Study Book

ELE2704
Electricity supply systems

Faculty of Engineering and Survyeing
St udy book
Written by
G Ramakrishnan
E MSc M Eng Sc SMIEEE SMISA
G Hampson
E Eng MIEEE
Lecturer in Electrical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering and Surveying
University of Southern Queensland
R Burgess
B Com MI Aust
Published by
University of Southern Queensland
Toowoomba Queensland 4350
Australia
http://www.usq.edu.au
University of Southern Queensland, 2012.2.
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as a result of application to the copyright owner.
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TABLE OF
CONTENTS
PAGE
Section 1: Power systems: environment and planning; economics
1 Electricity and the environment
Objectives 1.1
Introduction 1.1
1.1 Power supply industry 1.1
1.2 Energy choices 1.3
1.3 Objectives 1.3
1.4 Environmental management 1.4
1.5 Planning considerations 1.4
1.5.1 Feasibility studies: project planning 1.5
1.5.2 Line route selection 1.5
1.5.3 Line construction for distribution 1.6
1.5.4 Planning for reliability 1.6
1.6 Electricity supply systems 1.7
1.6.1 Single line diagram (one-line diagram) 1.7
1.6.2 Impedance and reactance diagrams 1.11
1.6.3 Power supply system 1.12
1.6.4 Control and protection system 1.13
Summary 1.16
Questions 1.16
References 1.16
2 Generation: planning and economics
Objectives 2.1
Introduction 2.1
2.1 Planning in the electricity supply industry 2.1
2.2 Generation planning consideration 2.2
2.2.1 Load forecasting 2.3
2.2.2 Plant operating requirements 2.3
2.2.3 System reserve requirements 2.3
2.2.4 Energy resources and power station siting 2.4
2.2.5 Economic patterns for future generations 2.4
2.2.6 Economic cost comparisons 2.5
Questions 2.6
References 2.6
3 Generating plant principles
Objectives 3.1
Introduction 3.1
3.1 Sources of energy 3.1
3.1.1 Replenishable sources 3.2
3.1.2 Non-replenishable sources 3.3
3.2 Types of generating plant 3.3
3.2.1 Steam turbine plant 3.4
3.2.2 Hydro electric plant 3.6
3.2.3 Gas turbine plants 3.7
3.2.4 Nuclear power generation 3.9
3.3 Selection and types of prime movers 3.10
3.4 Location and choice of site 3.10
Summary 3.11
Questions 3.11
References 3.12
4 Economic operation of power systems
Objectives 4.1
Introduction 4.1
4.1 Costs of generation 4.1
4.1.1 Life of generating plant 4.1
4.1.2 Choice of unit size 4.2
4.2 Plant scheduling 4.2
4.2.1 Individual station costs 4.3
4.2.2 Capital costs 4.3
4.2.3 Fuel costs 4.4
4.2.4 Other costs 4.4
4.2.5 Effect of load factor 4.4
4.3 Distribution of load between units within one station 4.5
4.4 Transmission loss: a function of plant generation 4.7
4.5 Automatic load dispatching 4.7
Questions 4.7
References 4.8
Section 2: Generation, transmission and distribution systems
5 Distribution planning
Objectives 5.1
Introduction 5.1
5.1 Distribution system components 5.1
5.2 Design of distribution systems 5.4
5.2.1 Single wire earth return system (SWER) 5.5
5.3 Diversity and ADMD 5.6
5.4 Location of transformers and feeders 5.7
5.5 Alternative supply for maximum reliability 5.8
5.6 Operational and voltage control 5.9
Summary 5.10
Questions 5.10
References 5.11
Section 3: Lines, distributors and cables
6 Transmission lines, feeders and distributors
Objectives 6.1
Introduction 6.1
6.1 Short lines 6.1
6.1.1 Short line circuit model 6.1
6.1.2 Short line analysis 6.2
6.1.3 Short line: voltage regulation 6.4
6.1.4 Short line: per unit value notation 6.5
6.1.5 Transmission efficiency 6.6
6.2 Two feeders in parallel 6.8
6.2.1 Currents 6.8
6.2.2 Power diagrams 6.9
6.3 Distributors 6.12
References 6.22
7 Overhead lines
Objectives 7.1
Introduction 7.1
7.1 Reliability 7.1
7.2 Conductor parameters 7.2
7.2.1 Bare conductor comnparisons 7.3
7.2.2 Aerial bundled cables 7.6
7.2.3 Conductor stringing 7.7
Example 1 7.15
Example 2 7.17
Example 3 7.18
Example 4 7.19
7.3 Vibration 7.20
7.4 Factors important in overhead line planning 7.21
7.4.1 Overhead line standards 7.21
7.4.2 Design objectives 7.22
7.4.3 Review of safety criteria 7.23
7.4.4 The ultimate design concept 7.23
7.4.5 Line foundation 7.23
7.4.6 Route selection 7.23
Questions 7.24
7.5 Overhead line structures 7.24
7.6 Pole and tower fittings 7.26
7.6.1 Component parts 7.26
7.6.2 Insulators 7.27
7.6.3 Cross arms 7.37
7.6.4 Stays 7.37
7.7 Conductors, joints and sagging 7.38
7.7.1 Conductors 7.38
7.7.2 Joints in conductors 7.39
7.7.3 Sagging of conductors 7.39
7.8 Earthing 7.41
7.8.1 Wenner four-pin method of determining soil resistivity 7.45
7.9 Layout of overhead lines 7.47
7.9.1 Layout plan 7.47
7.10 Overhead line inspection and maintenance 7.48
7.10.1 Tower and pole top inspection and maintenance 7.48
7.10.2 Pole ground line inspection and maintenance 7.48
Summary 7.49
Questions 7.49
References 7.50
8 Underground cables
Objectives 8.1
Introduction 8.1
8.1 Advantages of cables 8.1
8.2 Construction materials 8.1
8.2.1 Conductors 8.2
8.2.2 Insulation 8.2
8.2.3 Sheath materials 8.4
8.3 Types of cables 8.5
8.3.1 Solid-type cables 8.5
8.3.2 Pressurised cables 8.6
8.4 Cable installation methods 8.7
8.4.1 Selection of cable route 8.8
8.4.2 Statutory provisions 8.8
8.5 Cable sizing 8.8
8.5.1 Load current carrying capacity 8.9
8.5.2 Short circuit rating 8.10
8.5.3 Voltage drop 8.10
8.6 Electrical limiting factors 8.11
8.6.1 Capacitance 8.11
8.6.2 Electrostatic stress 8.11
8.6.3 Dielectric loss 8.12
8.7 Cable testing 8.13
8.8 Cable failure 8.15
8.9 Location of faults 8.15
Summary 8.16
Questions 8.16
References 8.16
Section 4: Transformers
9 Transformers
Objectives 9.1
Introduction 9.1
9.1 Transformer noise 9.1
9.2 Regulating transformers 9.2
9.3 Methods of cooling power transformers 9.4
9.4 Transformer protection: Buchholz relay 9.5
Summary 9.7
Section 5: Surges; insulation co-ordination
10 Insulation and insulation
co-ordination
Objectives 10.1
Introduction 10.1
10.1 Basic insulation level 10.1
10.2 Causes of momentary excess voltages and currents 10.2
10.3 Measurement of surges 10.6
10.4 Preventing damage to equipment due to surges 10.7
10.5 Location of surge arrestors 10.10
10.6 Line outages 10.11
Questions 10.13
Section 6: Loads, scheduling and voltage control
11 Loads and scheduling
Objectives 11.1
Introduction 11.1
11.1 Types of loads 11.1
11.2 Load and demand terms 11.2
11.2.1 Demand 11.2
11.2.2 Maximum demand (MD) or peak load 11.4
11.2.3 Load or demand curves 11.4
11.2.4 Demand factor (DF) 11.4
11.2.5 Utilisation factor (UF) 11.5
11.2.6 Plant or capacity factor (PF) 11.5
11.2.7 Diversity factor (div. f) 11.6
11.2.8 Load factor (LF) 11.6
11.3 Composite loads 11.8
11.4 Scheduling plant to meet expected loads 11.8
11.4.1 Seasonal load variations 11.9
11.5 Planned outage for maintenance 11.10
11.5.1 Cost of outages 11.11
Summary 11.11
Questions 11.11
Problems 11.12
References 11.12
12 System voltage control
Objectives 12.1
Introduction 12.1
12.1 66/11-kV and 11-kV/415-V distribution systems 12.3
Satisfactory voltage range on an 11-kV feeder 12.6
12.2 66-kV system 12.11
12.3 Voltage control 12.11
12.4 System reactive power, i.e. VAR balance 12.14
12.5 The future 12.15
Questions 12.16
Section 7: High voltage testing, commissioning
13 High voltage testing and investigations
Objectives 13.1
Introduction 13.1
13.1 Form of testing 13.1
13.2 Types of test 13.2
13.3 Types of high voltage test sets 13.2
13.4 HV bushings 13.6
13.5 HV leads 13.6
13.6 HV measurement 13.6
13.7 Breakdown of test object 13.7
13.8 Selection of test set 13.8
13.9 Testing general 13.8
13.10Impulse testing 13.11
13.11Impulse generators 13.13
13.12Impulse voltage measurement 13.16
13.13Impulse testing procedure 13.16
Questions 13.16
Reference 13.16
Section 8: Substations: layout; reliability; safety
14 Substations and reliability
Objectives 14.1
Introduction 14.1
14.1 Indoor- and outdoor-type substations 14.1
14.2 Equipment installed in substations 14.2
14.3 Basic design requirements for substations 14.9
14.4 Single line diagrams and busbar arrangements 14.10
14.5 Transformer feeders 14.16
14.6 Three-switch substations 14.17
14.7 Busbars 14.18
14.8 Structures 14.19
14.9 Basic design criterion 14.20
14.10Reliability criteria for substations 14.20
14.11Electricity supply Workplace Health and Safety 14.21
14.12Electrical equipment in hazardous areas 14.27
Summary 14.29
Questions 14.29
Section 9: High voltage switchgear
15 Switchgear
Objectives 15.1
Introduction 15.1
15.1 Classification of switchgear 15.1
15.2 Circuit breakers 15.2
15.2.1 Principles of current interruption 15.3
15.2.2 Types of interrupter 15.7
15.2.3 CB rating 15.7
15.2.4 Short-circuit requirements 15.8
15.2.5 Resistors 15.10
15.3 Isolators 15.11
References 15.13
Section 10: Protection schemes; protection relays
16 Circuit breakers
Objectives 16.1
Introduction 16.1
16.1 Types of circuit breaker 16.2
16.1.1 General 16.2
16.1.2 Bulk oil or dead tank breakers 16.2
16.1.3 Small oil content or live tank breakers 16.3
16.1.4 Air circuit breakers 16.3
16.1.5 Air blast circuit breakers 16.4
16.1.6 Compressed air equipment for air blast circuit breakers 16.6
16.1.7 Vacuum breakers 16.7
16.1.8 SF6 (sulphur hexafluoride) breakers 16.7
16.2 Contacts 16.7
16.3 Operating mechanisms 16.9
16.4 Auto-reclosing 16.9
16.5 Timing the breaker operation 16.10
Summary 16.11
Questions 16.11
References 16.12
17 Protection principles
Objectives 17.1
Introduction 17.1
17.1 Basic requirements of protection 17.2
17.2 Protective zones 17.3
17.3 Primary and back-up protection 17.4
17.4 Power, current and voltage transformers 17.5
17.5 Power transformer protection 17.6
17.6 Control and protection systems 17.6
17.7 Fuses 17.7
17.8 Protective devices other than fuses 17.9
17.8.1 Miniature circuit breakers 17.10
17.9 Power system neutral earthing 17.10
Questions 17.15
18 Protective relaying
Objectives 18.1
Introduction 18.1
18.1 Relays 18.1
18.2 Typical protection systems 18.4
18.3 Functions of protective relaying: summary 18.12
18.4 A few types of protection relays: summary 18.12
Questions 18.13
Section 11: Fault calculations and symmetrical components
19 Per unit values: symmetrical faults
19.1 The per unit system 19.1
19.2 Definitions 19.2
19.3 Common base: voltage variations 19.3
19.4 Short-circuit fault levels 19.9
19.5 Star-delta conversion 19.13
Exercise 1 19.17
Exercise 2 19.18
Exercise 3 19.18
Exercise 4 19.18
20 Unbalanced faults
Objectives 20.1
Introduction 20.1
20.1 The sequence systems 20.4
20.2 Sequence impedance networks 20.6
20.3 Connection of sequence networks to represent faults 20.8
Section 12: Supervisory control and communications co-ordination
21 Co-ordination of power and communications systems
Objectives 21.1
Introduction 21.1
21.1 Design guidelines 21.2
21.1.1 Conductive coupling 21.2
21.1.2 Electrostatic or capacitive coupling 21.3
21.1.3 Electromagnetic coupling or low frequency induction 21.5
21.1.4 Earth potential rise 21.7
21.1.5 Lightning 21.9
Summary 21.9
Question 21.10
References 21.10
Module 1 Module name here
Section
1
Power systems: environment
and planning; economics 1
Module 1 Electricity and the environment
Module

