Aim: To Study Instruments.

about

Electrical

Measurement

and

Measuring

Specific Objectives:

After Completing this Experiment, one should be able to: Know the Basic Feature of Electrical Measurement and Measuring Instruments. Identification, Construction, Applications and limitations of Electrical Measuring Instruments.

Rationale: You have studied different types of electromechanical instruments. You have also used different electromechanical instruments in electrical and electronics laboratories. This experiment gives you an opportunity to open the instrument and study the different parts of instruments. This will help you to understand the instrument in a better way. Apparatus: All Types of Electro mechanical Measuring Instruments. Theory:

Measurement:It is the process to compare the unknown quantity under measurement with the reference (standard) with the help of measuring instrument. Aim of Measurement:To collect the information for the evolution of System. To conduct the monitoring of system. To measure the accuracy and closeness of measured quantity by comparing it with standard quantity of system. For the improvement of the system performance. To find the error in the system. To check the concepts and precautions. To develop new automatic system. To arrange automatic control process. To make instrument for research and development.

Basic methods of Measurement:Direct comparison method Indirect comparison method. Role of instrument in Measuring system:Indication. Signaling. Registering. Recording. Transmitting. Mathematical manipulations. Generalized System Measurement:Sensing or detector stage. Intermediate stage. Data presentation stage. of Measured Quantity and Number of Measuring

Nature Elements:-

Sr Measured Quantity and Number of No. Measuring Elements Direct Current (D.C.) Circuit and / or D.C. Responding Measuring Elements Alternative Current (A.C.) Circuit and / or A.C. Responding Measuring Elements Direct Current (D.C.) and / or Alternative Current (A.C.) Circuit and / or D.C. and A.C. Responding Measuring Elements Three-Phase Alternative Current (A.C.) Circuit ( General Symbol) One Measuring Element for 3-Wire Network One Measuring Element for 4-Wire Network

Nature of Measured Quantity and Number of Measuring Elements

01 02 03 04 05 06

07 08 09

Two Measuring Elements for 3-Wire Network with unbalanced loads. Two Measuring Elements (E) for 4-Wire Network with unbalanced loads. Three Measuring Elements (E) for 4-Wire Network with unbalanced loads.

Safety:Symbol

Sr Parameters ( Meaning of Symbols) No. 01 02 03 04 Test Voltage 500 Volt Test Voltage above 500 Volt ( for example 2 KV) Apparatus not subjected to a Voltage Test High Voltage Flash High Voltage on accessory and /or on instruments (for example, voltmeter) Position of use:Position of use ( Meaning of Symbols) Instrument to be used with the dial Vertical Instrument to be used with the dial Horizontal Instrument to be used with the dial Inclined (for Example 60.) from the Horizontal plane.

05

Sr No. 01 02 03

Symbol

60

Accuracy Class:Symbol

Sr Accuracy Class ( Meaning of Symbols) No. Class index (for example, 1.5) with errors expressed as a percentage of the fiducial 01 value except when the latter corresponds to the Scale Length Or The Span Or The Indicated Value. 02 Class index (for example, 1.5) when fiducial value corresponds to the Scale Length. Class index (for example, 1.5) when fiducial value corresponds to the Indicated Value. Class index (for example, 1) when fiducial value corresponds to the Span. Principle of operation:-

1.5

1.5

03

1. 5
1

04

Sr Principle of operation ( Meaning of Symbols) No. Permanent-Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) Instruments

Symbol

01

02 Permanent-Magnet Ratio Meter (Quotient meter)

03 Moving Permanent Magnet Instrument Moving Permanent Magnet Ratio meter (Quotient meter)

04

05 Moving Iron Instrument

06 Polarized Moving Iron Instrument

07 Moving Iron Ratio Meter (Quotient meter)

08 Ironless Electro-Dynamic Instrument Iron-Cored Electro-Dynamic (Ferro Dynamic) Instruments. Ironless Electro-Dynamic Ratio meter (Quotient meter) Iron-Cored Electro-Dynamic (Ferro Dynamic) Ratio meter (Quotient meter).

09

10

11

12 Induction Instrument.

13

Induction Ratio meter (Quotient meter).

14 Bimetallic Instrument. 15. Electrostatic Instrument.

 Sr no. 01 02 03 04 05 06

Introduction:Classification of electromechanical instruments:Absolute and secondary instruments. Classification based on the principle of operation. Classification based on the principle of operation:Current effect Thermal and Heating effect Magnetic Effect Electrostatic effect. Chemical effect. Induction effect. Hole effect. Instrument Ammeter, Voltmeter, Maximum Demand meter. Ammeter, Voltmeter, Wattmeter. Electrostatic Voltmeter. D.C. Ampere hour meter Ammeter, Voltmeter, Wattmeter, energy meter. Flux meter, ammeter and pointing vector wattmeter.

Classification based on the quantity the instrument measures.:Sr no. 01 02 03 04 05 Quantity under measurement Current measurement Voltage measurement Power measurement Power Factor measurement Energy measurement Name of instrument. Ammeter Voltmeter Wattmeter Power Factor meter Energy meter

Classification based on the kind of current on which the instrument operates: Direct Current (D.C) Instrument. Alternative Current (A.C) Instrument. Direct Current (D.C) / Alternative Current (A.C) Instrument. Classification based on the Role of instrument:Indicating type instruments. Recording type instruments. Integrating type instruments.

