The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School College of Engineering

SCALING DOWN OF MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS: MESO AND NANO LEVEL MACHINING AN ANALYSIS

A Thesis in Industrial Engineering by Binu Paul John

2003 Binu Paul John

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Science December 2003

I grant The Pennsylvania State University the non-exclusive right to use this work for the University's own purposes and to make single copies of the work available to the public on a not-for-profit basis if copies are not otherwise available. Binu Paul John

We approve the thesis of Binu Paul John.

Date of Signature

Paul H. Cohen Distinguished Professor of Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering Thesis Advisor

Eric R. Marsh Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering

Richard J. Koubek Professor of Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering Head of the Department of Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering

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ABSTRACT
Manufacturing industries world over are focusing more on achieving higher quality and reliability for existing products and introducing new products into the market. One of the major initiatives associated with this trend is the development of ultraprecision manufacturing systems. The issues associated with the scaling down of a macro scale manufacturing system to ultra precision levels are assessed. A brief overview of the developments in ultra-precision machining, in terms of the manufacturing processes, equipment and the techniques used, is given. The operational requirements and issues faced in the scaling down of conventional manufacturing systems into micro, meso and nano levels are discussed. Some specific issues associated with non-orthogonal single point diamond facing of 6061-T6 Aluminum are addressed in detail. The machining parameters ranged from micro levels to meso and nano levels. The cutting energy associated with the process is analyzed to compare the cutting mechanism at different scales. The specific cutting energy and the coefficient of friction increased at lower depths of cut. At small depths of cut, the edge preparation of the tool significantly affected the cutting process. Non-cutting plastic work on the material including plowing and flank face rubbing had more impact on the unit energy than the cutting process at lower depths of cut.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... VI LIST OF TABLES..........................................................................................................VIII ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.............................................................................................. IX CHAPTER 1 ........................................................................................................................1 Scaling Down Of Manufacturing Systems ......................................................................1 1.1 Introduction......................................................................................................1 1.2 Background ......................................................................................................3 1.2.1 Ultra-precision machining ...........................................................................5 1.2.2 Macro, micro, meso and nano machining....................................................8 1.2.3 2D versus 3D machining............................................................................10 1.2.4 Diamond turning ........................................................................................11 1.2.5 History of precision machining..................................................................13 1.2.6 Cutting in the nanomachining scale...........................................................14 1.2.7 Developing machinery in the nanomachining scale ..................................16 1.3 Scaling down issues in ultra-precision machining.........................................21 1.3.1 Material removal process...........................................................................22 1.3.2 Product design............................................................................................30 1.3.3 Tooling / Production engineering ..............................................................32 1.3.4 Machine tool ..............................................................................................36 1.3.5 Assembly and material handling................................................................40 1.4 Conclusions....................................................................................................45 CHAPTER 2 ......................................................................................................................46 Ultra-Precision Machining Of Aluminum .....................................................................46 2.1 Introduction....................................................................................................46 2.1.1 Cutting mechanism ....................................................................................48 2.1.2 Background ................................................................................................52 2.2 Experimental details.......................................................................................55 2.2.1 Workpiece material....................................................................................55 2.2.2 Machining parameters................................................................................55 2.2.3 Effective depth of cut.................................................................................56 2.2.4 Calculated parameters................................................................................57 2.3 Equipment used..............................................................................................58 2.3.1 Machine......................................................................................................58 2.3.2 Spindle .......................................................................................................59 2.3.3 Dynamometer.............................................................................................60 2.3.4 SIGLAB and amplifier...............................................................................61 2.3.5 Tool ............................................................................................................61 2.4 Results and Discussions.................................................................................62

v 2.4.1 Effect of depth of cut on forces..................................................................62 2.4.2 Effect of depth of cut on forces (lower depths of cut) ...............................63 2.4.3 Effect of depth of cut on force ratio, Ft/Fc .................................................67 2.4.4 Effect of depth of cut on specific energy ...................................................69 2.4.5 Comparing the results with observations reported in literature .................72 2.4.6 Effect of feed rate and depth of cut on forces............................................73 2.4.7 Effect of feed rate on cutting forces...........................................................76 2.4.8 Analyzing the effect of the cutting variables on the measured data ..........79 2.5 Conclusions....................................................................................................82 CHAPTER 3 ......................................................................................................................83 Conclusions And Future Work ......................................................................................83 3.1 3.2 Conclusions....................................................................................................83 Future work....................................................................................................85

REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................86

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Number of transistors on various types of chip (400 mm2) as projected by the SIA roadmap .................................................................................... 4 Figure 1.2: Feature size against year of manufacture based on Intels production lines ............................................................................................................................. 4 Figure 1.3: Semi-conductor market growth showing all components and microcomputer components........................................................................................ 4 Figure 1.4: Graph on available machine accuracy as shown by Taniguchi....................... 6 Figure 1.5: Relative accuracy of different technologies .................................................... 8 Figure 1.6: Volumetric utilization of conventional and meso scale machines ................ 16 Figure 1.7: M3 machine developed by NIST .................................................................. 19 Figure 2.1: Shear along shear zone and friction along rake face..................................... 48 Figure 2.2: Merchants composite force circle for the forces involved in orthogonal cutting ..................................................................................................... 49 Figure 2.3: Elastic recovery of workpiece material causing rubbing on flank face ........ 50 Figure 2.4: Cutting with an effective negative rake angle............................................... 51 Figure 2.5: Cutting geometry for non-orthogonal cutting ............................................... 56 Figure 2.6: Area, forces and velocities in non-orthogonal cutting .................................. 57 Figure 2.7: The Moore Precision Tools Nanotech 150AG Aspheric Grinder .............. 58 Figure 2.8: PI Twin Mount air-bearing spindle ............................................................... 59 Figure 2.9: Experimental set up with the workpiece and tool mounted .......................... 60 Figure 2.10: Kistler MiniDyn 9256A2 3-Component dynamometer .............................. 61 Figure 2.11: Log-log plot of the effect of depth of cut on cutting and thrust forces for feed = 0.001 mm/rev and speed = 600 rpm......................................................... 62 Figure 2.12: Effect of smaller depths of cut on cutting and thrust forces for feed = 0.001 mm/rev and speed = 600 rpm.......................................................................... 63 Figure 2.13: Effect of smaller depths of cut on cutting and thrust forces for feed = 0.001 mm/rev and speed = 1200 rpm........................................................................ 64

vii Figure 2.14: Flow of material above and below the stagnation point.............................. 65 Figure 2.15: The effect of cutting edge roundness at different depths of cut .................. 66 Figure 2.16: Log-log plot of the effect of depth of cut on force ratio for speed = 600 rpm ..................................................................................................................... 67 Figure 2.17: Log-log plot of the effect of depth of cut on force ratio for speed = 1200 rpm ................................................................................................................... 68 Figure 2.18: Effect of depth of cut on specific energy for speed = 600 rpm................... 69 Figure 2.19: Effect of depth of cut on specific energy for speed = 1200 rpm................. 70 Figure 2.20: Effect of the resultant force vectors on specific energy .............................. 71 Figure 2.21: Effect of feed and depth of cut on cutting force for speed = 600 rpm ........ 73 Figure 2.22: Effect of feed and depth of cut on cutting force for speed = 1200 rpm ............................................................................................................................ 74 Figure 2.23: Effect of feed and depth of cut on thrust force for speed = 600 rpm .......... 74 Figure 2.24: Effect of feed and depth of cut on thrust force for speed = 1200 rpm ........ 75 Figure 2.25: The effect of feed and effective depth of cut on cutting force at speed = 600 rpm........................................................................................................ 76 Figure 2.26: The effect of feed and effective depth of cut on cutting force at speed = 1200 rpm...................................................................................................... 77 Figure 2.27: The effect of feed and effective depth of cut on thrust force at speed = 600 rpm.................................................................................................................. 77 Figure 2.28: The effect of feed and effective depth of cut on thrust force at speed = 1200 rpm................................................................................................................ 78

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1: Projections by the Semiconductor Industry Association on the improvement in packing densities using high performance designs........................... 3 Table 1.2: Size scale of some machining parameters ........................................................ 6 Table 1.3: Tolerances of the components of some available products .............................. 7 Table 1.4: Features of macro, micro, meso and nano machining ...................................... 9 Table 1.5: Comparing the 2D and 3D manufacturing methods. ...................................... 11 Table 1.6: Development of micro machining equipment ................................................ 20 Table 2.1: Machining parameters used for the experiment and their values ................... 55 Table 2.2: Effective depth of cut (in nanometers) achieved during the machining process....................................................................................................................... 56 Table 2.3: Comparing the results with observations reported in literature...................... 72 Table 2.4: Regression analysis of the effect of cutting variables on cutting force, Fc ............................................................................................................................... 80 Table 2.5: Regression analysis of the effect of cutting variables on thrust force, Ft ................................................................................................................................ 81

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my gratitude to my esteemed professor Dr. Paul Cohen for his expert guidance and suggestion for this thesis. It was a great honor and privilege to work with him and to benefit from his valuable knowledge and expertise. I am highly indebted to Dr. Eric Marsh for accepting me to conduct part of the research in the Machine Dynamics Research Lab. I must appreciate his ever-ready helping attitude, which was a constant motivating factor for me to complete this thesis. I am also grateful to Jeremiah Couey of the MDRL who was always willing to help out when I ran into troubles with the precision machining equipment. I thank my roommates, Joby, Arun and Lalu for many occasions. Without them my academic life could have been much more lonely. I also would like to thank Angela Wollenburg for her enormous support and for proofreading the final draft of my thesis. In addition, I would like to thank Param for helping me the regression analysis of my data. I also thank Donald Henderson for making me believe in myself and encouraging me when I was going through the low downs of my thesis work. Last, but certainly not least, I would like to thank my family for their support and patience throughout my academic career. I would never have made this far in my academic career without their support and encouragement.

CHAPTER 1
S CALING D OWN O F M ANUFACTURING S YSTEMS
Manufacturing systems have advanced to higher levels of precision to cater to the growing needs of the soft manufacturing sectors dominated by the electronics, computer and biomedical industries. One of the main features of this development is the scaling down of the operational characteristics of manufacturing from macro levels to micro, meso and nano levels. The chapter looks at some of the developments that have occurred in the precision manufacturing sector. A deeper look into the characteristics of manufacturing at a scaled down level is attempted.

1.1

INTRODUCTION Manufacturing dominates world trade. It is the main wealth creating activity of all

industrialized nations and many developing nations. A manufacturing industry based on advanced technologies with the capability of competing in world markets can ensure a higher standard of living for an industrial nation [McKeown, 1996]. Two current issues faced by manufacturing industry all over the world are a) increasing global competition and b) increasing demands from the soft manufacturing sectors. Lean manufacturing techniques and automation are used to deal with the former where as precision manufacturing is the answer for the latter. These developments aim to improve the quality of existing products and introduce new products into markets, which will help the manufacturing industry to cater well to growing industries such as electronics, computer, biomedical and optical sectors. The soft manufacturing sectors aim to achieve greater miniaturization and packing densities for the components. For the electronics and computer industries smaller sizes implies less time for information transfer and higher input/output rates. These urge

2 manufacturers to focus on the scaling down of manufacturing processes to achieve the required miniaturization. The manufacturing processes thus scaled down fall under the general category of precision manufacturing. This chapter takes a look at some of the issues in the scaling down of the manufacturing system from a macro level to micro, meso and nano levels. The relevance of ultra-precision machining in the current manufacturing scenario is explained. Some of the important aspects associated with ultra-precision machining are described in detail. The difference in characteristics and capabilities between the existing 2D fabrication processes and the 3D precision machining systems is explained. The history of precision machining is reviewed by detailing the development of machining processes and its equipment. The chapter also explains the characteristics of the 3D ultra-precision machining systems by looking at the scaling down issues associated with the different operational characteristics of a machining system like machine tool, tooling/production engineering, material removal process, product design and assembly/material handling.

