofatransistoramplifier. d. Tetrode Transistor.

(1) The tetrode transistor is basically either an NPN or a PNP transistor with a fourth terminal (which is called base 2). The fourth terminalisconnectedtothebaseregiononthesideoppositethenormalbase connector(figure94). IntheNPNcircuitdescribedbelow,base2isbiased negative with respect to the normal transistor base terminal (base 1). The voltageappliedtobase2isconsiderablyhigherthanthebiasappliedtobase1.

Figure 9-4.

Tetrode bias.

(2) Thepurposeoftheincreasedbiasonbase2istochangethe current through the transistor (figure 95). The 6volt bias is applied betweenbase1andbase2makingbase2sixvoltsmorenegativethanbase1. The 6volt bias is applied uniformly across the length of the base region, startingwith6voltsatthetopto0voltatthebottom. Thisvoltageis negativeenoughatallpointsalongtheemittertobasejunction,exceptnear base1,topreventelectronflowfromtheemitterthroughthebaseregionto thecollector. NearthebottomoftheemitterPNjunction,theforwardbias betweentheemitterandbase1willpermitelectronstoflowfromemitterto collector.Theeffectofaddingthehighnegativevoltageontheothersideof thebasealterstheelectronflowofanormalNPNtransistor.Effectivelythe size of the base region has been reduced and also the base resistance is reduced.Reducingthebaseregionalsoreducestheactiveareaofthebaseto collectorjunction,thusdecreasingthecollectorcapacitance. Decreasingthe baseresistanceandcollectorcapacitanceimprovesthehighfrequencyresponse ofthetransistor.Thesymbolforatetrodetransistorisshowninfigure96.

MMS701,9P5

Figure 9-5.

Tetrode transistor operation.

Figure 9-6.

Tetrode transistor symbol.

e. Spacistor. Theinputandoutputcapacitancesoftheconventional threeterminal junction transistor limit its high frequency amplification range. In addition, the transit time of current carriers from emitter to collectorlimitsitshighfrequencyresponse. Intheconventionaltransistor, asthetimeof1cycleofthefrequencytobeamplifiedapproachesthetransit time, the gain falls off rapidly. The transit time becomes so long that current carriers in the base region diffuse (or migrate) from the emitter junctiontothecollectorjunction.Althoughphysicallylimited,onemethodof reducingtheseeffectsistoreducethesizeofthebaseregion,resultingin whatiscalledaspacistor.Thismethodincreasestheresponseoftransistors to approximately 75 mega Hertz. And by using other methods that involve nonuniform distribution of impurities in the base region, the response of transistorsorspacistorscanbeincreasedto350megaHertz.

MMS701,9P6

(1) A, figure 97, shows a portion of the spacistor; this is a reversebiased PN junction. Note that the depletion region in the Ntype materialislargerthanthatinthePtypematerial. Thisisaccomplishedby using a lower percentage of donor impurities in the Ntype material than acceptor impurities in the Ptype material. With the bias indicated, very little current flows through the junction. However, a strong electric field existsoneithersideofthejunction. Becauseoftheveryshortdistanceof thedepletionregion(severalmils),areversebiasof100voltswillproducea substantial electric field of 60,000 to 120,000 volts per centimeter. This intensefieldisusedtoreducethetransittime. (a) Aconnection,calledtheinjector,ismadetotheupper depletionregion(B,figure97).ThevoltageofbatteryVIIislessthanthat ofbatteryVcsothatelectronsflowfromtheinjectortothecollector. The transit time of electrons from the injector to the collector is very short becauseoftheintensefieldthroughwhichtheelectronsflow.

Figure 9-7a.

Spacistor and spacistor amplifier.

MMS701,9P7

Figure 9-7b.

Spacistor and spacistor amplifier.

(b) Asecondconnection,calledamodulator,ismadetothe depletionregiononthesamesideofthejunctionandclosetotheinjector(C, figure97).ThemodulatorisasmallsectionofPtypematerialthatformsa PNjunctionwiththecollectorregion.ThevoltageofbatteryVMMislessthan thatofbatteryVcsothatthePNjunctionformedbymodulatorandcollector regions is reverse biased. This reverse biased PN junction produces a high inputimpedanceatthemodulatorterminal. IfbatteryvoltageVMMisvaried, the current flow between the injector and the collector varies accordingly. This effect indicates that the field between the modulator and the injector affectstheinjectorcurrent. Thus,avaryingvoltage(suchasasinewave) appliedbetweenthemodulatorandinjectorwillresultinasimilarlyvarying currentatthecollector. (2) A practical amplifier using the spacistor is shown in D, figure97.Asignaliscoupledtothemodulatorterminalthroughtransformer T1. Thevoltagedivider,consistingofresistorsR2andR3,establishesthe modulatorbias. ResistorR4,bypassedbycapacitorC1,providestheinjector bias.CollectorloadresistorR1developstheoutputsignal.

MMS701,9P8

f. Unijunction Transistor Operation. Since the invention of semiconductordiodesandtransistors,experimentshaveledtothedevelopment of many different special purpose semiconductor devices. Unijunction transistors(UJT's)arereallyatypeofdiode. Infact,theyaresometimes calleddoublebasediodes,buttheyhavesomeoftheoperatingcharacteristics of transistors so they are usually called unijunction transistors. UJT's differfromordinaryjunctiondiodesandtransistorsinphysicalconstruction, includingwheretheexternalleadsareattachedtothesemiconductormaterials. (1) Figure 98 is the standard symbol for the UJT. It is possibletoseewhyitissometimescalledadoublebasediodeitlookslikea diode with two base leads. If the two base leads B1 and B2 are connected together,theUJTreactslikeajunctiondiodetoo.Currentwillflowfrombase (B1, B2) to emitter but not from emitter to base because, like a junction diode, it has a low impedance to current flow in one direction and a high impedanceintheother.IntheUJTtransistorterminologyisusedtoidentify parts(base,emitter)ratherthandiodeterminology(cathode,anode).