1
Electricity and the
environment 2
Modul e 1 El ectricity and the envi ronment 1.1
Objectives
Upon completion of this module you should be able to:
state the objectives of the electric power industry
list the main points related to environmental management
feasibility studies involving selection of line routes
environmental impact of lines
safety and economy in distribution construction
use power supply system line diagrams
explain how power is generated, transmitted and distributed.
Introduction
This course provides a basic understanding of the principles and practices of electricity
generation transmission and distribution and introduces concepts of operational and control
techniques used in power systems in Queensland.
1.1 Power supply industry
The electricity supply industry involves generation, transmission, distribution and utilisation
of energy. The purpose of an electrical power supply system is to distribute electrical energy
to a multiplicity of points for diverse applications. The system should be designed for both
reliability and economy. These two requirements present a challenge to the power industry.
Reliability or security of supply can be improved by improving plant design, increasing the
spare capacity margin and arranging alternative circuits to supply loads.
The economics of the alternatives must be explored within the bounds of a defined quality of
supply, safety and the many environmental aspects (considered later in this module). The
electricity industry must maintain electricity costs at a reasonable level; otherwise it will have
an adverse effect on Australias national development, particularly at times of rising oil and
gas prices.
Generation
Most of Australias electricity is generated using coal although the use of more
environmentally-friendly sources such as gas, wind power and biomass generation is
increasing. The future use of nuclear energy is being discussed.
Since 1998 about 75 percent of new generation investment in the National Electricity Market
has occurred in Queensland. Under the 13 percent gas scheme which took effect from 2005,
1.2 ELE2704 Electri ci ty supply systems
electricity retailers and other large users in Queensland must source at least 13 percent of their
electricity from gas-fired generation.
The power stations in Queensland are run by separate corporations. In some cases, the state
government owns all of the shares. In general, all new power stations are being developed by
private enterprise.
Annual electricity consumption in Queensland is growing at exponential rates. The growth is
due to expansion of industry, increased use of domestic air-conditioning and population shift
from the southern states to the south east corner of Queensland, in particular with the
associated growth in commercial and service industries. The measures taken to reduce
electricity consumption so as to reduce greenhouse gas emissions are having a minor effect on
this growth.
Queensland has a significantly greater number of high energy users than any other state, and
collectively they consume about one third of the total energy of the state. Most of these high
energy consumers are in the regional areas of the state. These customers include coal and other
mines, mineral processors such as refineries, crushers and smelters together with chemical
manufacturers. Ports and rail also use large amounts of energy.
Transmission
Because of the long distances between load centres in Australia, we have a small number of
relatively high capacity transmission lines. The topography and climate make these lines long
and vulnerable. The main problems of security of supply from the power stations result from
these lines. The completion of the Queensland network with coastal line (of over 1 750 km
geographic length) has necessitated modern centralised control systems to co-ordinate the
overall system operation.
Queenslands high voltage electricity transmission network is owned by Powerlink which is a
state government owned corporation. Powerlink operates more than 11,000 km of
Queenslands high voltage network.
Distribution
The distribution network in Queensland is owned by Energex in the south east corner and
Ergon Energy in the remainder of the state. These are both state government owned
corporations. There are more than 1.7 million customers supplied over 200,000 km of
distribution lines. Ergon Energy supplies an area six times the size of Victoria.
Electricity retailers
All of the electricity sales in Queensland are now carried out by non-government owned
corporations with the exception of sales to customers in the Ergon Energy distribution area
who have not elected to change from the Government set electricity price. Ergon Energy is a
retailer for these customers only.
There are more than twenty licensed electricity retailers in Queensland.
1.2 Energy choices
Australian industries and domestic installations are moderate consumers of electricity by
world standards. From the 1950s to about 2000, there was a consistent growth in the demand
for electricity. Since then, there has been a marked increase in the installation of domestic air
conditioners.
The emphasis on responsibility for carbon emissions has led to an increased use of gas and
solar power for domestic water heating. Gas is also being increasingly used for electricity
generation both for efficient base load generation and inefficient peak load generation.
The decrease in electricity demand resulting from alternate uses for domestic water heating in
Queensland is being overshadowed by the increase caused by the installation of domestic air
conditioning.
1.3 Objectives
The objectives of the industry and the objectives of this course are related. The objective of the
power industry should be the provision of an adequate and reliable supply of electricity at the
lowest possible price, consistent with the most responsible use of available human, physical
and financial resources.
Improved operation and management of overhead and underground lines, transformers and
switchgear involving new techniques in installation and testing will need people with a greater
understanding and far greater knowledge of the electricity system and its performance. The
aim of this course is to provide knowledgeable workers in the industry who know how to
improve the economy and efficiency of the industry, whilst maintaining safety and reliability
standards.
This will require judgement and modern techniques. Creative solutions still need to be found
in many of the areas one must study. The community must then weigh the benefits. There is an
inter-dependence between reliability, quality, safety, economy and the environment. None can
be examined in isolation and this is the challenge of the course. All the elements are inter-
related and a change in one interacts to produce changes in the others. Consider just one case:
undergrounding of mains. It improves the environment as well as safety and reliability, but at a
considerable increase in costs. The capital cost may be five to twenty-five times that for
overhead lines. Insulated overhead low voltage aerial bundled conductor cables have replaced
the conventional open wire reticulation with a considerable reduction in maintenance and
improved safety and aesthetics.
The consumers expect the workers in the electricity industry to demonstrate how good their
levels of performance can be. In this course we focus on the environment, and planning of
generation, transmission and distribution supply systems. We study the essentials of power
system components and operational aspects of economy, quality, reliability, protection, control
and safety.
1.4 Environmental management
Development proposals and approvals: policies
In Queensland we have an environmental management system. Under this system the
Government requires that environmental factors be taken into account before a decision is
made to proceed with any major development.
It is based on specific issue-oriented statutory controls and on overall assessment, prior to
approval of the effects of new developments.
New electricity supply infrastructure projects in Queensland must comply with the
Environmental Protection Act 1994. Depending on the scope of the project an environmental
impact statement may be necessary.
The electricity industry is responsive to the increasing national concern for the quality of the
environment. It continues to assume the initiative and leadership in the protection and
enhancement of the environment. Positive action will establish public confidence.
Fundamentally all these policies and objectives must be contained within a rational framework
of sound economics and business operation along with the wise use of all of the involved
resources. They must give full recognition to side effects from the distribution of electrical
energy that may have an adverse impact upon the environment. Society depends on high
energy use and it values the convenience, safety, and reliability of electrical energy. There is
increasing evidence that society also values healthy and pleasing surroundings, and supports
the ethic of leaving a good environment for succeeding generations. Broadly-prevailing public
attitudes and social values, therefore, must be fully and fairly factored into the development
and expansion of electric systems, and the views of public groups concerned with the
preservation of environment quality must be accorded consideration.
1.5 Planning considerations
The industry must engage in continuous long-range planning for the siting, design and
construction of power supply facilities. To assure the timely construction and operation of
such facilities, it should take into account any possible delays caused by matters associated
with environmental considerations.
Conflicts and compatibles
It should encourage advance local participation and public planning discussions in the area
affected by the proposed major facilities. This means resolving conflicts in advance and
achieving a rational balance between cost, safety, reliability and a quality environment.
It should also evaluate aesthetic impact, as well as economic and reliability factors to avoid or
minimise conflict with the scenic, natural, historic, archeological and recreational values
and resources of the project area.
1.5.1 Feasibility studies: project planning
New lines are usually planned on the basis of load studies which project the requirement for
additional power in some specific area. Several alternative sources and routes may be
available for providing this additional power. Concomitant consideration of environmental
factors is an important element of feasibility studies involving the selection of line routes.
Project planning should include:
consideration of the environment
co-operation and co-ordination with other utilities, where appropriate, to develop the line
route so that the visual impact on the area will be minimal
consideration of upgrading or replacing existing lines to avoid the need of acquiring
additional rights of way or occupying additional streets
consideration of line routes when long-range plans are co-ordinated with other utilities,
governmental agencies and private organisations
in situations where minimum-visibility conflicts with safety regulations, the safety
regulations should govern
in developing areas it is sometimes advisable to construct a line several years before it is
required, and to use it at a lower distribution voltage in the meantime, because it may not
be possible to build the line after the area is developed.
1.5.2 Line route selection
To minimise the environmental impact of electric lines, the following matters, where
appropriate, should be considered in the selection of the route:
ease of access for emergency repairs during adverse weather conditions, especially where
the line is not duplicated
locate the route in an area of minimum conflict with present and future planned land uses
replace or upgrade existing lines
add new lines parallel to existing lines provided that reliability criteria can be maintained
develop joint use lines with other utilities
be alert to and avoid if possible
Line locations which create unusable spaces between lines
Heavily timbered areas, steep slopes, proximity to main highways and scenic areas
Crossing main highways in the vicinity of interchanges or bridges
Crossing highways at points where the structures can be seen from a long distance or
silhouetting the structures against the sky
Wildlife concentration areas, such as nesting areas and flight corridors
Parks, monuments, scenic, natural, historic, archeological and recreational areas.
Obviously, not all of these considerations are applicable to every situation. However, it will be
noticed that most of them are compatible with the other objectives of safety and economy in
distribution construction.
1.5.3 Line construction for distribution
Minimise the number of poles used within the constraints of service lines and street
lighting requirements.
Locate poles and stays so as not to obstruct visibility and thus create traffic hazards.
Minimise the number of ground stays by consideration of alternative pole-fittings in
appropriate circumstance.
Minimise pole heights, consistent with meeting requirements of clearance.
Minimise the number of crossarms and attachments.
Keep the pole top arrangement as simple as possible (e.g. short direct bridges).
Give due consideration to the colour of the various components used in overhead
construction.
Arrange for any trees to be planted under the lines to be low growing trees.
Use insulated cables (where appropriate) to minimise tree clearing.
Use trimming techniques instead of excessive lopping or removal of adjacent growth of
trees.
Use multi-core services rather than open services.
Consider the use of short lengths of underground construction to overcome a particular
environmental problem.
Aboveground equipment associated with underground cable installations should be
pleasing in appearance and located inconspicuously where possible.
Street lighting installations should satisfy appropriate standards for night time illumination
and also be aesthetically pleasing in appearance.
Use gas or small-oil-volume circuit breakers to reduce the noise levels of breaker
operation.
Integration of high voltage underground mains with insulated overhead low voltage mains.
Environmental issues are best treated by a positive approach towards design, standards,
construction, and maintenance practices. Providing a considered approach is taken and
allowance is made for compliance with the requirements of environmental impact assessment,
the society will accept the complexity of the problem involved in the siting and construction of
facilities to supply electricity.
1.5.4 Planning for reliability
In planning power supply systems it is often difficult to decide how much money should be
spent on making the supply more reliable. The pure economists answer would be the
expenditure at which the marginal cost of the improved reliability equals the marginal benefit
to the community. The benefit to the community is very difficult to measure. If electricity
could be sold in a free market in little bits of reliable or unreliable supply the consumers would
let us know, by what they bought, how much value they put on reliability.
The value of the additional reliability varies depending on what the electrical energy is being
used for. For instance the loss of supply to the cash registers in a busy supermarket would be
worth far more than the loss of supply to a pump which is transferring water between
reservoirs with plenty of time to spare, especially if the value was measured in $/kWh.
The competitive market will in the long term promote economic reliability decisions in the
planning of generation.
In the transmission and distribution systems it is not possible to have reliability decisions
made on the basis of competitive forces. Because of their very nature it is not economically
feasible to have duplicate and competing supply systems. The transmission and supply
networks in Australia are owned by government on behalf of the public. In practice there is a
combination of political decisions and rules of practice whereby, if the load is greater than a
certain value, the supply line is duplicated.
It is very useful to calculate the cost per MWh of outage avoided based on a statistical analysis
of outages. An alternative is to calculate the cost per customer minute of outage avoided.
These give a comparison so that expenditure on making the system more reliable is allocated
in a more reasonably effective manner.
1.6 Electricity supply systems
1.6.1 Single line diagram (one-line diagram)
A typical electric power supply system is formed by various sections of generation,
transmission and distribution, as shown in the single-line diagram of figure 1.1. A large part of
the power system operates using 3-wire three-phase. Supply available to consumers is three-
phase, 4-wire, i.e. three actives and a neutral, with line voltages of 415 V and phase voltage of
240 V. This 4-wire distribution is more economical than single-phase. It requires less
conductor material; allows a choice of voltage (415 V or 240 V); it can operate satisfactorily
with unbalanced loading. Also three-phase supply enables rotating machines (such as
induction motors), to be made more cheaply and more efficiently than single-phase machines
of the same rating.
The frequency of the system is held constant within fine limits. The standard power frequency
is 50 Hz in Australia, UK and Europe, while it is 60 Hz in the USA and Canada.
Table 1.1: Graphic symbols for line diagrams adapted from AS/NZS 1102.107:1997
*Refer to SAA HB 3:1991 or AS1100 Part 101 for up-to-date symbols.
(Graphic symbols for line diagrams vary from one country to another.)
Solid Metallic
Connection
Earth Connection
Fuse Lightning Arrestor
Disconnecting
Switch (Isolator)
3-Wire System (3 )
Circuit Breaker
(C.B.)
Underground Cable
A.C. Generator Plug-in Connection
Transformer (V.T.)
(Two-Winding Type)
A.C. Motor
Current
Transformer (C.T.)
Auto-Transformer
(Adjustable Tap)
Series Inductor
(Reactance)
G
M
Single-line or one-line diagram is a simple explanatory diagram to facilitate an
understanding of the type, operation and functional relationship of equipment in a system or
installation, by the use of symbols and line inter-connections. Additionally tables are used to
provide details.
Note: the box around the circuit breaker symbol in figure 1.1 is only for emphasis and
enhanced clarity/readability: it would not normally be drawn. Likewise, the box symbol for a
circuit breaker in figure 1.2 is an abbreviation used by some texts to simplify large line
diagrams: the AS/NZS symbol in table 1.1 is to be preferred.
The simple cross (X) shown in other diagrams throughout this study book is yet another
example of a circuit breaker graphic symbol that is casually and informally used for
expediency only.
Figure 1.1: Single-line diagram
Figure 1.2: Single-line diagram for an electricity supply system
Figure 1.3 is a single-line diagram for an electricity supply system consisting of two
generating stations connected by a transmission line. The advantage of such a one-line
representation is its simplicity: one phase represents all three phases of the balanced system;
the equivalent circuits of the components are replaced by their standard symbols; and the
completion of the circuit through the neutral is omitted.
275 kV
Bus
Spare CB
Bus-coupler
CB
CB
To 275 kV
line
275 kV/110 kV, 200-MVA
Auto-transformer
110 kV line
110 kV bus
110 kV line
T
2
Overhead
33 kV line
To bulk consumers
11 kV
feeders
CB
Capacitor
750 kVA
11 kV/415 V
415-V, three-phase
4 wire supply
CB CB
T
1
145 MVA
13.8/275 kV
275 kV
Bus
EHV
transmission
T
2
60 MVA
110/33 kV
Y/Y
11 kV Bus
To 275 kV lines
275 kV
Bus
T
3
10 MVA
33 kV /11 kV
11 kV 33 kV 33 kV
125 MVA
13 kV
cable
Generating station
Low voltage distribution
EHV receiving substation
High voltage distribution
Y Y
G G
T
4
Distribution
substation
Zone
substation
Underground
cable
CB
Sub-transmission
Module 1 Electri ci ty and the envi ronment 1.11
Figure 1.3: Single-line diagram for two inter-connected power stations
1.6.2 Impedance and reactance diagrams
The single-line diagram is the basis for a circuit representation that includes the equivalent
circuits of the power network components. Such a representation is called an impedance
diagram, or a reactance diagram if resistances are neglected. The impedance and reactance
diagrams corresponding to figure 1.3 are presented in figure 1.4(a) and (b), respectively. Note
that only a single phase is shown.
Figure 1.4(a): Impedance diagram corresponding to figure 1.3
Figure 1.4(b): Reactance diagram corresponding to figure 1.3
G
1
G
2
G
3
Load A
Load B
G
4
G
5
T
1
T
2
Station A
Station B
G
1
G
2
G
3
G
4
G
5
Station A Station B
Generators Load A Transformer Generators Load B Transformer Transmission line T
1
T
2
Station A Station B
Generators Transformer Generators Transformer Transmission line T
1
T
2
G
1
G
2
G
3
G
4
G
5
The following assumptions have been incorporated into figure 1.4(a):
1. A generator can be represented by a voltage source in series with an inductive reactance.
The internal resistance of the generator is negligible compared to the inductive reactance.
2. The resistance of the load is generally negligible in comparison to the load inductive
reactance.
3. The transformer core is ideal, and the transformer may be represented by an inductive
reactance.
4. The transmission line is a medium-length line and can be denoted by a T-circuit model or,
alternatively, a -circuit model.
5. The -Y-connected transformer T
1
and the Y- transformer T
2
may be replaced by
equivalent Y-Y-connected transformers (via a -to-Y transformation) so that the
impedance diagram may be drawn on a per-phase basis.
(The exact values of the impedances or reactances are determined by methods discussed later.)
The reactance diagram, figure 1.4(b), is drawn by neglecting all resistances, the static loads,
and the capacitance of the transmission line.
1.6.3 Power supply system
Generation
Electrical energy is generated at the power stations using three-phase a.c. generators (or
alternators) driven by steam turbines, water turbines, gas turbines or diesel engines.
The excitation control systems keep the voltage constant and the prime-mover governor
control systems keep the frequency within limits. These are combined with various other load
control and protection systems. The generator voltage, for several reasons, is moderate, with
13.8 kV being very common.
Transmission
For economic transmission of electrical energy from the power stations to the load centres,
high voltage transmission lines are used. For a balanced three-phase load: active power is
. Thus, for any given value of P, the current I
L
will be reduced if the
voltage V
L
is increased. The decrease in current means a reduction in conductor size, power
losses in the lines and the voltage drop along the lines. Transmission voltages of up to 330 kV
are used in Queensland, and 500 kV in New South Wales and Victoria.
Power transformers are used to step-up or step-down the voltages with very high efficiency at
generating stations and substations. At generating stations, a step-up transformer is usually
associated with each generator to step up the generated voltage to the transmission level. The
choice of transmission voltage depends on the power to be transmitted and the distance
involved. Such lines are called Primary Transmission lines. These are usually three-phase
overhead conductors suspended from insulators attached to steel towers.
P 3V
L
.I
L
. cos =
Module 1 Electri ci ty and the envi ronment 1.13
Distribution
In the vicinity of load centres, the primary transmission voltage may be reduced by step-down
transformers at substations to a lower level e.g. 33 kV, 66 kV, 110 kV or 132 kV. These
sub-transmission systems may be overhead lines or underground cables. They feed other
step-down distribution substations, at which the voltage is reduced to 22 kV or 11 kV. The
high-voltage (H.V.) distribution lines operating at these voltages each supply a number of final
step-down transformer stations which reduce the voltage to 415 V or 240 V, the voltage at
which consumers are normally supplied. The lines and service cables operating at these
voltages form the low voltage (L.V.) reticulation system.
High voltage lines and L.V. reticulation are usually designed as overhead construction, but
underground cables are used in cities and new subdivisions. In remote rural areas, distribution
is by single-wire earth- return (SWER) systems operating at 12.75 kV for supplying isolated
farms and stations at the lowest possible cost. A transformer at the homestead reduces the
voltage to 240 V for domestic use.
Study the details given in the line diagrams, figures 1.1 and 1.2.
1.6.4 Control and protection system
Circuit breakers
Circuit breakers are installed in the system so that each component, (i.e. generator,
transformer) may be isolated from or connected to the system. Each component also is fitted
with a protection system. In the event of a fault, the protection system will automatically trip
the appropriate circuit breakers. Study the details in table 1.3 overleaf.
A short-circuit or open-circuit, often referred to as a fault, results in abnormal currents and
voltages. The short-circuit may be between all three phases, line-to-line, double line-to-ground
or line-to-ground. Ground and earth mean the same thing.
Earthing
As shown in figure 1.2, a supply system is normally earthed at the origin. In the system shown,
the generator star-point and the star-points of the secondary windings of transformers (T
1
, T
2
,
T
3
and T
4
) would all be earthed, by connection to a system of bars and pipes driven into the
ground adjacent to each component.
The reason for earthing is that should an active conductor anywhere in the system come in
contact with the ground (or any device effectively connected to the ground), a current will
flow through the earth and the appropriate earth connection at the source. The magnitude of
this current, in most cases, will be sufficient to operate the protection system, and isolate the
faulty component.
Various methods of earthing generators, motors and transformers are given in table 1.2. The
method of earthing chosen depends on the system voltage, the apparatus, the permissible fault
current and the type of protection systems deployed.
Earthing of three-phase systems
Table 1.2
Resistance earthing is used to limit the magnitude of earth fault currents.
Resonant earthing is also known as earthing by means a Petersons arc suppression coil. In the
steady state the neutral voltage is held at earth potential by means of a reactor. When an arcing
fault between one phase and earth occurs the voltage to earth on that phase drops to a very low
value and the current flow is too low to maintain the arc. The voltages to earth on the other two
phases increase momentarily.
If a solidly grounded system is not used on very large networks it is likely that one fault will
develop into two faults because of the sudden increase in voltages and the resulting transients
on the other two phases. Thus, instead of having one feeder faulted there are two feeders
affected.
Grounding devices need to be rated to take carry the fault currents for a short time until the
circuit protection operates.
Protection systems
To prevent abnormal voltages and excessive currents which might lead to dangerous
conditions, protection systems are necessary.
These include fuses, detectors, timers, relays, alarms and trip devices.
Voltage transformers (VT) and current transformers (CT) provide the necessary voltages and
currents for measurement, control and protection.
The various protection systems sense the abnormality; discriminate; activate the relays;
initiate the alarms and trip-signals to interrupt the faulty circuit within a preset time.
Lightning and switching surge protection is provided by means of special types of surge
arrestors, properly graded corona rings, arcing horn gaps and overhead earth wires. In
addition, the basic insulation level (BIL) of apparatus chosen and clearances specified must
conform to the proper insulation coordination requirements. We study these in later modules.
Characteristic
Solidly
grounded
Ungrounded
High
resistance
Resonant
grounding
Earth fault current High Almost zero Low Very low
Control of steady state over
voltages
Yes No Yes Yes
Equipment damage from arcing
ground faults
Yes No No No
Over voltages on unearthed
phases during a ground fault
No Yes Yes Yes
Modul e 1 El ectricity and the environment 1.15
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Summary
You should now be aware of:
the objectives and contents of this course as preparing you for active roles in the electricity
industry to provide a service to the community
the areas of compromise necessary in environmental matters concerning planning of
generation, transmission and distribution systems
the components of a power supply system.
Questions
1. What challenges, trends and changes do you see in power systems in the next decade?
2. When should environmental aspects be considered in development projects? Suggest areas
of concern for the future.
3. Economy, reliability and aesthetics are requirements of a power station. Compare highly
developed areas with rural areas for applying environmental principles.
4. Why do transmission and distribution authorities have difficulties constructing substations
in residential areas? Why must substations be indoors or surrounded by screen walls or
trees and shrubs?
5. List the various components with their symbols for drawing line diagrams of a power
station.
6. List the various components of a power system and their specific functions.
References
Ramakrishnan, G 1994, Electricity supply systems examples.
Naser, SA 1990, Theory and problems of electric power systems, Schaums Outline Series,
McGraw-Hill, New York.
(A book of examples on most topics; has cables but no insulators.)
Yamayee, ZA & Bala, JL 1994, Electromechanical energy devices and power systems, John
Wiley, International edition, Singapore.
(Covers machines and power systems; has examples.)
Standards Australia: Various Australian Standards.
Module 2 Generation: planning and economics
Module

2
Generation: planning and
economics 3
Module 2 Generation: pl anni ng and economi cs 2.1
Objectives
list the important considerations relating to system planning and generation planning of
the power industry in Queensland
outline plant operating, system reserve and energy resource requirements
discuss, analyse, list and outline the economic constraints of power generation.
Introduction
In this module we consider economics of planning, generation requirements and the factors in
the siting of power stations.
2.1 Planning in the electricity supply industry
Changing life styles, the prospects of substantial inter-fuel substitutions and a growing
awareness of energy conservation are changing traditional patterns of growth in electricity
consumption. Load forecasting which is the key, and perhaps the most difficult element of
planning, will have to consider electricity as part of the overall energy supply situation.
Unfortunately, the representation of the electrical sector within existing energy models is
generally too simplistic for the results to be of much value to power system planners.
However, the concepts and methodologies applied to some energy models may be useful in
developing better tools capable of coping with the expanding horizons of load forecasting.
Long term forecasting will continue to be a difficult and demanding task and it is essential that
the uncertainty of load forecasts be recognised in forward planning, particularly so far as it
affects decisions on the timing and extent of commitments to new plant and fuel contacts.
Changes are also evident in the long term development of power generation in Queensland.
The short lead-times for constructing new energy intensive industries may require less
conventional means of planning and constructing new generating plant. The very real interest
in producing liquid fuels from shale and coal deposits will probably influence the location
and type of future generating plant. The developers and governments seek to spread the heavy
burden of infrastructure costs and achieve the maximum utilisation of available energy in the
resources. Feasibility studies were proposed for the Rundle Oil Shale deposit. There appears to
be scope for the economic use of by-product fuel in gas turbines and waste heat boiler plant to
generate the electricity requirements of the mine and treatment plant. In the longer term, the
increasing demand for export steaming coal will probably result in a general lowering of the
quality of coal used for local power generation.
With rapidly rising energy costs to the community and increased pressure to conserve capital,
there is considerable interest in proposals to modify the load consumption patterns of
consumers. Investigations carried out by several Electricity Authorities in Queensland formed
the basis for the Distribution Planning Co-ordination Committee to formulate a set of
guidelines for the implementation and operation of load control schemes for domestic water
heating loads.
Factors external to the Electricity Supply Industry will continue to have a significant impact
on the course of development of the Industry. It would be impossible to quantify precisely all
such factors; and hence most planning decisions will have an element of uncertainty, arising
out of these external influences which cannot always be fully provided for. All planning
therefore calls for a high level of consultation in Government, industry and with the
community as a whole, to ensure that decisions will encompass all foreseeable factors.
There are emerging ideologies to sell off the existing generating stations to mining consortia or
financial corporations and privatise the power industry. Also, there are talks of licensing
private corporations to build, own and operate (BOO) new power stations. Such corporate
investment policies will affect future planning policies.
2.2 Generation planning consideration
The objective of generation planning is to ensure the availability of plant for the economic and
reliable generation of the electricity requirements of an expanding power system. The basic
problem is to ensure a sufficient margin of plant (so that there is only a very remote
probability of failure to meet system requirements), while at the same time ensuring due
economy, (by the selection of sites and plant development which will result in a low overall
cost of supply) to the consumer.
A strategy of development must be formulated which, will permit modification of a basic plan
so that the requirements of both reliability and economy are satisfied as the system develops.
It is necessary in planning for future developments to have regard to the following
considerations:
the rate of growth of annual peak demand and of system energy requirements
the location, cost and flexibility of alternative sources of fuel supplies
the availability, cost and location of potential hydro-electric and pumped storage systems
the stage of contemporary plant developments the sizes of units which have been
developed for reliable operation and the extent of commercial competition by
manufacturers for the supply of alternative forms of plant
the construction times involved for alternative types of power station
the availability which has been achieved and which might be expected in the future with
alternative types of power station
system reliability requirements and the necessary level of system reserves.
2.2.1 Load forecasting
An essential basic part of generation planning is the preparation of forecasts of future demand
and energy requirements of the system.
In systems such as that in Queensland, and other southern Australian states, there is
considerable seasonal variation in demand, and plant requirements are dictated essentially by
the peak winter demand. These winter demands are sensitive to changing weather conditions.
In general, it is necessary to make some adjustment for weather conditions. Then a consistent
basis is available for the examination of past trends, and projection into the future basis, for the
estimation of the probable system requirements.
In Queensland, the evening temperature is by far the dominant factor influencing the day-to-
day variation in peak demand. It is possible to take account of other variables as random
secondary fluctuations, for planning purposes. In Queensland, studies have been made of other
weather variables; but their influence is not sufficiently marked to take detailed account of
these factors. In other countries, investigations have been reported and the results used as a
basis for adjusting demands, taking into account the effects of wind speed, cloud cover and
sunset time, as well as temperature.
2.2.2 Plant operating requirements
The demand for electricity in Queensland is at a minimum in the early hours of the morning,
rises to a peak at 8 a.m., followed by a somewhat lower level of load during the day and rising
to the maximum peak for the day at 6 p.m., and gradually reducing beyond that time.
There is a requirement on base load plant to be of low operating cost and on the base load
coal-fired generating stations which are called upon, to produce the maximum possible
amount of energy. This will depend on the lowest coal price and the most efficient generation
and transmission costs. Usually the newest power stations have this duty.
A second group of plant is required for intermediate duty and is operated only during the
heavy load periods of the day. Peak load stations (such as hydro plant, high cost metropolitan
generation, or gas turbines) are required to meet peak loads and to provide emergency
generation in the event of major breakdowns at other times. Such plant tend to be operated
predominantly in the winter months. This role is filled largely by the Snowy Mountains
Hydro-Electric Scheme for New South Wales and Victoria, and older power stations
elsewhere.
In Queensland the peak load and emergency generation is provided by the hydro electric
stations, Wivenhoe pumped storage, and gas turbine stations as well as the older, less efficient
coal fired stations.
2.2.3 System reserve requirements
The extent of the reserves of generating plant required (to achieve an adequate level of
reliability for an electrical power system) depend upon the size and reliability of the
generating units which are installed, the probable error in forecast of system demand, and the
construction time required for the installation of new plant.
There is a requirement to have spinning reserve equal to the largest generating set running in
the interconnected system at all times so that if the largest set goes off line suddenly the
system will remain stable.
It is necessary to allow for plant maintenance shut downs. Large plant is taken off line for
several weeks at a time to allow for major overhauls. This is usually carried out during periods
of lowest system demand. This could be summer or winter depending on the system load
characteristics.
For planning purposes, future target reserves in the United States are typical of the order of
25%, and in the United Kingdom about 17%. In Australia, it has been common to plan for
system reserves in the range of 10% to 20%. With the installation of larger generating units of
higher operating temperatures and pressures, there has been a need to increase the level of
system reserves.
2.2.4 Energy resources and power station siting
The availability, location and cost of various sources of energy (which might be utilised for the
production of electricity), are major factors in determining optimum future development of
generating facilities. Consequently, it is necessary that an electricity supply organisation must
devote some resources to the assessment of potential future sources of economical fuels.
In Queensland, the major source of energy is black coal and the important coalfields are
located in Central Queensland. The cost and availability of energy for power generation in the
various parts of the State must be considered, together with the cost of transmission, and of
special site developmental costs necessary in the vicinity of some sources of fuel.
Special cases in Queensland exist in central and south west Queensland. Large quantities of
black coal can be won from the overburden of export coal by strip mining methods. These
have justified the expenditure of additional capital on site development. To obtain the
economies which can be achieved by the use of this low cost fuel, thermal power stations,
alumina refinery and railway electrification have been developed.
The availability of natural gas in south west Queensland has led to the development of gas
fired power stations.
Similar situations exist in New South Wales at Liddell and in Victoria. In Victoria, large
quantities of brown coal are available at some distance from metropolitan Melbourne. The
availability of this low cost fuel justifies the expenditure by the State Electricity Commission
of Victoria of additional amounts for the purchase of plant suitable for operation with this
relatively low grade fuel.
2.2.5 Economic patterns for future generations
Each type of plant can be examined individually to ascertain its generation costs relative to
other types. The costs of fuel, operation and maintenance are calculated for each year of
operation using present worth to the date of initial operation. Together with the initial capital
cost, this yields a total capitalised cost of production over the life of the plant.
Having regard for the standard sizes of plant available, plant programmes are drawn up so as
to meet the estimated maximum demand and provide for reserves. Typically, one programme
might provide solely for base load plant installation, while another will provide for mixed base
load and peak load plant construction. At this stage, a detailed analysis is made of capital,
operational and fuel costs for each programme.
2.2.6 Economic cost comparisons
Once the various sites have been examined for these problems and found satisfactory, it
becomes a question of economics to determine which sized plant is to be built in which order.
To do this, an estimate has to be made of the following:
cost of fuel, whether fossil or nuclear, together with cost of disposal of wastes
cost of construction and the annual distribution of those costs
operation and maintenance costs at that station and all other stations in the system.
The cost of coal at a given site partly depends on the size of the undertaking. For instance, the
six 275 MW units installed at Gladstone gave rise to cheaper fuel costs per tonne than a
smaller station would have done. Coal supplies cannot be drastically altered from year to year,
even though other considerations might call for it. The fuel supplies for the first five years of
the plant must be planned together with the new station.
The costs of construction are estimated from known overseas prices for the same plant,
together with estimates of local civil costs. It is important, with long construction times, that
the proper annual break-up of construction costs is made. If expenditure can be delayed on an
item by one year, then a real saving of the interest on that capital is made.
The effect of various parameters is summarised below:
a high interest rate tends to favour schemes with low capital costs and higher operating
costs
a scheme with a short construction period is favoured over one with a long construction
period
a scheme which brings immediate benefits is favoured to one where benefits are in the
longer term.
Once it is decided to build a certain construction scheme, the problem becomes one of
adjusting fuel supplies to obtain optimum system economy at any given time.
Unfortunately it is not sufficient to examine the new plant alone in order to determine its
economics. It is also necessary to estimate the revenue that will be earned during the life of the
power station. This involves forecasting future loads, generating capacities and alternate
generating costs. This can be very difficult in a market where each company has little or no
control over the actions of other participants. Various approvals from government and
registration with the National Electricity Market Management Company are required.
The profitability of peaking plant depends very much on whether there are major shut downs
of base load plant. For a company investing in these plants there is a risk that they may be
underutilised. On the other hand, major problems in base load plants can result in the entire
capital cost being recovered in a year or so.
Questions
1. What factors should be considered for future generation extensions?
2. Why is Queensland different to Victoria and Tasmania as a primary energy source for
power generation?
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a large industrial consumer generating his
own electricity supply?
References
(A book of examples on most topics; has cables but no insulators).
Wiley, international edition, Singapore.
Module 3 Generating plant principles
Module