3 1.2 BACKGROUND The significance of scaling down of sizes on the soft manufacturing sector is depicted in the following tables and figures. Table 1.1 shows the projections on the improvement in packing densities of semiconductors using high performance designs. It can be observed that the packing density increases more than two fold every three years. Figure 1.1 shows the number of transistors on various types of chip (400 mm2). The number of transistors on a chip increases exponentially with time. Figure 1.2 plots the feature size of soft manufactured products against year of manufacture. This figure, based on Intels production lines, show that feature size has decreased about 100-fold over the last thirty years. Figure 1.3 shows the growth of the semi-conductor market and the trends for all components and microcomputer components. All products showed incredible growth over the last twenty years. Table 1.1: Projections by the Semiconductor Industry Association on the improvement in packing densities using high performance designs [www.semichips.org] Technology Generation Gate length Density DRAM SRAM High-performance logic ASIC logic High-volume logic High-performance ASIC High-volume Nm 1999 2002 2005 2008 2011 180 130 100 70 50 3032 9.94 1423 863 811 247 10.0 1.5 1.8

Local clock frequency

Nm 140 8590 65 45 2 Gb/cm 0.27 0.71 1.63 4.03 35 95 234 577 Million transistors 24 65 142 350 per cm2 20 54 133 328 7 18 41 100 GHz 1.25 2.1 3.5 6.0 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.2 0.6 0.8 1.1 1.4

Figure 1.1: Number of transistors on various types of chip (400 mm2) as projected by the SIA roadmap [www.semichips.org]

Figure 1.2: Feature size against year of manufacture based on Intels production lines [Patterson et. al, 1994]

Figure 1.3: Semi-conductor market growth (in %) showing all components and microcomputer components [Patterson et. al, 1994]

5 1.2.1 ULTRA-PRECISION MACHINING The need for ultra-precision machining exists in areas other than electronics. The attempts to define ultra-precision machining can be traced back to the 1970s [Corbett et al, 2000]. Some of the definitions that closely capture the nature of the machining processes covered by the ultra-precision regime are given below. Ultra-precision machining is the process by which the highest possible dimensional accuracy is achieved at a given point in time according to the definition given by Taniguchi (1983). Figure 1.4 shows the machine accuracy capabilities Taniguchi predicted along with the processes or tools used to achieve it. McKeown (1986) summarizes the role of ultra-precision machining in the manufacturing sector as to research, design, develop and commercialize processes, sensors, instruments, machines, control systems and materials in order to achieve further advances in technology, science and wealth creation, an even broader concept than Taniguchi. Corbett et al. (2000) defines nanomachining as the study, development and processing of materials, devices and systems in which structure of a dimension of less than 100 nm is essential to obtain the required functional performance. In an ultra-precision manufacturing system, all the material processing methods used in a conventional manufacturing system like removal, addition, joining, surface treatment and assembly of materials are scaled down by orders of magnitude. The machine tool capabilities, metrology and instrumentation used in these processes range in the orders of micrometers to nanometers. Currently, ultra-precision machining techniques are used in micro engineering applications areas including optics, electronic components, biomedical products, etc. However, continuous efforts by nearly all manufacturing sectors to achieve more efficient space utilization and improved portability of consumer products will require that ultra-precision machining become more widespread in the future.

Figure 1.4: Graph on available machine accuracy as shown by Taniguchi (1983) Table 1.2: Size scale of some machining parameters [www.me.mtu.edu/microweb] Feature Part tolerances produced in traditional (manual) machining Part tolerances produced in high precision CNC machine tools Roughness of lapped surfaces Diameter of small production micro drills Diameter of micro milling tools Feature tolerances with error compensation Roughness of micro drilled hole walls Roughness of diamond machined surfaces Resolution of conventional vernier micrometer Resolution limit of many optical instruments Resolution of scanning electron microscopes Resolution of laser interferometers Resolution of scanning probe microscopy Dimension 10 - 100 micrometers 1 - 10 micrometers 50 100 nanometers 25 micrometers 20 micrometers 250 - 500 nanometers 10 - 50 nanometers 5 nanometers 2.5 micrometers 1 micrometer 1 2 nanometers 1 nanometer 0.1 nanometer

7 Table 1.3: Tolerances of the components of some available products [McKeown, 1986] Tolerance band (+) 200m Normal machining 50 m Mechanical Normal domestic appliances and automotive fittings etc. General purpose mechanical parts for typewriters, engines etc. Mechanical watch parts Machine tool bearings Gears Ball screws Rotary compressor parts Ball and roller bearings Precision drawing wire Hydraulic servovalves Aerostatic bearings Ink jet nozzles Aerodynamic gyro bearings Electronic General-purpose electric parts, e.g. switches. Transistors, diodes Magnetic heads for tape recorders Electrical relays Resistors, Condensers Silicon wafers TV color masks Optical Camera, telescope and binocular bodies Camera shutters Lens holders for cameras and microscopes Lenses Prism Optical fiber and connectors (multimode)

5 m

0.5 m Precision machining

0.05 m

Ultraprecision machining 0.005 m

Gauge blocks Diamond indenter tip radius Microtome cutter edge radius Ultra-precision X-Y tables

Magnetic scales, CCD (charged coupled device) Quartz oscillators Magnetic memory bubbles Magnetron, IC line width Thin film pressure transducers Thermal printer heads Thin film head discs IC memories Electronic video discs LSI

Precision lenses Optical scales IC exposure masks (photo, x-ray) Laser polygon mirrors X-ray mirrors Elastic deflection mirrors Mono mode optical fiber and connectors

Optical flats Precision Fresnel lenses Optical diffraction gratings Optical video discs Ultra-precision diffraction gratings

VLSI Super- lattice thin films

8 Table 1.2 shows the size scale of some of the machining parameters used in conventional machining and the features of some equipment used in ultra-precision machining while Table 1.3 shows the tolerances of the components of some products available in the market [McKeown, 1986]. Vogler et al (2002) have analyzed the relative accuracies needed by manufacturing processes at various scales as shown in Figure 1.5. This gives a clear picture on the significance of precision manufacturing in the current industrial scenario.

Figure 1.5: Relative accuracy of different technologies [Vogler et al, 2002]

1.2.2

MACRO, MICRO, MESO AND NANO MACHINING Ultra-precision machining can be categorized into micro, meso and nano machining

according to the dimensions associated with the machining processes. However, there are no specified guidelines that would help in making this classification since most of the activities in the meso and nano scales are still in the research stage. It is too early to create a universal standard that differentiates between the various levels of advanced manufacturing. At present the terms micro, meso and nano machining are used in a relative manner depending on the capacity achievable by an individual machine or the manufacturing cell. Table 1.4 categorizes the features associated with manufacturing into macro, micro, meso and nano levels with examples of the tools, controls and other issues associated with each level.

9 Table 1.4: Features of macro, micro, meso and nano machining [Vogler et al, 2002] Macro 1m 0.001 m Cutting tools, High Speed Steel tools, Powder Metal tools, Alloys Computer Numeric Control (CNC) machines Micro 1m 10-7 m Grinding, Abrasive grains, Lapping, Honing, Laser Meso 10-6 10-9 m 10-6 10-8 m Abrasive grains, Cubic Boron Nitride tools, Single point diamond cutting tools, Laser, Lapping CNC machines, Grinding machines, Mechanochemical lapping, Laser Heat treatment, Electron beam exposure Precision DC servo motors, Electro magnetic servo actuators, Adaptive control with microcomputer Electro magnetic proximity sensors, Optical sensors Aerostatic grippers, Micro robots Nano 1 nm 1 nm Atoms, Molecules, Reactive ions, Plasma, Photons, Electron beams CNC machines, Chemical Vapor Deposition, Physical Vapor Deposition, Lithography, etching, Ion implantation, Ion plating, Solution synthesis High speed electronic computers

Dimensions Tolerance Tools

Machining mechanism

CNC machines, Electro Discharge Machines, Electrolytic polishing, Laser cutting, Grinding machines DC servomotors, Optical control transistors, Logic controllers Strain gauges, Precision air micrometer, CCDs Robots, Conveyors

Controls

AC servomotor, Electro magnetic brakes, Electric step motor

Dimensional Dial indicator, measurement Micrometer Automated Guided Vehicles, Forklifts, Robots, Conveyors Visual, Mechanical gauges

Electron x-ray scintillators, Laser interferometer Aerostatic grippers, Micro robots

Material handling

Quality control

Coordinate Measuring machines, Optical gauges

Optical comparators

Atomic force microscopy

10 1.2.3 2D VERSUS 3D MACHINING Manufacturing processes are categorized according to the method by which the shape of the product is determined. Using this criterion, manufacturing methods that fall under the ultra-precision machining regime could be classified into tooling method and masking method. The masking method is essentially a two dimensional method. It can also achieve 2.5 dimensional shapes by stacking the 2D shapes, but has limitations in generating a three-dimensional product. The tooling method is capable of specifying 3D outlines of products. The advantage that the 3D method has over the 2D method is that it has a clear border of the tool surface and the easily defined tool path [Masuzawa, 1996]. Masking methods are capable of removing material in atomic levels and are capable of achieving precision at atomic levels. The tooling methods are capable of removing metals at a nanometer level and therefore can achieve precision in terms of nanometers using the advanced manufacturing equipments available. This level of precision is acceptable in most practical ultra-precision machining applications. 2D components require special assembly processes since they do not have mating surfaces. 3D processes do not have this issue, but need low cost micro equipment for assembly. Some of the common machining processes that come under the tooling category are single point diamond cutting, multi point fixed abrasive process (e.g. grinding) and free abrasive erosion processes (e.g. lapping, polishing etc). Some of the common masking processes are chemical treatment (e.g. lithography, etch matching etc) and energy beam processes. A comparison of the masking and tooling methods is given in Table 1.5.

11 Table 1.5: Comparing the 2D and 3D manufacturing methods. Masking Method Dimension achieved 2D, 2.5 D Material removal Precision achieved Assembly Materials used Equipment used Inspection Equipment size Manufacturing Process control Atomic levels Atomic levels Bonding 3D Tooling Method

Nanometer levels Nanometer levels Joining, bonding etc using micro assembly equipment Silicon based, some metals, Metals, alloys, polymers, polymers ceramics Designed for the process Downsized from conventional sizes Final Final and in process Macro Micro Batch Batch or individual Feed forward Feedback

1.2.4

DIAMOND TURNING Diamond turning is a type of ultra-precision machining where submicron form

accuracy and nanometer-level surface finish can be achieved by using high precision, high stiffness machine tools and single point diamond cutting tools. Diamond turning offers minimal fabrication time and post-polishing required over other ultra precision machining techniques. The time required to make optical quality mirrors and spheres using polishing and lapping methods is in the range of weeks whereas the same or better quality parts can be completely fabricated from blanks using diamond turning in a few days. Single point diamond turning is less labor intensive than grinding and polishing. It can also be used to create aspheric surfaces. A well-defined single point tool is more predictable than a multi-point grinding wheel. Diamond turned optical components have surfaces with a better metallurgical structure compared to the ones made from polishing and lapping [Saito, 1978].

12 Diamond turning is used to make optical components from soft materials like aluminum, copper, electroless nickel and some polymers. These materials are inexpensive and can be easily fabricated. However, these materials usually suffer from low specific stiffness, high thermal coefficient of expansion and high oxidation [Miller, 1994]. The advancements in optical and defense systems require the fabrication of hard and brittle materials like glass, ceramics and crystals, which have optical properties that aluminum and the other soft materials are unable to provide. The materials used commonly by the optical, semiconductor and opto-electronics industries are silicon, germanium and gallium arsenide, with silicon making more than 90% of all semiconductor products [Sreejith et. al, 2001]. These materials also have the property of transmitting light over a variety of wavelengths making them the obvious choice for optical applications over the soft materials [Ahmad, 1997]. Diamond turning can be used to produce optical quality, damage free surfaces on these brittle materials using fewer manufacturing steps than grinding, polishing and lapping methods resulting in significant cost reduction.

13 1.2.5 HISTORY OF PRECISION MACHINING The origin of precision machining can be traced back to the 1900s. Manufacturers, from the 1930s, used precision machining to achieve tolerances and accuracies that the conventional manufacturing methods could not achieve. A brief time line of the history of precision machining is given below: 1930s - Diamond turning was used by watchmakers to make watch dial components with high surface finishes. [Krauskopf, 1984]. 1940s - Moore Special Tool Company designed a jig grinder that allowed toolmakers to work with accuracies that was not achievable by any of the existing methods [Moore, 1970]. 1960s - Demands from electronics, defense and energy applications lead to further developments in the precision machining field. Pioneering work by J. B. Bryan on diamond turning in the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory was done in this time period [Bryan, 1979]. 1970s - The need for large optics in space telescopes and defense systems triggered the experimental works to apply precision machining to complex optical components and to lower the costs of optical components. Work on diamond turning was carried out in Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) and Oak Ridge Y-12 National Lab. Diamond turning machines with unparalleled size and accuracy were developed by Bryan and Donaldson [OConnor, 2002] at LLNL. 1980s - Advanced machine tools with precision metrology and control were developed. Diamond tools were used extensively. Precision manufacturing methods were extended for industrial use for cutting aluminum, which was used for making components for scanners, photocopying machines and computer memory disks. A horizontal spindle diamond

14 turning machine was designed by Bryan (1979) at LLNL that could swing parts that weighed over 31000 N, slightly over two meters in diameter. A large vertical axis diamond turning machine was designed and constructed by Donaldson and Patterson [Donaldson et. al, 1983] with 1.6-meter swing and 13500 N load capacities. The machine used laser interferometer and capacitance probe feedback controls, temperature control and hydrostatic bearings, giving accuracies better than 0.1 micrometers. 1990s - Precision manufacturing was accepted as another advanced tool in manufacturing systems. Research and development were carried out as in any other manufacturing field. Large-scale implementation also occurred during this time period due to the surge of electronics and computer industries.