Figure 9-8.

Unijunction transistor.

MMS701,9P9

(2) B,figure98,showsthephysicalconstructionofaUJT. To obtain the peculiar properties of UJT operation, the two base leads are connected to opposite ends of a bar of Ntype semiconductor material. In practical use, a battery or power supply voltage is connected across this section (negative or ground on B1, positive on B2). A simple resistance is obtainedbetweenthebasepoints. Thetotalresistancenormallyhasavalue between4,000and12,000ohmsdependingonconstruction. (3) AsmallsectionofPmaterialcalledtheemitterisjoinedto or fused into the bar of N material, usually somewhere near the midpoint region (B, figure 98). The emitter divides the total resistance and, as a result, the total voltage across B1B2 into two parts (C, figure 98). A fraction of the total voltage appears between the emitter and B1 and the remainderbetweentheemitterandB2.Wheretheemitterisattacheddetermines theexactvoltagebetweentheemitterandB1. Thisplacementoftheemitter establishes the most important characteristic of the UJTits conduction or switchonpoint. (4) Ifapositivevoltageisappliedtotheemitter,thejunction (shownasCR1onC,figure98)isreversebiaseduntiltheappliedvoltageis equaltothevoltageontheoppositesideofthejunction.Ifthebiasvoltage is increased beyond this switchon point, the junction is forward biased and theUJTconductsfromB1totheemitter. Thisisshowninfigure99. The emitter in this case shown connected to midpoint of the N material and the voltageatthejunctionis20voltssincea40voltbatteryisusedacrossB1 B2. Diode CR1 (the PN junction) is reverse biased until the applied bias voltage reaches +20 volts. As the bias voltage continues to increase, the junctionisforwardbiasedandcurrentbeginstoflowthroughthebaseemitter junction.Currentcontinuestoflowatvoltagesabove+20volts.

Figure 9-9.

Conduction of unijunction transistor.

MMS701,9P10

(5) Whenthebiasisdecreasedtolevelsbelow+20volts,theUJT continuestoconductuntilsomelowercriticalvoltageisreached;thenitcuts off. This is the UJT's switchoff point. Conduction continues below the switchonpointbecausethepotentialbarrieratthejunctionhasbeenovercome andthecurrentthroughtheNmaterialhasdecreasedtheeffectiveresistance of the material. This is the UJT's negative resistance characteristic. It requires less voltage to maintain current through the diode than it does to establishthecurrentinitially.Itshouldbenotedthattheincreasedcurrent throughB1andresultingdecreasedresistanceofB1causesanincreasedcurrent throughB2aswell. g. Four-Layer Diode

(1) Operation. The fourlayer diode, sometimes called a PNPN type switch (A, figure 910), consists of four layers of semiconductor material.ThefourlayersofNandPtypematerialsformthreePNjunctions. Whenproperlybiased,thecenterPNjunctionisreversebiasedandtheouterPN junctions are forward biased. The emitterbase junction of a threeterminal transistorisalwaysforwardbiased,andthecollectorbasejunctionisalways reversebiased.Thefourlayerdiodethereforecanbeanalyzedastwoseparate junctiontransistors. ThedashedlinethroughthecenterofthePNmaterial dividesthefourlayerdiodeintoaPNPtransistorandanNPNtransistor.The PNjunctionofthePNPtransistor(B,figure910),connectedtothepositive side of battery VEE, is forward biased and is, therefore, the emitterbase junction. TheremainingPNjunctionofthePNPtransistorisreversebiased and is the collectorbase junction. The PN junction of the NPN transistor, connected to the negative side of battery VEE, is forward biased and is the emitterbasejunction.ThebaseofthePNPtransistorisconnecteddirectlyto thecollectoroftheNPNtransistor. ThecollectorofthePNPtransistoris connected directly to the base of the NPN transistor. The schematic representation of the fourlayer diode is shown in C of the figure. Proper biasingisobtainedfrombatteryVEE.Thearrowsrepresentelectronflow.

Figure 9-10a.

Four-layer diode.

MMS701,9P11

Figure 9-10b.

Four-layer diode.

(2) Application. Theschematicdiagramofasawtoothoscillator usingthefourlayerdiodeisshowninD,figure910. BatteryVEEfurnishes powerfortheoscillatorcircuit.SwitchS1completesthecircuitandapplies power to the circuit. The time constant of resistor R1 and capacitor C1 determines the frequency of oscillation. The fourlayer diode provides a dischargepathforC1.WhenpowerisappliedtothecircuitthroughswitchS1, C1appearsasashortcircuit.ElectronsflowthroughresistorR1andcapacitor C1 charges. When the voltage drop across C1 provides sufficient bias, the fourlayerdiodeconducts. C1thendischargesrapidlythroughthefourlayer diode. AsC1discharges,thebiasappliedtothefourlayerdiodedecreases. When the bias reaches a minimum value for conduction, the fourlayer diode stopsconducting.CapacitorC1againchargestoapointwheresufficientbias causesthefourlayerdiodetoconduct.Thissequencekeepsrepeating,andthe outputcoupledthroughC2isasawtoothwaveform.