Classification based on Accuracy of instrument:0.2 +/- 0.2 0.5 +/- 0.5 1.0 +/- 0.2 1.5 +/- 0.2 2.5 +/- 0.2 5.0 +/- 0.2

Accuracy class Limit of error

GENERAL CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURE ELECTROMECHANICAL INSTRUMENTS:One Scale and pointer are in the indicating type electromechanical instruments. Measured quantity indicated by movement of pointer on the scale. So pointer will deflect according to the measured quantity. So three Torques are required for this purpose. a. Deflecting Torques. b. Controlling Torques. c. Damping Torques. The Measuring instruments may be divided into two classes: 1. Absolute instruments 2. Secondary instruments 1. Absolute Instruments: These are the instruments, which give the value of the electrical quantity to be measured in terms of the constants of the instrument and of its deflection, no comparison with another instrument being necessary. for Example A Tangent Galvanometer. 2. Secondary Instruments: These instruments are so constructed that the value of current, voltage or other quantity to be measured can be determined from the deflection of the instrument, only if the latter has been calibrated by comparison with either an absolute instrument or one which has been already calibrated. A secondary type instruments are in mostly general use, absolute instruments being seldom used except in standard laboratories and similar institutions. Secondary instruments are further classified as below: 1. 2. 3. Indicating inst. Recording inst. Integrating inst.

Ammeter, Voltmeter and Wattmeter belong to Indicating class. Normally Ampere-Hour Meters and Watt-Hour Meters belong to integrating class. Recording instruments gives continuous record of the variations of some electrical quantity. Indicating type instrument consists of: TORQUES required for the movement of pointer on scale in measuring instruments

Deflecting Torque

Controlling Torque

Damping Torque

Gravity Control

Spring Control

Air Friction Damping

Fluid Friction Damping

Eddy Current Damping

1. 2. 3.

Deflecting torque system Controlling torque system Damping torque system

1. Deflecting Torque System:The deflecting or operating force is required for moving the pointer from its zero position. The system producing deflecting torque is called deflecting system or moving system. Utilizing one of many effects can produce the deflection force. Thus the deflecting system of instrument converts the electric current or potential into a mechanical force called deflecting force.

Deflecting Torque is proportional to the current.

2. Controlling Torque System:Controlling force is the force, which is equal, and opposite to the deflecting force at the final position of the pointer in order to give the pointers deflection definite for particular magnitude of the quantity being measured otherwise the deflection would be indefinite. The system producing a controlling force is called a controlling system. Methods to obtain Controlling Torque:Gravity Control Spring Control.

3. Damping Torque System:A damping force is also necessary in order to bring the moving system to rest in its deflected position quickly. Without such damping, owing to inertia of the moving parts, the pointer of the

instruments would oscillate about its final deflected position for some time before coming to rest and this would cause waste of time in taking readings, also cause very slow variations of the quantity to be measured from being observed. Methods to obtain Damping Force :Air Friction Damping Fluid Friction Damping. Eddy Current Damping.

Sr No. 01. 02. 03. 04. 05. 06.

Type of instruments Moving Iron Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Thermocouple Electrodynamics or dynamometer Electrostatic Rectifier

Suitable for measuring Current and Voltage, D.C. and A.C. Current and Voltage, D.C only Current and Voltage, D.C. and A.C. Current, Voltage and Power, D.C. and A.C. Voltage only, D.C. and A.C. Current and Voltage, A.C.only

Method of control Hair Springs Hair Springs As for Moving coil Hair Springs Hair Springs As for Moving coil

Method of damping Air Eddy Current As for Moving coil Air Air or Eddy Current As for Moving coil

Additional Arrangements in Measuring Instruments:Moving System is supported on the Spindle. Spindle is supported on the Jewel Bearing. Pointer is placed on the Spindle. To balance the Weight of the pointer Balanced Weight is placed. Calibrated Scale in placed bellow the pointer. Zero Adjustment arrangement of the pointer. Wooden, Iron or Aluminium Enclosures for instruments. Terminals for external connections.

MOVING IRON TYPE INSTRUMENTS:In the moving iron type instruments, soft iron piece is placed on the spindle. This soft iron piece is deflecting in the magnetic field of moving coil. Four type Moving Iron Instruments are available:Ammeter. Voltmeter. Frequency meter and Power Factor meter. Moving Iron Type Ammeter:Attraction type moving iron type ammeter and Repulsion type moving iron type ammeter.

Attraction type moving iron type ammeter:In the attraction type of instrument the moving iron is eccentrically pivoted and consists of thin disc of soft iron piece, which is drawn into the core of the coil when the current flows.

Repulsion type moving iron type ammeter:In Repulsion type inst., two iron pieces one is fixed and other movable is used. The shape may be rods or the fixed iron may consists of a tongue shaped piece of sheet iron bent into a cylindrical form, the moving iron being another piece of sheet iron, bent and mounted so as to move parallel to the fixed iron and towards its narrower end. These shapes of the irons give a more uniform scale.