1.2.6

CUTTING IN THE NANOMACHINING SCALE Attempts have been made by people from all over the world to enter the world of

precision machining before the end of the 19th century. Some of those attempts are mentioned below: Henry Joseph Grayson (1856-1918) Known as Australias first nanotechnologist. He made a micro ruling engine, which could make test rulings for microscope objectives. He also made a diffraction grating ruling engine. Both pieces of equipment were said to be capable of settling comfortably into the precision equipment category [Corbett et al., 2000]. Norio Taniguchi (1912-1999) He coined the term nanotechnology in 1974 and used the term to define ultra-fine machining. He started working on processing of materials to nano scale precision as early as 1940 and also worked on achieving precision finishing of quartz crystals, silicon and other hard and brittle materials by using ultrasonic machining.

15 Richard Feynman (1918-1988) He talked about the possibility of writing the entire volume of Encyclopedia Britannica on the head of a pin in the December 1959 meeting of the American Physical Society at the California Institute of Technology. He gave a logical methodology for the solution using a resolution and stability improved scanning electron microscope to achieve the same. Colin Humphreys of the University of Cambridge devised an ultra-powerful field emission electron microscope, which was capable of etching the entire contents of the 29 volumes of the Encyclopedia Britannica. The machine could store 1,000 times more information in a given space than any other medium. This was used by the scientists at Liverpool University to etch an image of Marilyn Monroe onto an area smaller than a pinhead. Takeuchi et al. (2003) created a 3D statue with nano scale features on oxygen-free copper by taking nano scale cuts using a pseudo ball end mill of 0.06 mm diameter. Single point diamond machining and multi point cutting (ductile regime grinding) on a variety of brittle and non ferrous materials to produce components with submicron form accuracy and nanometer level surface roughness has been achieved by various researchers [Benjamin (1978), Saito (1978), Uchida et al. (1991)]. Lucca et al (1994) and Cheung et al. (2001) studied the aspects of surface generation in orthogonal ultra-precision machining using single point diamond tools. Friedrich et al (1998) used micro mechanical milling to create deep X-ray lithography masks. Schaller et al (1999) created microstructure grooves with a width of less than 50 m using ground hard micro end mills. Adams et al (2001) used ion beam method for micro milling of metal alloys.

16 1.2.7 DEVELOPING MACHINERY IN THE NANOMACHINING SCALE Even with the advancement in the precision and tolerances achieved in manufacturing, ultra-precision machining was still being carried out using equipment that belonged to the macro scale. This equipment consumes significant amounts of floor space, energy and have a high labor cost associated with it. This equipment does follow the guidelines required by the precision machining concept, as the ideal equipment should be in the same scale as the final product to have an optimized manufacturing system. Figure 1.6 shows the volumetric utilization of conventional and meso scale machines [Vogler et al, 2002].

Figure 1.6: Volumetric utilization of conventional and meso scale machines [Vogler et al, 2002] The size of the equipment producing precision parts has been reduced, but the optimal size has not yet been attained. Attempts to fabricate commercial nano machine tools have thus far been unsuccessful. Some of the successes in making nano scale machine tools are detailed below:

17 Kitahara et al (1996) developed a micro lathe 32 mm in length. The micro-lathe comprised of an X-Y driving unit driven by laminated piezo actuators, a main shaft device driven by a micro motor, and a tool rest. The micro-lathe measured 32.0 mm in length, 25.0 mm in depth, and 30.5 mm in height. It weighed 100 g. Power consumption of the main shaft device was approximately 1.5 W. The dimensions were approximately 1/50, weight 1/10000 and power consumption 1/1000 of a conventional lathe. Lu et al. (1999) developed a micro lathe 200 mm in length. Nakao et al. (1996) developed a tabletop nano-manufacturing factory. The factory successfully integrated the various manufacturing processes used to make a nano component and assemble the product in the final form using the nano manufacturing factory system. The dimensions of the factory were 1.6 m X 0.9m X 1.6 m. Some of the concepts used were fast atom beam etching technology, concentrated motion manipulator, multidirectional scanning electron microscope (SEM) and an image driven operating system. A three axis ultra-precision aspheric generator made by the Cranfield Precision Engineering Nanocenter, UK, was designed to achieve very high loop stiffness between tool and workpiece in both single point diamond cutting and ductile mode grinding. High stiffness servo drives and hydrostatic bearings were used throughout the equipment and a servo resolution of 1.25 nm in the X and Z-axes was achieved. The rotary axis for single point turning had a resolution of 0.3 arc/sec [McKeown, 1996]. Hatamura et al. (1997) designed and built an integrated manufacturing system for 3D microstructures which could realize 3D shaping using fast atom beam etching under rotation of workpieces and 3D assembly, using a concentric manipulator under observation of a multi view SEM. The Laboratory of Mechatronics in the National Autonomous University of Mexico developed a prototype of a next generation CNC Micro Machining Tool. The equipment was 130 mm X 160 mm X 85 mm and was controlled by a PC [Ruiz-Huerta, 2002].

18 Mishima et al. (2000) developed a micro factory consisting of three machine tools and two small manipulators. The components were a micro lathe, a micro press machine, a micro milling machine, a micro transfer arm and a micro two-fingered hand. They successfully used this to fabricate a ball bearing. Vogler et al (2002) developed a meso scale machine tool system with the dimensions of 25 mm X 25 mm X 25 mm. They were successful in making a system that could machine three-dimensional features with no material constraints. Two major concepts made into practice in the development of their system were relative accuracy (ratio of attainable tolerance to workpiece size) and volumetric utilization (ratio of machine and workpiece volumes). Takeuchi et al. (2003) developed a 5-axis control ultra-precision machining center. The machine had three translational axes and two rotational axes. The resolution of the three translational axes and the two rotational axes were 1 nm and 0.00001o respectively. NIST (National Institute for Science and Technology) developed a Molecular Measuring Machine (M3) which was used for imaging and measuring to nanometer accuracy the positions of nanometer sized features located anywhere within the area of 50 mm X 50 mm and up to 100 m high. The machine is shown in Figure 1.7.

19

Figure 1.7: M3 machine developed by NIST [www.nist.gov]

20 Table 1.6: Development of micro machining equipment Equipment category Microlathe Dimension of the Features of the equipment equipment 32 mm length X-Y driving unit driven by laminated piezo actuators, Main shaft device driven by a micro motor Cutting mechanism directly observed by optical microscope Fast atom beam (FAB) etching technology, Concentrated motion manipulator, Multidirectional SEM and an Image driven operating system Air turbine spindle, Piezoelectric friction drive, Voice coil drives High stiffness servo drives and hydrostatic bearings. Servo resolution of 1.25 nm in the X and Z axes Fast atom beam etching, 3D assembly using a concentric manipulator, Multi view scanning electron microscope (SEM) PC based control A micro lathe, a micro press machine, a micro milling machine, a micro transfer arm and a micro two fingered hand Images and measures to nanometer accuracy the positions of features located anywhere within the area of 50 mm X 50 mm and up to 100 m high Air borne linear guide and air slide for the translational axes.

Developed by Kitahara et al. (1996) Lu and Yoneyama (1999) Nakao and Hatamura(1996)

Microlathe Nano manufacturing factory

200 mm length 1.6 m X 0.9m X 1.6 m

Vogler et al. (2002)

Meso-scale machine tool (mMT) systems Pat Three axis ultraMcKeown(1996) precision aspheric generator Hatamura et al. (1997) Integrated manufacturing system for 3D microstructures CNC micro machining Tool Micro factory

25 mm X 25 mm X 25 mm

1.6 m X 0.9 m X 1.6 m

Ruiz-Huerta (2002) Mishima et al. (2000) NIST (National Institute for Science and Technology) (2001) Takeuchi et al. (2003)

130 mm X 160 mm X 85 mm Floor area: 5070cm

Molecular measuring machine (M3)

5-axis control ultra- 20 mm stroke for vertical precision movement. 1 nm machining center min feature size

21 1.3 SCALING DOWN ISSUES IN ULTRA-PRECISION MACHINING

The rapid progress in the development of electronic and optical devices require high precision and miniaturization of manufacturing. This miniaturization is achievable by ultra-precision machining and micro manufacturing. The nano fabrication techniques that are currently used for micro manufacturing (e.g. lithography), have serious limitations in terms of the work materials that can be used and creation of complicated shapes with the required surface quality. Micro machining by cutting is possible since ultra-precision cutting machines are capable of achieving the highest level of positioning accuracy. The electrical properties of the workpiece do not influence the process. Therefore metals and plastics, including some of their composites, can be machined easily. Machining time can be controlled easily because the process is stable when an appropriate feed rate per rotation is selected. The following section gives a detailed account on the characteristics of a scaled down manufacturing system in terms of its different operational characteristics such as material removal process, tooling/production engineering, product design, machine tool and assembly/material handling.

22 1.3.1 MATERIAL REMOVAL PROCESS

The major parameters of interest for the material removal process can be classified as the a) parameters that describe the material, b) parameters that describe the cutting process and c) parameters that result from the cutting process due to the parameters that describe the material. Parameters describing the material a) Microstructure including grain size and texture In ultra-precision machining, the depth of cut is often smaller than the average grain size of polycrystalline materials; therefore cutting is performed within a single grain. As a result, grain orientation relative to the tool changes rapidly, which prevents a steady-state deformation. [To et. al, 1997]. This observation was also reported by Cohen, [Personal conversation] when a turning operation was carried out on a face centered cubic (FCC) material at submicron depths of cut. He observed that the cutting forces varied in a sinusoidal pattern. This was due to the change of cutting forces according to the crystallographic orientation of individual grains with respect to the cutting direction. b) Crystallographic orientation When machining is done with very narrow depth of cut or feed rate, cutting naturally takes place in a single crystal. Therefore the cutting behavior and the mechanism of chip formation become dependent on the crystallographic factors [Ueda et. al, 1980]. Single crystal turning experiments show that the machined surface integrity is affected by the crystallographic orientation [OConnor, 2002]. When a material is machined in a favorable cutting direction with respect to the crystallographic orientation, fine lamellar slip type chips are produced, which improves the machined surface roughness. The shear angle and therefore the cutting forces depend largely on the crystallographic orientation.

23 In the case of polycrystalline materials where random orientations of preferred directions are present, the principal shear action is so dominant that the lamellae always align perpendicular to the cutting direction [Von Turkovich et. al, 1970]. The chips are formed by lamellar slip in the shear deformation region. The thickness of the chip differs depending on the crystallographic orientation, even though the cutting conditions are the same. This is due to the change in shear angle. The thickness of the chip changes when the cutting tool passes through the grain boundary. The crystallographic orientation, which affects the chip formation process at depths of cut in the order of micrometers, is not influential when the depth of cut is reduced to the submicron level. The shear angle is almost constant and is not significantly influenced by the cutting direction against the crystallographic orientation at submicron levels of cut. This constant shear angle is due to the presence of a damaged layer beneath the machined surface, which plays a larger role than the crystallographic orientation when the workpiece is machined at the submicron level. The depth of the damaged layer beneath a surface finished by diamond cutting becomes about 10 times the edge radius of the tool. It is this damaged layer that is being machined when the depth of cut is kept to sub micron levels [Moriwaki et. al, 1993].

24 Parameters describing the cutting process a) Tool geometry The tool shape and cutting conditions influence the stress distribution in the workpiece. Nose radius, feed rate and depth of cut have effects on the size of the interference region between tool and the work material. When a tool with a small nose radius is chosen in conjunction with a small feed rate and small depth of cut, a small interference region results, and thus a small critical stress field [Nakasuji et. al, 1990]. Work by Fu (2003) has shown how a large nose radius to depth ratio influences the residual stresses on the workpiece. For high precision machining of brittle materials, tools having large negative rake angles are generally used. A diamond tool with a negative rake angle will have stronger edge strength to protect the tool from damage when machining brittle materials. This negative rake angle increases the maximum critical depth of cut in the ductile regime and improves the surface quality. Cracks usually result from tensile stresses higher than the material tensile stress. The compressive stress on the work material promotes plastic deformation of the workpiece. The negative rake angle exerts a high compressive stress on the workpiece, providing the required hydrostatic pressure for enabling plastic deformation of the work material beneath the tool radius. Consequently, choosing the appropriate negative rake angle in the diamond turning of brittle materials is of crucial importance in avoiding the occurrence of extensive tensile cracking [Leung et. al, 1998]. During conventional machining with a single point tool, the rake angle will be positive or close to 0o. With positive rake angle, the cutting force will generally be of a higher order of magnitude than the thrust force and therefore the deformation ahead of the tool will be in a concentrated shear plane. In ultra-precision machining of brittle materials at depths of cut smaller than the tool edge radius, the tool presents a large negative rake angle and the radius of the tool edge acts as an indenter. This is similar to a situation where the tool is rigidly supported and cuts the workpiece under a stress such that no median vents are

25 generated, but the material below the tool is plastically deformed due to large hydrostatic pressure. Due to this, a large nose radius is theoretically desirable, but the waviness control of the large nose radius is very expensive [Fang et. al, 1998]. A negative degree rake angle tool with a large nose radius will have an effective negative rake angle that could be much higher, creating excessive pressure that could damage the surface. b) Cutting parameters including feed, speed and depth of cut In a machining operation, chip removal can take place either due to plastic deformation on the slip plane or fracture. Plastic deformation takes place in the work material in front of the cutting edge of the tool when the resolved shear stress in the easy slip direction exceeds a certain critical value characteristic of the work material. Fracture takes place when the resolved tensile stress normal to the fracture plane exceeds a certain critical value. When a chip is removed by plastic deformation, a very smooth and fine surface can be obtained. The density of defects and/or dislocations included in the work material affects the critical values for fracture and plastic deformation. In brittle materials, the density of the defects that act as the nuclei of a fracture is not very large. Therefore the critical value of fracture depends on the size of the stress field in which the fracture takes place. When the uncut chip thickness is small, the size of the critical stress field is small enough to avoid fracture initiated at the defects. The transition of chip removal process from brittle to ductile may take place depending on the uncut chip thickness. The critical stress for plastic deformation or fracture depends on crystal structure, intrinsic strength and defects distribution. Brittle-ductile transition also depends on crystallographic orientation in single crystal even in ideal stress condition, because the resolved stresses on the fracture plane and on the slip plane vary with their orientation. Hence the brittle-ductile transition varies depending on the relation between the crystallographic orientation and the cutting direction [Nakasuji et. al, 1990].