MMS701,9P12

h. Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR). The silicon controlled rectifierhasmanypurposesandisespeciallyusefulasarectifier,hencethe namesiliconcontrolledrectifier.AnSCRisactuallyarectifieronlyinthe samesensethatanordinaryjunctiondiodeisarectifier. Itpassescurrent or allows current to flow in one direction but not in the other. The main differencesbetweenanSCRandajunctiondiodearethephysicalconstruction ofeachandamethodofcontrollingtheinitialstartofconductionbyanSCR. An SCR is a fourlayer diode that has a third connection called a gate (or gating)lead. ThegateleadisconnectedtothePtypematerialnexttothe cathodeasshowninfigure911.

Figure 9-11.

Construction of a silicon controlled rectifier.

(1) The function of an SCR in most applications is to offer a highforwardbiasthatpreventscurrentfromflowingwhenthebiasvoltageis applied,andtoofferalowforwardbiaswhenapositivevoltageisappliedto thegatelead.Toprovidethesecharacteristics,thePandNmaterialsmustbe less heavily dopedespecially the materials on either side of the center junction.Lessheavilydopedmaterialsresultinawidedepletionregionwhen they are joined together. This means an SCR does not conduct when the bias voltage is applied. The time of conduction is controlled completely by the gatelead. (2) Thediodeinfigure911,forexample,willnotconductwhen S1isclosedandasaresult,thelampisnotnormallyon. However,ifthe gate lead is connected to a positive potential, electrons flow from the negative side of the battery or power supply, through the N material of the cathode toward the positive potential on the gate lead. The accelerated electronspassthroughthewaferthinPmaterialand,havingbrokenthroughthe depletion region, continue moving toward the anode (P material) and the positivesideofthebatteryorpowersupply. Onceelectronsstartflowing, the potential barrier of the depletion region no longer exists and electrons willcontinuetoflowevenifthevoltageonthegateleadisremoved. The lightwillremainonuntilswitchS1isopened.

MMS701,9P13

(3) TheSCR,inthiscase,canreplaceaholdingrelayinafault detector circuit. It can also be used as a remote controlled switch that couplessignalsthroughwhenapositivedcpulseisappliedtothegatelead. (4) A,figure912,isastandardsymbolforasiliconcontrolled rectifier. Itisadiodesymbolinacirclewiththegateleadshownatthe ctahode. An SCR, as it actually looks before it is mounted in a piece of equipment,isshowninB,figure912.

Figure 9-12.

SCR symbol and appearance.

(5) Infigure913,theSCRisfunctioningasacontrolled,half waverectifier.Whenthenegativehalfcycleoftheinputacsignalisapplied to the cathode of the SCR, the diode is forward biased but does not conduct until a pulse is received from the voltage regulator. The regulator pulse gatestheSCRintoconductionandtheremainderofthenegativehalfcycleis coupledthroughtheSCRtothefilter.

MMS701,9P14

Figure 9-13.

An SCR half-wave rectifier.

(a) The SCR stops conducting when electron flow reaches zero. Asthepositivehalfcyclebegins,theSCRisreversebiasedand,like anordinarydiode,blocksanyelectronflow.Forwardbiasisreestablishedby thestartofthenextnegativehalfcycleandthenextpulsefromtheregulator gates the SCR into conduction again. Halfwave rectification is the result becauseonlythenegativehalfcycleoftheacinputiscoupledtothefilter. (b) The gating pulses that trigger the SCR can occur earlier or later in each half cycle and thus control or regulate the output voltage.SincenoelectronsflowthroughtheSCRuntilthegatepulseoccurs, the output waveform and the resulting filtered output voltage will be determinedbythetimingofthegatepulse. Ifthepulseoccurslateinthe cycleasshowninA,figure914,lessofthecycleisgatedtotheoutputand theoutputvoltageislow.Ifthepulseoccursearlyinthecycleasshownin B, figure 914, the SCR output is equal to almost the entire negative half cycleandtheoutputvoltageishigh.

Figure 9-14.

Gate pulse timing.

MMS701,9P15

(c) Assume the power supply in figure 913 is adjusted manuallyforanoutputof12vdcwithasteadyloadapplied. Whenconnected toanoperatingcircuitwhereloadconditionschange,theregulatordetectsany deviationfromthe12voltsettingandadjuststhefiringtimeoftheSCRto compensate for the change. Changing gate pulse timing regulates the output. If the output voltage rises, the regulator shifts the gating pulse to occur slightlylaterinthecycleandreducestheoutputto12voltsagain.Ifthe output voltage decreases, the regulator shifts the gating pulse to occur slightly earlier in the cycle and increases the output voltage to 12 volts again. i. Field Effect Transistor (FET). The field effect transistor is sometimes called a unipolar transistor because only one type of carrier is employed.Inothertransistors,currentflowresultsfromthemovementofboth minority and majority current carriers (electrons and holes). The FET, however, is a majority current device; it depends primarily on electron movementintheNmaterialoronholemovementinthePmaterial.TheFEThasa veryhighinputimpedanceandisusedasanamplifier.BothNPNandPNPtypes areavailable. (1) The FET may be compared to a garden hose with a pinching valvethatcontrolstheamountofwaterflowingthroughthehose. Thethree terminals may be called the source, the gate, and the drain: the source is wherethewatercomesfrom(emitter);thegateisthecontrolvalve(base)and thedrainiswherethewaterleavesthehose(collector). AandB,figure9 15,showaphysicalsideandendviewoftheFET. Thisdeviceisconstructed byusingabarofsiliconandmakingiteitherNtypeorPtypebydopingit. Thenacontactisaddedtoeachendtoconnecttheloadandbiasbattery(C, figure 915). Finally, a section of either P or N type material is placed aroundthemiddleofthesiliconbarandavariablereversebiasisappliedto itscontact(calledthegate).