3
Generating plant principles 4
Module 3 Generating plant principles 3.1
Objectives
list sources of energy and their respective advantages and disadvantages
outline types of generating plants and factors affecting their siting.
Introduction
The role of an electrical power system in the energy economy is crucial in a number of
respects. It is a form of delivered energy from primary fuels which, in a number of important
uses, is non-substitutable: in lighting, in electronics, and in some forms of motive power. It
provides a major market for coal. It remains the only currently envisaged means by which
energy can be supplied on a large scale from nuclear power and from the waves and tides.
3.1 Sources of energy
The starting point for a power system is a source of energy to be converted into electrical
power. Direct conversion is possible using:
thermo electrics
solar cells
fuel cells
wet and dry batteries
magnetohydrodynamics (MHD).
But these methods suffer from low efficiency and in some cases difficulty of control. Also,
they produce direct current, while most power systems utilise alternating current.
Energy sources may be divided under two headings:
replenishable
non-replenishable.
The replenishable sources are continuously or seasonally replaced, usually by the action of the
sun (this planets primary source of energy). They can be used at their rate of replenishment,
without an overall drop in reserves.
Non-replenishable sources are those in which energy has been stored in the distant past and
which can be used at any rate until exhausted.
3.1.1 Replenishable sources
Hydro power is the major replenishable energy source in use at present. It requires rain or
snow fall on land with a high elevation. By channelling the water to lower elevation, the
kinetic energy is converted into electrical energy, using water turbine and alternator.
Wave and tidal power derive energy from wind and the gravitational pull of the moon. The
vertical motion of waves has been used on a small scale to oscillate floats and compress air for
use in a turbine. The only practical scheme for utilising tidal power is to impound water in a
basin at high tide and allow it to run to sea through turbines at low tide. Such a scheme is in
use at le Rance, on the northern coast of France. But this scheme, beside requiring a
geographic location having a high tide level differential, can only supply energy for a short
time and can only be used as an auxiliary source.
Solar thermal power utilisation uses reflectors to focus solar radiation on to steam generating
plant. A 10 megawatt (10 MW) plant would require approximately 30 hectares. Solar
photovoltaic cells convert the sunlight into electricity by direct conversion.
Natural heat of the earth is used in a number of countries such as New Zealand and Italy, by
drilling and extracting steam from below the earths surface. An alternative name for this
scheme is Geothermal.
Wind power from windmills has been used for energy production for centuries. The energy
content of wind is proportional to the cube of the wind speed. Two important technical
problems are the generation of constant frequency a.c. and the ability to integrate the variable
output. Wind systems may only be considered as fuel savers with full conventional backup.
The economics of large scale wind systems are only marginally competitive with an annual
capacity factor of 35% compared to base load nuclear or coal fired systems of 65% capacity
factor.
Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) uses solar energy through the deep oceans. With
a 22C temperature difference between the surface of the ocean and deeper layers near Hawaii,
water pipes 16 metres in diameter and 1000m deep, are being considered. Major engineering
development is necessary with heat exchangers.
Biomass
Plant or animal waste is a source of replenishable energy. In the sugar industry bagasse has
been burned to power on-site generation for many years. This has been expanded with co-
generation agreements. Later developments of biomass generation include the use of
macadamia-nut-shell green waste and wood waste. Further biomass generation developments
are being investigated.
The use of biomass is seen as a closed carbon cycle. Carbon is absorbed from the atmosphere
by the plants as they grow and is released back into the atmosphere as the plant or animal
waste is burned. With coal fired generation carbon is extracted from within the earth and
released into the atmosphere.
3.1.2 Non-replenishable sources
Coal, gas and oil are conventional power sources. Whilst wood has been the oldest energy
source, biomass can produce liquid fuels, gaseous fuels and chemical products.
The world is not running out of resources. Coal is virtually supply elastic. Whilst the
cumulative demand for oil and gas will decrease, alternative energy systems will continually
face competition from natural gas and crude oil. The marginal cost of recovering gas and oil is
still less than the cost of producing energy from solar or coal sources.
Power system components
The flowchart from energy source to consumer is set out in figure 3.1
Figure 3.1: Flow chart of power systems
3.2 Types of generating plant
The following topics will be discussed:
Steam Turbine plants
Hydro Electric plants
Gas Turbine plants
Nuclear plants.
Hydro Coal, Oil, Nuclear, Biomass, Gas Gas
Boiler
Steam
Steam Turbine
High Speed Alternator
Gas Turbine Water Turbine
Transmission
Distribution
Consumer
Slow Speed Alternator
High Speed Alternator
3.2.1 Steam turbine plant
The fuel (oil or coal) is burnt in a combustion chamber and converted to heat energy. In the
boiler, the heat energy is used to produce steam at a high pressure and temperature. The steam is
passed through a turbine. The basic operations are:
pumping the liquid into a boiler at a high pressure
evaporating the liquid to produce steam at a high temperature
expansion of the steam in a steam turbine
condensation of the steam back to liquid form, the condensate normally being returned
through a pump to the boiler, giving a closed cycle system.
Figure 3.2: Simple cycle steam plant
In this simple cycle (see figure 3.2), condensation is taking place as the steam expands through
the turbine. This moisture can cause serious erosion of the turbine blades as well as a drop in
turbine efficiency. It is therefore desirable to superheat the steam to a temperature well above the
saturation point before it leaves the boiler (see figure 3.3). Superheating is universal practice.
Figure 3.3: Superheat cycle
B
T
FP
water
C
Superheated
high pressure
steam
Superheating
G
In the reheat cycle, steam is reheated at a suitable point on its passage through the turbine.
This avoids excessive moisture without an impracticably high initial temperature (see figure
3.4). The turbine has high pressure (HP) and low pressure (LP) stages.
Figure 3.4: Reheat cycle
In the regenerative cycle, the steam is bled from one or more stages as it passes through the
turbine. This bled steam is used to heat the feedwater. This process is used in modern high
efficiency plant (see figure 3.5).
Figure 3.5: Regenerative cycle
B
reheated
steam
steam
L.P.
T
H.P.
C
F.P.
G
G
B
T
FP
C
In practice, the regenerative reheat cycle shown in figure 3.6 is used.
Figure 3.6: Regenerative reheat cycle
For a 50 hertz a.c. supply system using a two-pole a.c. generator, the turbine rotates at 3 000 r/
min. Steam temperatures reach a maximum of 566C for coal fired stations; steam pressures
range from 12.4 MPa to 24.8 MPa at the turbine stop valve.
3.2.2 Hydro electric plant
Hydro electric power is derived from the pressure or force exerted by water falling through a
height or head. The head of water is established by the topography of the country and
location of the dam with respect to the water turbine inlet. Hydro plant is generally localised to
areas of high rainfall or snow. In Australia, suitable areas include Tasmania, Victoria and the
Snowy Mountains. North Queensland is marginal for economical hydro development, (e.g.
Kareeya). Head is the height of water storage above the turbine inlet.
There are two basic types of water turbines, namely reaction and impulse turbines.
Reaction turbines use the water pressure and the reactive force on curved buckets, and are
normally classed as Francis or propeller turbines. The propeller turbine has fixed or adjustable
pitch blades. The type of reaction turbine having adjustable blades (the Kaplan type) is suited
to applications where a high efficiency is required over a wide range of loads.
Impulse turbines use the velocity and impact of a jet of water directed against buckets
mounted on the periphery of a wheel.
The propeller and Kaplan tubines are used for very low heads of water from 2.45 to 30 metres.
The Francis turbines are used for heads of 27.5 metres to 305 metres.
B
C
L.P.
Turbine
H.P.
H.P. High Pressure
L.P. Low Pressure
e.g. 120 MW
Set
G
Impulse turbines are used for high heads ranging from 180 metres to over 600 metres.
The disadvantages of hydro schemes is that they rely on the amount of water available, that is,
on the amount of precipitation. However, where hydro schemes are installed, they have the
advantages of long plant life, quick machine run up as short as 1 minute for 30 MW, and high
overall efficiency (80% 90%).
Types of hydro schemes
Run-of-the-Mill, where there is little water storage and no generation if the plant runs out
of water. Plant may run for only a few hours per day.
Small Day to Day Storage where water is drawn off during the day and storage is
replenished at night. Hydro plant may run for 12 hours daily.
Storage in large reservoirs, where plant may run continuously, for example Eildon Scheme
in Victoria.
Chain Developments, such as the Snowy Mountains Scheme, where water is re-used and
some subsidiary sources may also be added, as shown in figure 3.7.
Figure 3.7: Chain developments
Hydro electric machines may run at odd speeds. For example, a 36 pole machine (18 pairs of
poles) for a 50 hertz a.c. system would rotate at 166.7 r/min.
Speed (in r/min) = (6 000/P) where P = number of poles, for f = 50 Hz. The peripheral speed
of the rotor can range from 3.3 to 5. km/min.
3.2.3 Gas turbine plants
Gas turbine plants represent one of the recent developments in power generation. Basically, a
compressor delivers the working gas to a combustion chamber where its temperature is raised.
Then the high pressure hot products of combustion are expanded in a single stage or
multistage turbine.
Storage Dam
and Hydro-Station
stage 1
stage 3
stage 3
Low Head
Large Capacity Plant
head h1
head h2
head h3
Sea Level
Open cycle turbines use air as the fluid. The fuel (gas or selected oil) is burned directly in the
compressed air at pressure ranging from 516 kPa to 689.4 kPa. The hot gas at 527C to 825C
is delivered to the turbine (see figure 3.8).
Figure 3.8: Simple open cycle
This open cycle system can be modified for higher thermal efficiency by using reheating, in a
simple closed cycle system (figure 3.9.)
Figure 3.9: Simple closed cycle system
Atmospheric Air
Compressor
Fuel
Combustion
Chamber
High Pressure
Hot Products
of Combustion
Exhaust
Turbine
Alternator
Shaft
Alternator
Combustion
Products
Combustion Chamber
and Heat Exchanger
Fuel
Air
Compressor
3.2.4 Nuclear power generation
Nuclear power is seen by some as being very desirable to reduce the carbon emissions caused
by the generation of electricity. Renewable fuels will not produce sufficient power to replace
the large coal fired generators in the foreseeable future. Thus, the risks and waste storage
problems associated with nuclear generation must be balanced against the issue of global
warming associated with carbon emissions.
This section on nuclear power generation is intended only as a brief introduction.
In a nuclear reactor, the particles forming the nucleus of the atom are rearranged to produce a
new atom. The only method by which the energy from the nucleus can be released is to split
the nucleus of some of the heavy particles to form two new atoms of approximately the same
mass. The process is known as nuclear fission. The importance of nuclear reactions as a
primary energy source lies in the vast amount of energy released from a small quantity of
material. For each atom taking part in a reaction, the energy released from a nuclear reaction is
several million times greater than energy released in a chemical reaction. Nuclear fission thus
offers a source of heat energy.
Nuclear reactors have low fuel costs. But a number of features lead to high capital cost:
they must be designed to withstand and contain intense radioactivity of the core and
operate at high temperatures
a high standard of component manufacture is required
handling of fuel requires complex mechanical equipment
radioactivity must be prevented from escaping, so the reactor is surrounded by a thick
shield up to 3 metres thickness of reinforced concrete may be required.
Numerous types of reactors have been developed, some of which are:
gas cooled graphite moderated reactors
water cooled reactors, the largest group of power reactors built
fast reactors in the long term, the bulk of nuclear power may come from fast breeder
reactors.
An elementary diagram for a typical nuclear power plant cycle is shown in figure 3.10.
Figure 3.10: Nuclear power plant cycle
Alternator
Conventional Steam
Turbine
Condenser
Coolant
Pump
Condensate
Pump
Nuclear
Reactor
Heat
Exchanger
Uranium is the basic nuclear fuel. The great concentration of energy in nuclear fuel means that
a very much smaller quantity of material is required for a nuclear power station than for a
conventional steam station. For example, a 1 000 MW coal fired station may require about
10 000 tonnes of coal per day; while a nuclear power station consumes about 0.1 tonne of
uranium per day for a 1 200 MW output.
3.3 Selection and types of prime movers
Economic considerations dictate the type of prime mover suitable for a particular power
station installation. These economic considerations include the rate of interest to be charged on
capital, fuel costs, lifetime of plant, and cost of transmission of the electrical energy to the load
centre.
In general terms, for large installations it can be said that:
hydro electric plant has low operating costs (no fuel costs), but in most cases a high initial
capital cost
gas turbine plant has low initial capital costs, but high operating costs, making it suitable
for peak load operation; and
condensing steam turbine plant falls economically between hydro and gas turbine power
plant.
Transport and lifting problems could limit the size of an installation. Assembled hydro plant
rotors of 400 tonnes are not uncommon.
At the present, no limit has yet appeared in the general trend towards larger steam turbine plant
sizes. While unit sizes up to 550 MW are in operation, 1 000 MW sets are on order.
Hydro plant sizes commonly range from 150 MVA to 200 MVA. Machines rated 500 MVA are
operating in Brazil.
3.4 Location and choice of site
The site for a hydro electric plant is determined by natural conditions. Water must be
available at a usable head and in sufficient quantity. If the flow is not regular enough for
continuous water supply, then there must be suitable accommodation for a dam at reasonable
cost. Heavy flows through turbines at peak loads must not cause flooding downstream from
the dam. Consideration must also be given to the cost of transmission lines from the
generation site to the load centre, and transportation of heavy equipment to the site.
The principle considerations for selection of a steam power station site are:
water supply for the condensing plant
transport of fuel to the station and transmission of power to the load centre
Modul e 3 Generating pl ant princi ples 3.11
other considerations include foundation requirements, transportation of equipment to site
(for example, bridge loadings not be exceeded), disposal of ash, and proximity of
residential areas.
Thermal power stations require a large cooling capacity to condense the steam. Where an
adequate supply of water is available cooling towers are used and large quantities of water are
evaporated. Where the power station is situated remotely from large water supplies because of
the location of the coal, air cooled condensers are used.
Where fuel is transported over long distances (by river, rail or road), transport cost becomes a
major component of the cost per kWh (kilowatthour or unit).
With the development of e.h.v. (extra high voltage) transmission, large blocks of power can be
transmitted over long distances. However, transmission costs and access for transmission lines
are still major considerations in the selection of a power station site.
The ultimate objective in planning a new power station site is to produce power for the
consumer at the lowest possible cost.
Summary
History has shown that coal and wood were the predominant energy supplies in 1850s and
they will remain important. The international economic repercussions of the 1973 oil embargo
have encouraged almost every nation to develop alternative energy resources. Hydroelectric
and solar energy projects have become potential growth areas in the wake of greenhouse
concerns.
One of the most important aspects of future energy supply and electricity demand balancing
is the diminishing resources and availability of nuclear power. Since the world demands that
nuclear power be slowed down or halted, we must fall back on traditional resources. This will
have major economic impacts, since alternative fuel options tend to be expensive.
One thing is certain in the future: the electricity share of the world energy supply mix will
increase. There will be a need for total energy systems management as well as advanced
electric transportation systems.
Questions
1. List the replenishable and non-replenishable energy sources.
2. Compare the requirements of a hydroelectric and a steam power station site.
3. Draw the diagrams and explain the principles of various forms of power generation, using
steam cycles and gas turbines.
References
(A book of examples on most topics; has cables but no insulators).
Module 4 Economic operation of power systems
Module