26 For producing optical quality surfaces on brittle materials, it is important that the material be machined in a ductile mode. However not all parts of the chip need to be removed in a ductile mode and plastic deformation takes place only at a region near to finished surface. When a single point tool removes materials, most of the material is removed by fracturing, which is acceptable as long as the cracks are sufficiently small and do not affect the finished surface. Chip formation can be as continuous ribbons or a series of individual segments. Sometimes a combination of these two extremes, where cracks do not penetrate the chips completely, can be observed. In all these cases some fractures of the material cut are involved, for even the most perfectly continuous chip that showed no cracks in its surface was formed in conjunction with the development of a new surface and its fractures [Fang et. al, 1998]. All materials will undergo a transition from brittle to ductile machining region below a critical depth of cut. The energy required to propagate cracks is higher than the energy required for plastic deformation below the critical depth of cut region. In ultra-precision metal cutting, material removal takes place by a combination of plasticity and extensive micro fracture. Pure ductile response will occur only along the apex of the tool tip where the effective depth of cut is less than the critical depth of cut. The material removal mechanism for brittle materials changes from ductile to brittle mode as the depth of cut increases. The depth of cut at which this transition occurs varies from material to material. In ultra-precision machining, material is generally removed at a lower rate when compared to macro machining. This is due to the low feed rates used. The tools used in the scaled down machining operations are generally small in size, preventing the use of a high feed rate. The impact of scaling down on the cutting speeds has not yet been analyzed.

27 Interaction of cutting process and material a) Cutting forces Cutting forces play an important role regardless of the scale of manufacturing. The rigidity of the workpiece against any deflections caused by cutting forces decreases as the diameter of the workpiece reduces. In micro scale manufacturing, cutting forces could cause deflection of the workpiece due to this and therefore the value of the cutting force must be lower than that which could cause plastic deflection of the workpiece. The cutting phenomena can be understood by analyzing the cutting forces as it clearly reflects the chip removal process. Cutting force on a diamond cutting edge in micro, meso and nano machining is usually at the submicron level or less. It is very difficult to measure this accurately due to its small magnitude compared to mechanical and electronic noise. The principal force becomes small and the thrust force increases as the depth of cut is decreased. In addition to the cutting action, some non-cutting plastic work on the workpiece also influences the cutting forces at lower depths of cut [Lucca et al., 1991]. b) Surface finish Surface finish is very critical in micro scale machining as the machining operation is usually intended to produce components with high quality surfaces (e.g. reflectors used for optical systems). Recently, ultra-precision metal cutting has begun being used to manufacture optical parts with sophisticated geometry and high surface quality. Due to this, factors like vibrations, chip removal, etc. that are not very critical in the macro scale, have significant influence on the surface generated at the ultra-precision scale. The surface roughness depends on the machining parameters used and can be further improved by increasing the rigidity and accuracy of the equipment.

28 c) Chip removal mechanism One issue with chip removal process in macro machining is the problematic entangling of the chip with the tool. The chips could damage the newly created surface. This problem becomes increasingly severe as the manufacturing is scaled down. Due to the high quality of surface required in micro machining, even a small particle could scratch the newly created surface. Chip removal, therefore, is to be carried out without causing the chips to remain on the workpiece and damage the surface. d) Chip morphology In ultra-precision cutting of easily machinable materials such as copper and aluminum, continuous and stable chip, analogous to that in conventional cutting, can be observed. This occurs when material is removed under depths of cut at values of a few nanometers using a sharp diamond cutting edge. During micro cutting, narrow zones of shear originate at the location of the tool tip and evenly separate the chip into segments or lamella. The chip exhibits a lamellar shear structure in the shear zone [Ueda et. al, 1980]. The thickness of these lamellae varies directly with the local chip thickness or depth of cut. The chips produced at low cutting speeds are similar in structure to those created at higher speeds [Arcona et al, 1996]. However, the lamella spacing will depend on crystallographic orientation. e) Cutting temperature The cutting temperature in micro cutting could be quite low in comparison with that in conventional cutting, due to low cutting energy as well as the high thermal conductivity of both the tool and work materials. However, a small temperature rise of the order of 10o K in a tool may cause an expansion of the tool shank and in turn, deterioration of the machining accuracy. At ultra-precision machining levels, where even damage of a micron size might be detrimental to surface finish quality, the cutting temperature is considered to

29 govern the rate of wear in the tool. There is considerable evidence of chemical damage on a diamond tool in which temperature plays a significant role [Ikawa et. al, 1991]. f) Contact length The contact length between the chip and the rake face is an important parameter that affects the frictional force on the rake face and the cutting temperature. The contact length is generally several times the depth of cut in conventional cutting. However, it is found in ultra-precision diamond cutting of copper that the contact length reaches about 50 times the depth of cut when the depth of cut is 3 m. It is further increased with a smaller depth of cut. This drastic increase in relative contact length, which is peculiar in micro cutting, complicates the chip formation process [Moriwaki et. al, 1993].

30 1.3.2 PRODUCT DESIGN

Materials and part design are two major parameters of interest for product design. The implications of scaling down on each of these parameters are given below.

Materials The material should be micro-machinable. Micro-machinability can be defined as machinability on which nanometric surface finish can be achieved. It can also be defined in terms of the susceptibility to nanometric surface roughness and negligible tool damage over a certain extended cutting distance. Chemical reactivity with the cutting tool, crystal structures, defect distribution and heat treatment are some factors that could affect the micro-machinability. The material should also be rigid enough so as to have minimum distortion to the workpiece due to clamping while holding the work. Properties of work materials will heavily influence the microstructure of the surface machined. In micro machining of polycrystals, which are considerably more common than single crystals, there will inevitably be imperfections in overall roughness due to the anisotropy in machinability terms on each of the crystal grains, which make up the surface to be machined [Ikawa et. al, 1991]. The materials that are used in the macro scale applications are microstructured. But nanostructured materials can have many advantages over the microstructured ones in terms of properties like hardness, ductility, selective absorption, magnetic coupling, catalytic enhancement, etc. [Corbett et. al, 2000]. The nanostructure can produce materials with a higher density due to the finer grain size and this explains the improvement in the mechanical properties.

31 Part design In ultra-precision machining, there is a low flexibility in the cutting shape due to the difficulty in miniaturization of the cutting tool. The feature tolerances are usually very critical and the manufacturability of the part should be kept in mind when specifying the tolerances. Most of the underlying concepts and mechanisms in the product and tool design in macro scale manufacturing are well understood and already studied. The available CAD and CAM software are powerful enough to allow for experimenting and analyzing almost any given product design. But when manufacturing is scaled down to a micro level, many of the underlying concepts of product and tool design are not very well represented by any available software or mathematical models. This limited availability of standard tools, equipment and software limits the use of CAM models and makes the micro manufacturing process very difficult to design. The tool path design is very critical due to the relative size of the workpiece to the tool as it is more difficult to design the tool path due to the limited space for the tool to maneuver. In macro manufacturing, the underlying mathematical concepts of design models are fitted into the CAD and CAM software and make the designing process easy. In micro manufacturing, however, these mathematical models need to be developed by the process designer. The mathematical models are very critical due to their lack of flexibility.

32 1.3.3 TOOLING / PRODUCTION ENGINEERING

The major parameters of interest for tooling/production engineering are metrology, fixturing, process planning & tool path and tool design. Metrology Dimensional and displacement control should be achieved at a nano level in order to have accurate nano scale machining. Therefore, the metrology applications become very important at these levels. At present there are no nano scale probing devices or sub nanometer calibration equipment. The two main requirements of the nano scale metrology applications are knowledge of the perfection of surface texture at nanometer and sub nanometer levels and perfection of geometrical form. An example of nano scale metrology equipment is the CMM developed at the National Physical Laboratory, UK, which has a resolution of 2 nm in all axes with a volumetric accuracy approaching 50 nm. This can be used to measure truly 3D components. [Corbett et al, 2000] Optical systems are more suited for metrology applications in the micro-machining regime. Compared to mechanical systems, optical methods often can acquire more data in less time. Another advantage is the possibility of measuring without contact. Measurement techniques to be used for the surface should be chosen according to the function of the surface, taking into account the functional and geometric parameters and the depth regime involved. An ideal optical system would be one with a contacting stylus thin enough not to create damage on the surface. The areas of application of metrology are, Length measurement Linear encoder with an optical grating system is usually used for length measurement. It is not expensive and is very robust and resolutions up to 1 nm are

33 commercially available. The drawback with this are the thermal expansion issues. This can be overcome by knowing the rate of thermal expansion and compensating, using materials with low thermal expansion coefficient and using workpiece and scale materials having similar thermal expansion coefficient. Displacement interferometry is another method used for linear measurement. Angle measurement Straightness measurement Surface measurement Stylus method and optical method are the two common methods for measuring the surface. The stylus method has some disadvantages as it damages the surface depending on the force, elastic modulus, stylus size and hardness of the surface. In optical method, light can penetrate deep into the surface of the material depending on the absorption coefficient of the material. Some of the available equipment that fit into the nano scale metrology regime are, Laser interferometer Scanning probe microscopes Scanning tunneling microscope Atomic force microscope

Fixturing There should be minimum distortion to the workpiece due to clamping while holding the work. This is particularly important for micro machining, as the size of the workpiece is much smaller. Assembling and disassembling of the workpiece must be convenient. Since the sizes of the components used are small, the fixtures should be designed to allow for easy fitting and removal of the workpiece.

34 Material selection is critical to prevent damage to the workpiece. Contact with the fixture should not affect the surface finish of the workpiece. This fixture detail is important because the required surface finish for the nano scale components is critical.

Process planning and tool path The two main issues in the development of process plans and tool path are the scaling down effect of the geometry of tool and workpiece and the restricted movement of tool. Many of the processes used in conventional machining will have to be replaced by advanced machining methods. The tools and specifications will be different from a traditional process plan. Similarly, the available commercial CAM software packages are not equipped to handle ultra-precision machining and hence many analytical design methods will have to be used to determining the tool path. It is difficult to align the tool and workpiece due to lack of area for reference planes. The machine should move towards the workpiece to avoid the need of accurately refixturing and searching for lost parts. Takeuchi et al. (2001) developed a 5-axis control closed loop motion control algorithm for creating a 3-D complicated tiny statue. The algorithm was generated based on cross sectional profile of the workpiece and tool axis vectors. Smoothing operations had to be carried out for the model due to the change in tool axis vector. However, the surface quality was not satisfactory due to difficulty in achieving a fine setting of the tool with respect to the workpiece.

Tool design The tool should be designed so as to minimize the mechanical deformation occurring in the tool and workpiece due to the small sizes. The requirements of the tools to be used in the nano machining range are Capable of stable cutting in the submicron/nanometer region Specified cutting edge radius

35 Nanometric edge sharpness Form reproducibility

The existing machine tool design methods may not be applicable to the machine tools of the nano machining regime. Machine tool designers will need a general guideline to appropriately reduce the size of machine tools. Mishima et al. (2000) analyzed the effect the machine tool structure has on the machining performance and identified critical design parameters that have significant influence on the machine tolerance. The tools used in the ultra-precision machining regime falls under three main categories given below: Solid tools for cutting, abrasive or chemico-mechanical action Energy beam tools like ion beam, Ultra Violet, E-beam and X-ray Scanning probe tools like scanning tunnel microscope (STM), atomic force microscope (AFM), and magnetic, thermal or chemical reactive probes

36 1.3.4 MACHINE TOOL

Equipment selection In developing ultra-precision machining equipment, the various functions of the machine tool system that need to be considered are those that are fundamental to conventional systems. These are a) a rotating or stationary cutting tool, b) a means to rotate the cutting tool or the workpiece at the necessary speeds, c) a device to facilitate relative motions between the workpiece and the cutting tool, including actuation of axes, d) part fixturing, e) a physical structure within which to integrate the aforementioned functional components, f) a motion controller, and g) power source(s) [Vogler et. al, 2002]. In the ultra-precision machine tool system, the range of motions, motion increments, and the forces required to facilitate motion are all orders of magnitude below those that are required of conventional machine tool systems. Given the part size and the cutting forces present during micro machining, the use of large machine tools would result in a very inefficient utilization of resources in terms of floor space, energy requirements and costs. These ultra-precision machines generally require expensive and specialized design features to achieve the desired level of accuracy. Many sources of error present in machine tools scale favorably with miniaturization, thus allowing simplification of the design to meet the accuracy requirements. This results in a less expensive machine tool. Smaller moving masses mean fewer inertial effects and less energy required to move the machine components. Less input energy also results in smaller heat dissipation that results in smaller thermal distortions of the machine structure and less expensive machine designs to transport the thermal energy away from critical components [Vogler et. al, 2002]. The miniaturized system should also have acceptable convenience of handling by a human operator. Excessive miniaturization also causes difficulty in handling.