MMS701,9P16

Figure 9-15.

Field effect transistor.

(2) By varying the negative gate it is possible to vary the currentbetweenthesource(emitter)andthedrain(collector). Ifaloadis placedintheoutput,variationofthegatevoltagewillcausevariationinthe loadcurrentandresultinavaryingvoltageacrosstheloadresistorR1.The schematicsymbolsoftheNtypeandPtypeFETareshowninDofthefigure.

MMS701,9P17

j. Tunnel Diode.Atunneldiodeisatwoelementsemiconductordevice similartoaconventionaldiode.Thetunneldiode,however,hasthreedistinct characteristics that make it electrically different from the conventional diode.Eachofitsthreecharacteristicsdependuponthevalueofbiasvoltage applied.Withinacertainrangeofbiasvoltages,atunneldiodehasverylow resistance in both directions (figure 916). Within a second range of bias voltages,itexhibitsnegativeresistance;and,withinthethirdrangeofbias voltages,itreactsasaconventionaldiode.Themostimportantcapabilityof thetunneldiodeisitsabilitytoamplifysignals,whichmakesitcomparable toatransistor.

Figure 9-16.

Tunnel diode characteristics.

(1) Dopingofsemiconductordiodes.WhenNandPtypematerials arejoinedtoformaconventionalsemiconductordiode,apotential(sometimes calledapotentialbarrier)developsatthejunction.Thispotentialgenerally rangesbetween100to700millivolts,dependinguponthekindofsemiconductor materials and the amount of doping. When a bias voltage is applied to the diode, it causes an electron flow (figure 917). The region in which the potential barrier exists is called the depletion region and the amount of doping controls the thickness of the depletion region. Conventional diodes haveathickdepletionregion(A,figure918)ascomparedtothehighlydoped tunneldiode(B,figure918).

MMS701,9P18

Figure 9-17.

Conventional semiconductor diode characteristic curve.

Figure 9-18.

Effect of heavy doping upon the thickness of the depletion region.

MMS701,9P19

(2) Tunneling. Heavy doping of the tunnel diode provides a greaternumberoffreeelectronsintheNtypematerialandagreaternumberof holes in the Ptype material. The thin depletion region at the junction is about1/100asthickasthatoftheconventionaldiode.Becausethedepletion region of a tunnel diode is very thin, the atoms of its two semiconductor materials continuously exchange electrons even before a bias voltage is applied. Electronsoneithersideofthejunctioncrossthedepletionregion just as though it did not exist. The electron movement is an exchange of electrons that jump from one atomic orbit on one side of the junction, to another orbit on the other side of the junction. The net current from this exchange of electrons is zero, because exactly the same amount of exchange occursinbothdirections. (a) When a small value of positive bias is placed across the tunnel diode, the orbits of electrons in both the Ntype and Ptype materialsaredistortedinthedirectionofthepositivebiaspotential(figure 919). The distorted orbits create a great attraction for free electrons, causingthemtomovefromtheNtypematerialtothePtypematerial. Asan electronentersanorbitinthePtypematerial,itcreatesanimbalanceamong alloftheorbitingelectrons.Thisimbalancecauseselectronsatthefarend ofthePtypematerialtoleavetheirorbits.Theelectronsnearthepositive terminal then enter the external conductor and are attracted to the positive voltage source. Electrons that enter the Ptype material do not travel the entire distance through the Ptype material. An electron entering at the junction and the exit of an electron at the far end occurs at the speed of light.

Figure 9-19.

External voltage distorts electron orbits.

MMS701,9P20

(b) Asthebiasvoltageincreases,moreandmoreelectrons movethroughthejunctioncausingmoreandmoretunnelcurrent.However,when acertainbiasvoltagevalueisreached,thecurrentstartstodecrease.This actionisshownbypointsAandB,figure920.ThedistancebetweenpointsA and B is called the negative resistance region. The reason that current decreasesinthisareaisduetoareductionofelectronholecombinationsat this energy level. A tunnel diode can be made to operate as a conventional diode if a high enough bias is applied that operates the diode beyond the negativeresistanceregion.

Figure 9-20.

Operating region of a tunnel diode.

(3) Characteristiccurve. Tunneldiodesamplifysignalssimilar toatransistor.Thecharacteristiccurveinfigure920showsthatthetunnel diode is very sensitive to voltage changes in the negative resistance region (pointsAandB).Asignalvariationof100millivolts(from60to160mv)can cause a current change of seven milliamps (from 2.5 ma to 9.5 ma). Tunnel diodesmaybeusedeitherasseriesconnectedorparallelconnectedamplifiers (figure921).

Figure 9-21a.

Typical tunnel diode amplifier circuits.

MMS701,9P21

Figure 9-21b. 2.

Typical tunnel diode amplifier circuits.

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT MODULES.

a. General. Anintegratedcircuit(IC)issosmallthatittakesup lessspacethanasingletransistor.Figure922showstherelativesizeofthe transistorcircuitanditsICreplacement.