4
Economic operation of
power systems 5
Module 4 Economic operati on of power systems 4.1
Objectives
identify and explain costs which arise in power generation including
capital costs
life of generating plant
fuel costs
transmission costs and other relevant costs
other relevant costs
outline the effect of Load Factor
briefly describe the use of computers in load dispatching
Introduction
Once a power system has been designed (i.e. the load on the system determined, the type of
generating station decided, and the transmission and distribution requirements considered), the
rates fixed by regulatory bodies place extreme pressure on power companies to achieve
maximum efficiency of operation. They need to continually improve this efficiency in order to
maintain a reasonable relation between the cost of a kilowatt-hour to the consumer and the
cost to the company to deliver the kilowatt-hour. Hence proper operation of a system is
essential if the system is to return a profit on the capital invested in the face of constantly
rising cost of fuel, labour, supplies and maintenance.
Engineers have been successful in increasing the efficiency of the boilers, turbines and
generators so continuously that each new unit added to a power system operates more
efficiently than any of the older units. In operating the system for any load condition, the
contribution of each plant and from each unit within a plant, must be determined so that the
overall cost of supplying the total load will be kept to a minimum.
4.1 Costs of generation
4.1.1 Life of generating plant
1. Conventional steam plant. The expectation of the physical life of conventional thermal
generating plant is 35 to 45 years or even longer. There is, however, the possibility that
technological developments will make the plant obsolete before its physical life is over.
Financial practice, therefore, is to write it off over 25 to 30 years.
2. Hydro plant. Hydro plant contains a large element of civil works (dams and tunnels etc.)
having a very long physical life, 80 years or even longer. The mechanical and electrical
items (turbines, alternators etc.) have, however, a life comparable to similar items in
thermal stations and may be regarded for financial purposes as having a life of 30 years.
Once a hydro scheme has been built its operating costs are so low as to make it unlikely to
be displaced by technological developments.
4.1.2 Choice of unit size
The demand for electricity had continued to increase over the years with a logarithmic trend. It
had been necessary to install in each successive year larger and larger plant. At an average rate
of increase of 7 to 8% per annum, load (and plant needed to supply the load) doubled every
10 years or so. Worldwide, there has been a marked downturn and the average rate of increase
is 4 to 5%.
Larger unit sizes result in greater station efficiencies and lower capital cost per kilowatt of
output capacity. So the cost of producing electricity is reduced.
It may be said that it pays to install the largest unit which technological development allows,
provided it can be guaranteed that such a unit would have a high availability. Plant breakdown
causes a considerable loss to the supply authority, due to the increased fuel costs entailed in
having to generate more on less efficient plant.
A further factor is that of the security of the system. If the time out of service was the same
for all sets, irrespective of size, then for a given plant margin it would appear that a number of
smaller size units would provide a higher security than a fewer number of larger units. The
reduction in cost per kW to be obtained by providing units of the highest rating is so great, that
it is justifiable to provide a fewer number of larger units to meet the increased demand.
4.2 Plant scheduling
Under the competitive electricity market in Australia electricity generation is scheduled in
accordance with the marginal pricing of the energy produced. This is seen as a way of ensuring
that electricity is scheduled in the most economical manner.
Prior to the trading day each generator submits prices for each period of the day for the energy
they will produce. As the load increases the lowest priced generators come on line. As the load
increases more expensive generators are brought on line. The price actually paid to all of the
generators for that period is the price for the highest priced generator. When one or more large
base load stations go off line because of breakdowns etc. expensive peak load plants are
brought on line and the cost of electricity can become very high. Thus, the cost of electricity
depends on both the system demand and plant availability. The actual real time 5 minute
demands for each participating state and the corresponding prices can be viewed at
<www.nemmco.com.au>. (The prices are in $/MWh and the demands are in MWh.)
The competitive market takes care of scheduling between power stations. We will consider the
economic scheduling of units within one station and the costs which are used to prepare the
prices for submission to the market.
4.2.1 Individual station costs
Generation costs at a particular station relate to the net output after deducting all auxiliary
load, which is usually referred to as the output sent out. The costs are usually expressed as the
cost of production of 1kWh, or as total annual cost per kW of output capacity. The costs are
subdivided under the three headings:
capital charges
fuel costs
other costs.
Load factor
Costs at a particular station are affected by the station load factor which must therefore be
stated; otherwise the figures are of little value. Load factor is defined as the ratio of the
average load over a designated period of time, to the peak load occurring in that period.
The generating costs of a system are the total capital charges, fuel costs and other works costs
of all the generating stations. The average generated cost per unit sent out would be the total
system cost averaged over all the units sent out of the system. The total system cost and the
average cost of generation per kWh depend on the shape of the load duration curve and the
particular generating stations on load during the period concerned. All capital charges and
other works costs have to be met irrespective of how much electricity is sent out to the system.
The fuel cost of the system depends on the quantity of electricity generated by each station.
4.2.2 Capital costs
Table 1 shows a break-up of capital cost for a 4 200 MW coal fired power station.
Table 4.1
A similar break-up can be made for hydroelectric, nuclear, gas or diesel powered power
stations.
The annual capital charges includes interest and depreciation of the capital cost and are so
calculated as to give equal annual amounts over the appropriate life of the asset. The annual
Station Component Share of Total Capital Cost
Civil engineering works and
buildings
Boiler Plant
Turbine Generator plant
Coal, ash and dust plant
Capitalised Interest during
construction
Electrical Equipment
Supervision and design
18%
30%
22%
7%
8%
8%
7%
amount corresponding to a given life and rate of interest can be derived from annuity tables.
The annual capital charges are dependant on the financial life of the asset.
It is usual to include engineering cost and interest during construction as part of the capital
costs. The engineering cost includes salaries of technical staff employed by the generating
authority on the design, development and construction of the station, together with any fees
payable to consultants. Interest during construction is interest on progress payments. It is
necessary to value all outgoings to the date when the plant becomes operational, payments
made in advance carrying interest and deferred payments are discounted.
4.2.3 Fuel costs
The cost of fuel required to send out 1 kWh is the delivered cost of fuel plus the handling cost
in the station. The average cost per unit sent out is lowest for a station if it is operating
continuously on full load. As an example, Tarong Power station will consume 5 million tonnes
of coal a year whilst it remains a base load station.
Additional losses due to starting up and shutting down are incurred, however, when a station
operates on a two shift or one shift basis.
4.2.4 Other costs
This heading covers operation, maintenance, management, rates, insurance etc. All items are
included which are not capital charges or are not directly consequent upon the quantity of fuel
used in the power station. The total other works costs in economic appraisals are frequently
shown as a fixed annual amount, irrespective of the amount of electricity generated at the
station. That is a best approximation to the average value over the life of the station.
4.2.5 Effect of load factor
The annual average total cost of generating 1 kWh of electricity at a given power station
depends on the amount of electricity produced, i.e. on the load factor on the station. The
capital charges and other works costs have to be met irrespective of the amount of electricity
generated.
Figure 4.1 shows the variation of production cost with annual load factor.
Figure 4.1: Variation of production cost
Annual Load Factor 100%
P
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
o
n
C
o
s
t
(
C
e
n
t
s
k
W
h
)
4.3 Distribution of load between units within
one station
Since system generation is usually expanded by adding units to existing installed plant, the
various units within a plant will usually have different characteristics. To determine the most
economic distribution of load between the various units (consisting of a boiler, turbine and
generator), the fuel input in joules per hour must be known as a function of the power output in
megawatts. A typical output curve is shown in figure 4.2.
(1 GJ = 10
9
J = 1 gigajoule)
Figure 4.2: Output curve
Incremental fuel cost
The slope of the input-output graph is the incremental fuel rate, usually expressed in joules
per kilowatt-hour. Another graph can be drawn using the cost of fuel (in dollars per hour)
versus output (in megawatts). The slope of this curve is the incremental fuel cost for the unit,
in dollars per megawatthour.
Let
The incremental fuel cost of the unit
F
n
= input to unit n in dollars per hour
and P
n
= output of the unit n in megawatts
0 20 40 60 80 100
0
211
422
634
845
1055
1266
Power Output MW
F
u
e
l
I
n
p
u
t
G
J
/
h
dF
n
dP
n
---------
increase in the cost of fuel input per hour
increase in the power output
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- =
The incremental fuel cost for a unit for any given power output is the limit of the ratio of the
increase in cost of the fuel input (in dollars per hour), to the corresponding increase in power
output (in megawatts), as the increase in power output approaches zero. The approximate
incremental fuel cost could be obtained by determining the increase cost of fuel for a definite
time interval during which the power output is increased by a small amount.
However we can determine the actual incremental cost by measuring the slope of the input-
output curve and multiplying by the cost per joule, as shown previously. A typical plot of
incremental fuel cost versus power output is shown in figure 4.3. This figure is obtained by
measuring the slope of the input-output curve in figure 4.2 and applying a fuel cost of 25 cents
per gigajoule. From the curve it is obvious that the actual cost is almost linear. For analysis,
the curve is usually approximated by a straight line or a series of straight lines, as shown by
the dotted line.
Figure 4.3: Incremental cost
Suppose the total output of the system is supplied by two units, A and B. The division of the
load between these units is such that the incremental fuel cost of A is higher than that of B.
Assume the load is being transferred from A (the unit with the higher incremental fuel cost) to
B.
The reduction in load on the unit A will result in a cost reduction. Adding the same amount of
load to the unit B will increase the cost. Such transfer in load can continue with a reduction in
the total fuel costs, until the incremental costs of the two units are equal. Thus, the criterion of
economical division of load between units within a plant is that all units must operate at the
same incremental fuel cost.
Obviously, some means of automatic load scheduling in a large system would be desirable.
Linear
approximation
A
B
at
A
B
at $2.80/Mwh
30 MW
60 MW
30 MW
AFTER
BEFORE
$2.65/MWh
20 MW
60 MW
$2.90/MWh
40 MW at
Actual
Incremental
Cost
0
Power Output, (MW)
2.25
2.50
2.75
3.00
3.25
3.50
(
$
/
M
W
h
)
I
n
c
r
e
m
e
n
t
a
l
F
u
e
l
C
o
s
t
20 40 60 80 100
4.4 Transmission loss: a function of plant
generation
General. In determining the most economic distribution between units, we must remember
that all units may but usually do not operate within the one generating station. In addition
to the characteristics of the individual units, we should also consider the power losses in the
transmission lines (which transfer the power from the various stations to the load centres).
Because of this additional loss in transmission, the plant having the lower incremental fuel
cost may, in fact have a reduced share of the total load than it would on merit alone.
4.5 Automatic load dispatching
On many systems the output of each plant, and of each unit within the plant, is automatically
controlled by a computer. It constantly monitors all plant output and tie-line loadings. A
schedule for the exchange of power around the system is prepared and fed into the computer.
Any system change from this programme is detected by the computer, and read out as a
positive or negative requirement. The computer then determines the desired generation at each
plant and sends signals to each plant, which enables the plant to operate at the required output.
In determining the derived generation of each plant, the control computer corrects for
transmission losses, as they will exist when the desired output is achieved. The control
computer sends the outputs of the controlled plants into a penalty factor computer, which also
receives indications of power supplied by plants with fixed outputs, and by the lines.
Both high and low limits of operation for any plant can be set on the computer. Any plant can
be removed from economic control or can be set to deliver fixed amounts of power.
Computing circuits at each plant direct incoming signals to the proper units, so that all units
within a plant will operate at the same incremental fuel cost.
Questions
1. The cost of generation can be divided into a number of classes. List and amplify.
2. How are the most efficient units loaded in a power system and what effect does computer
control have?
References
Section
2
Generation, transmission and
distribution systems 1
Module 5 Distribution planning
Module

5
Distribution planning 2
Module 5 Distri bution planning 5.1
Objectives
outline the factors to be considered in the design of distribution lines
define the terms After Diversity Maximum Demand, Alternative Low Voltage Supply, On-
Load Tap Changing voltage control.
Introduction
A considerable upsurge in building development has created new interest particularly in the
Underground Residential Distribution (U.R.D.). Coupled with this, the greater demand for
many new and improved types of domestic appliances has forced a greater appreciation for
distribution planning and an understanding of power loads. As the load grows, with any
overhead line, design and layout limitations may be corrected by changing conductors and
pole transformer stations. The capital cost of U.R.D. work is high. Deferment of expenditure
so long as it does not mean too much additional labour is a means of achieving minimum cost.
The dangers of underdesign are far greater in U.R.D. than for overhead lines, as cables are laid
direct underground or in ducts to last for 40 years or more. What this means is that, with an
overhead system, we might reconductor and reinsulate using the same poles, but with direct-
lay cable, this alternative is not available. It may be cheaper to scrap the cable and lay a new
one for an unforeseen load increase.
Some knowledge of economics may be necessary. The present worth method is a convenient
means to weigh the cost of early capital expenditure compared with later capital expenditure.
5.1 Distribution system components
Distribution refers to the dividing and subdividing of power circuits for the purpose of
supplying electricity to individual customers.
A typical distribution system consists of:
sub-transmission circuits generally operating at or between 33 kV and 132 kV. The sub-
transmission circuits deliver energy to distribution substations
distribution substations which may be called zone substation which covert energy to a
lower voltage for local distribution and also regulate these distribution feeder voltages
distribution feeders which generally operate at 11 kV and supply load to defined areas
distribution transformers installed on poles or in substations in the load centres. The
distribution transformers convert voltages to 415/240 V
mains and services which deliver electrical energy to the consumers at 415 V, three phase
and 240 V single phase.
Figure 5.1: A typical distribution system
Distribution systems may be classified in various ways:
as to voltage, for example 415 V, 3.3 kV, 6.6 kV, 11 kV, 22 kV
according to connection scheme, that is radial, ring or network
according to number of conductors, 2, 3 or 4 (that is single phase, two phase or three
phase)
as to type of construction overhead or underground.
System layouts
Any distribution system comprises a pattern of feeders and distributors, together with
transformers and switchgear. There are certain recognised basic layouts which form radial or
network systems, or combinations of both.
Transmission
Substation
33-kV Bus
Substation
33/11-kV
Transformers
O.L.T.C.
11-kV Supply to
Industrial
Consumer
11-kV/415-V
Transformers
415/240-V Mains
and Services
11-kV Distribution
Sub-Transmission
33-kV Feeder lines
T
1
T
2
T
3
T
4
T
5
T
6
T
7
(a)
The radial circuit is cheap, but gives no alternative supply.
(b)
The parallel circuit gives improved reliability of supply, particularly if the circuits follow
different routes.
(c)
The ring circuit gives alternative supplies to a number of scattered substations.
(d)
The interconnected network is a common development of the simple ring circuit.
(e)
The closely-interconnected network interconnects all circuits in a heavily loaded area
(multi-storey building).
5.2 Design of distribution systems
The design of a distribution system is based on the following:
location, size and type of load to be supplied
anticipated load growth of area being supplied
available sites for substations
available routes for distribution feeders and circuits
location and capacity of existing distribution circuits, transformers and substations.
Distribution planning aims at an economical arrangement of transformer stations.
Transformers are located in such positions and supplying such areas so that they are at least
fully loaded over the peak periods, with the voltage at any point of the area kept within
statutory limits. Queensland Electricity Regulations require Supply Authorities to maintain
voltage at consumers terminals within +6% of declared voltage (240 V) in all areas (that is
within range of 226 V to 254 V between phase and neutral). Therefore the total permissible
voltage regulation is 12%. On the average, the service wire voltage drop accounts for 2%; a
further 2% should be allowed for the high voltage system, leaving 8% for the low voltage
mains themselves.
The problem of low voltage (L.V.) network design is the supply of load (kVA) into a given
area. The transmission design involves only power and distance (that is kVA and km).
In the long term, the anticipated annual load growth of Supply Authorities is historically
between 6% and 8% (compound). This means that the system maximum demand would
double itself in 10 to 12 years. However, depending on locality, individual areas and
residential estates may develop more rapidly than this. Some suburbs of Brisbane and coastal
areas may grow at 20 to 30% per annum in the initial years of development. In some areas the
load can double in a year or so.
The most economical size of an 11 kV/415-V distribution transformer area is determined by
the relative costs of mains and transformer stations, the load density and the permissible
voltage drop. It is generally accepted that transformer stations in housing estates be designed
for an ultimate capacity of up to 1 MVA. New housing estates require careful consideration
because their reticulation must be integrated with the electrical development of the entire area
that is, a new estate must be considered in conjunction with adjacent areas.
Note that 11 kV has been chosen as a typical distribution feeder voltage. The 11 kV/415-V
distribution transformers may be installed in ground-type substations when land or suitable
areas are available. In suburban areas, lines are erected overhead on poles. In the inner city,
cables are generally installed underground, and indoor type substations are erected.
The point of supply is the point at which the network companies assets end and the
consumers assets take over. It is the point at which the network company must keep the
voltage level within the statutory limits. For underground supply the point of supply is at the
service pillar. For overhead supply the point of supply is at the consumers end of the overhead
service. The supply is usually metered in the consumers premises and not at the point of
supply.
The primary purpose of low voltage mains is to give services to consumers. In most new
residential subdivisions, underground mains and cubicle-type pad-mounted transformers are
installed. There is generally a service pillar on every second property boundary to connect the
consumers underground mains. Where overhead mains are used, a pole is generally erected
adjacent to every second property line so that the overhead service lines do not cross adjoining
properties. It is usual to use bundled, cross-linked polyethylene-insulated, aluminium
conductors for the overhead low voltage mains.
11kV feeders are usually bare conductors in the overhead areas. Underground cables are used
in the underground subdivision areas, high load density areas and when terminating at zone
substations or indoor type substations on consumers premises.
Sub-transmission lines of 66 kV and above are mainly bare overhead conductors because of
the high cost of underground cables at these voltages. Underground cables are used in special
circumstances.
In general, rural distribution consists of supplying a number of properties scattered at fairly
wide intervals. Depending on population density, one transformer may be placed at the centre
of a group of consumers and the low voltage mains extended to supply consumers up to 1 km
from the transformer. Voltage drop in the L.V. mains and economics are the governing factors.
Many rural areas of Queensland have now been electrified by the Single Wire Earth Return
system (SWER).
5.2.1 Single wire earth return system (SWER)
The SWER system is a low cost, low maintenance method of supplying power to isolated
country areas; but not in urban areas because:
(a) it interferes with communication networks (Telstra lines)
(b) it must have an adequate earth return path, without causing electrolytic corrosion
problems.
The SWER distribution circuit needs an isolating transformer, to separate the SWER system
from the main high voltage system. The main system is 11 kV or 33 kV; and the SWER
adopting voltages of 12.75 kV or 19.1 kV. A single conductor overhead-line feeds a
distribution transformer, which steps down the voltage to two circuits of 240 V, or one
circuitof 480 V.
Figure 5.2: SWER transformer voltages
12.75
The SWER system uses the earth path to return the current flowing through the high voltage
system. It is important that the resistance of the earthing electrode systems is low. A common
problem with heavily loaded SWER systems is for the earth resistance of the electrode to
cause local heating of the soil. This dries the soil out which in turn causes the resistance to
increase until the consumers experience low voltage. This is particularly a problem at the
isolating transformer because of the higher currents.
Special precautions are also necessary to ensure that no high voltages can be accessed by the
public when there is a fault in the earthing system.
The general principles for the overhead line construction of the main system are maintained in
the SWER system. The insulation level recommended for the 12.75-kV system is
= 22 kV and for the 19.1-kV system it is = 33 kV.
(Refer to AS 2558: SWER TRANSFORMERS)
5.3 Diversity and ADMD
Two terms will now be defined, namely diversity and after-diversity-maximum-demand
(ADMD).
In the field of electricity distribution, diversity may be defined as the probability that the load
curves of two or more consumers will not precisely be the same (figure 5.3(b)).
If we divide the total of peak demands for a group of N consumers, by N, then this results in a
value known as the ADMD. It decreases as the number of consumers increases.
The controlling factor for ADMD is the probability of a number of consumers individual
maximum demands coinciding at any given time. The shape of the ADMD curve for a typical
all electric area in South-east Queensland is shown in figure 5.3(a).
3 12.75 10
3
3 19.1 10
3

ADMD
Indicated maximum demand for Nconsumers
N
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- =
Figure 5.3 (a) Figure 5.3 (b)
For one consumer the demand may be from 7 to 10 kVA; while for over 30 consumers, the
ADMD is approximately 2.5 kVA per consumer.
An ADMD of approximately 2.0 to 3.0 kVA per consumer is a reasonable value for design
purposes. However, this value will vary according to locality and according to the amount of
competition from suppliers of other types of heating appliances (gas or oil burning). The
ADMD therefore is the whole basis of the design of the low voltage networks and its choice
contributes significantly to the cost of supplying electricity.
5.4 Location of transformers and feeders
Theoretically, the ideal position for an 11-kV/415-V transformer station in urban or suburban
development is at an intersection, with four L.V. circuits from the station. In practice however,
such a position is usually physically impossible; so the transformer station is normally placed
in a short cross street nearest to the theoretically desired position. When 11-kV mains and L.V.
mains run along the same street, then they are generally erected on the same poles.
Main zone substations (66 kV/11 kV for example) should ideally be situated as close as
possible to the centre of gravity of the loads. The number of main transformers in these
substations is normally one more than that required to carry the full load. For a load of up to
40 MVA there could be three 20-MVA transformers installed to eliminate the need for load
shedding in the event of failure of one transformer.
A
.
D
.
M
.
D
.

(
k
V
A
)
Variation in A.D.M.D.
MD1
MD2
MD3
t
t
t
Customer 1
Customer 2
Customer 3
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
5 10 20 30 40 50
5.5 Alternative supply for maximum reliability
Absolute continuity of supply to all consumers in uneconomical and indeed a physical
impossibility. In practice, a compromise is accepted so that electricity supply is an economic
possibility. On the 66-kV system (sub-transmission system) duplicate feeders are built and the
loss of one 66-kV feeder will not cause an interruption to supply. However, duplication of
equipment from 11-kV busbars to the 11-kV/415-V distribution transformers is not normally
undertaken. The failure of any part of 11-kV equipment could mean the loss of an 11-kV
feeder. This may result in an interruption involving up to 2 MVA of load the normal
maximum demand of an 11-kV feeder.
Although 11-kV feeders and 11-kV/415-V distribution transformers are not duplicated, supply
can usually be restored in a relatively short period of time. When an 11-kV fault occurs, the
faulty equipment can normally be isolated by switching operations only, and supply restored to
healthy portions of the faulted feeder via other feeders.
The 11-kV high voltage distribution feeders are generally operated as radial feeders with
available tie-points (11-kV air break switches) for connection to other 11-kV feeders when
required (see figure 5.4).
Figure 5.4
Similarly transformer L.V. networks are run isolated (except that the neutrals are continuous
throughout an area), with L.V. disconnecting links provided at points of interconnection to
adjoining L.V. networks. Thus alternative means of supply are available on most sections of an
urban or suburban system right down to the consumers services. However, at the 11-kV and
415-V levels, the alternative supplies are not brought into operation automatically in the event
of a fault developing on them.
In fully built up areas it is normal to arrange the 11-kV network with ties to adjacent feeders
and isolating switches between each pair of transformers so that at light load periods any one
transformer can be taken out of service and the load maintained by means of low voltage ties
to adjacent transformer areas. Only one transformer is connected to any spur line that is teed
off from the main feeder, and isolating switches are installed in the main line each side of the
spur. This means that most line and transformer routine maintenance can be carried out
without any interruption to supply.
Open Tie
Point
66/11-kV
Substatio
66/11-kV
Substation
11-kV Feeders
5.6 Operational and voltage control
Normally all feeders and transformers of a distribution system are energised and carry a
proportionate share of load. The voltage at consumers terminals must be kept within specified
limits. The L.V. and 11-kV mains must be of adequate capacity to carry the load current, and to
avoid excessive line voltage drop due to the current, the line resistance and the reactance. For
overhead lines, the reactance increases with increase in conductor spacing. For underground
cables, the reactance is small due to the close spacing of the phase conductors.
To keep the voltage at the end of a transmission line or 11-kV distribution feeder within
required limits, voltage regulating apparatus is necessary. On-Load-Tap-Changing (OLTC)
transformers, step voltage regulating transformers, series capacitors, synchronous capacitors
or static var compensators may be used.
For 66-kV and 11-kV distribution systems, OLTC transformers are generally used. The
voltage regulating equipment may be operated so that constant voltage is maintained on the
load side of the transformer; or the regulators may be compensated so that the 11-kV
distribution voltage level is higher during peak load periods than for light load periods.
Figure 5.5 shows a typical line-drop compensating circuit used for OLTC transformers.
Figure 5.5: Line voltage drop compensator
The voltage transformer (V.T.) and current transformers (C.Ts) may be built into the
66/11-kV transformer. The variable resistances are adjusted so that the voltage regulating relay
holds a voltage which compensates for the resistance and reactance drops of the 11-kV line.
The relay may be part of a Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) installation or
it may be incorporated in an Intelligent Electronic Device (IED).
As the load increases, the voltage is decreased by the potentiometers so that the tap changer
will give a higher output voltage. Distribution transformers close to the supply are set to give a
lower output voltage and those at the far end a higher voltage.
The relay controls the auto-tap-changer on the transformer it raises/lowers the tap to
increase/decrease the voltage.
The line drop compensation is set with the aim of keeping the voltage at the centre of the
feeder constant as the load changes during the day. This means that at times of high load the
consumers close to the regulator will have a higher voltage and at times of low load they will
have a lower voltage. The line characteristics need to be such that the voltage of the supply to
all consumers remains within the statutory limits at all times.
RELAY
CT
CT
A
B
C
VT
E
VT
E
R
E
X
Static var compensators use thyristor-switched capacitors or inductors and produce a reactive
current which, when being supplied through the mainly inductive line and transformers,
increases or decreases the voltage as required to keep it within limits. One application is to
prevent the rapid variations in voltages cause by fluctuating loads such as arc furnaces. It is
not possible to correct for rapidly changing loads with on-line tap changers.
Summary
The consumers requirements as to the availability of an adequate and reliable supply of
electricity at an acceptable cost can often be neglected in sub-transmission networks and
primary and secondary distribution networks. It is important that the voltage at consumers
premises be confined to a small range of variation, because the multiplicity of electrical
appliances in use throughout society are essentially constant voltage rated devices.
When one considers there are approximately 60 000 distribution transformers in Queensland
the correct location of these assets becomes important. Many rural loads could be considered
fixed; but there still may be need to augment existing systems, to cater for the increase of
existing loads and the addition of new loads.
When load increases beyond the capacity of system equipment, either the excess load must be
transferred to less heavily loaded plant or capital expenditure is required to provide additional
plant capacity. However the quality of supply constraint of acceptable voltage applies, and
capital expenditure is required to overcome voltage problems before the capacity constraint is
reached.
There are many challenges left in this field. Through load control, the consumers heating load
demand is being kept to a fixed value. Having fixed variables, the computer becomes an
essential tool to the future electricity industry employee, to study and control the expenditure
on low voltage networks the most widespread and capital intensive area so often taken for
granted.
Questions
1. Explain the components of a distribution system with a marked sketch.
2. What is meant by after diversity maximum demand and how does the choice per consumer
govern the design?
3. Voltage control is accomplished by various means. Explain with sketches.
Modul e 5 Di stribution pl anni ng 5.11
References
Section
3
Lines, distributors and cables1
Module 6 Transmission lines, feeders and distributors
Module