37 Some of the features necessary for the nano machining systems are, Closed loop positioning feedback to obtain high quality components and have the ability to create complex features: Ku et al (1998) talks about nanometer precision equipments with three degrees of freedom that can be designed and fabricated as a fast tool servo. The fast tool servo, which is an independently operated positioning device, would have a small range but high bandwidth and accuracy compared to the conventional lead-screw mechanism. In contour machining, it is virtually impossible to obtain nano-metric positioning accuracy with lead screw mechanisms due to the presence of backlash and friction in the drive system from actuation point at the servo motor rotor to the tool position. By combining the nano positioner with the conventional coarse positioning mechanism, large motion with high accuracy positioning capability can be obtained. e.g.: Piezo electric drives and voice-coil drives Submicron level resolution Cutting force measurement to get a better understanding of the machining process: The expected cutting forces in ultra-precision are of the order of magnitude of milliNewtons. This requires that a force sensor with a threshold limit well below 100 mN be used [Vogler et. al, 2002]. Optical system to get a magnified view of the tool and workpiece set up: Optical microscopes and SEMs have long been used to image indentations. Both have a large field of view, fast imaging speed and high vertical resolution. However, the optical microscope has low lateral resolution, and it is almost impossible to image nano indentations with it. The SEM also has disadvantages. The sample must be placed in a vacuum, and the surface should be conductive. In addition, the depth of the indentation cannot be accurately measured because the SEM image is a two dimensional projection of the three dimensional indentation. Therefore atomic force microscopy (AFM) is becoming one of the powerful tools used to study nanometric structures of surfaces including nano indentations [Gao et. al, 2000]. Optical system to observe the condition of the tool: A sharp tool has an edge radius below the optical diffraction limit and hence it is not easy to measure the edge

38 radius. One method for doing this is by using the technique of brightness modulation, where a signal is modulated for different brightness of a diamond cutter in its immediate vicinity using the scanning electron microscope. This technique generates a graphical representation of the grey levels within the image. The edge of the diamond cutter can be easily measured from this figure. [Fang et al, 1998]. Since traditional macro-actuators with high rotor mass cannot be used because of the requirements of dynamics, accuracy, and gentleness, new feed-drive technologies need to be considered. In order to effectively study the machining process at feed values of a few m/tooth, a spindle with submicron run out is desired. To obtain high quality components and have the ability to create complex features, closed-loop positioning feedback is required. Ideally, submicron resolution is required to make the features that are desired. Cutting force measurement is required to allow for a closer inspection of the micro-milling process. The other major factors to be considered when selecting equipment for ultra-precision machining are a) Accuracy Nanometer positional accuracy of machine tool axes is difficult particularly at low feed rates due to friction and backlash. Friction at extremely low feed rates is highly non-linear due to the transition from friction to coulomb friction. Relative accuracy, the ratio of attainable tolerance to workpiece size, is an important parameter to be considered in micro machining equipment. b) Tool wear Tool life criteria for micro machining have not yet been established systematically. But excessive temperature rise should be controlled in the cutting zone. Carbon saturated atmospheres could be used to suppress the transformation of diamond into graphite when using diamond cutting tools.

39 c) Vibration / dynamic stiffness Vibrations of very small magnitude that are usually insignificant in the macro scale could affect the surface finish obtained in micro machining. Vibration of the machine tool disturbs the relative position of cutting tool to work material. Since the profile of the surface machined in ultra-precision cutting is almost exclusively formed as a result of the relative motion of the tool edge and the workpiece on a machine tool, the vibration control of the cutting system is very important. Structural materials of low thermal expansion coefficient and high dimensional stability should used to make the equipment. d) Thermal deformation In an extended period of time required for a specific manufacturing operation, thermal deformation of the whole ultra-precision cutting system will exert the greatest influence on achievable machining accuracy. Sensors and controls The sensors and controls used would be similar to the ones used in conventional machining, but the resolutions and the ranges used will be much smaller so as to fit into the ultra-precision machining regime. Thermal and geometric error compensation will be the most important factor to be controlled due to the sensitivity of these two on the final product dimensions. High precision positioning system and contouring control will be two other important features that the sensor and control systems should provide.

40 1.3.5 ASSEMBLY AND MATERIAL HANDLING

Currently, almost all of the production processes used in the microelectronics technology components are 2D processes. To make 3D parts out of the parts manufactured by these 2D manufacturing methods, assembly in a micro level is required. Assembly is also necessary to make parts having components requiring incompatible technologies thereby making it impossible to manufacture all the components together. Another advantage of having assembly is that each component can be produced separately using the optimal production method. Some of the features associated with ultra-precision level assembly are [Van Brussel et al., 2000] a) Required positional accuracy The typical precision required in the macro world is a few hundred microns. But in micro world, submicron precision is often called for, which is comparable to wafer stepper precision. When manufacturing is done in the nano levels, the requirement of precision becomes even higher. This degree of precision is beyond the calibration range of conventional open loop precision assembly devices used in the industry and hence closed loop devices are required, which could compensate for the thermal effects and kinematics issues. b) Sensor issues Real-time vision feedback is necessary for the micro assembly applications. The precision assembly equipment is extremely sensitive due to the small range of forces and displacements they have to handle. Due to this fact the sensors used to obtain closed loop information could be too bulky to be placed on the tiny precision instruments. The image processing systems, which could be used as an alternative to this, are too slow, costly and have other problems. The view could be obstructed due to the fact that the tools used are

41 larger than the parts handled by some orders of magnitude. Therefore it will be required to have sensors of the same micro scale as the equipment. c) Interaction between the objects The mechanics of the interaction between the objects are predictable in the macro world i.e. the objects follow the laws of gravity when released from a gripper. But in the micro world, forces other than gravity dominate due to the scaling effects, making the manipulation of objects totally different from that of a macro scale. Some of the forces that dominate over gravity are surface related forces like surface tension and van der Waals forces of attraction. d) Human issues At present, manual assembly is still possible in many precision manufacturing processes except in cases where there is a high product volume. Manual assembly is extremely demanding due to high precision required and hence time consuming, which leads to increased costs. Many quality problems are associated with manual labor. There is no direct hand-eye coordination in handling the micro components and the use of microscopes and tools hamper the ability of the operator to directly see and sense the objects that are handled. The tools used have a lower degree of freedom than the human hand and there is no force feed back. The operator lacks a global view of the object because the high magnification restricts the view to a very small area. e) Forces High forces in the gripper can damage the object or cause the object to jump away from the gripper. Low forces may also lead to lost parts. Therefore the force applied by the gripper should be precisely controlled. There is a high risk of damage of the part during handling due to small contact surface areas. Interference forces during assembly may cause the part to behave in an uncontrolled manner. This interference could be minimized by friction free handling and using sensors to monitor forces.

42 f) Tolerances Only exceptionally small joining tolerances are permissible due to the precision required. The joining tolerance is usually less than sum of handling tolerances. Shortening the tolerance chain and using sensors to measure offset and using corrective movement can minimize handling tolerance. Requirements for the micro assembly systems [Van Brussel et al., 2000] Since the forces involved in the micro assembly systems are too small to be sensed by the human operator, manual assembly operations rely entirely on the visual feedback. An ideal micro assembly system should be able to measure the forces involved and feed it back to the human operator. Automatic micro assembly machines should be used to reduce the assembly cost. The assembly robots should be more precise. The effects of friction, thermal expansion, fabrication defects and computational error may be compensated for by using micro robots with applicable programming logic. Some issues in the manipulation by physical contact The adhesive forces between the gripper and the object become very significant in the handling of parts in the micrometer range of size. These adhesive forces can be utilized to pick up objects as the object jumps off the surface and adheres to the gripper when the gripper comes within a particular distance from the object. The adhesive forces are inhibitive as these forces are uncontrollable and the desired orientation of the part may not be achieved. There will also be issues in placing the object in the desired location, as the part may adhere more strongly to the gripper than to the intended substrate, thereby preventing accurate placement. The main forces acting in this way are electrostatic force, Van der Waals force, surface tension etc. [Van Brussel et al., 2000].

43 Some methods to avoid problematic adhesive forces are Keeping the contact area small by using spherical fingertips instead of planar ones and increasing the roughness of the gripper. Using materials with small contact potential difference between the gripper and object. Reducing the surface tension effect by having a dry atmosphere and hydrophobic coatings. Using hard materials so as to prevent the increase in contact area by the local deformation caused by the high contact pressure due to adhesion forces. The same issues could be found in releasing the part from the gripper and some of the methods to avoid this are Gluing the part to the substrate at the right place. Injection of gas to release the part from the gripper by reducing the contact area. Mechanical release mechanism with needle. Destruction of the gripping mechanism, e.g. by heating to evaporate the adhesive liquid or heating and ice micro gripper. Vibration of the gripper. Mechanical release by stripping off against a sharp edge.

Non-contact manipulation Some non-contact manipulation methods that can be used for micro scale manipulation are Aerostatic gripper Optical trap or laser tweezers the optical pressure that occurs when light is refracted, absorbed or reflected by an object can be used to manipulate objects of microscopic size [Van Brussel et al., 2000] Magnetic fields Electric fields

44 On the machine assembly When a micro product is dismounted from a machine on which it is produced, information about the position is lost, making subsequent assembly difficult. So it is a good idea to assemble the product directly on the machine. Since the space required for micro machining is very small, the machine table can accommodate several modules on which tool making, machining, product storage and assembly can take place. Self-assembly Self-assembly, inspired by biological processes, can be done in a non-biological world, based on geometry. Some methods are Based on geometry Electrostatic attraction Magnetic attraction Hydrophobic or hydrophilic attraction

Joining of micro parts The joining of micro parts is a difficult task at the micro level as the joints occupy space, are often less strong than the bulk material, require additional production steps and parts. Some methods to realize these on small scales are Mechanical fasteners like miniature screws, micro rivets, snap fit and mating parts. The mechanical fasteners have some drawbacks when used in ultra-precision regime. The surface area required for the fastener limits the ability to miniaturize. They cause stress concentrations on the part and create uneven forces. They also limit the tolerances that can be held on the part. Press fit using the elastic stresses to keep the parts together. This needs no additional parts and is a simple operation, which is favorable for miniaturization Gluing Welding Soldering

45 1.4 CONCLUSIONS Even though the precision manufacturing technology has not fully evolved into a commercial sector, the industrial potential it holds is enormous. Ultra-precision metal cutting will continue to be one of the most important techniques in manufacturing of optical, electronic and mechanical components in systems for advanced science and technology. The global competition in manufacturing sector will be based on the ability to bring high performance products into the market faster and ultra-precision machining capabilities will determine the successful players. The requirement to achieve higher precision and quality using cost effective and easy production methods will determine the kind of manufacturing methods that will be used in this sector. As a result, manufacturing systems of the future will evolve to an optimal mix of macro, micro, meso and nano manufacturing techniques with each method having a role in the creation of the final product.

46

CHAPTER 2
U LTRA -P RECISION M ACHINING O F A LUMINUM
Non-orthogonal single point diamond facing was performed on 6061-T6 aluminum. An experimental analysis of the cutting forces involved was performed. The thrust and cutting forces were measured and the specific energy and unit horsepower were calculated. The thrust force exceeded the cutting force at low effective depths of cut. The total specific energy significantly increased at smaller depths of cut. The force trends observed at lower feeds were consistent with results from orthogonal single point diamond cutting of copper. The force trends at higher feeds were different from those reported in the literature. This anomaly was analyzed using regression models. The force trends in non-orthogonal cutting were affected by the depth of cut, feed and the interaction between the two.

2.1

INTRODUCTION

Single point diamond turning of materials has become common in optical applications due to advancements in the performance of precision machining equipment. However, the cutting mechanism and the cutting energies involved in the machining of materials at ultra precision machining levels have not been understood completely. The process can be made more efficient and higher quality surfaces can be obtained by having a thorough understanding of the underlying cutting mechanism at these levels. Optical applications for the computer and electronics industries require that more new materials be machined using diamond turning, which includes both brittle materials like silicon and non-ferrous materials like aluminum and copper. The machining parameters used for the fabrication of these materials makes the cutting process fit into the ultra precision machining regime. It is, therefore, important to have a good understanding of the process at scaled down levels.