Figure 9-22.

Comparison of the size of a transistor circuit and an IC.

(1) TheICmaybealogicgate,anamplifier,oracombinationofcircuits thatreplaceseveraltransistors. TheICismadeonatinychipofglasslike material,andissealedinanairtightpackage.ExamplesofthreetypesofIC packagesareshowninfigure923.

MMS701,9P22

Figure 9-23.

IC packages.

(2) IC'sareusedinelectronicequipmentnotonlybecausethey reduce size and weight but also because they cost less, improve equipment performance,andaremorereliablethanthecircuitrytheyreplace.Toreduce costandsize,transistors,resistors,andcapacitorsarebuiltrightintothe IC. However, inductors, transformers, and large value capacitors must be mounted outside the IC package. There is nothing new about the way IC's operate. Electronic fundamentals apply to IC circuits just as they do to transistorcircuits. b. The Monolithic IC. Themonolithicintegratedcircuitisthemost widelyused. Itiscalledmonolithicbecausethecircuitisformedwithina single semiconductor crystal. The circuit components are isolated from each otherbyreversebiasedPNjunctionsorbyothermethods.MonolithicIC'shave good quality diodes and transistors, but poor average quality resistors and capacitors. ThemonolithicICbeginsasapartofaverythinsiliconwafer about11/4inchindiameter(figure924). Eachtinysquareinthisfigure representsanIC.Duringproductionabout200ofthesewafersareprocessedat thesametime.Theprocessusedisanoutgrowthofthetechnologydevelopedto make silicon transistors. It includes epitaxial growth and oxidation, photomaskingandetching,anddiffusion.

Figure 9-24.

A silicon wafer.

MMS701,9P23

(1) Epitaxial growth and oxidation. The term epitaxial growth refers to a process where one crystal layer is grown or formed on another crystalsurface.ThesubstrateorbasematerialiseitherPtypesiliconwith theepitaxiallayerNtypesilicon,orthesubstrateisNtypesiliconwiththe epitaxiallayerPtypesilicon.UsingachipofPtypesiliconasasubstrate letsshowhowamonolithicICismadebyepitaxialgrowth. (a) ThefirststepinmakingtheICistogrowanepitaxial layerofNtypesilicononthesubstrate. Thislayerisgrownbyheatingthe substrate toahightemperatureinthepresenceofagascontaininghydrogen andasiliconcompound(A,figure925). Theheatcausesachemicalreaction betweenthehydrogenandthesiliconcompoundthatreleasessiliconatoms(Si). Thefreesiliconatomsareattractedtothesubstrateandattachthemselvesto ittoformtheepitaxiallayer.Whilethisisgoingon,Ntypeimpurityatoms are injected into the vapor causing the epitaxial layer to become Ntype silicon(B,figure925).

Figure 9-25.

Expitaxial growth and oxidation.

MMS701,9P24

(b) Afterepitaxialgrowthiscompleted,thechipisheated andexposedtowetoxygengasorsteam. Thegascausesaprotectivesilicon dioxide (Si02) coating to form on it (C, figure 925). This step is called oxidation. (2) Photomasking and etching. Photomasking and etching are used toremovetheSiO2fromselectedareasonthechip. Thisstepintheprocess allowscircuitcomponentsandconnectionstobemadeintheepitaxiallayer. (a) First, the chip is coated with a solution called photoresist (A, figure 926). This is a solution that will not dissolve in photodeveloping fluid after it has been exposed to ultraviolet light. After thephotoresistdries,aglassslidecalledaphotomaskisalignedonthechip. Thephotomaskcontainslightanddarkareasandissimilartoaphotonegative. Itspurposeistopreventtheultravioletlightfromhittingthesepartsofthe chip where it is desired to remove the SiO2. The chip is exposed to ultraviolet light (B, figure 926), and then washed with a photodeveloping fluid to dissolve the photoresist that was under the dark areas of the photomask. After this procedure only two patches of protective photoresist remainonthechip(C,figure926). (b) TheuncoveredSiO2mustberemovedbyetchingtoreach theepitaxiallayerbeneath.Etchingmeansthatthechipisplacedinanacid bathtoremovethebareSiO2withoutaffectingtheepitaxiallayerortheSiO2 in the two areas where the protective photoresist remains (D, figure 926). Afteretching,theremainingphotoresistisstrippedfromthechip(E,figure 926).

Figure 9-26a.

Photo masking and etching.

MMS701,9P25

Figure 9-26b.

Photo masking and etching.

(3) Diffusion isolates two Ntype areas. Diffusion is a process inwhichdifferenttypesofmoleculesintermix.Forexample,ifdropsofblack inkareputinaglassofclearwater(A,figure927),theyimmediatelybegin todiffuseormixwiththewater(B,figure927). Ifgivenenoughtime,the concentrationofinkmoleculesbecomesuniformthroughouttheglass(C,figure 927). Diffusion can be speeded up considerably by heating or stirring the liquid.

Figure 9-27.

Diffusion of ink in water.

MMS701,9P26

(a) Diffusioncanalsotakeplaceinasolid. Thisisthe principle that allows isolation of the two Ntype areas on the chip. To do this,themaskedandetchedchip(A,figure928)isplacedinafurnacethat containsaprecisenumberofPtypeimpurityatoms.Thefurnaceisthenheated toabout1,200degreesC,causingthePtypeatomstodiffusedownintotheN type epitaxial layer (B, figure 928). The diffusion process is rigidly controlledsothatitcanbestoppedwhentheimpurityatomsreachtheoriginal Ptypesubstrate.