6
Transmission lines, feeders
and distributors 2
Modul e 6 Transmission l ines, feeders and distributors 6.1
Objectives
analyse the circuit models for short lines, feeders and distributors
analyse the circuit model for two feeders in parallel.
Introduction
Supply and use of electricity requires commitment to safety, reliability, quality and economy
on the part of suppliers, operators and the users. In this module you will analyse short lines and
feeders in terms of voltage drops, power sharing, voltage regulation and transmission
efficiency.
6.1 Short lines
6.1.1 Short line circuit model
Module 8 Lines and Feeders
A short line used for distribution purposes can be represented by a series circuit model
consisting of resistance and reactance. For a single-phase 2-wire line, the line resistance and
reactance values are twice those of each conductor. Circuit models are shown using phase
quantities.
Figure 6.1: Single phase system circuit model
V
2
V
1
V
2
V
1
I I
( ) R X Z + = j ( ) / R X + j 2
( ) / R X + j 2
Circuit Model Source Line Load
The impedance of the line (i.e. loop impedance) is twice that of each conductor. V
1
is the
sending-end phase voltage. V
2
is the receiving-end phase voltage or load phase voltage.
For a three-phase 3-wire line, the resistance and reactance values are those of each phase
conductor.
Figure 6.2: Three-phase system circuit model
Unless otherwise stated, assume a balanced star-connected, three-phase system, with given
line-voltage V
L
, total apparent power S
t
, line current I
L
and power factor .
For three-phase generators, motors and transformers, the rating is always the total output
power at the specified line voltage, line current, power factor, frequency and temperature,
assuming balanced load and supply conditions.
6.1.2 Short line analysis
A short line used for distribution purposes can be represented by a series circuit model
consisting of resistance and reactance. For a single-phase 2-wire line, the circuit model line
resistance and reactance values are twice those of each conductor. Circuit models use
phase quantities. For a three-phase 3-wire line, the resistance and reactance values are those of
each phase conductor.
The impedance of each conductor to
earth is the line impedance (R+jX) = Z.
The voltages are phase voltages. The
current is that in each line conductor. A
balanced system is assumed.
Line voltage phase voltage.
S
t
=
S =
I*
S = *
P = S.
Q = -S.
= P / S
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
total three-phase apparent power (in VA, kVA or MVA)
apparent power/phase
complex conjugate of phase current
complex apparent power/phase = P j Q
active power/phase (in W, kW or MW)
reactive power/phase (in var, kvar or Mvar)
power factor
V
1
V
2
(R+jX)
(R+jX)
(R+jX) 3 =
cos
3 .V
L
.I
V.I
V.I
cos
sin
cos

Figure 6.3: Short-line equivalent circuit model per phase analysis
The angle between Z and R is the impedance angle.
The angle between V
2
and I is the power factor angle.
The angle between and is known as the power angle. Normally .
From the above circuit model the following relations can be derived for a load current I at
power factor = cos . Note: the load phase voltage is taken as reference. Assume V
2
, R, X, Z
and are fixed and I, , V
1
and can vary.
Example 1: Short line: power delivered to a load
... (1)
... (2)
... (3)
= Active current
... (4)
... (5)
... (6)
Note: Q is positive for lagging p.f.; Q is negative for leading p.f.
Supply Line Impedance Load
V
1
V
2
Z R X = + ( ) j
I
= = load voltage
I = = load current
Z = = line impedance
= = source voltage
R = Z = line resistance
X = Z = line reactance
V
2
V
2
0
I
Z
V
1
V
1

cos
sin
V
1
V
2
> >
Z I
V
1
V
2
Line impedance voltage drop = =

I
V
1
Z
------ =
V
2
Z
------
V
1

Z
-------------------
V
2

Z
------------------- =
Line current =
I
V
1
Z
------
\ .
| |
=
V
2
Z
------
\ .
| |

I cos j sin + ( ) =
I. cos
V
1
Z
------
\ .
| |
.
= ( ) cos
V
2
Z
------
\ .
| |
.
cos ( )
Active power delivered to load:
P
2
V
2
. = I.
V
1
V
2
Z
------------ ( )
V
2
2
Z
------
\ .
|
| |
. - ( ) cos cos = cos
Reactive power delivered to load:
Q
2
V
2
. = I .
V
1
V
2
Z
------------ . ( )
V
2
2
Z
------
\ .
|
| |
. - ( ) sin sin = sin
6.1.3 Short line: voltage regulation
In the phasor diagram for lagging power factor see figure 6.4:
Voltage regulation is the ratio of the change in output voltage on release of load to
the output voltage on load . The locus of is the arc of a circle, center a.
Figure 6.4: Voltage regulation phasor diagram
=
Note: the curve cg ) is the locus of as the power factor is varied.
=
= =
= =
= (as an approximation, neglect )
oa
V
2
ab RI bc XI ac ZI ; oc = V
1
og = = ; = ; = ;
V
1
aoI dab bcf = =
ad
ab . cos
RI. cos
bf
de bc . sin =
XI. sin
V
1
og oa ad de eg + + + = eg, since eg<<oc
V
1
V
2
RI. XI. sin + cos +
V
1
V
2
I R. cos X. sin + ( )
Voltage regulation ,
V
1
V
2
V
2
------------------------ =

I R. cos X. sin + ( )
V
2
----------------------------------------------------
V
1
V
2
V
2
V
1
a o
I
c
d
b
e
g
f
ZI
XI
RI
V
1
V
2
V
1
locus of

The voltage regulation is positive for lagging and unity power factors. (V
1
> V
2
)
At leading power factor, the voltage regulation becomes negative if V
2
> V
1
.
For lagging power factor is negative; for leading power factor is positive. Thus, the voltage
regulation is given by:
6.1.4 Short line: per unit value notation
Example 2: Short line: voltage regulation
Determine the transformer secondary line voltage ( ), and its MVA rating (S).
r
= (RI/V
2
) = per unit resistance voltage drop
x
= (XI/V
2
) = per unit reactance voltage drop
z
= (ZI/V
2
) = per unit impedance voltage drop
Note: The impedance voltage drop is different from the voltage difference
i.e.
Thus, the per unit voltage regulation is:
RI
V
2
-------
\ .
| |
. cos
XI
V
2
------
\ .
| |
. sin
V
1
V
2
V
1
V
2
ZI
V
1
V
2
V
2
------------------
r
cos
x
sin = =
V
sL
Transformer Feeder 33 kV Load
7 MW
0.8 lagging
V
sL
V
rL
Z
f
= + ( ) 2 3 j _
Load current =
Taking as reference-phasor:
(taking I
r
as reference)
Transformer secondary phase voltage
6.1.5 Transmission efficiency
= Power output of line (to load) =
= Power losses in the line =
= Power input to the line =
= Transmission Efficiency of the line =
For three-phase lines: use line voltage V
L
and line current I
L
at the load terminals.
Load phase voltage =
=
=
= (15.548 + j11.891) 10
3
= 19.57 kV
Since = = 33.896 kV
Transformer line voltage = 33.896 kV
Transformer output =
=
= 8.98 MVA
Transformer rating chosen S = 10 MVA
Voltage regulation =
=
=
(V
s
V
r
)/V
r
(33.896 33) 10
3
/33 10
3
0.896/33 = 0.0263 or 2.63%
I
r
P
r
3V
rL
cos
r
-------------------------------------
7 10
6
3 33 0.8
------------------------------------ 153 A = =
0
I
r
I
r
153A =

r
cos 0.8 lag;
r
sin 0.6
r
+36.9 = = =
V
r
V
r

33
3
------- 10
3
V =
r
+36.9
19.053 0.8 j0.6 + ( ) 10
3
15.242 j11.432 + ( ) kV =
I
r
Z
f
153 1 j0 + ( ) 2 j3 + ( ) 0.306 j0.459 + ( ) kV =
V
s
V
r
I
r
Z + ( ) =
V
s
37.41
V
sL
3V
s
3 19.57 = 10
3
V
sL
3 V
sL
I
r
3 33.896 10
3
153
P
o
V
2
I cos
P
L
R I
2
P
in
P
o
P
L
+ ( )
P
o
/P
i n
( )
Example 3: Transmission efficiency
For the system shown in the single-line diagram below, determine the transmission efficiency.
Given:
Transformer impedance referred to 33 kV side: Z
t
= (6.54 + j8.73) /phase
Feeder impedance /phase
Solution:
Z
t
and Z
f
are in series (on the H.V. side)
Let Z = (R + jX) = Z
f
+ Z
t
= (8.54 + j11.73)
Load supplied S = 10
6
VA/phase at cos = 0.8 lagging
Load current
Power to load P
r
=
Power loss in feeder & transformer = I
2
R = 69.98
2
8.54 W/phase
Transformer rating S
t
= 5 MVA, 33/11 kV, Yyo
Impedance Z
t
= (6.54 + j8.73) referred to 33 kV side
Load: 4 MVA at 0.8 lag p.f.
V
L
I
L
P
o
R
X
P
in
P
o
3 V
L
I
L
cos =
P
L
3R I
L
2
=
P
in
P
o
P
L
+ ( ) =
Generator Feeder
33 kV
Transformer
33/11 kV
Load
4 MVA
0.8 1agging
V
gL
V
1L
V
rL
=11 kV
G
Z
t
Z
f
= + ( ) 2 3 j I
Z
f
2 j3 + ( ) =
4
3
---
at
33 kV
3
---------------
\ .
| |
I
4 10
6
3
33
3
------- 10
3
------------------------------- 69.98A = = =
S
4
3
--- 10
6
0.8 W/phase = cos
6.2 Two feeders in parallel
A feeder is a short transmission line. It connects the supply transformers to bulk load centres.
Feeders A and B are operating in parallel to supply a common load. The single-phase circuit
model is shown in figure 6.5.
Figure 6.5: Single-phase circuit model
6.2.1 Currents
Let
The following equations can be derived:
Adding 1 to both sides and simplifying:
Overall Transmission Efficiency =
=
(Note: There are three phases) = 1 0.0377 = 0.9623 or 96.23%
I
a
+ I
b
= I
Z
a
I
a
= Z
b
I
b
= V
1
V
2
=
=
=
1
3I
2
R
3 P
r
I
2
R + ( )
---------------------------- 1
125.5 10
3
3 325.5 10
3
---------------------------------
Supply Feeder Impedences Load
I I
Z
a
I
a
V
1
V
2
Z
b
I
b
Z Z
Z Z
V V
V V
I I
a a
b b
=
=
=
=
=
1 1
2 2
0
Z
a
Z
b
+ ( )
Z
s
Z
s

= =
Z
a
Z
b
-----
I
b
I
a
----
Z
a
Z
b
+ ( )
Z
b
----------------------
I
b
I
a
+ ( )
I
a
--------------------
I
I
a
---- =
I
a
I
Z
a
Z
b
+ ( )
----------------------
Z
b

IZ
b
Z
s
-------- + I
a
= =

a
Similarly
6.2.2 Power diagrams
Powers delivered by feeders are
=
Note: The above derivations are also equally applicable to two transformers operating in
parallel to supply a common load.
P
a
Q
a
S
a
=
=
=
V I
a
cos
a
;
V I
a
sin
a
;
(P
a
jQ
a
);
P
b
Q
b
S
b
=
=
=
V I
b
cos
b
V I
b
sin
b
(P
b
jQ
b
)
Note that: P
a
+ P
b
Q
a
Q
b
S
S
a
+ S
b
=
=
=
P : Total Active Power

Q : Total Reactive Power
(P jQ) : Total Apparent Power
S; but S
a
+ S
b
= S
Case 1
a
is lagging;
b
is leading.
Q
a
is positive; Q
b
is negative.
Case 2
a
and
b
are both lagging.
Both Q
a
and Q
b
are positive.
I
b
I
Z
a
Z
b
+
-----------------
Z
a

IZ
a
Z
s
-------- = I
b
=
b
+
S
P
Q
S
a
S
b
P
a
P
b
Q
a
Q
b

Example 4: Parallel circuits: current division
Two feeders are connected in parallel to supply a load current of 100 A at 0.8 lagging power
factor. If their impedances are Z
1
= (10 + j20) and Z
2
= (10 + j25) , determine how
they share the load current.
Adding 1 to both sides:
Z
1
= (10 + j20) = =
Note: In a three-phase system with line-voltage V
L
and line-current I
L
:
the total apparent power is .
P = S cos ; Q = S sin
Solution:
The circuit representation for
the feeders is as shown.
Let I = I
1
+ I
2
Also Z
1
I
1
= Z
2
I
2
(1)
(2)
Similarly I
2
=
or I
2
= I I
1
S
P
Q
S
a
S
b
P
a
P
b
Q
a
Q
b
S 3V
L
I
L
=
I
I
1
I
2
V V
s
Z
1
Z
2

Z
1
Z
2
-----
I
2
I
1
---- =
Z
1
Z
2
----- 1
I
2
I
1
---- 1 + = +

Z
1
Z
2
+
Z
2
-----------------
I
2
I
1
+
I
1
---------------
I
I
1
---- = =
I
1
I
Z
1
Z
2
+
----------------- Z
2
=
I
Z
1
Z
2
+
----------------- Z
1
10
2
20
2
+
t an
1
(20/10)
22.36 63.43
Module 6 Transmissi on li nes, feeders and distri butors 6.11
Z
2
= (10 + j25) = =
I = 100 A; cos = 0.8 lag; = 36.8; sin = 0.6
I = 100 (0.8 j0.6) = = (80 j60) A
Example 5: parallel circuits: power delivery
Two feeders A and B are connected in parallel to supply a three-phase balanced load of 2 MW
at 0.8 lagging power factor. If the feeder A delivers 0.5 MW at 0.9 lagging power factor,
calculate the power factor and power delivered by feeder B.
Solution:
Z
1
+ Z
2
=
=
(10 + j20) + (10 + j25) = (20 + j45) =
I
2
= I I
1
=
=
(80 j60) (39.59 j37.74) = (40.41 j22.26) A
Load: Power = P = 2 MW
Power factor = cos = 0.8 lag = 36.8
Reactive power Q = P tan = = 1.5 MVAr
Feeder A: Power P
a
= 0.5 MW
Power factor cos
a
= 0.9 lag
a
= 25.84
Reactive Power Q
a
= P
a
tan
a
=
10
2
25
2
+
t an
1
(25/10)
26.93 68.2
20
2
45
2
+
t an
1
(45/20)
49.24
66
100 A 36.8
I
1
100
20 j45 +
-------------------------------- 10 j25 + ( ) 54 39.59 j37.74 ( ) A = = = 43.63
36.8
46.14 A
28.85
2
0.6
0.8
-------
0.5
0.4843
0.9
---------------- 0.269 MVAr =
+
The power diagram is shown above.
6.3 Distributors
A distributor has many branch-off points where loads are connected. It is important that the
cross-sectional area of the conductor chosen should be selected based on permissible voltage
drop, power loss and temperature rise.
In single-phase, the loop impedance (i.e. the sum of impedances of the forward and the return
conductors) is used to calculate the voltage drop. However for three-phase system, the phase
conductor impedance, the phase voltage and the phase current are used in the calculations,
assuming a neutral point. The impedance per unit length of a given size of conductor and the
permissible current and voltage drops can be usually found in conductor data tables. It is
customary to represent the distributors on a single line diagram.
Assume power factor angles are with reference to V
c
.
Feeder B: Since P = P
a
+ P
b
Power Supplied by B: P
b
= P P
a
= 2 0.5 = 1.5 MW
Reactive Power by B: Q
b
= Q Q
a
= 1.5 0.269 = 1.231 MVAr
tan
b
= = = 0.821
b
= 39.37
cos
b
= cos 39.37 = 0.773 lagging
Q
b
P
b
------
1.231
1.5
-------------
A B C
V
a
V
b
V
c
I
a
I
bc
r x ( )
1 1
+ j r x ( )
2 2
+ j
I
b b
, cos I
c c
, cos
The total supply current and voltage drops can be calculated as shown below.
The approximate voltage drop in short feeders may be calculated using the resistance voltage
only (thus neglecting the reactance voltage drop).
Also the phase difference between V
b
and V
c
is neglected.
Refer to AS3000.
Example 6: Distributor transmission efficiency
A single-phase distributor is shown in the single line diagram below. The loop impedance of
each section is (0.15 + j0.2) ohm. Find the overall transmission efficiency of the system.
Solution:
V
b
= 220 + 100(0.15 + j0.2) = (235 + j20) 236 V
Neglect the phase displacement between V
c
and V
b
.
I
b
= 60(0.8 j0.6) = (48 j36) A
I
a
= I
b
+ I
c
= (148 j36) = 152.3 A
Branch BC AB
Loop Impedance
Load current
Branch current
Voltage drop
(Approximate)
Z
bc
= (r2 + jx
2
)
I
c
= I
c
(cos
c
j sin
c
)
I
bc
= I
c
I
c
. (r
2
cos
c
+ x
2
sin
c
)
Z
ab
= (r
1
+ jx
1
)
I
b
= I
b
(cos
b
j sin
b
)
I
a
= I
b
+ I
c
I
a
. (r
1
cos
b
+ x
1
sin
b
)
V
c
220 V = 0
I
c
100 A = 0
Output Power P
O
=
=
V
c
I
c
cos
c
+ V
b
I
b
cos
b
[220 100 + 236 60 0.8] 10
3
Power Loss P
L
=
= 4.98 kW
Transmission Efficiency =
=
I
a
2
R
ab
I
c
2
R
bc
+ ( ) 152.3
2
100
2
+ ( ) 0.15 10
3
=
1
P
L
P
O
P
L
+ ( )
------------------------
1
5
39.33
------------- 0.873 =
Example 7: Single-phase distributor
A two-core, single-phase distributor, ABCD, is 640 m long, is fed at end A only, and supplies
loads B, C and D. The distance from A to B is 274.3 m, that from B to C is 274.3m, and that
form C to D is 91.4 m. The distributor has an impedance of (0.2 + j 0.075) per 914 m of
single core.
Calculate the voltage required at A so that the voltage at D is 220 V when the loads are: 60 A
at 0.8 p.f. lagging at B; 50 A at 0.9 p.f. lagging at C; and 30 A at unity p.f. at D.
b
acos
b
( ) :=
c
acos
c
( ) :=
d
acos
d
( ) :=
Section
impedances
Solution: Z_
ab
2
AB
L
Z_ := Z_
bc
2
BC
L
Z_ := Z_
cd
2
CD
L
Z_ :=
Z_
ab
0.12 0.045j + = Z_
bc
0.12 0.045j + = Z_
cd
0.04 0.015j + =
Load currents
I_
b
I
b
e
j
b
:= I_
c
I
c
e
j
c
:= I_
d
I
d
e
j
d
:=
I_
b
48 36j A = I_
c
45 21.794j A = I_
d
30 A =
Node A voltage
V_
a
Z_
ab
I_
b
I_
c
+ I_
d
+ ( ) Z_
bc
I_
c
I_
d
+ ( ) + Z_
cd
I_
d
+ V_
d
+ :=
V_
a
248.6V = V_
a
248.55 0.19j V = arg V_
a
( ) 0.04 =
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
A
V
d
I
d
I
b
I
c
60 A at
0.8 p.f.
lagging
30 A at
unity p.f.
91.4 m 274.3 m 274.3 m
D B C
220 V
50 A at
0.9 p.f.
lagging
Z
ab
Z
bc
Z
cd
V
a
Figure 6.6: Single-line diagram for a two-core, single-phase distributor ABCD fed at end A
Data: Voltage phasor at node D:
V_
d
220 V e
j 0
:=
(take as reference)
Distributor impedance:
Z_ 0.2 j 0.075 + ( ) :=
per single core length
L 914 m :=
Distributor section distance:
AB 274.3 m := BC 274.3 m := CD 91.4 m :=
Distributor load currents:
I
b
60 A := I
c
50 A := I
d
30 A :=
Load power factors:

b
0.8 lagging :=
c
0.9 lagging :=
d
1 :=
Load power factor angles:
Example 8: Distributor fed from both ends
Calculate the current distribution and the voltage at nodes B and C when the distributor in
example 7 is fed at both ends at 240 V, the loads being unaltered.
In figure 6.7 the current sources feeding ends A and D have common node E.
Z_
ab
Z_
bc
+ Z_
cd
+ ( ) I_
ab
Z_
bc
Z_
cd
+ ( ) I_
b
Z_
cd
I_
c
V_
a
V_
d
=
I_
ab
Z_
bc
Z_
cd
+ ( ) I_
b
Z_
cd
I_
c
+ V_
a
+ V_
d
Z_
ab
Z_
bc
+ Z_
cd
+ ( )
:=
KCL at node A
I_
ea
I_
ab
:= I_
ea
33.85 23.68j A =
KCL at node B
I_
cb
I_
b
I_
ab
:= I_
cb
14.15 12.32j A =
KCL at node C
I_
dc
I_
c
I_
cb
+ := I_
dc
59.15 34.11j A =
KCL at node D
I_
ed
I_
dc
I_
d
+ := I_
ed
89.15 34.11j A =
Node B voltage
V_
b
V_
a
Z_
ab
I_
ab
:= V_
b
234.87 1.32j + V = V_
b
235 V =
Node C voltage
V_
c
V_
d
Z_
cd
I_
dc
:= V_
c
237.12 0.48j + V = V_
c
237 V =
continued
A
I
d
I
b
I
c
60 A at
0.8 p.f.
lagging
30 A at
unity p.f.
D B C
50 A at
0.9 p.f.
lagging
Z
ab
Z
bc
Z
cd
I
ab
I
cb
I
dc
I
ea
I
ed
V
d
240 V
V
a
240 V
Figure 6.7: Single-line diagram for a two-core, single-phase distributor ABCD fed at ends A and D
Voltages at
A and D:
Data: V_
a
240 V e
j 0
:= V_
d
240 V e
j 0
:=
and, from example 7 -
Load currents:
I_
b
48 36j A = I_
c
45 21.794j A = I_
d
30 A =
Section
impedances:
Z_
ab
0.12 0.045j + = Z_
bc
0.12 0.045j + = Z_
cd
0.04 0.015j + =
Solution: For the current directions given in figure 6.7 -
KCL at node B
I_
cb
I_
b
I_
ab
( ) =
KCL at node C
I_
dc
I_
c
I_
cb
+ = I_
c
I_
b
+ I_
ab
( ) =
KVL in
loop
ABCDEA
Z_
ab
I_
ab
Z_
bc
I_
b
I_
ab
( ) Z_
cd
I_
c
I_
b
+ I_
ab
( ) V_
a
V_
d
=
Example 8 continued
Check the above solution for example 8 using Thevenins theorem:
Open-circuit section CD; then figure 6.8 represents the distributor (for convenience,
current directions may be reassigned).
Reconnect section CD:
Thevenin's theorem
gives current I_
dc