47 When the machining parameters are scaled down, distribution of cutting energy could be very different from that observed in conventional machining ranges. Certain zones of energy dissipation neglected in metal cutting zones at conventional depths of cut may increase in relative importance when the depth of cut is very small. Hence it is necessary to re-examine the relative importance of energy dissipative effects that govern ultra-precision machining [Lucca et al., 1991]. The mechanisms that are considered significant in the analysis of conventional cutting are shearing along the shear plane and friction at the rake face. The other factors that could add up to the total cutting forces - sliding along the flank face due to elastic recovery of the workpiece material and plowing due to the large effective negative rake angle resultant from the tool edge radius - are considered insignificant. However when cutting is scaled down, these two factors could be significant in terms of the total forces and the energy involved with the machining process [Lucca et al., 1991]. The objective of the experiment is to perform facing operations on a material with machining parameters lying in micro, meso and nano levels. The material used for the experiment is 6061-T6 aluminum. The cutting forces and thrust forces are measured. The measured force data is used to calculate the specific energy, unit horsepower and force ratio. The cutting mechanism at precision machining levels is analyzed based on the measured and calculated parameters and the results are compared with the observations reported in the literature for similar materials. The trends observed for varying feeds, speeds and depths of cut are investigated.

48 2.1.1 CUTTING MECHANISM

In the conventional cutting mechanism, there are two main deformation zones created during chip formation. The primary deformation zone, created due to the shearing of the work material in the shear zone and the secondary deformation zone, caused by the friction between the chip and the rake face as the chip slides along the rake face. These two are the principal zones of energy dissipation. The two forces that are significant are the shear force, which causes shear deformation to occur in the shear plane and the friction force, which is the force between the tool and the chip due to the resistance of the flow of the chip along the rake face. Figure 2.1 shows the two deformation zones created during chip formation.

Chip

Friction

Tool

Shear

Workpiece

Figure 2.1: Shear along shear zone and friction along rake face

The cutting mechanism can be investigated by analyzing the forces and geometry of the deformation zones. The parameters of forces and geometry associated with the primary deformation zone are shear force (Fs), normal force (Fn) and the shear angle (). The parameters associated with the secondary deformation zone are friction force (F), normal force (N) and the rake angle (). However, it is not possible to measure all force

49 components directly during the cutting process. The measurable forces associated with the cutting process are the cutting force (Fc) and thrust force (Ft). These forces, along with the geometry of the deformation zone, are used to calculate the shear and friction forces using Merchants analytical model for two-dimensional orthogonal cutting mechanics. Figure 2.2 shows Merchants composite force circle of the forces involved in orthogonal cutting.

Fs Fc FN Ft R F

Tool

Workpiece

Figure 2.2: Merchants composite force circle for the forces involved in orthogonal cutting

In the figure, the shear plane AB is inclined to the cutting direction with an angle (shear angle). The resultant force, R, is resolved into the shear force Fs along the shear plane and normal force Fn perpendicular to the shear plane. At the rake face, the resultant force R is resolved into friction force F along the rake face and normal force N normal to the rake face. R is again resolved into cutting force Fc along the cutting direction and thrust force Ft normal to the cutting direction. Fc and Ft can be measured using a dynamometer and can be used to calculate the other force parameters using the equations given below:

50 F = Fc sin + Ft cos N = Fc cos - Ft sin Fs = Fc cos - Ft sin Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4

There is a third deformation zone created during the machining process. This is called the tertiary deformation zone, which is caused due to the friction between the machined surface and the flank face. This phenomenon can be explained by the flank wear on the tool or the elastic recovery of the workpiece. In macro scale machining, the contribution of this sliding to the total cutting force is negligible, because of the large difference between the sliding force and the machining forces, i.e. the cutting and thrust forces. In micro, meso and nano machining, the cutting and thrust forces reduce to the same orders of magnitude as the sliding force created by the tertiary deformation zone, making the sliding phenomenon a significant contributor to the total force. Figure 2.3 shows the elastic recovery phenomenon of the workpiece material during the cutting process.

Chip Tool Elastic recovery

Workpiece

Figure 2.3: Elastic recovery of workpiece material causing rubbing on flank face

51 Another aspect present in the cutting mechanism, which is usually ignored when analyzing the cutting mechanism at a macro scale but becomes significant in the scaling down of machining, is plowing. When the edge radius of the tool is in the same order as the depth of cut, which is true in the case of ultra precision machining, the edge radius acts as an effective negative rake angle. This results in a plowing action, which could contribute significantly to the total cutting forces. Figure 2.4 shows the effect of the edge radius of the effective rake angle encountered while cutting at low depths.

- rake angle Tool cutting edge radius depth of cut workpiece

Figure 2.4: Cutting with an effective negative rake angle

52 2.1.2 BACKGROUND Gao and Patten (2001) used an extreme negative rake angle technique to take nano scale cuts on silicon using a single point diamond tool and measured the cutting and thrust forces for cuts taken with varying rake angled tools. They observed that the thrust force was higher for the more negative rake angle tool while the cutting forces remained more or less the same. Nishiguchi et al. (1988) studied the effect of tool setting angle on the cutting and thrust forces in the diamond turning of Al-Mg alloy. They observed that as the tool setting angle changed from negative to positive, the cutting force remained constant and thrust force decreased. Moriwaki et al. (1993) stated that the contact length between the chip and the rake face affected the frictional force on the rake face and the cutting temperature. The contact length, which was generally several times the depth of cut in conventional cutting, reached about 50 times the depth of cut in ultra precision diamond cutting of copper when the depth of cut was 3 m. It further increased with a smaller depth of cut. This drastic increase in relative contact length, which was peculiar in micro scale cutting, complicated the chip formation process. Moriwaki et al. (1993) also studied the cutting forces involved in ultra precision orthogonal micro diamond cutting of single crystal copper. They found that when the depth of cut was reduced to 0.03 m, the thrust force component became almost equal to the cutting force component or even greater. When the depth of cut was less than 0.01 m, the thrust force component exceeded the cutting force component. The cutting condition was similar to that of cutting with a large negative rake angle when the depth of cut was close enough to the edge radius of the cutting tool. Moriwaki and Okuda (1989) observed that the cutting force decreased by an order of magnitude in the ultra-precision micro diamond cutting of copper, when the depth of cut was reduced from 3.0 to 0.0025 m. The change in thrust force was much smaller and the thrust force exceeded the normal force when the depth of cut was less than 0.2 m. They

53 suggested that the roundness of cutting edge became significant at very small depths of cut. Plastic deformation other than cutting, like rubbing or burnishing, took major part in the chip formation process, which generated the relatively large thrust force. Nakayama and Tamura (1968) studied the impact of depth of cut on specific energy on the machining of brass at low speed. They recognized that certain zones of energy dissipation neglected in metal cutting at conventional depths of cut might increase in relative importance when the depth of cut was very small. They concluded that subsurface plastic flow of workpiece material, due to extension of shear below the machined surface, became important at small depths of cut. They also found that a decrease in effective rake angle due to the roundness of the tool edge also made a contribution to the specific energy. Furukawa and Monoruki (1988) observed an increase in the specific cutting energy on the machining of copper when the depth of cut was in sub-micrometer range. They attributed this increase to the elasto-plastic sliding occurring at the flank face and plowing due to the tool edge radius. Lucca et al. (1991) studied the forces involved in the orthogonal single point diamond machining of common purity copper and fine grain copper. They observed an increase in the total specific energy at small depths of cut. They also did an overall energy balance analysis, the result of which indicated that at depths of cut below several micrometers energy consumed by the shearing in the shear zone was unable to account for the substantial increase in specific energy with decreased depth of cut. They suggested that flank face rubbing due to workpiece material elastic recovery and plowing due to the edge radius of the tool might have an increased relative importance in ultra precision machining.

54 Lucca et al. (1993) examined the effect of tool edge geometry on the resulting forces and energies in the orthogonal ultra precision fly cutting of Te-Cu. They observed that when the uncut chip thickness was large relative to the extent of the tool edge profile, the resulting forces and energies were governed by the nominal rake angle. When the uncut chip thickness approached the size of the edge contour, the resulting forces were determined by the effective rake angle.

55 2.2 EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS

2.2.1

WORKPIECE MATERIAL

The material used for the experiment was 6061-T6 aluminum. Diamond turned aluminum is widely used for making optical components for electronics and computer applications. It is an inexpensive material, which is easy to fabricate. It has a face centered cubic (FCC) structure.

When aluminum is machined using a steel or carbide tool, the material generally adheres to the tool leaving a built-up edge and relatively poor surface finish. The same issue arises with polycrystalline diamond tool since polycrystalline diamond is a composite material made of a metallic binder with diamond particles imbedded into it. Single crystal diamond on the other hand will give excellent surface finish when machining aluminum. However, aluminum will adhere to the rake face of the tool over time. This build-up can be removed by a weak hydroxide solution. 2.2.2 MACHINING PARAMETERS

The machining parameters that were varied for the experiment were cutting speed (rpm), depth of cut (mm) and feed (mm/rev). The values for the parameters were selected so as to vary from a micro level to meso and nano levels. All combinations of the values shown in Table 2.1 were used for the experiment. Table 2.1: Machining parameters used for the experiment and their values Machining parameter Rotational Speed (rpm) Feed (mm/rev) Depth of Cut (mm) Values used 600 1200 0.002 0.004 0.008 0.000762 0.00254 0.00762 0.0254

0.001 0.000254

0.016 0.0762

56 2.2.3 EFFECTIVE DEPTH OF CUT

The cutting action in non-orthogonal cutting is shown in Figure 2.5. The geometry of cutting is different from orthogonal cutting. Due to this the effective depth of cut is not the same as the depth of cut set for the experiment. The effective depth of cut is dependent on the radius of the tool, feed and the set depth of cut as shown below. teffective ~ f
2h R

2.5

Where f = feed in mm/rev, h = depth of cut in mm and R = radius of the tool With a tool radius of 1.524 mm (0.060 inch), the effective depth of cut obtained for the various combinations of speed and feed ranged from 18 nanometers to 5 micrometers. The effective depths of cut (in nanometers) obtained during the machining process are given in Table 2.2. Table 2.2: Effective depth of cut (in nanometers) achieved during the machining process Feed 0.001mm/rev 0.002mm/rev 0.004mm/rev 0.008mm/rev 0.016mm/rev Depth 0.000254mm 18.25 36.51 73.02 146.05 292.11 0.000762mm 31.62 63.24 126.49 252.98 505.96 0.00254mm 57.73 115.47 230.94 461.88 923.76 0.00762mm 100 200 400 800 1600 0.0254mm 182.57 365.14 730.29 1460.59 2921.18 0.0762mm 316.22 632.45 1264.91 2529.82 5059.64
f R teffective h

Figure 2.5: Cutting geometry for non-orthogonal cutting

57 2.2.4 CALCULATED PARAMETERS

The parameters that were measured from the tests were the cutting force (Fc) and the thrust force (Ft). These values were used to calculate the other parameters such as force ratio (coefficient of friction), specific energy and unit horsepower, using the relationships given below. Force ratio or Coefficient of friction, ~ Fc / Ft Specific energy, u = (FcVc + FtVt) / AVc 2.6 2.7

Where Vc = Cutting velocity = D N, Vt = Tangential velocity = f N and A = Area of the material removal ~ f d [OConnor, 2002], Where D = Diameter of the workpiece in mm, N = Cutting speed in rpm, = 3.14 f = feed and d = depth of cut

Ft, Vt

Fc, Vc

Figure 2.6: Area, forces and velocities in non-orthogonal cutting

58 2.3 EQUIPMENT USED

2.3.1

MACHINE The tests were performed on a Moore Precision Tools Nanotech 150AG Aspheric

Grinder. The machine was originally designed for deterministic generation of rotationally symmetric aspheric optical surfaces on glasses and crystals. The configuration was modified to perform non-orthogonal facing operations on materials using single point diamond tools. The machine is shown in Figure 2.7.

Figure 2.7: The Moore Precision Tools Nanotech 150AG Aspheric Grinder

The Moore Nanotech 150AG is a three axis aspheric turning and grinding machine. The two linear axes (X and Z) have Heidenhain LIP-401R scales as the feedback device and with external electronic multiplication, achieve 10-nanometer linear resolution. The machine is equipped with hydrostatic slide ways. The x and z axes are lead screw driven with DC brushed motors and have 7,500 counts/rev rotary encoders which act as tachometers to close the velocity loop. The third axis is a rotary axis with sub-arc second resolution. An Aerotech U600 PC-based motion controller controls the machine.