Figure 9-28.

Isolation diffusion.

(b) Notice, in C, figure 928, that diffusion does not affecttheNtypesilicondirectlybelowtheprotectiveSiO2. Thetwoareas areisolatedfromeachother.That'swhyit'scalledisolationdiffusion. (c) Figure929showshowthebasicprocessesarerepeated tocompletethetransformationofthechipintoanIC.Asmanyas40different stepsmayberequiredtocompleteanIC.

MMS701,9P27

Figure 9-29a.

Completing the IC (Sheet 1).

MMS701,9P28

Figure 9-29b.

Completing the IC (Sheet 2).

c. The Thin Film IC. Another type of integrated circuit, called a thin film IC, is made by depositing extremely thin films of metals and insulatorsonaglassorceramicsubstrate.Inthiscase,thesubstratemerely servesasaplatformforthecircuit,asopposedtothemonolithicICwhichis formedwithinthesubstrate.

MMS701,9P29

(1) Onemethodusedtodepositthinfilmsisvacuumevaporation (figure930).Asmallpieceofmetalisplacedinsideacontainer.Directly abovethemetalisasubstratewithamaskattached.Themask,similartothe ones used for monolithic IC's, will determine the pattern of the deposited film.Aftereverythingisinplace,ahighvacuumiscreatedinthecontainer andthemetalisheatedtoitsboilingpoint. Asthemetalboils,itsvapor condensesonthesubstratethroughtheopeningsinthemask. Thisprocessis repeatedwithdifferentmaterialsandmasksuntilalltherequiredresistors, capacitors, and conductors are formed. If diodes or transistors are needed, miniatureonesareattachedtothecircuit.Figure931isanexplodedviewof athinfilmIC.Ifcapacitorsarerequiredinthiscircuit,theyaredeposited asaseparatefilm.

Figure 9-30.

Vacuum evaporation forming a thin film IC.

Figure 9-31.

An exploded view of a thin film IC.

(2) Inthethinfilmprocessitispossibletomakeresistorsand capacitors with higher values and closer tolerances than those found in monolithicIC's.ThinfilmIC'sarepreferredforhighfrequencycircuitsand circuitsthatrequireprecisioncomponents.

MMS701,9P30

d. The Hybrid IC. The monolithic and thin film processes are sometimescombinedtomakeahybridIC.Theresultinghybridcanhavethehigh qualitydiodesandtransistorsformedinthemonolithicprocess,andthehigh qualityresistorsandcapacitorsformedinthethinfilmprocess.HybridIC's are also made by mounting individual chips, connected by fine wires, in the samepackage(figure932).Thismethod(calledchipandwire)allowsformore complicatedcircuitryandimprovesisolationbetweencomponents.

Figure 9-32.

A chip and wire hybrid IC.

e. IC Applications. Eversincetheyweredevelopedin1960,moreand moreusesarebeingdiscoveredforintegratedcircuits. Originallyconceived for military equipment, IC's are now also being used in commercial products ranging from automobiles to hearing aids. IC's are divided into two categorieslinearanddigital. LinearIC's(alsocalledanalogIC's)produce outputs directly proportional to their inputs; they are used for transmitter andreceivercircuits.LinearIC'sareusedforamplifiers(audio,video,RF, and IF), squelch circuits, mixers, oscillators, and other linear circuit functions.MostlinearIC'shavetobecustommadebecausetherequirementsof eachcircuitareusuallydifferent. DigitalIC'sperformswitchingfunctions inlogiccircuits.

Figure 9-33.

Linear IC's in a schematic diagram.

MMS701,9P31

(1) Figure 933 shows a partial schematic of a radio receiver that uses linear IC's. The IC's are represented by triangles; the lines extending from them represent the leads to the IC package. In the blownup portionofthefigure,thedetailedschematicfortheIFamplifierisshown. AlthoughtheIFamplifiercontains13differentcomponents,ittakesupnomore spacethanaconventionaltransistor. BecauseofthisandthefactIC'sneed solittlepowertooperate,someofthelargercommunicationssystemsoftoday willbereducedtomanpacksizeinthefuture(figure934).

Figure 9-34.

How IC's reduce the size of a communication system.

(2) Digital circuits have proved ideal for IC's because they operatewithlowpower,areusedthousandsoftimesinthesameform,andcan operateeffectivelyinspiteofloosetolerances. DigitalIC'sincludelogic gates,flipflops,counters,andshiftregisters.OneexampleofadigitalIC is the eightinput logic gate shown in figure 935. It is contained in a singlemonolithicchipandisusedinhighspeedcomputers. (3) One big advantage that digital IC's have over conventional digital circuits is that they operate faster. That's because the components are microscopic and have no long leads between them. Some digital IC's can operatein400trillionthsofasecond.That'saboutthetimeittakesabeam oflighttotravel5inches.

MMS701,9P32

Figure 9-35.