I_
dc
V_
dc oc
Z_
ac
Z_
cd
+
:= I_
dc
59.15 34.11j A = as previously
V
T
=
C
D
Z
cd
Z
T
= Z
ac
I
dc
V
dc
KCL at node C I_
bc
I_
c
I_
dc
:= I_
bc
14.15 12.32j + A =
KCL at node B I_
ab
I_
b
I_
bc
+ := I_
ab
33.85 23.68j A =
KCL at node A I_
ea
I_
ab
:=
KCL at node D I_
ed
I_
dc
I_
d
+ := I_
ed
89.15 34.11j A =
Figure 6.9: Thevenin
equivalent circuit
Node B voltage V_
b
V_
a
Z_
ab
I_
ab
:= V_
b
234.87 1.32j + V = V_
b
235 V =
Node C voltage V_
c
V_
d
Z_
cd
I_
dc
:= V_
c
237.12 0.48j + V = V_
c
237 V =
A D B C
Z
ab
Z
bc
I
ab
I
bc
I
ea
I
ed
I
d
I
b
I
c
60 A at
0.8 p.f.
lagging
30 A at
unity p.f.
50 A at
0.9 p.f.
lagging
V
d
240 V
V
a
240 V
Voltages at
A and D:
Data: V_
a
240 V e
j 0
:= V_
d
240 V e
j 0
:= and, Irom example 7 -
Load currents: I_
b
48 36j A = I_
c
45 21.794j A = I_
d
30 A =
Section
impedances:
Z_
ab
0.12 0.045j + = Z_
bc
0.12 0.045j + = Z_
cd
0.04 0.015j + =
Solution: Section DEABC
o c voltage drop
V_
ac oc
Z_
ab
I_
b
I_
c
+ ( ) Z_
bc
I_
c
+ := V_
ac oc
20.149 3.342j V =
(With section DC open circuited, section DC
voltage drop section DEABC voltage drop)
Section DC
o c voltage drop
V_
dc oc
V_
ac oc
:=
Section ABC
impedance
Z_
ac
Z_
ab
Z_
bc
+ :=
Example 9: Distributor fed from both ends; different voltages
Calculate the current distribution and the voltage at nodes B and C when the distributor in
example 8 is fed at end A at 240 V and at end D at 235 V, the loads being unabltered.
In figure 6.10 the durrent sources feeding ends A and D have common node E.
Z_
ab
Z_
bc
+ Z_
cd
+ ( ) I_
ab
Z_
bc
Z_
cd
+ ( ) I_
b
Z_
cd
I_
c
V_
a
V_
d
=
I_
ab
Z_
bc
Z_
cd
+ ( ) I_
b
Z_
cd
I_
c
+ V_
a
+ V_
d
Z_
ab
Z_
bc
+ Z_
cd
+ ( )
:=
KCL at node A I_
ea
I_
ab
:= I_
ab
49.50 29.55j A =
KCL at node B I_
cb
I_
b
I_
ab
:= I_
cb
1.50 6.45j A =
KCL at node C I_
dc
I_
c
I_
cb
+ := I_
dc
43.50 28.24j A =
KCL at node D I_
ed
I_
d
I_
dc
+ := I_
ed
73.50 28.24j A =
Node B voltage V_
b
V_
a
Z_
ab
I_
ab
:= V_
b
232.73 1.32j + V = V_
b
233 V =
Node C voltage V_
c
V_
d
Z_
cd
I_
dc
:= V_
c
232.84 0.48j + V = V_
c
233 V =
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
A
I
d
I
b
I
c
60 A at
0.8 p.f.
lagging
30 A at
unity p.f.
D B C
50 A at
0.9 p.f.
lagging
Z
ab
Z
bc
Z
cd
I
ab
I
cb
I
dc
I
ea
I
ed
V
d
235 V
V
a
240 V
Voltages at
A and D: Data: V_
a
240 V e
j 0
:= V_
d
235 V e
j 0
:= and, from example 7 -
Load currents: I_
b
48 36j A = I_
c
45 21.794j A = I_
d
30 A =
Section
impedances:
Z_
ab
0.12 0.045j + = Z_
bc
0.12 0.045j + = Z_
cd
0.04 0.015j + =
Solution: For the assumed current directions shown in figure 6.10 -
KCL at node B I_
cb
I_
b
I_
ab
( ) =
KCL at node C I_
dc
I_
c
I_
bc
+ = I_
c
I_
b
+ I_
ab
( ) =
KVL in
loop
ABCDEA
Z_
ab
I_
ab
Z_
bc
I_
b
I_
ab
( ) Z_
cd
I_
c
I_
b
+ I_
ab
( ) V_
a
V_
d
=
Example 10: Distribution networks (i)
Calculate the current distribution when the single-phase, two-core ring main represented by
the single-line diagram ABCA, figure 6.11, is fed at end A at 240 V. The load currents at A, B
and C are as given in examples 7, 8 and 9: I
a
= 30 A; I
b
= (48 36j) A ; I
c
= (45 21.794j) A
Assume the current source and all loads to have a common node E.
___________________________________________________________________________________________
I_
ac
59.1 34.1j A =
( I_
dc
in example 8 ) At node C
I_
cb
14.1 12.3j A =
( I_
cb
in example 8 ) At node B
I_
ab
33.9 23.7j A =
I_
ea
123.0 57.8j A = I_
ea
I_
ab
I_
ac
+ I_
a
+ :=
At node A or A'
Thus, the current distributions for the ring main (see example 8) are:
Figure 6.12: Single-line diagram representation of a two-core, ring main ABCA' fed at A and A'
(where A an A' are at the same potential)
A
I
a
I
b
I
c
60 A at
0.8 p.f.
lagging
30 A at
unity p.f.
A' B C
50 A at
0.9 p.f.
lagging
Z
ab
Z
bc
Z
ca
I
ab
I
cb
I
ac
I
ea
I
ea
V
a
240 V
V
a
240 V
The solution is the same as that for a distributor fed at both ends at the same voltage
(see example 8).
In figure 6.11, at A, disconnect section AC and the load I_
a
; this junction may then
be regarded as node A' (at the same potential as node A) as shown in figure 6.12.
Solution:
V_
a
240 V e
j 0
:=
Figure 6.11: Single-line diagram for a two-core ring
main ABCA fed at node A
Voltage at A:
Z_
ca
0.04 0.015j + ( ) :=
Z_
bc
0.12 0.045j + ( ) :=
Z_
ab
0.12 0.045j + ( ) :=
The section impedances of
the ring-main are given as:
Data:
C
A
B
I
c
50 A at
0.9 p.f.
lagging
I
a
30 A at
unity p.f. I
b
60 A at
0.8 p.f.
lagging
Z
ab
Z
bc
Z
ca
I
ac
I
ab
I
cb
I
ea
Example 11: Distribution networks (ii)
Calculate the current distribution, and the voltage at nodes B, C and D, when the single-phase,
two-core ring main represented by the single-line diagram ABCDA, figure 6.13(a), is fed at A
at 240 V. The current source and all loads may be assumed to have a common node E.
By Thevenin's
theorem
I_
dc
V_
dc oc
Z_
dc
Z_
cd
+
:= I_
dc
20.05 13.83j A =
KCL at node C
I_
bc
I_
c
I_
dc
:= I_
bc
19.95 16.17j A =
KCL at node B
I_
ab
I_
b
I_
bc
+ := I_
ab
59.95 16.17j A =
KCL at node D
I_
ad
I_
dc
I_
d
+ := I_
ad
50.05 13.83j A =
KCL at node A
I_
ea
I_
ab
I_
ad
+ := I_
ea
110 30j A =
Node B voltage
V_
b
V_
a
Z_
ab
I_
ab
:= V_
b
227.20 0.24j + V = V_
b
227 V =
Node C voltage
V_
c
V_
b
Z_
bc
I_
bc
:= V_
c
219.76 3.29j + V = V_
c
220 V =
Node D voltage
V_
d
V_
c
Z_
cd
I_
dc
+ := V_
d
229.16 0.24j V = V_
d
229 V =
A
I
d
50 A at
0.8 p.f.
lagging
D
Z
ad
I
ad
I
ea
30 A at
unity p.f.
B
C
I
ab
I
bc
Z
ab
I
dc
Z
bc
Z
cd
I
c
I
b
40 A at
unity p.f.
A
I
d
50 A at
0.8 p.f.
lagging
D
Z
ad
I
ad
I
ea
30 A at
unity p.f.
B
C
I
ab
I
bc
Z
ab
Z
bc
I
c
I
b
40 A at
unity p.f.
(a) (b)
Figure 6.13: Single-line diagram representation of a two-core, ring main ABCDA fed at A
Data: Section impedances:
Z_
ab
0.2 0.05j + ( ) := Z_
bc
0.3 0.09j + ( ) :=
Z_
cd
0.4 0.1j + ( ) := Z_
ad
0.2 0.06j + ( ) :=
Supply voltage:
V_
a
240 V e
j 0
:=
(take as reIerence)
Load currents:
I_
b
40 A := I_
c
40 30j ( ) A := I_
d
30 A :=
Solution: Using Thevenin's theorem, open-circuit section CD as shown in Iigure 6.13(b).
Section DABC
o c voltage drop
V_
dc oc
Z_
ab
I_
b
I_
c
+ ( ) Z_
bc
I_
c
+ Z_
ad
I_
d
:=
V_
dc oc
26.2 9.2j V =
Section DABC
impedance
Z_
dc
Z_
ad
Z_
ab
+ Z_
bc
+ := Z_
dc
0.7 0.2j + =
Example 12: Distribution networks (iii)
Calculate the currents in branches AB and BC of the distribution network shown in figure
6.14(a). The current source and all loads have a common node E.
Z_
as
Z_
ac
Z_
da
Z_
ac
Z_
cd
+ Z_
da
+
:= Z_
cs
Z_
as
Z_
da
Z_
cd
:= Z_
ds
Z_
as
Z_
ac
Z_
cd
:=
Z_
as
0.1 0.05j + = Z_
cs
0.1 0.05j + = Z_
ds
0.05 0.025j + =
Using Thevenin's theorem, open-circuit section BC; then:
Section ASC
o c voltage drop
V_
ac oc
Z_
as
I_
c
I_
d
+ ( ) Z_
cs
I_
c
+ := V_
ac oc
15.5 4j + V =
Section BASC
o c voltage drop
V_
bc oc
V_
ac oc
Z_
ab
I_
b
:= V_
bc oc
4.76 4.76j + V =
By Thevenin's
theorem
I_
bc
V_
bc oc
Z_
ab
Z_
as
+ Z_
cs
+ ( ) Z_
bc
+
:= I_
bc
7.66 3.28j + A =
KCL at node B I_
ab
I_
b
I_
bc
+ := I_
ab
43.7 14.2j A =
40 A at
0.9 p.f.
lagging B
A
50 A at
0.8 p.f.
lagging
50 A at
unity p.f.
Z
ab
I
ea
C
D
Z
cd
Z
da
Z
bc
Z
ac
I
c
I
d
I
b
I
ab
I
bc
50 A at
0.8 p.f.
lagging
D
Z
cs
Z
as
I
d
Z
ds
S
40 A at
0.9 p.f.
lagging B
A
50 A at
unity p.f.
Z
ab
I
ea
C
Z
bc
I
c
I
b
(a) (b)
Figure 6.14: Single-line diagram for a distribution network ABCDA, with interconnector AC, fed at A
Section
impedances:
Data: Z_
ab
0.25 0.1j + ( ) := Z_
bc
0.3 0.1j + ( ) :=
Z_
cd
0.2 0.1j + ( ) := Z_
da
0.2 0.1j + ( ) := Z_
ac
0.4 0.2j + ( ) :=
Load currents: I_
b
40 A e
j acos 0.9 ( )
:= I_
c
50 A := I_
d
40 30j ( ) A :=
I_
b
36 17.436j A =
Solution: Convert impedances in delta ACD, Iigure 6.14(a), to yield impedances Z_
as
; Z_
cs
and
Z_
ds
in star, Iigure 6.14(b):
References
Module 7 Overhead lines
Module

7
Overhead lines 3
Module 7 Overhead lines 7.1
Objectives
outline the factors affecting reliability
describe the parameters affecting conductors in overhead lines
list the range of conductors available for overhead lines and factors important in selecting
the most useful
explain the terms: insulator, stays, preformed splices and dead ends, sagging, layout plan
describe the way lines are erected, conductors are sagged and earthing is carried out.
Introduction
After determining the load forecast for every major node point in the system and the
generation programme to meet the total load, the system planner must endeavour to select the
programme for development that will satisfy the standards of supply laid down and meet the
expected loads in the most economical manner.
The large number of variables facing the system planner is reduced to some extent, by the
standards. Standardisation limits the choice of alternatives in each study to a few specific
values.
For example, in a particular case a non-standard voltage might theoretically be the most
economical, but in fact a standard voltage would always be selected. Similarly, sizes of
conductors and capacities of transformers will be selected from a discrete standard adopted by
the network company. Other standards including reliability and quality of supply are described
in the module.
7.1 Reliability
No matter what precautions are taken, it is impossible to avoid interruptions of supply to
consumers. Circumstances inevitably arise, however infrequently, to cause an interruption.
These circumstances include the break-down of a significant portion of generating plant, faults
on transmission or distribution lines, and faults on apparatus, including consumers apparatus.
In most undertakings, system planning is based on rather arbitrary standards of reliability.
Working rules are commonly laid down to provide some guide to the system planner. These
rules generally are confined to specifying the number of transformers and the circuit
arrangement to be provided to meet different categories of load.
One should approach the problem of reliability, using a computer to study the following
aspects:
1. A statistical analysis of recorded data, to determine probabilities of frequency of
interruptions exceeding a given duration for a particular system arrangement.
2. An estimate of the costs of measures for improvement of reliability related to the
reduction in the number and duration of interruptions expected to occur because of these
measures.
3. Consider in depth the consequences of the interruptions. How and what consumers would
be affected, the cost and inconvenience to the consumers and the safety of the public.
In considering frequencies and consequences of interruptions, the times of the day during
which the system is likely to be exposed to risk of failure to meet demand must be taken into
account. Here, the daily and monthly load duration curves are invaluable.
The risk of failure might be caused by breakdown of generating plant, occurrence of system
instability, thermal overload of lines or equipment, voltage collapse or some other event. Often
the most important consideration in the failure of electrical plant is the duration or preloading
of the plant prior to failure.
The risk of failure will vary throughout the day. Also the consequences of interruptions to
supply are more serious at certain times than at others. A study found that outages during the
11 p.m. to 7 a.m. night period caused only about one third the resentment of day-time outages.
Outages during the 6 p.m. to 11 p.m. evening period caused about 2.5 times the resentment of
day-time outages.
The recommended approach is to assign a cost per kW and kWh of load shed. In studying
whether there would be a justification for a particular addition to the system, the number and
duration of interruptions avoided is analysed and the cost estimated. The cost is then compared
with the cost of the proposed addition, and if it is greater, then the proposed addition is
considered to be economically justified.
The cost and inconvenience to consumers varies widely between different types of consumers
and different areas. The cost is much greater than the loss of revenue. Some authorities say
fifty times as much. One must consider and recommend standby supply, for essential services,
and perhaps admit imperfections of any system planning. But the preceding guidelines will
encourage consistency in expenditure in the various parts of the system.
7.2 Conductor parameters
The conductor size and line voltage are normally the main consideration with respect to
overhead line costs, once reliability and operational requirements are attained. The size of the
conductor should be governed by the characteristics of the load and the degree of reliability
required. When considering possible future increases in load, it may be more economical to
increase the voltage rather than the size of the conductor.
In the definition of project parameters, the following need to be resolved:
voltage
normal/emergency rating
performance/reliability
impedance/number of circuits/terminal locations
further requirements allowed for in current project.
These project parameters are the basis for detailed design, preparation of specifications for
construction and purchase of material, and tower siting.
Detailed design includes:
route selection
assessment of environmental impact
surveying of route
location of towers
acquisition of right of way
electrical/hardware design
specification of structure loading
design of structures and foundations
preparation for purchase of material/or construction.
7.2.1 Bare conductor comnparisons
The following table contains a comparison of the relative merits of 37 strand (each 3-mm
diameter) conductor, for a 132-kV line of 120-MVA (180-MVA emergency) rating, based on
20% calculated minimum breaking strength, with 400-m spans and a maximum wind loading
of 500 Pa at 15C.
ACSR Aluminium based conductors are currently widely used. The most common form
is ACSR (Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced). The steel core wires are
normally galvanised and they may be additionally greased or alternatively
aluminium clad to improve the corrosion resistance (i.e. ACSR/GZ and
ACSR/RC).
AAC All aluminium conductor (AAC) is rarely used, because of high sags in long span
transmission lines.
AAAC The second most popular conductor is an aluminium magnesium silicon alloy.
Classified as All Aluminium Alloy Conductor (AAAC) designated 6201, to
differentiate it from another new alloy 1120. Compared with AAC, the alloy
conductors demonstrate higher breaking loads, with some sacrifice of
conductivity.
Table 7.1: Comparison of bare conductors
Standard wire cables (conductors) are generally used for overhead transmission lines and in
substations where a flexible connection is required between busbar and equipment. The type
of conductor used depends on the mechanical strength required for the application and/or the
electrical load that has to be carried by that line. Three things describe a conductor:
Strandings most commonly used are 3, 7, 19, 37 and 64.
Materials used are copper, aluminium, steel and aluminized steel. The conductors are
sometimes made up of a combination of 2 of the above materials
e.g. 30/7/3.75 ACSR means 30 strands aluminium/7 strands of steel/3.75 ACSR
Complete generalised details are in the following Australian standards:
Conductor Type ACSR/GZ ACSR/AC AAAC
(6201)
AAAC
(1120)
AAAC
Stranding
Code Name
Relative
Strength/Weight
Tension % Cal
Min Breaking Load
Static Al
Stress (MPa)
Sag at 20C
(m)
Top Temperature
(C)
Max Loaded
Tension (kN)
Demand (kW)
Losses (MWh)
3-phase/km year
30/7/3.00
Lemon
1.00
20
36
10.6
92.2
25.2
130
370
30/7/3.00
Darts
1.00
20
25
9.8
88.2
26.0
120
342
37/3.00
Ruby
1.10
20
56
9.6
86.6
22.9
118
336
37/3.00
Nitrogen
0.93
20
48
11.4
82.4
20.3
107
305
37/3.00
Saturn
0.63
20
32
16.9
81.5
14.6
103
293
AS 1746
AS 1531
AS 3607
copper conductors (Cu)

all aluminium (AA or AAC)
aluminium conductor steel reinforced (ACSR).
Stranding
Size (diameter)
material
19/2.14 copper
Aluminium is preferred, as it is less corrosive than copper or steel. The steel and aluminized
steel strands provide strength and are placed in the middle of the conductor.
The copper and aluminium conductors for short spans are strung very slack, thus reducing the
tension in the conductor and stress on the overhead construction (wood pole and crossarms).
ACSR and other steel-bearing conductors are for the longer tight-strung spans. Steel
conductors are generally limited to when each conductor has a specified current rating and can
be used for a range of voltages in single wire earth return (SWER) systems in the rural areas.
The fittings available for conductors vary according to the application. Bolted, crimped or
sweated where there is no tension on the joint. Preformed fittings, bolted or compression
where there is tension
Because of the corrosive effect of copper on aluminium, care must be taken when there is a
combination of these conductors and fittings.
Overhead constructions using stranded conductors are designed to cater for the variations of
spans, angles, types (suspension, termination, shackle, etc.) and conductor sizes. The
construction type also depends on the stringing (tightening of conductor), and the temperature
rise and fall. The sag can be considerably greater at a high temperature. Note that a new
conductor will not sag as much as one that has been in service for a period of time. All this
data plus the profile of the land will dictate the height of the pole and the distance of the span.
The spacing of the conductors on the crossarm must allow suitable clearance at mid-span. Any
minor movements in the spans are suppressed by vibration dampers placed adacent to the
insulators.
The constructions may have to support lines of different voltages and it is not uncommon to
see a 66 kV line on top, with 11 kV and low voltage under. Single and double circuit steel
towers provide the support for 110 kV, 132 kV, or 275 kV lines.
Schedules are created to list standard data, e.g. each contruction is listed with conductor size,
stringing table reference, span range, types of construction (straight/angle), angle of deviation
and crossarms suitable.
Steel Core
Aluminium
conductor
19 wire
37 wire
7.2.2 Aerial bundled cables
Aerial Bundled Cables (ABC) are used for most low voltage overhead mains in urban areas.
The conductors are all aluminium. The size is given in cross sectional area. The standard sizes
as given in the following table from AS/NZS 1125 are:
The insulation is cross-linked polyethylene. This material has excellent insulating properties,
can withstand ultra violet light exposure and is very abrasive resistant.
The cables are designed for use with mechanical fittings for aerial bundled cables specified in
AS 3766. Full details of these conductors are given in AS/NZ 3560.
The objectives of Insulated Overhead Mains are:
to increase the reliability of supply
to reduce the environmental impact of mains
to improve work safety and reduce public hazard
to reduce maintenance costs.
7.2.3 Conductor stringing
Sag and tension in level span catenaries
A catenary is the shape taken by a cable hung by its ends and acted on by gravity. Consider a
cable suspended between two supports of equal elevation, as shown in figure 7.1, such that
Note that the x-axis is placed at a distance c (m) the catenary constant below the midpoint
of the cable. This simplifies the derivations.
Figure 7.1: Level-span catenary suspension of a cable
x = horizontal distance (m) from the cable midpoint to a point ( x; y) on the cable
y = vertical distance (m) from the x-axis to a point ( x; y) on the cable
T = tension (N) at a point ( x; y) on the cable
l = length (m) along the cable from midspan to the point ( x; y) where the tension is T
w = weight per unit length of cable (N/m) = mass per unit length gravitational acceln
W = vertical tension; i.e. unloaded weight (no ice, wind, etc.) (N)
S = horizontal span (m)
D = maximum sag at the span midpoint (m)
L = cable length (m)
T
H
= horizontal tension (N) : a constant
T
max
= maximum tension at the supports (N)
D
Y
S
X
T
W
dx
dy
dl
T
H
l
0
c
x
y
In deriving the equations for the caternary suspension of a cable, we make two assumptions:
1. The cable is perfectly flexible; that is, it supports no bending forces.
2. The cable is perfectly inelastic; that is, it does not stretch.
The vertical tension W (N) in the cable is (7.1)
The tension T in the cable is (7.2)
Assign a constant c to the ratio of horizontal tension T
H
to weight per unit length w:
(7.3)
Rewriting (7.2): (7.4)
In figure 7.1, the horizontal projection of a small length of cable dl can be expressed as dx:

(7.5)
Integrating over the length from the point of maximum sag to a point l on the cable:
(7.6)
Using substitution in (7.6) (7.10)
and recalling that (7.11)
then (7.12)
Let (7.7)
Then (7.8)
and (7.9)
W w l =
T T
H
( )
2
W
2
+ =
c
T
H
w
------ =
T T
H
( )
2
W
2
+ w
2
c
2
w
2
l
2
+ w c
2
l
2
+ = = =
dx ( ) dl
T
H
T
------ dl
w c
w c
2
l
2
+
---------------------------- = = cos = dl
c
c
2
l
2
+
------------------- dl
1
1
l
c
--
\ .
| |
2
+
-------------------------- = = dl
1
}
dx x
1
1
l
c
--
\ .
| |
2
+
------------------------
0
l
}
= = dl
l
c
-- y ( ) sinh =
l c sinh y ( ) =
dl c y ( ) cosh dy =
x
?