59 2.3.2 SPINDLE A PI (Professional Instruments) Twin Mount air-bearing spindle was mounted on the z-axis. This type of spindle is generally used in rapid cycle, start/stop operations where high-speed stability is required. The spindle has an Aerotech S-130 brushless DC motor and BAL 40-20 linear amplifier. The spindle has a Heidenhain ERO1384 4096 count rotary encoder, which, with an external electronic manipulator, gives 1.6 arc-seconds angular resolution for the work spindle. This spindle is capable of speeds as low as 0.1 rpm and as high as 1500 rpm. The speed regulation of the spindle could be as low as 0.0001% and the error motion is less than 1 micro inch. Figure 2.8 shows the work spindle used.

Figure 2.8: PI Twin Mount air-bearing spindle Figure 2.9 shows the experimental setup with a close-up view of the workpiece spindle and Kistler dynamometer with mounted tool holder.

60 Kistler Dynamometer Tool Holder

6061-T6 Aluminum Sample Edge Technologies Diamond Tool

PI Twin Mount Work Spindle

Figure 2.9: Experimental set up with the workpiece and tool mounted

2.3.3

DYNAMOMETER

A Kistler MiniDyn 9256A2 3-Component dynamometer was used for measuring the force components. The low threshold of the dynamometer allows the measurement high bandwidth, 3-axis forces with milli-Newton force resolution and good thermal stability. The dynamometer was mounted behind the tool holder. Figure 2.10 shows the dynamometer used.

61

Figure 2.10: Kistler MiniDyn 9256A2 3-Component dynamometer

2.3.4 SIGLAB AND AMPLIFIER A SIGLAB Model 20-42 data capture and a Kistler dual mode amplifier were used for data analysis. SIGLAB Model 20-42 is a DSP based multi channel dynamic data acquisition/spectrum analyzer that features a MATLAB interface. The amplifier was used to convert the output of the Kistler dynamometer to a level usable by the SIGLAB system. 2.3.5 TOOL The diamond tool used in the non-orthogonal facing experiments was an Edge Technologies synthetic monocrystalline diamond tool. The rake and clearance faces are chemically polished which make them ideal for high precision diamond turning applications. The tool had a 0o rake angle and a nose radius of 1.524 mm (0.060 inch).

62 2.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The cutting forces (Fc) and thrust forces (Ft) were measured for the cuts. The specific energy (u), unit horsepower and force ratio were calculated. The results obtained are discussed below. 2.4.1 EFFECT OF DEPTH OF CUT ON FORCES The cutting and thrust forces obtained were plotted against the depth of cut to analyze the effect of the depth of cut on the forces. Figure 2.11 shows the effect of depth of cut on cutting and thrust forces for feed = 0.001 mm/rev and speed = 600 rpm.

10 Cutting Force, Fc Thrust Force, Ft Forces, Fc, Ft (N)

1 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1

0.1

0.01 Depth of Cut (mm)

Figure 2.11: Log-log plot of the effect of depth of cut on cutting and thrust forces for feed = 0.001 mm/rev and speed = 600 rpm. The cutting force and thrust force were seen to decrease with decreasing depths of cut. At lower depths of cut, the volume of material removed was less and hence the energy required for the material removal was less. Therefore the cutting and thrust forces decreased as the depth of cut decreased.

63 The trends are similar for all feed and speed combinations since the observations were viewed at a macro level. Closer observations at a micro, meso and nano level needs to be done to analyze the cutting mechanism at lower depths of cut.

2.4.2

EFFECT OF DEPTH OF CUT ON FORCES (LOWER DEPTHS OF CUT) To get a better analysis of the behavior of the cutting forces at lower depths, the

forces were plotted at lower values of the depths of cut. Figure 2.12 shows the effect of depth of cut on cutting and thrust forces at lower depths of cut for feed = 0.001 mm/rev and speed = 600 rpm. Figure 2.13 shows the same at speed = 1200 rpm.

0.25 Cutting Force, Fc Thrust Force, Ft 0.2

Forces, Fc, Ft (N)

0.15

0.1

0.05

0 0 0.003 0.006 0.009 Depth of Cut (m m )

Figure 2.12: Effect of smaller depths of cut on cutting and thrust forces for feed = 0.001 mm/rev and speed = 600 rpm

64
0.25 C utting F orce, F c T hrust F orce, F t 0.2

Forces, Fc, Ft (N)

0.15

0.1

0.05

0 0 0.003 0.006 0.009 D ep th o f C u t (m m )

Figure 2.13: Effect of smaller depths of cut on cutting and thrust forces for feed = 0.001 mm/rev and speed = 1200 rpm The cutting and thrust forces decreased linearly with decreasing depths of cut to 0.0025 mm. At lower depths of cut, the volume of material removed was less, causing a reduction of the cutting and thrust forces. The thrust force reached a minimum value and then increased. At one point, the thrust force exceeded the cutting force. This cross over occurred at a depth of cut of 1 micrometer. At low depths of cut, the edge preparation of the tool affected the cutting process. The edge radius of the tool of the cutting tool was in the same order as that of the depths of cut at low depths. The roundness of cutting edge became significant enough to make the cutting condition similar to that of cutting with a large negative rake angle. Cutting with a negative rake angle causes an increase in the thrust force while the cutting force remains more or less the same. This is due to the fact that the negative rake angle exerts a high compressive stress on the workpiece.

65 When material is machined using a tool with a finite radius tip, material flow is separated at a point on the cutting edge. At this point, which is called the stagnation point, the oncoming material is diverted to either form a chip or flow downward to join the workpiece. The oncoming material above the stagnation point gets sheared to form the chip, while the material below this point is either recovered behind the edge, compressed into the workpiece or pushed to the side to form a burr [Waldrof, 1998]. When the depth of cut becomes small the proportion of the material above the stagnation point to that below the point decreases, causing this phenomenon to significantly influence the cutting mechanism. At the depths of cut, where the tool edge radius is of the same order as the depth of cut, the amount of material above and below the stagnation point becomes of the same order. This causes the forces involved with the cutting of material above the stagnation point (cutting force, Fc) to be of the same order of the forces involved with the downward flow of material below the stagnation point (thrust force, Ft). When the depth of cut is further reduced, the thrust force becomes higher than the cutting force.

Material Sheared Tool

Stagnation Point

Workpiece

Material Forced Downwards

Figure 2.14: Flow of material above and below the stagnation point

66 Another factor that would cause the thrust force to increase at lower depths of cut is the plastic deformation other than cutting such as rubbing or burnishing that plays a major role in the chip formation process. This plastic deformation is due to the elastic recovery of the material, forced to flow downward due to the edge radius, behind the tool tip, which causes flank wear on the tool. The flank wear, at lower depths, becomes significant in terms of the contribution towards the thrust force. Thus, when the depth of cut was lowered, the thrust force decreased to the point where the edge radius of the cutting tool became of the same order as the depth of cut. At depths below this point, the thrust force was affected by the effect of the edge radius on the cutting mechanism. This component caused the thrust force to increase and eventually cross over the cutting force. The plots at different speeds were similar suggesting that the forces involved in cutting were independent of the speed of cut. These trends were similar to the observations made by Lucca et al. (1991) and Moriwaki and Okuda (1989) on copper. The force trends at different feeds have to be observed to analyze the effect of feed on the cutting mechanism. Figure 2.15 shows the effect of cutting edge roundness at various depths of cut.
+rake angle -rake angle

Figure 2.15: The effect of cutting edge roundness at different depths of cut

67 2.4.3 EFFECT OF DEPTH OF CUT ON FORCE RATIO, FT/FC The force ratio Ft/Fc, the ratio of the thrust force to cutting force was plotted against the depth of cut to analyze the effect of the depth of cut on the force ratio. The force ratio is also the coefficient of friction. Figure 2.16 shows the effect of depth of cut on force ratio for speed = 600 rpm and Figure 2.17 shows the same for speed = 1200 rpm.

10 Feed = 0.001 m m /rev Feed = 0.002 m m /rev Feed = 0.004 m m /rev

Feed = 0.008 m m /rev
Feed = 0.016 m m /rev

Force ratio, Fc/Ft

1 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1

0.1 D epth of C ut (m m )

Figure 2.16: Log-log plot of the effect of depth of cut on force ratio for speed = 600 rpm

68
10 Feed = 0.001 m m /rev Feed = 0.002 m m /rev Feed = 0.004 m m /rev

Feed = 0.008 m m /rev

Force ratio, Fc/Ft

Feed = 0.016 m m /rev

1 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1

0.1 Depth of Cut (m m )

Figure 2.17: Log-log plot of the effect of depth of cut on force ratio for speed = 1200 rpm The force ratio increased with decreasing depth of cut. At lower depths of cut the cutting force has a lower value due to less volume of material removed. However, the thrust force did not follow the same trend as it was affected by the plastic work on the workpiece due to plowing effect and elastic recovery of the material on the flank face. Due to this, at lower depths of cut, when the non-cutting processes had more impact than the cutting process, the thrust force reached a higher value than the cutting force causing a rise in the force ratio curve. The trends were seen to be consistent at different speeds. Since the forces were independent of the speed, the coefficient of friction, i.e. the force ratio, was also independent of speed. The trends seemed to be different for higher feeds suggesting that the forces were affected by the feed. Therefore the impact of the feed on the cutting and thrust forces was to be investigated.

69 2.4.4 EFFECT OF DEPTH OF CUT ON SPECIFIC ENERGY

The total specific energy was plotted against the depth of cut. Figures 2.18 and 2.19 shows the effect of depth of cut on specific energy for speed = 600 rpm and speed = 1200 rpm. The results were again consistent with varying speeds.

80

F e e d = 0 .0 0 1 m m /re v F e e d = 0 .0 0 2 m m /re v F e e d = 0 .0 0 4 m m /re v

70

F e e d = 0 .0 0 8 m m /re v
60
Specific Energy, kN/mm2

F e e d = 0 .0 1 6 m m /re v

50

40

30

20

10

0 0 0 .0 2 0 .0 4 0 .0 6 0 .0 8 0 .1 D e p th o f C u t (m m )

Figure 2.18: Effect of depth of cut on specific energy for speed = 600 rpm

70
80 F e e d = 0 .0 0 1 m m /re v 70 F e e d = 0 .0 0 2 m m /re v F e e d = 0 .0 0 4 m m /re v 60
Specific Energy, kN/mm2

F e e d = 0 .0 0 8 m m /re v
F e e d = 0 .0 1 6 m m /re v

50

40

30

20

10

0 0 0 .0 2 0 .0 4 0 .0 6 0 .0 8 0 .1 D e p th o f C u t (m m )

Figure 2.19: Effect of depth of cut on specific energy for speed = 1200 rpm

The specific energy decreased with decreasing depth of cut. With a lower depth of cut, there was less volume of material removed and hence lower energy required. Specific energy increased after the depth of cut reached below some point. This was due the effect of the plastic work spent due to plowing and elastic recovery of the material. At lower depths of cut, cutting energy was determined by the combined effect of the cutting action and the non-cutting plastic work. The relative impact of these on the total cutting energy increases and decreases respectively as cutting is done at higher scales. The specific energy at lower depths of cut was an order of magnitude higher than the energies observed for cutting the material at conventional depths of cut. At lower depths, Merchants shear plane model is not sufficient for accurately predicting the forces in the cutting process. The dual force circle model proposed by Sunil et al. (1994) is able to explain the cutting mechanism while considering the effect of tool

71 edge radius. Accordingly, the distribution of the cutting energy in machining can be explained using the resultant force vectors. Figure 2.20 shows the resultant force vectors from shearing and plowing. The resultant force vector, R is a result of the force vectors Rc and Rp. Rc is the force vector due to the cutting action and Rp is the force vector that is formed as a result of the non-cutting plastic work done during machining (plowing). As the depth of cut decreases, the magnitude of Rc decreases. The magnitude of Rp is dependent of the volume of the material forced to flow downwards by the edge radius. At lower depths, the proportion of material flowing downwards becomes of the same order as the material that is sheared to form the chip. Due to this the value of Rp becomes significant in terms of the total force vector and this causes an increase in the specific energy of cutting.

Tool

Rc

Rp

Figure 2.20: Effect of the resultant force vectors on specific energy

72 2.4.5 COMPARING THE RESULTS WITH OBSERVATIONS REPORTED IN LITERATURE

The results were compared with the results obtained by Lucca et al. (1991) and Moriwaki et al. (1989) on ultra precision machining of copper. Both copper and aluminum are face centered cubic materials and the force trends were expected to be similar. Table 2.3: Comparing the results with observations reported in literature Observations reported in literature Observations from the experiment & Reasons for the similarity/difference in results. Cutting and thrust forces decreased with Similar trends were observed. Results from lower depths of cut. Thrust force reached a the literature were based on the minimum point and then increased. At experiments done on copper, which has the some point the thrust force exceeded the same structure (face centered cubic) as cutting force. decreased. aluminum. higher feeds, the force ratio curve deviated from the trends reported in literature. Results from the literature were based on orthogonal cutting experiments and stated that the feed has no impact on the forces obtained. However, in non-orthogonal cutting, feed seemed to have some impact on the forces. Minimum value for the thrust force The minimum value for the thrust force happened at same depth of cut, regardless depended on the depth of cut and the feed of the feed rate. chosen. This is due to the difference between depth and effective depth of cut in diamond facing. Force ratio increased as the depth of cut Similar results were observed. How ever, at

73 There was a considerable difference in the magnitude of the observed forces and calculated parameters. This was higher than the observed difference of forces between the machining of aluminum and copper at a macro scale. It was also observed that there was a difference in magnitude between the forces obtained by Lucca et al. (1991) and Moriwaki et al. (1989) on copper. The difference was mainly in terms of the thrust force, which can be explained as a result of the size of the edge radius. When machining is done at depths of cut in the same order as that of the edge radius, any difference in the edge radius will affect the thrust forces obtained, which is due to the fact that the plowing forces depend on the stagnation point, the position of which is dependent on the edge radius.