IC version of an eight-input logic gate.

f. Maintenance of IC's.MaintenanceofIC'sarebasedonathrowaway policy. WhenanICisdefective,itisthrownaway. Theonlyproblemisto makeadeterminationofwhichICisbad. Insomecasestheequipmentitself will automatically pinpoint the defective IC. But if such sophisticated equipment is not available, the circuit will have to be fault isolated manually. (1) Troubleshooting procedures for equipment with integrated circuits are somewhat different from the procedures used for conventional circuits. With conventional circuits, the circuit must be analyzed, various testsmustbemadetodeterminethedefectivecomponent,andthenthedefective componentisreplaced.WithanIC,thedefectivecomponentcannotbereplaced even if it has been identified. Instead of circuit analysis, the overall function of the IC must be known so that it may be determined if the IC is doingitsjob. (2) Only the authorized maintenance and repair tasks, listed in theequipmentmanual,maybeperformed.Further,it'sveryimportantthatonly thetestandrepairequipmentlistedinthemanualisused. (3) Troubleshooting a suspected IC starts with checking its output. Iftheoutputsignalindicatesthatsomethingiswrong,thenacheck ismadetofindifthecorrectvoltagesarebeingappliedtoeachpin.Nexta checkforopencircuitsbetweenthecircuitboardterminalsandtheICleads, is made. If the trouble is still not isolated, the external components connected to the IC are checked for proper operation. If the external componentscheckoutsatisfactorily,theICisreplaced.

MMS701,9P33

(4) checked.

WhenreplacinganIC,remembertheseimportantpoints: (a) Don't remove an IC until all external components are Don'tunsolderorchangeanyICleadwhileequipmentis HandleanICwithcaretoavoiddamagingalead. Useathermostaticallycontrolledsolderingiron.

(b) intheONcondition. (c) (d)

(e) Makesurethecorrectpinsaresolderedtothecorrect terminals.Figure936showshowthepinsarenumbered. (f) bad. (g) voltages. (h) Whenmakingvoltagechecksonconnections,caremustbe takentoavoidshortingtwoterminals. After soldering in a new IC, check all IC terminal Checkallsolderedterminalstoseeiftheyaregoodor

Figure 9-36.

IC pin numbering.

MMS701,9P34

MMS SUBCOURSE NUMBER 701, TRANSISTORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS

EXERCISES FOR LESSON 9 1. Thespacingbetweenthecatwhiskercontactpointsofapointcontact transistorisoneofthefactorsthatcontrolsthe A. B. C. D. 2. poweroutput. frequencyresponse. negativeresistance. degreeofsaturation.

When light is concentrated upon the sensitive area of a single junctionphotosensitivesemiconductor,thePNjunctionofthedevice exhibitsthepropertyof A. B. C. D. generatingavoltage. conductingagreatercurrent. increasingitsjunctioncapacitance. emittingalightofamplifiedintensity.

3.

Describe the action that takes place when light is applied to a doublejunctionphotosensitivesemiconductor. A. B. C. D. Thelightstrikingbothjunctionsgeneratesavoltagein each Thelightstrikingbothjunctionsreducestheresistance ofeach The light striking one of the junctions results in a junctioncurrentwhichisamplifiedbytheotherjunction The light striking one of the junctions results in a junction current which causes an amplified light to be emittedfromtheotherjunction

4.

Whattypeoftransistorhasafourthterminalconnectedtothebase regiononthesideoppositethenormalbaseconnection? A. B. C. D. Siliconcontrolledrectifier Pointcontacttransistor Tetrodetransistor Spacistor

5.

Whatistheprimeadvantageofthespacistor? A. B. C. D. Greateramplification Decreasednoise Durability Higherfrequencyresponse

MMS701,9P35

6.

Howisaconventionaltransistorconvertedintoaspacistor? A. B. C. D. Reducethesizeofthebaseregion Increaseforwardbias Decreasesizeofthecollectorregion Increasethesizeofthebaseregion

7.

Infigure99,partC,whenbatteryVbbis60volts,whatvoltageat theemitterwillforwardbiastheUJTandcausecurrenttoflow? A. B. C. D. 10 20 30 40

8.

HowmanyPNjunctionsareformedinthefourlayerdiodepicturedinD offigure910? A. B. C. D. 1 2 3 4

9.

WhatisthepurposeofthegateleadinanSCR? A. B. C. D. To provide a starting and stopping voltage to allow the SCRtoofferahighforwardbias To allow the SCR to conduct by offering the SCR a low forwardbias PresenttheSCRwithalowreversebiaswhenstarting Gate only fixed outputs when a high negative pulse is presentatthegatelead

10.

WhenistheSCRshowninfigure913cutoffduringnormaloperation? A. B. C. D. Wheneverthegatepulseisremoved Whentheinputgoesnegative Whentheinputgoespositive Onlyduringthepresenceofapositivepulseonthegatinglead

MMS701,9P36

11.

Whattypeoftransistorisamajoritycurrentdevice? A. B. C. D. Tunneldiode SCR Spacistor FET

12.

RefertoCoffigure915.WhatpartsoftheFETrepresentthebase, emitter,andcollector? A. B. C. D. Collector Source Drain Drain Gate Base gate source gate drain Emitter drain gate source source

13.

WhatistheregionbetweenAandBoffigure920called? A. B. C. D. Negativeresistance Barrier Lowresistance Maximumbias

14.

WhichisNOTacharacteristicofatunneldiode? A. B. C. D. At certain bias voltages the diode has a very low resistanceinbothdirections At certain bias voltages the diode reacts as a conventionaldiode With proper bias voltages the diode exhibits negative resistance With proper bias voltages the diode exhibits a high positiveresistance

15.