}

?
c y ( ) cosh
1 sinh
2
y ( ) +
-------------------------------------- = dy
cosh
2
x ( )
2
x ( ) 1 = sinh
?
?
?
y
c cosh y ( )
cosh
2
y ( )
(
(
(
]
d =
?
?
y
c cosh y ( )
cosh y ( )
(
(
(
]
d =
?
?
y c
(
(
]
d = c y =
?
From (7.7) we know that (7.13) y sinh
1 l
c
--
\ .
| |
=
? l
Substitute (7.13) into (7.12)
c y c sinh
-1
l
c
c sinh
-1
l
c
(7.14)
? 0
dy
l
c
dx =
c sinh
x
c
c
dx = sinh
x
c
dx = (7.20)
Integrating from the point of maximum sag to a point on the cable with an abscissa of x :
0
x
y 1
d
0
x
x sinh
x
c
d =
x x
gives y y x ( ) c cosh
x
c
= y x ( ) c cosh
x
c
= (7.21)
0 0
Substitute
T
H
w
for c : y x ( )
T
H
w
cosh
w x
T
H
= (7.22)
Therefore x
0
l
l
1
1
l
c
2
+
d = c sinh
-1
l
c
= (7.15)
Solving (7.15) for l : x c sinh
-1
l
c
= sinh
x
c
l
c
= l x ( ) c sinh
x
c
= (7.16)
Substitute
T
H
w
for c : l x ( )
T
H
w
sinh
w x
T
H
= (7.17)
Equation (7.17) expresses the length of a section of the cable l x ( ) from the midspan point
of maximum sag to a horizontal distance specified by x .
The length of the cable, from one support to the other, can be found by substituting S 2
for x in equation (7.17), thus giving half the length, and then multiplying by 2:
Length of cable L
2 T
H
w
sinh
w S
2 T
H
= (7.18)
To obtain a relationship between x and y , we can write -
dy tan ( ) dx =
W
T
H
dx =
w l
w c
dx =
l
c
dx = (7.19)
Substitute (7.16) into (7.19)
Equation (7.22) is the catenary equation, which describes the elevation y of a cable
suspended from two points of equal height relative to the midspan minimum elevation.
Constant c = T
H
assigned in equation (7.3) is referred to as the catenary constant. An
increase in c causes the catenary curve to become shallower and the sag to decrease.
The maximum sag D at midspan is found by substituting for x in equation (7.22):
Parabolic approximation of the catenary
The catenary equation (7.22) can be approximated by expanding the hyperbolic cosine
function as a Maclaurin series. Recall that a function's Maclaurin series expansion is
w
S 2
D y
S
2
=
T
H
w
cosh
w S
2 T
H
= or simply D
T
H
w
cosh
w S
2 T
H
= (7.23)
From (7.18) and (7.23), substituting in (7.22), rearranging and simplifying:
y x ( )
L ( )
2
D
2
2 D
cosh
2 D x
L ( )
2
D
2
= (7.24)
Equation (7.24) is an alternative expression for the catenary equation for the case when
the cable length L and the maximum sag D are the known quantities.
Further substitution and simplifying yields equation (7.25) - an expression for the catenary
span S when the cable length L and the maximum sag D are the known quantities:
S
L ( )
2
D
2
D
ln
L D +
L D
= (7.25)
The tension in the cable at a point ( x , y ) is T w y = where y c cosh
x
c
= .
At the supports, x
S
2
= and y c D + = c cosh
x
c
= , so T becomes a maximum
T
max
c w cosh
S
2 c
= (7.26)
y x ( )
T
H
w
cosh
w x
T
H
=
T
H
w
0
n
w x
T
H
2n
2n ( ) !
=
(7.28)
Expanding (7.22) gives:
(7.27)
f x ( ) f 0 ( ) x f ' 0 ( ) +
x
2
2!
f '' 0 ( ) +
x
(n - 1)
(n - 1)!
f
(n - 1)
0 ( ) + + =
0
n
f
n
0 ( )
n!
x
n

=
=
Module 7 Overhead l ines 7.11
(7.33)
D
w S
2
8 T
H
or simply
D y
S
2

w S
2
8 T
H
=
The maximum sag D at midspan is found by substituting S 2 for x in equation (7.32):
Equation (7.32) is a parabolic approximation to the catenary curve.
(7.32)
y x ( )
w x
2
2 T
H
or simply
y x ( )
T
H
w
w
2
x
2
2 T
H
( )
2
gives
w x
T
H
=
Re-substituting
(7.31)
y x ( )
T
H
w
2
2!
Thus
Bacause of the rapidly growing denominator, we need only consider the quadratic term.
(7.30)
y x ( )
T
H
w
1

2
2!
+

4
4!
+ +
=
T
H
w
2
2!
4
4!
+ +
=
Since cosh 0 ( ) 1 = and sinh 0 ( ) 0 = , equation (7.29) can be simplified as -
(7.29)
y x ( )
T
H
w
cosh 0 ( ) sinh 0 ( ) +

2
2!
cosh 0 ( ) +

3
3!
sinh 0 ( ) +

4
4!
cosh 0 ( ) + +
w x
T
H
=
For convenience, temporarily let
Summary of equations for level-span cantenaries
Equation [2] expresses the length of a section of the cable l(x) from the midspan point of
maximum sag to a horizontal distance specified by x.
The parabolic equation for cable length can also be expressed as a function of sag D by
substitution of the sag parabolic equation [3] into [4]:
Cable slack is the difference between cable length L and span S. The parabolic equations for
slack are found by rearranging the parabolic equations for cable length L and sag D:
From equation [7] it is evident that the slack in each suspension span is proportional to the
cube of the span. It follows that for a number of adjoining spans of different lengths, the total
slack is determined largely by the longest spans rather than the average span.
Catenary curve Parabolic approximation
[1] Curve y x ( )
T
H
w
cosh
w x
T
H
= y x ( )
w x
2
2 T
H
y x ( )
L ( )
2
D
2
2 D
cosh
2 D x
L ( )
2
D
2
=
[5] Span S
L ( )
2
D
2
D
ln
L D +
L D
=
[2] Cable length to x
l x ( )
T
H
w
sinh
w x
T
H
= l x ( ) x 1
w
2
x
2
6 T
H
( )
2
[3] Sag D
T
H
w
cosh
w S
2 T
H
= D
w S
2
8 T
H
[4] Cable length L

2 T
H
w
sinh
w S
2 T
H
= L S 1
w
2
S
2
24 T
H
( )
2
[6] Cable length L S

8 D
2
3 S
+
[7] Cable slack ( L S ) S
3
w
2
24 T
H
( )
2

[8] Cable slack ( L S ) D
2
8
3 S

Equation [8] can be arranged to show the dependence of sag D on slack (L S):
Techniques for solving level-span catenary cable problems
To solve catenary-type cable problems, unless otherwise directed, neglect effects due to (i) ice
and wind loadings and (ii) change of temperature. Recall: for a horizontal-span catenary
The following equations apply to the catenary.
Note: T becomes T
max
when and y = c + D i.e., at the supports
x = horizontal distance (m) from the cable midpoint to a point ( x; y) on the cable
y = vertical distance (m) from the x-axis to a point ( x; y) on the cable
T = tension (N) at a point ( x; y) on the cable
l = length (m) along the cable from midspan to the point ( x; y) where the tension is T
w = weight per unit length of cable (N/m) = mass per unit length gravitational acceln
W = vertical tension; i.e. unloaded weight (no ice, wind, etc.) (N)
S = horizontal span (m)
D = maximum sag at the span midpoint (m)
L = cable length (m)
T
H
= horizontal tension (N) : a constant
T
max
= maximum tension at the supports (N)
c = catenary constant (m) Figure 7.2: A portion of the cable to the right of
the midpoint
[9] Sag
D
3 S ( L S )
8
y
x
T
H
x
T
c
y W
x
S
2
--- =
(1) c
T
H
w
= where w m g =
(2) y c cosh
x
c
= and c D + c cosh
S
2 c
=
(3) T w y = and T
max
w c D + ( ) = or T
max
c w cosh
S
2 c
=
(4) l c sinh
x
c
= and L 2 c sinh
S
2 c
= or S
L ( )
2
D
2
D
ln
L D +
L D
=
(5) y
2
c
2
l
2
+ = and c D + ( )
2
c
2
L
2
4
+ = or c
L ( )
2
D
2
2 D
=
The following types of problems involving cables of mass m kg / m may require solution:
In case (a), solve equation (2) by trial for c; then (3) yields T
max
and (4) or (5) yields L.
In case (b), solve equation (4) by trial for c; then (2) or (5) yields D and (3) yields T
max
.
In case (c), solve equation (5) for c; then (3) yields T
max
and (2) or (4) determines S.
In case (d), solve equation (3) by trial for c; then T
H
, L and D can be found.
Effects of ice and wind loading
Let the diameter of the cable be d (m) and the radial thickness of ice i (m). Then the cross-
sectional area A
i
(m
2
) of the ice is given by:
Assume that the ice load is uniform throughout the length of the cable. Let the ice mass per unit
length of cable be m
i
(kg / m). If the density of ice is (kg / m
3
), and gravitational acceleration
is g (m / s
2
), then the ice weight per unit length (N / m) is
Weight of ice per unit length of cable (7.35)
It is usual to allow for the effect of wind by assuming it to blow uniformally and horizontally at
right angles to the cable. The projected area per unit length of ice-covered cable is given by:
Projected area per unit length of ice-covered cable (7.36)
Let the wind pressure exerted be p (N / m
2
) on the total projected area of ice. Let F
w
(N / m) be
the resulting horizontal wind force exerted per unit length of cable. Then
The effects of ice and wind may be combined with the weight of the cable. The resultant force
per unit length of cable is then
(a) given S and D; (b) given S and L; (c) given D and L; (d) given T
max
and S
X-sectional
area of ice
= = (7.34)
Horizontal wind force
per unit length of ice-covered cable
(7.37)
Resultant force per unit length of cable
due to weight, ice and wind
(7.38)
The maximum tension at the
cable supports is then
(7.39)
or simply (7.40)
A
i
4
--- d 2 i + ( )
2
d
2
=

4
--- d
2
4 i d 4 i
2
d
2
+ + ( ) i d i + ( )
i
w
i
A
i
i
g = i d i + ( )
i
g =
a
i
d 2 i + =
F
w
p a
i
= p d 2 i + ( ) =
F
wi w
F
w
( )
2
w w
i
+ ( ) +
2
=
T
max
T
H
( )
2
F
wiw
L
2
---
\ .
| |
2
+
2
=
T
max
T
H
( )
2
F
w
L
2
---
\ .
| |
2
w w
i
+ ( )
L
2
--- + +
2
=
Example 1
A uniform cable is suspended at each end from points of equal height. Given the data below,
(a) plot (1) the catenary curve and (2) the parabolic curve;
(b) calculate the maximum sag in each case;
(c) calculate the length of the cable in each case;
(d) calculate the maximum tension in the cable using hyperbolic and algebraic relationships;
and
(e) calculate the slack in the cable.
Data: For Drake ACSR cable (Rated breaking strength T
r
:= 31.50010
3

.
lbf T
r
= 140.12kN)
Note the approximately 15:1 in the graph axis scales. (Notwithstanding the expanded vertical
axis, there is no noticeable difference between the catenary and parabolic approximation curves
in this example.)
150 100 50 0 50 100 150
0
2
4
6
8
10
Catenary Curve
Parabolic Curve
Catenary & Parabolic Approx'n Curves
Horizontal distance from midspan (m)
C
a
b
l
e

e
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n

a
b
o
v
e

m
i
d
s
p
a
n

(
m
)
y
p
x ( )
x
2
2 c
:= y
c
x ( ) c cosh
x
c
c :=
Parabolic
curve
Catenary
curve
Solution (a):
x
S
2
0.9 S
2
,
S
2
.. :=
Range
T
H
T
r
14.3 % = T
H
as a percentage of T
r
Note: The subscripts
c
and
p

in this example are simply to
mark the catenary and parabolic
models and would not normally
be written on formula symbols.
c 1251m = c 4106ft = c
T
H
w
:=
Catenary
constant
S 304.8m = S 1000 ft :=
Level span
T
H
20.02kN = T
H
4500 lbf :=
Horizontal tension
w
g
1.631kg / m = w 15.99N / m = w 1.096 lbf / ft :=
Cable weight per unit length
Given the conditions in this example for a level span of ACSR Drake cable, at the attachment
points the maximum tension T
M
= 20.166 kN exceeds the applied horizontal tension T
H
=
20.017 kN by only T
M
T
H
= 149 N, a difference of only (T
M
T
H
) %.
This shows that, instead of using T
M,
the more convenient use of horizontal tension T
H
is
adequate for typical transmission line spans and sags. However, there is scarcely any good
reason to use the parabolic equation approximations for the catenary when the hyperbolic
equations are just as easily implemented.
L
c
305.55 m = L
p
S 1
S
2
24 c
2
:= L
p
305.55 m =
========== ==========
L
p
S
8 D
p
2
3 S
+
:= L
p
305.55 m =
==========
Solution (d):
Maximum tension in the cable occurs at the ends and can be found using a simple algebraic relationship.
Using the hyperbolic relationship Using the algebraic relationship
Maximum
tension at
cable
attachment
points
T
M
T
H
cosh
w S
2 T
H
:= T
M
20.166 kN = T
M
T
H
w D
c
+ := T
M
20.166 kN =
=========== ===========
T
M
w
L
c
2
4
D
c
2
+
2 D
c
:= T
M
20.166 kN =
===========
Solution (b): Catenary Parabola
Maximum
sag
D
c
c cosh
S
2 c
c := D
c
9.291 m = D
p
S
2
8 c
:= D
p
9.279 m =
========== ==========
Difference between D
c
and D
p
values:
D
c
D
p
11 mm =
Error in using the approximation:
D
c
D
p
D
c
0.12 % =
Sag as a percentage of span length:
D
c
S
3.05 % =
Evidently the parabolic expression is sufficiently accurate as long as sag is less than 5% of span length.
Solution (c): Catenary Parabola
Cable
length
L
c
2 c sinh
S
2 c
:=
T
H
0.7 =
Thus, small changes in slack typically yield large changes in sag and tension, particularly for
short spans.
Example 2
Given the span S and sag D for a cable suspended at each end from points of equal height, the
following two relationships give good approximations to the catenary length L of the cable.
Solution (e): Catenary Parabola
Cable slack =
cable length
- span
Slack
c
L
c
S := Slack
c
754 mm = Slack
p
S
3
24 c
2
:= Slack
p
753 mm =
============ ============
Slack
p
D
p
2
8
3 S
:= Slack
p
753 mm =
============
Note: For this case, a reduction in slack of
slack
6in := (
slack
152mm = ) yields a reduction in sag of -
Reduction
in sag
sag
D
c
3 S Slack
c