Whatever the direction of the current in the coil of the instrument, the magnetization of the moving iron is always such that attraction takes place in the attraction form and repulsion in the repulsion form. Thus they are unpolarised instruments. So these types of instruments are used for both A.C. as well as D.C. measurements. MOVING IRON TYPE VOLTMETER:Two types of Moving Iron Type Voltmeters are: 1. Attraction type and 2. Repulsion type. Construction, Working, and Principle of Moving Iron type Voltmeters are same as that of the Moving Iron type Ammeter.

 Basic difference between Moving iron type ammeter and Moving iron type voltmeter: Ammeter is connected in series with load while voltmeter is connected in parallel with load. Coil of ammeter is made from thick wire and less turns while coil of voltmeter is made from thin wire and larger turns. (a) (i) (ii) (iii) (b) Errors in Moving iron type ammeter and Moving iron type voltmeters:Error during measurement of A.C. and D.C. Error due to the Hysteresis error effect.. Error due to the Temperature effect. Error due to the stray magnetic field effect. Error during measurement of A.C. only.

Coil of ammeter is made from thick wire and less turns while coil of voltmeter is made from thin wire and larger turns. MOVING COIL TYPE INSTRUMENTS:-

In the moving Coil type instruments, Coil is placed on the spindle. This Coil is deflecting (Moving) due to the effect of Deflecting torque. Two type Moving Coil Instruments are available:Permanent Magnet Moving Coil(PMMC) type and Dynamometer type. PMMC: (Permanent magnet moving coil):-

Principle: These types of instruments are basically working on principle that whenever a current carrying coil is placed in a magnetic field its experiences a mechanical force. This force is proportional to the current flowing through the coil.

Construction:

Moving System: Moving coil is wound with many turns of enameled or steel covered copper wire. The coil is pivoted on the jewel bearings. Control spring provides connecting leads to the coil. Magnet system: A permanent magnet having high co-ercivity is used. Such an imported material being used is Alnico. Concentric type permanent magnets are used in order to obtain longer angular deflection of the coil. Movement of aluminum former in case of voltmeter provides the damping torque and in case of ammeter it is provided by shunt. The control torque is provided by two phosphor bronze spring. The pointer carried by the spindle is light weighted aluminum strip. As deflection is directly connected to the current passing through meter. We get a uniform scale for these instruments. These instruments are most accurate type for D.C measurement.

 Range Of Instrument:For D.C ammeters 1. Instrument above 0.5mA to 20mA 2. With internal shunt 0 200 A For D.C voltmeter 1. Instrument above 0 50 V to 0 10 mv 2. with series resistance 20 to 30 Kilo ohm. ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT :Principle: It would work on D.C. on same principle in PMMC on A.C. it would have torque in one direction during one half of cycle and an equal effect in opposition direction during another half cycle. However we have to reverse the direction of field flux each time current through movable twill reverses. The torque would be produced in same direction for both haves of cycle. Construction:

Fixed coil: Fixed coils are wound with heavy wires carrying the main current ammeter and wattmeter. The field is produced by fixed coil and developed into two sections to give a uniform field. in

Moving coil: A single element instrument has one moving coil. It is wound on self-sustained will on a non-metallic former. Height constant is used for moving coil. Both fixed and moving coils are air cored. Moving system: The moving coil is mounted on the aluminum spindle. The moving coil carries the counter weight and turns type pointer. Damping: Air friction damping is employed and is provided by air attracted to spindle of the problem. Shielding: The field produced by the fixed coil is weakening. In other type of instrument in D.C. Measurement even the earth magnetic field offset the reading. Range: Ammeter is fixed and moving coil in series up to 200mA, Moving Coil Shunted up to 30A. Voltmeter up to 350V

Multiple Choice Questions:

1. The use of ___________instruments is merely confined within laboratories as Standardizing instruments. (a) Absolute. (b) Indicating. (c) Recording. (d) Integrating. (e) None of the above. 2. Which of the following essential features is possessed by an indicating instrument? (a) Deflecting devices (b) Controlling devices. (c) Damping devices (d) All of the above. 3. The Spring material used in a spring control device should have the following property: (a) Should be non-metallic (b) Most be of low temperature coefficient. (c) Should have low specific (d) Should not be subjected to fatigue resistance (e) All of the above. 4. Which of the following meters are not used on D.C. Circuit? (a) Mercury motor meters (b) Commutator motor meters (c) Induction meters. (d) None of the above. 5. An Ammeter is a (a) Secondary Instruments (c) Recording Instruments (b) Absolute Instruments (d) Integrating Instruments

6. In a portable instruments, the controlling torque is provided by (a) Spring (b) Gravity (c) Eddy Current (d) All of the above 7. The disc of an instruments using eddy current damping should be of (a) Conducting and magnetic (b) Non Conducting and magnetic materials materials (c) Conducting and non magnetic (d) None of the above materials 8. A Moving Iron (M.I) Instruments can be use for (a) D.C. Only (b) A.C. Only (c) Both A.C. and D.C. (d) All of the above