2.4.6

EFFECT OF FEED RATE AND DEPTH OF CUT ON FORCES

To have a better explanation on the difference of results from that observed in the literature, the depth of cut was plotted against the forces at different speeds. Figure 2.21 and 2.22 shows the effect of depth of cut on cutting forces at speed = 600 rpm and 1200 rpm. Figure 2.23 and 2.24 shows the effect of depth of cut on thrust forces at speed = 600 rpm and 1200 rpm.
0.8 Feed = 0.016

Feed = 0.008

Feed = 0.004
Cutting Force, Fc (N) 0.6

Feed = 0.002

Feed = 0.001
0.4

0.2

0 0 0.003 0.006 0.009 Depth of Cut (mm)

Figure 2.21: Effect of feed and depth of cut on cutting force for speed = 600 rpm

74
0.8 Feed = 0.016

Feed = 0.008
Cutting Force, Fc (N)

Feed = 0.004
0.6

Feed = 0.002

Feed = 0.001
0.4

0.2

0 0 0.003 0.006 0.009 Depth of Cut (mm)

Figure 2.22: Effect of feed and depth of cut on cutting force for speed = 1200 rpm

0.8

Feed = 0.016
Feed = 0.008
Feed = 0.004
Feed = 0.002 Feed = 0.001

Thrust Force, Ft (N)

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 0 0.003 0.006 0.009 Depth of Cut (mm)

Figure 2.23: Effect of feed and depth of cut on thrust force for speed = 600 rpm

75

0.8

Feed = 0.016
Feed = 0.008
Feed = 0.004

Thrust Force, Ft (N)

0.6

Feed = 0.002 Feed = 0.001

0.4

0.2

0 0 0.003 0.006 0.009 Depth of Cut (mm)

Figure 2.24: Effect of feed and depth of cut on thrust force for speed = 1200 rpm

Cutting and thrust force were dependent on the feed. Minimum value for the thrust force was dependent on the feed. Cutting speed also affected thrust force, which could be attributed to the difference in the effective depth of cut for orthogonal and non-orthogonal cutting. The effective depth of cut is dependent on the feed and hence the forces should be plotted against the effective depth of cut to have a better analysis.

76 2.4.7 EFFECT OF FEED RATE ON CUTTING FORCES

To get a better idea on the cutting mechanism, the effective depth of cut was plotted against the forces. Figure 2.25 and 2.26 shows the effect of the effective depth of cut on cutting forces at speed = 600 rpm and 1200 rpm. Figure 2.27 and 2.28 shows the effect of the effective depth of cut on thrust forces at speed = 600 rpm and 1200 rpm.

0.8

Feed = 0.016

Feed = 0.008
Cutting Force, Fc (N)
0.6

Feed = 0.004

Feed = 0.002

Feed = 0.001
0.4

0.2

0 0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 Effe ctive De pth of Cut (nm )

Figure 2.25: The effect of feed and effective depth of cut on cutting force at speed = 600 rpm

77
0 .8 F e e d = 0 .0 1 6

F e e d = 0 .0 0 8

F e e d = 0 .0 0 4
0 .6 Curring Force, Fc (N)

F e e d = 0 .0 0 2

F e e d = 0 .0 0 1

0 .4

0 .2

0 0 4 00 800 1200 1 60 0 2 0 00 E ffe c tiv e D ep th o f C u t (n m )

Figure 2.26: The effect of feed and effective depth of cut on cutting force at speed = 1200 rpm

0.8

Feed = 0.016

Feed = 0.008

Feed = 0.004
Thrust Force, Ft (N) 0.6

Feed = 0.002 Feed = 0.001

0.4

0.2

0 0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 Effective Depth of Cut (nm)

Figure 2.27: The effect of feed and effective depth of cut on thrust force at speed = 600 rpm

78

0.8 Feed = 0.016

Feed = 0.008

Feed = 0.004
0.6

Feed = 0.002 Feed = 0.001

Thrust Force, Ft (N)

0.4

0.2

0 0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 Effective Depth of Cut (nm )

Figure 2.28: The effect of feed and effective depth of cut on thrust force at speed = 1200 rpm The cutting and thrust forces depended on the effective depth of cut suggesting that the cutting mechanism in non-orthogonal cutting depended on the depth of cut. The minimum value of the thrust force varied with the feed rate, which indicates that the feed influenced the thrust force. The minimum value for the thrust force depended on the effective depth of cut and the feed rate. Therefore it is important to choose the feed and effective depth of cut so as to avoid the influences of non-cutting plastic work on the cutting force. The minimum value of the thrust force is influenced by the effective depth of cut and not the set depth of cut. Regression analysis into these effects was required to get a better understanding of the process.

79 2.4.8 ANALYZING THE EFFECT OF THE CUTTING VARIABLES ON THE MEASURED DATA

To investigate the effect of feed rate on the forces, a regression analysis was carried out with cutting force and thrust force as the parameters affected. The effect of all cutting parameters was analyzed.

a) Effect of cutting variables on cutting force, Fc The effect of the cutting variables, feed, speed and depth of cut on the cutting force, Fc was analyzed. Regression analysis was used to find out the significance of the parameters on the variable Fc. The effect of individual parameters and the interaction between the parameters on the response variable was analyzed. The null hypothesis was that each of the machining parameter influences the cutting force, Fc, significantly The alternate hypothesis was that the parameter did not significantly influence the cutting force, Fc Table 2.4 shows the regression analysis of the effect of cutting variables on cutting force, Fc. The level of significance for the experiment, , was set to 0.05. It can be seen that the parameters feed and the interaction between the feed and effective depth of cut were significant (P < ) in determining the cutting forces, which supports the observations made when analyzing the cutting forces. In non-orthogonal cutting, the cutting forces are dependent on the feed and the effective depth of cut, which explains the difference in the trends shown by the force plots.

80 Table 2.4: Regression analysis of the effect of cutting variables on cutting force, Fc
Regression Analysis: FC versus FEED, SPEED, EFF. DEPTH
The regression equation is FC = 2.39 FEED + 0.092 SPEED + 0.023 EFFDEPTH - 0.019 FEED*SPEED + 0.117 SPEED* EFFDEPTH + 3.59 FEED* EFFDEPTH Predictor Coef No constant FEED 2.3873 SPEED 0.0919 EFFDEPTH 0.0234 FEED*SPE -0.0189 SPEED*EFFDEPTH 0.1168 FEED*EFFDEPTH 3.5885 S = 0.9663 SE Coef 0.6480 0.5790 0.4243 0.4746 0.8116 0.7185 T 3.68 0.16 0.06 -0.04 0.14 4.99 P 0.001 0.874 0.956 0.968 0.886 0.000

R-Sq = 81.0%

R-Sq(adj) = 80.0%

Analysis of Variance Source Regression Residual Error Total DF 6 54 60 SS 116.913 247.538 364.451 MS 19.485 4.584 F 4.25 P 0.001

b) Effect of cutting variables on thrust force, Ft

From the analysis it can be seen that the thrust force is affected by the feed. The interaction between the feed and effective depth of cut also affects the machining process, which is the reason for the changes observed in the thrust force curve at different feeds. The value of the thrust force is determined by feed and effective depth of cut. Due to this the minimum value exhibited by the thrust force curve varies with the machining parameters.

81 Table 2.5: Regression analysis of the effect of cutting variables on thrust force, Ft
Regression Analysis: FT versus FEED, SPEED, EFF. DEPTH
The regression equation is FT = 1.47 FEED - 0.387 SPEED - 0.090 TCRIT + 0.137 FEED*SPEED - 0.447 SPEED*TCRIT + 1.90 FEED*TCRIT Predictor Coef Noconstant FEED 1.4662 SPEED -0.3870 EFFDEPTH -0.0897 FEED*SPEED 0.1365 SPEED*EFFDEPTH-0.4468 FEED* EFFDEPTH 1.9013 S = 0.3204 SE Coef 0.2679 0.2394 0.1754 0.1962 0.3356 0.2971 T 5.47 -1.62 -0.51 0.70 -1.33 6.40 P 0.000 0.112 0.611 0.490 0.189 0.000

R-Sq = 90.3%

R-Sq(adj) = 89.2%

Analysis of Variance Source Regression Residual Error Total DF 6 54 60 SS 35.8363 42.3218 78.1581 MS 5.9727 0.7837 F 7.62 P 0.000

82

2.5

CONCLUSIONS The cutting forces and thrust forces in non-orthogonal cutting of 6061-T6

aluminum are observed to be dependent on the machining parameters. The feed and effective depth of cut greatly influences the forces involved in the cut. The cutting force decreases as the depth of cut is reduced. The thrust force reaches a minimum value as the depth of cut is decreased and then increases again. The force ratio and cutting energies also increase as the depth of cut is reduced. At low depths of cut, the edge preparation of the tool affects the cutting process. Due to this the non-cutting plastic work on the material, like plowing and flank face rubbing, have more impact on the total energy than the cutting process. The minimum value for the thrust force depends on the feed rate and the effective depth of cut chosen. The minimum value point of the thrust force can be used to identify point where the non-cutting plastic work starts to influence the cutting process. It also gives a good understanding of the effective rake angle used for machining.

83

CHAPTER 3
C ONCLUSIONS A ND F UTURE W ORK
The current manufacturing technologies are not sufficiently advanced to meet the demands of the soft manufacturing sectors dominated by the electronics, computer and biomedical industries. Attaining higher precision products with complex geometries remain as a challenge to the manufacturing industry. Improved machining technologies for brittle and composite materials are needed. The precision manufacturing techniques that are being developed must be economically feasible in order to meet these requirements.

3.1

CONCLUSIONS More efficient utilization of space and energy can be achieved by the scaling down

of manufacturing systems to ultra-precision levels. The ultra-precision manufacturing system can achieve the miniaturization of components as required by the soft manufacturing sector. Ultra-precision manufacturing systems can increase the efficiency of existing manufacturing processes and develop new manufacturing processes unachievable by conventional manufacturing systems. Many challenges have to be overcome to achieve the scaling down of a macro scale manufacturing system to an ultra-precision level. Some machining issues those are irrelevant at a macro scale become significant when the process is scaled down. Conventional fabrication processes are inadequate for ultra-precision machining. New or modified techniques must be developed. The empirical procedures used in the macro scale manufacturing systems must be scientifically analyzed before adopting them into ultraprecision manufacturing systems.

84 It is important that the underlying techniques of the manufacturing process be completely understood before taking it to ultra-precision levels. The cutting mechanism at a micro scale cannot be explained using the models developed for the macro scale. The distribution of cutting forces in the ultra-precision non-orthogonal single point turning of 6061-T6 aluminum is different from that at a macro scale. The cutting force and thrust force decreased as the depth of cut was reduced. The thrust force reached a minimum value as the depth of cut was reduced to 0.0025 mm and then started to increase. At one point, the thrust force exceeded the cutting force. This cross over occurred at a depth of cut of 0.001 mm. The specific energy involved in the cutting process at ultra-precision levels was higher than that observed at macro levels by an order of magnitude. Non-cutting plastic work, like plowing and elastic recovery of the workpiece, which was insignificant at conventional depths of cut in terms of the specific energy of cutting, became significant at ultra-precision machining levels. The edge preparation of the tool affected the cutting process at low depths of cut. In order to increase the efficiency of the cutting process at ultra-precision machining levels, it is important that the tool used have a sharp edge. The minimum value for the thrust force depended on the effective depth of cut and the feed rate. Choosing the appropriate feed rate and effective depth will help to minimize the influence of non-cutting plastic work on the cutting process.

85 3.2 FUTURE WORK

The conventional manufacturing system should be thoroughly analyzed to identify the scalability of the equipment, processes and control systems associated with it. The adaptability of existing manufacturing concepts like lean manufacturing etc. into the ultraprecision manufacturing system should be evaluated. The relevance and impact of developing a meso/nano scale factory system in the existing manufacturing scenario should be studied. The cutting mechanism in the ultra-precision machining of materials should be studied in detail. The coefficient of friction increases by an order of magnitude when the depth of cut is lowered to meso/nano scales. This increase can be attributed to the increased contact length at the tool-chip interface. The tribology of the tool-chip interface at lower depths of cut should be analyzed. Methods to achieve a controlled contact length with the tools and processes used in ultra-precision machining should be investigated.

86

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