Which component is usually not built into an integrated circuit package? A. B. C. D. Resistor Inductor Capacitor Transistor

MMS701,9P37

16. A. B. C. D. 17.

Whenonecrystallayerisgrownorformedonanothercrystalsurface thisisknownas etching. diffusion. epitaxialgrowth. photomasking. When manufacturing a thin film IC, what is the relationship of the substratewiththecircuit? A. B. C. D. Actsasaconductorwithinthecircuit Actsasaplatformforthecircuit Doesnotcomeincontactwiththecircuit Meltedanddiffusedwithinthecircuit

18.

Duringtheprocessofisolationdiffusion,whatpreventsthemixingof theNtypeandPtypematerial? A. B. C. D. Rigidlycontrolledbyheat SiO2protectivecovering Inabilityofasolidtoabsorbforeignimpurities Controlledapplicationbypressureandheat

19.

WhatisthebasicmaintenancepolicyinregardtoIC's? A. B. C. D. Throwaway EvacuatetoanICrepairshop Troubleshootandreplacedefectivecomponents Repair with special tools including thermostatically controlledsolderingiron

20.

WhatisNOTareasonforusingIC'sindigitalcomputercircuits? A. B. C. D. Smallsize Uselowpower Operateathighspeed Easilyrepairable

MMS701,9P38

MMS SUBCOURSE NUMBER 701, TRANSISTORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS

APPROVED SOLUTION

LESSON 1

Introduction to Transistors and Semiconductors 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. B C A D B (para1) (para2a) (para2b) (para2b) (para2e) 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. C B D A B (para3) (para6) (para4,5b) (para5c) (para7)

MMS701,P1

LESSON 2

Theory of Transistors and Semiconductors 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. D D B C A C B B B C (para1b(1)(b)) (figure21) (para2b(1)(a)1) (para1b(1)(a)3) (para1e(2)(a)(b)) (para1d) (para2f(4)) (para1g(1)) (para1h) (para1h(4)) 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. B C D C D A D C B A (para2a(2)) (para2a(6)) (figure21) (para1f(1)) (para2d(2)) (figure213) (para2a(3)) (para2e) (para3b(2)) (para3c(3))

MMS701,P2

LESSON 3

Semiconductor Diode Rectifiers and Transistor Amplifier Fundamentals 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. D B C B A B B C B A (para1a(1)) (para1a(1)) (para1a(2)) (figure35) (para1b(4)) (para1f(2)) (para1e) (para1d) (para1d(1)) (para2c) 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. C B A D C D A C A A (para2d(1)) (para1e(1)) (para4) (para5) (para6) (para6) (para6) (para7) (para8) (para8a)

MMS701,P3

LESSON 4

Bias Stabilization 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. B C C A A B D A (para1a(1)) (para1a(2)) (para2a) (para2b(2)) (para3a) (para3c) (para4a) (para5a) 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. C A C D C B C (para2b(1) (para1b) (para3b) (para3d) (para5b) (para4c) (para4b)

MMS701,P4

LESSON 5

Transistor Amplifiers 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. C D B B C D C D B A (para1b(4)) (para2b(3)) (para2c) (para2c(1)) (para1b(2)) (para2e) (para2f(3)) (para3c(2)) (para3d(2)) (para3c(4)) 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. B A A D A C D B C C (para4a(3)) (para4c(4)) (para4c(2)) (para4d(1)) (para4d(2)) (para4f(1)) (para4f) (para5c(1)) (para5c(4)) (para5d(2)(a))

MMS701,P5

LESSON 6

Oscillators and Multivibrators 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. D B B A C D D C B C A B C (para1c) (para1a(2)) (para1b(3)) (para1c(1)) (para1c(3)) (para1d(1)) (para1e) (para1e(1)) (para1h(1)) (para1g) (para1f(2)) (para2a(3)) (para1i(1)) 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. C B A D C A D B D C B B (para2a(1)(c)) (para2b(3)) (para3a(1)) (para3b) (para3a(2) (figure621) (para3b(4)) (para3c) (para3c(2)(a)) (para3c(2)(b)) (para3d) (para3d)

MMS701,P6

LESSON 7

Triggered and Gating Circuits 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. B D C C C C A D B D D C B (para1a(2)(c)) (para1b(1)) (para1c(2)) (para1d(1)) (para1e(2)) (para1f(2)) (para1g(3)) (para1h(2)) (para1j(1)) (para1i(1)) (para1k) (para1l) (para1m) 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. A C D C B A C D B D A C (para1n(1)) (para1n(2)) (para2a(1)) (para2b) (para2b(2)(e)) (para2c(1)(a)) (para2c(2)(b)) (para2d(1)(a)) (para2d(2)(a)) (para2e(1)) (para2e(2)(a)) (para2e(3))

MMS701,P7

LESSON 8

Modulation and Demodulation 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. D C B D B C A C (para1a) (para1b) (para1c(1)(b)) (para1d(1)) (para1e(2)(a)) (para2a) (para2a(1)) (para1b(1)) 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. B D B A C A D (para2c) (para2d(1) (para2d(a)) (para1d(2)(b)) (para2b(2)) (para2c) (para1a)

MMS701,P8

LESSON 9

Special Purpose Semiconductor Devices 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. B B C C D A C C B C (para1b(5)) (para1c(3)) (para1c(3)(b)) (para1d(1)) (para1e) (para1e) (para1f(4)) (para1g(1) (para1h) (para1h(5)(A)) 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. D C A D B C B B A D (para1i) (para1i(1)) (para1j(2)(b)) (para1j) (para2a(2)) (para1b(1)) (para2c) (para2b(3)(a)) (para2f) (para2e(2))

MMS701,P9