slack
( )
8
:=
sag
39.3 in =
sag
999 mm =
L
p

S
2
1
4 D
S
2
+
S
2
8 D
ln
4 D
S
1
4 D
S
2
+ +
+
(2) L
p
2
S
2
2
4
3
D
2
+
For the cable in example 1, determine the length of the cable using the two equations above.
Data: Sag D D
p
:= D 9.279m =
Span S 304.8m =
Solution: Parabola
Cable
length
'L
p
S
2
1
4 D
S
2
+
S
2
8 D
ln
4 D
S
1
4 D
S
2
+ +
+ := 'L
p
305.55 m = as above
===========
L
c
'L
p
2.2mm =
Parabola
Cable
length
''L
p
2
S
2
2
4
3
D
2
+ := ''L
p
305.55 m = as above
===========
L
c
''L
p
1.5mm =
Cable length
given by
approximations
to the catenary
(1)
Example 3
A cable is strung between supports which are equal vertical heights. As shown in the diagram,
y is the elevation above ground level of a point P(x, y) on the cable and x is the horizontal
distance to the point from the midpoint of the span.
Given the horizontal tension T
H
:= 20.02 kN in the cable, determine the cable weight per unit
length w using the catenary equation.
Solution:
The catenary equation (7.22) may bewritten as -
-100 100 -50 50 0
20
300 m
x = distance from midpoint
Support
height
y = 30 m
Support
height
y = 30 m
y = 20 m when
x = 0 m
y = 30 m when
x = 150 m
C
150 -150
===========
c 1127m = c
T
H
w
:= w 17.77N / m = w Find w ( ) := Cable weight per unit length:
Note:
Catenary
constant
y
T
H
w
cosh
w x
T
H
C + = Given
Use Ctrl = (not :=)
in this equation.
w 20 N / m := Guess: C 20 m := x 150 m := y 30 m := T
H
20.02kN =
Note:
Given and Find are
Mathcad sol ve block
functions (not text).
Solve this equation by trial for w; or a solution may be found elegantly using a Mathcad
solve block:
30 m
20.02 10
3
N
w
cosh
w 150 m
20.02 10
3
N
20 m + =
Plugging these values into the catenary equation gives:
From the diagram, when x = 0 m, then y = C = 20 m.
Also, when x = 150 m, then y = 30 m.
where the constant C is the ground clearance of the cable midpoint
(not to be confused with c the catenery constant).
y x ( )
T
H
w
cosh
w x
T
H
C + =
Example 4
A cable is 240 m long and has a mass per unit length of 0.6 kg / m. It is to be suspended with a
sag of 9 m between two supports at equal elevations. This is an example of a catenary.
Determine (a) the cable span; and (b) the cable tension at the supports. Neglect temperature
and loading effects.
Sag
D
T
H
w
cosh
w S
2 T
H
=
This equation may be solved iteratively for horizontal tension T
H
, or a solution may be found using
a Mathcad solve block (let the T
H
parabolic approximation value be the required initial guess value):
Cable horizontal tension
T
H
Find T
H
( ) := T
H
4.681kN =
Maximum tension
T
M
T
H
w D + := T
M
4.73 kN =
===========
Manual iterative method: using the calculated values - S 239.1m = ; w 5.884N m
1
=
and, as a first guess, parabolic approx'n value T
H
4.672kN = , solve for catenary sag D 9m = :
Try 1: T
H
4.66 kN := D
T
H
w
cosh
w S
2 T
H
:= D 9.04 m =
: too large; try larger T
H
Try 2: T
H
4.69 kN := D
T
H
w
cosh
w S
2 T
H
:= D 8.98 m =
: too small; try smaller T
H
Try 3: T
H
4.68 kN := D
T
H
w
cosh
w S
2 T
H
:= D 9.002m =
: sufficiently accurate
Data: Cable mass per unit length
m 0.6 kg m
1
:=
Cable length
L 240 m :=
Cable sag
D 9 m :=
Gravitational acceleration
g 9.807m s
2
:=
Solution (a):
Using summary equation [5] Cable span
S
L
2
2
D
2
D
ln
L
2
D +
L
2
D
:= S 239 m =
=======
Solution (b): Cable weight
per unit length
w m g := w 5.884N m
1
=
Re-arrange summary equation
[3] (parabolic approximation)
to give the cable horizontal
tension (parabolic approx'n).
Cable
horizontal
tension
T
H
w S
2
8 D
:= T
H
4.672kN =
(parabolic
approximation)
Use Ctrl = (not :=) in this equation.
Note:
Given and Find are
Mathcad sol ve block
functions (not text).
Using summary equation [3]
for the catenary, write the
equation for the cable sag.
Given
For spans of less than about 300 metres the parabolic approximation of the catenary gives a
sufficiently accurate result for practical purposes.
For longer spans the catenary equation is used.
As the conductor temperature changes the tension in the conductor will change. As the tension
decreases the sag will increase.
The conductor temperature is a function of electrical current flow, ambient temperature, and
wind speed.
The extreme factors which must be considered are:
Low temperature with low electrical current and high wind speed. This is the maximum
tension condition which the conductor and line terminations must withstand.
High wind speed with high conductor temperature. This is the condition of maximum
horizontal sway. The conductors must remain clear of other conductors and structures. It
cannot be assumed that all conductors will move in unison.
High conductor temperature with no wind. This is the condition for maximum sag and
minimum ground clearance.
Low conductor temperature with varying wind speeds. This is used to check for aeolian
vibration. Dampers can be fitted to eliminate aeolian vibration.
The thermal rating of many overhead lines is limited by the ground clearance.
The clearances are legislated in most countries.
In Queensland the minimum clearances are given in the Electricity Safety Regulation 2002.
Consumers overhead lines must comply with AS/NZS 3000.
7.3 Vibration
Conductors are prone to three major types of wind induced vibration.
galloping
sub-span oscillation
aeolian vibration
Galloping is a large amplitude violent oscillation normally associated with conductor icing
conditions. Control measures include use of smooth bodied conductors (trapezoidal rather than
round wires) and mid-span spacers.
Subspan oscillation is wake induced vibration. It occurs on bundled conductors, where one
subconductor lies in the lee of the first. Methods of relief include:
(a) provide a spacing to diameter ratio of at least 14
(b) tilting the bundle
(c) use of spacer dampers
(d) use unequal subspan lengths.
Aeolian vibration: Under the influence of near normal uniform wind, vortex shedding on the
upper and lower surfaces of conductors produces vertical pressure differentials. These induce
conductor vibration in a vertical plane. Standing waves are set up in a span by reflection from
the span end-points. The amplitude of this vibration rarely exceeds two conductor diameters
and the frequency usually lies in the range of 10 to 40 Hz.
The vibration produces an alternating bending stress at the mouth of the conductor suspension
clamp leading to strand failure. Vibration dampers are designed to absorb the energy coming
into the suspension units and reduce the bending stress at the suspension point but may not
alone be effective in vibration prone areas.
7.4 Factors important in overhead line planning
Overhead line planning recognises that there are alternative ways of meeting the need, usually
involving several stages of development, frequently over many years. In evaluating these
factors, transmission authorities:
check environmental effects and aesthetic considerations
check the technical performance of each, including where necessary, maintaining
satisfactory levels of voltage, loading, short-circuits and system stability
ensure each alternative can be satisfactorily protected
check each for practicability including transport limits, load times, etc.
determine in each case capital costs and annual costs (such as maintenance and losses)
assess each for flexibility of operation and suitability for maintenance
assess each for changing circumstances, e.g. a larger power station or a smaller load
growth rate.
7.4.1 Overhead line standards
Overhead lines require defined standards and these should include:
the thermal rating of any system element will not be exceeded under specified normal and
emergency operating conditions
voltage will remain between specified operating limits at light load and maximum load
accepted limits of reactive source capability will not be exceeded
standard levels of short-circuit current will not be exceeded at defined operating
conditions
the system should withstand, without instability, a specified severity of system fault
the damping characteristics of the system will meet a specified criteria
specified limits to the magnitude of voltage fluctuation, e.g. to mine winders, dragline
scrapers, arc furnaces
frequency deviations will be within specified limits.
Overhead lines are linear systems of three essential components:
overhead conductors and earthwire, insulators and hardware
structures which support the overhead lines at discrete points
insitu soil and rock which support each structure through a foundation.
Optimisation is the rule to produce an efficient and economic system.
Overhead line practices in Australia
At voltages of 66 kV and below most of the lines are supported by wood or concrete poles
with wood or steel cross arms. The use of concrete poles has increased because of the longer
life. Fibre composite cross arms are being used in place of wood in some areas. Ground stays
are used to support the poles at angles and terminations.
At voltages of 110 kV and 132 kV both wood poles and self supporting steel lattice structures
are commonly used.
At voltages above 132 kV self supporting steel lattice structures are normally used.
On overhead earth wire is used to shield transmission lines from lightning. This earth wire
often incorporates a fibre optic cable for data transfer and substation control.
Glass disc insulators are used at all high voltages with polypropylene insulators also in wide
use at the distribution voltages.
Conductive poles such as concrete or steel are electrically bonded along the line by means of
an overhead earth wire, a separate earth bonding conductor or the LV neutral to ensure that the
step and touch potentials during faults are within safe limits.
7.4.2 Design objectives
The basic design objectives are to provide:
safety, to minimise the risk to public and maintenance staff
operational reliability to meet specified reliability criteria
electrical stress to which line is subjected
internal power frequency
internal switching surge
external lightning surges.
7.4.3 Review of safety criteria
Insulation requirements for the general public are based on ground clearance and conductor
swing conditions, with the required minimum clearances defined by statutory regulations.
Safety considerations in providing sufficient insulation (to ensure maintenance personnel
working on the line are exposed to minimal hazards) for both live and normal inspection and
maintenance work are:
a climbing corridor is required in steel lattice line structures; i.e. a space within which a
trained line workers movements will be confined
if the conductor is not restrained, an allowance must be made for its movement under wind
an approach distance must be maintained; i.e. an air gap which will withstand the
maximum electrical stress expected
earthing has to be effective to ensure that the step and touch potentials during faults are
within safe limits.
7.4.4 The ultimate design concept
Traditional methods of specifying loads for structural design are based on (working load)
(factor of safety) approach.
A new approach of defining structure loading differs in that it permits the determination of a
meaningful measure of structural reliability. It is essentially a probabilistic technique which
involves an assessment of the distributions of both the loads seen by each structural element,
and the strength of that element. This is identical with insulation design. The combination of
load and strength probabilities gives the probability of withstand (or failure).
7.4.5 Line foundation
To date resources of foundation engineering have focused on the foundation problems of
buildings and bridges. As uplift is often the controlling foundation design load for a variety of
transmission structures and tenders are based on identical structures to be used at many sites
along a given route, variable foundation conditions result in varying philosophies of approach.
7.4.6 Route selection
The aim of route selection is to minimise the length of a line, thus minimising its cost and
exposure. Land use constraints may be:
intense land use residential, commercial, industrial
specialised use airfields, operative mining areas, irrigated lands, state forests, special
features of cultivation
high amenity value national parks, scenic and residential areas, historical sites.
There is a direct effect of a line on property owners and there is an increasing awareness by the
public about environmental issues. Consultants specialising in the impact of high voltage
overhead lines are now available to interested public groups.
To minimise visual impact there must be:
careful siting, including the use of background
special clearing techniques at selected sites and sensitive areas
camouflage techniques involving structure, painting, use of dull galvanising and
shadowline conductor
special structures with improved aesthetic appeal.
Questions
1. List the factors to be considered reliability of overhead lines.
2. List typical conductor materials and other factors to be considered in choosing an
overhead line.
7.5 Overhead line structures
The main structure used for overhead line supports are:
wood poles
steel poles
concrete poles
steel towers.
Wood poles are still widely used for overhead distribution lines. Wood poles are excellent
because they are relatively cheap and, being an insulator, no additional earthing is required to
control step and touch potentials during faults.
Wood poles are a renewable resource. The sap wood is treated by impregnation with a copper-
chrome arsenate solution to help preserve the wood from decay. The major location of decay is
just below the ground line. Treated poles are subject to soft rot below the ground line,
especially if the pole is in situations where the soil at that level remains moist. This happens
where the location is badly drained or where the pole is on a suburban footpath which is
watered regularly or in cultivation which is irrigated. Network companies need to regularly
inspect the poles below ground level to check for decay. If a pole is not inspected below
ground level the first indication of decay may be the collapse of the pole.
Steel poles are used mainly for street lighting and consist of a number of steel tubes able to be
assembled to take a steel crossarm. Each tube is made to fit one on top of the other, coming in
multiples of 2 metre lengths to achieve the height necessary. Coming in short lengths, steel
poles are easily transportable and find use by electrical contractors as well as electrical
authorities, because the specialised lifting equipment of the authorities is not necessary.
Steel poles have been used on transmission lines. Here they take the form of bonded steel
structures, made in lengths for galvanising and bolted together. Their strength can be varied to
suit their duty to support in line, angle or tension support structures.
Concrete poles are used for key structures and important lines where future replacement is
more expensive and/or difficult because of the need to maintain supply. Examples are sub-
transmission lines, distribution substations and dual circuit lines. Pre-stressed concrete poles
are manufactured by placing the reinforcing under longitudinal tension while the concrete is
poured. This results in greater strength and decreased surface cracking due to deflection.
Steel towers are used for transmission voltages for the following reasons:
they can be manufactured to any reasonable height, giving high structure which affords
maximum span lengths
towers are mechanically strong and well able to support the long spans of transmission
lines
steel is not subject to attack from termites or dry rot, associated with timber
they can be manufactured to carry more than one circuit and designed for good phase
conductor and earthwire cover separation.
Lattice steel towers are used for transmission lines because they can be designed for any
particular loading and conductor spacing.
In practice a number of standard designs are used and the design for any particular site is
selected on the basis of the height and strength requirements for the particular application. The
critical components are the slender steel members withstanding compressive forces.
Generally, if any one member fails the tower collapses with catastrophic results.
The tower must be designed to withstand dynamic wind loading on both the tower and the
conductors combined with the conductor tension forces. Special attention to the foundations is
necessary so that they can withstand the uplift forces on the tension side of the tower.
7.6 Pole and tower fittings
7.6.1 Component parts
The component parts commonlyused on wood poles are shown in figure 7.3. These will be
discussed in a little more detail.
Figure 7.3:
Pole cap
A cap of galvanised sheet steel is fitted to the top (head) of wood poles, to prevent
deterioration from the action of sun and rain.
Pole Cap
Insulator
Crossarm Brace
Crossarm
Crossarm Bolt
Pole Step
Pole
Crossarms and braces
Crossarms are fitted to poles to accept the insulators to which the active conductors are
attached. Crossarms are usually made of hardwood. However for special situations and most
concrete poles, steel crossarms are used. Unequal loading of the two sides of a crossarm would
tend to make the crossarm turn on its bolt. However, rotation of the crossarm is prevented by
crossarm braces which are galvanised steel straps.
Pole steps
Pole steps are fitted to poles above ladder height. The pole steps are made from round
galvanised steel, and are provided with a bent up end to prevent the line workers feet from
slipping off.
7.6.2 Insulators
Pin type insulators
These are mainly used for 11 kV up to 66 kV construction.
Pin type insulators are also used for LV bare conductor
construction but most new LV overhead construction does not
use bare conductors.
They are used for straight through constructions or for small
angles. They should not be used for long spans of unequal
length because of the strain caused by changes on conductor
tensions with changing temperatures.
Disc insulators
These are made of glass and porcelain with galvanised steel
hardware. They are connected together to form an insulator
string.
Insulation at different levels is a matter of using the
appropriate number of discs. For example, at 11 kV one disc
would be used, whereas at 66 kV four or five discs would be
used.
Composite insulators
Composite insulators are now widely used especially at the higher
voltages in place of disc insulator strings. They are lighter and more
economical than disc insulators. It is common to use them in a V'
to prevent lateral movement of the conductor.
They are also used as line post insulators.

Polymeric, hybrid and porcelain insulators
Composite insulators are used in medium and
high voltage applications. They consist of a
polymeric housing over a pultruded fiberglass
rod to which galvanized steel or aluminium
end fittings are attached.
Modular lightweight insulators consist of a
solid polymeric core with a polymeric housing.
Stainless steel threads can be threaded directly
into the polymeric core without the use of
bulky metal fittings.
Hybrid insulators consist of a high strength
ceramic core with a polymeric housing. The
best features of ceramic and polymeric
insulators are combined, resulting in high
mechanical strength and excellent electrical
behaviour under polluted conditions.
Porcelain insulators are the traditional choice
for distribution line, busbar and apparatus
insulation. Manufactured from high quality
non-porous electrical porcelain, they provide a
long-life and cost-effective solution for most
applications.
Line post insulators
These provide a cleaner look to the
construction making it more visually
acceptable in built up areas. The
construction usually allows for some
longitudinal movement of the conductor to
allow the conductor tensions to equalise.
This is achieved either with a short
suspension arrangement between the
conductor and the insulator or using a
hinged base. They are constructed of
porcelain or composite materials.
Stay insulators
Stay insulators provide an isolation between a line fault that may try to travel to earth via the
stay wire. They are made in various sizes for different voltages and tensions.
Standards
More information on line insulators can be found in:
AS/NZS 2947 Insulators Porcelain and Glass
AS 4435 Insulators Composite or Overhead Lines.
The main requirements of insulators are to provide:
mechanical support
structural strength
physical and electrical clearance
thermal protection to conductors etc.
Where metallic materials are associated with the insulators they are bonded together using
approved cements. Ferrous parts are galvanised.
Stay Insulator
s = specified clearance
Desired properties
Insulator types and uses
The following are the most common uses for the various types of insulators. Keep in mind that
similar types of insulators vary in size and shape. Most of the insulator and conductor fittings
are detailed in AS1154, some special items are sometimes required and have to be
manufactured separately.
mechanical strength
thermal stability
homogeneous composition
high compression and tensile strength

withstand extreme temperature changes
no flaws, impurities and blow holes
non-hygroscopic and impervious to gases and vapours
easy to design, manufacture, assemble and use in one piece
high dielectric strength and puncture strength
high insulation resistance to leakage currents.
Pin type
The conductor ties vary for the type of conductor and the style of construction e.g. straight
line or angled. Angled constructions have the conductor in the side groove. The insulators
are used for low voltage up to 33 kV.
Shackle
The low voltage shackle (a reel) insulator usually support non-tension bridging whilst the
11 kV are used in angle constructions.
Low voltage and high voltage shackle insulators are of the reel type as shown in
figure 7.4(a), while figure 7.4(b) shows a typical low voltage termination using shackle
insulators.
Pin AS1154
Crossarm
Typical Conductor Tie
11 kV Construction
Figure 7.4
High voltage strain insulators are of the disc type. Figure 7.4(c) shows a typical single disc
termination, using a disc strain insulator (this is a typical 11 kV termination).
Disc type insulators are also used for suspension construction (underslung under the
crossarm) and two variations of this type of construction are shown in figure 7.5.
Figure 7.5
The pin type insulator may be used on small angles. For low voltage line angles, shackle
insulators are used. The most common type of construction for large angles on high voltage
lines is the suspension assembly, while for larger angles in the line, strain type construction is
employed.
Line post
This insulator does a similar job as the pin but at a higher voltage, this particular insulator is
approximately 365 mm long (excluding pin).
Pedestal post and station post
The pedestal post and station post have 2 main functions:
supporting busbar by using clamps bolted to the insulator by means of the PCD holes
being an intregal part of single and three phase isolating switches mounted on bases
and supporting the switch blades. The approximate length of each is 11 kV
280 mm, 33 kV 380 mm, 110 kV 1 140 mm, 132 kV 1 470 mm.
Horizontal rotary single sidebreak isolators
Disc
Disc insulators form suspension and tension strings in order to provide electrical
clearances from crossarms etc. The number of insulators used depends on the voltage of
the overhead line. The insulators are joined by two methods:
tongue and cleaves
ball and socket (with security clip).
and are designed to withstand specified tensions e.g. 44 kN and 66 kN
Termination assembly
Straight line suspension assembly
Common causes of failure of insulators
The most common causes of failure of insulators are:
Consult AS 2947 and AS 4435 for details on insulator tests:
dry flashover
wet flashover
impulse
porosity
puncture
thermal shock test
classification of insulator
creepage distance.
Insulator and conductor fittings
Consult AS 1154 for details of fittings used in conjunction mainly with disc insulators to
complete the insulator strings necessary for overhead constructions (including tower lines).
The variety is necessary to give the strength and flexibility required to withstand the stresses
inflicted by wired and short circuit forces. The ball and socket fitting give a limited universal
joint.
The standard also details the pins used with the pin insulators showing the various patterns of
the lead alloy heads that screw into the insulators.
cracking of surface due to thermal stresses and cyclic uneven
expansion/contraction of metal, cement and
porcelain materials design changes and
choice of materials
defective material voids and blowholes may lead to puncture
porosity moisture, corrosion of metal and current
leakage
poor glazing collects dirt and leads to flashover
flashover metal to metal flashover and breakdown
mechanical stresses due to excessive tension in conductor
short circuit birds etc. sitting or lying across insulator.
7.6.3 Cross arms
Non-conductive cross arms are favoured because the increased insulation level greatly
enhances the lightning performance of the line. They also provide increased safety for line
workers when the line is energised.
Wood is widely used because of the low price and insulating properties. The main location of
decay is on the upper surface of the cross arm and it is now a practice to coat this surface.
Galvanised steel cross arms have been used because they can be made to any size and strength
and have a long life. The main disadvantage is the lack of insulation.
Fibre composite cross arms are being used increasingly because they have a long life, have
excellent insulating properties, can be made to any size and strength and they are easier to
erect because they are lighter.
7.6.4 Stays
Whereas lattice type steel towers can be designed to be self supporting, poles often need to be
stayed where there is an angle in the line or where conductors terminate.
Stays are normally anchored to the ground by means of a screw type anchor. These anchors are
screwed into the ground using the hole boring machine set at an angle.
A stay insulator is inserted into the stay wire to prevent the portion of the wire near the ground
from becoming alive in the event of a failure at the pole top. Some visual means needs to be
used to prevent the danger of injury to people passing under the stay wire where it is close to
the ground. Stay wires are usually galvanised steel.
A bollard type stay is used where it is
necessary to span across a roadway.
A
n
Sidewalk stays are used in built up areas. A
horizontal strut is bolted to the pole. The stay
wire passes over the strut and is then nearly
vertical to the ground. This avoids any danger
of injury to people passing under the ground
stay wire and uses less space on the footpath.
7.7 Conductors, joints and sagging
7.7.1 Conductors
The metals and alloys in use for line conductors are copper, cadium copper, aluminium,
aluminium alloy, aluminium steel-cored (or steel-cored aluminium), galvanised steel, copper-
clad steel and aluminium-clad steel.
For ease of handling (flexibility), line conductors are stranded. The strands are usually
arranged in concentric layers about a central core. The smallest number of wires in a stranded
conductor is 3, then 7, 19, 37, 61, 91 etc.
Until recent years, hard drawn bare copper was the most generally used distribution line
conductor. However, due to the high price of copper, aluminium conductors are now in general
use for low and high voltage distribution systems. Steel-cored aluminium has a high tensile
strength. The type of conductor used for a line is a function of span length, desired tensions,
current carrying capacity, voltage drop, environmental conditions (corrosive activity by salt air
or fumes). Corona and radio interference aspects must also be considered when selecting
transmission line conductors.
Galvanised steel conductors are used to a limited extent if low-cost construction is desired in
lightly loaded rural areas. Steel is also used as an overhead earthwire conductor on high
voltage transmission lines.
The smaller the conductor cross-section, the higher is the inductance of the line. Line
inductance is also a function of the spacing between phases. Line capacitance to ground is
negligible at lower voltages, but is of importance for high voltage transmission lines.
A bundled conductor is a phase conductor made up of two or more sub conductors.
Generally there are not more than four sub-conductors per phase.
7.7.2 Joints in conductors
Whereas copper conductors can be successfully joined by simple clamping special precautions
are necessary when joining aluminium to prevent corrosion at the joint. Special grease is used
in the fitting. When copper and aluminium are joined the electrolytic action greatly
exacerbates the problems of corrosion.
Line conductor joints may be divided into four groups.
A splice joint is made by simply twisting together the two ends of the conductors to be joined.
This type of joint is applied mostly to small sized copper conductors.
For medium sized conductors the twisted sleeve joint is commonly used. The sleeve consists
of a metal tude which in section has flat sides with half rounded ends. The ends of the
conductors are pushed into the sleeve, which is then twisted to form it into a spiral having the
same direction of lay as the outer layer of the conductors. Sleeves should be made of similar
material to the conductors being joined.
Preformed splices are propriety products comprising lengths of specially shaped wire which
are twisted around the conductors to be joined. As tension is applied they tighten to ensure
good conductivity. They are used to make tension joints and dead-end terminations in the
smaller conductors.
A compression joint comprises a sleeve which is passed over the ends of the conductors and
is then compressed using a hydraulic tool or machine. Compression joints are usually used for
joining bare aluminium conductors.
Low voltage bundled aluminium conductors are joined using insulated, grease filled, enclosed
connectors with screws which pierce the conductor insulation.
The termination between the network companys aluminium overhead service wire and the
consumers mains are made in the mains box using grease filled, enclosed connectors with
screws which pierce the service wire insulation. The consumers mains are usually copper
conductors so that this is an aluminium to copper connection.
7.7.3 Sagging of conductors
Before a line is constructed a line survey is carried out and the pole positions determined,
ensuring that along the whole of the route the conductors have adequate clearance to ground.
In timbered country the route is cleared as trees must not foul the line conductor.
During erection, line conductors are generally pulled over snatch blocks (see figure 7.4),
particularly steel cored aluminium and aluminium conductors which are easily damaged.
Figure 7.6: Snatch block
Conductors are sagged in accordance with sag and tension charts applicable to the particular
conductor used and prevailing temperature conditions. Careful attention must be paid to the
temperature at the time of sagging as the conductor sag increases as the temperature increases.
Sagging of conductors is accomplished by several methods:
sighting (see figure 7.5)
timing waves
use of dynamometer.
Figure 7.7: Sighting boards
Accurate sagging by sighting is difficult if spans are long or if sags are quite small. If the
poles are not at the same horizontal level, sagging by sighting is even more difficult.
The method of sagging based on timing, involves attaching a rope to the conductor about one
metre from a support; giving a sharp jerk (which causes a wave to travel along the conductor;
noting the time required for the next wave to return to its starting point (the wave being
reflected from the next pole). The time required for the wave to return to the rope attachment
corresponds to a definite sag which can be calculated, or read from prepared tables. The time
is independent of span length, type and size of conductor. Normally the timing is carried out
for 3, 5, 10 or 15 wave returns, the choice of the number of return waves depending principally
on the span length.
In the dynamometer method the actual conductor tension is measured, the dynamometer
being placed in the pulling equipment during the final sagging operations.
Termination
Pole
Free-Running
Sheave or Block at
Every Point of Support
To Winch or Hoist
Sag
Sighting Boards
attached to Poles
Equal in Length
to Desired Sag
7.8 Earthing
Earthing is important for the following reasons:
To ensure that the voltage rise on any exposed conductive material during fault conditions
will be limited to a value which will not cause electric shock. It is also necessary to check
that the step potential along the ground is within safe limits.
to ensure that sufficient fault current will flow to operate the protective equipment.
To ensure that voltages on neutral conductors remain low.
On single-wire-earth-return systems the load-carrying earth resistances must be low to
minimise losses, ensure that voltage regulation is within limits and to prevent local heating
and thus drying of the soil.
All steel structures carrying live conductors must be efficiently connected to earth.
Derivation of the formula for the resistance of a cylindrical rod driven into homogenous soil is
quite complex.
The generally accepted formula developed by H B Dwight gives sufficiently accurate results
provided the length of the electrode is much greater than its diameter.
The Dwight formula is:

where R = resistance between the electrode and remote earth in ohms
= soil resistivity in ohm metres
r = radius of the electrode in metres
L = length of the electrode below the surface in metres
R

2L
----------
4L
r
------
\ .
| |
1 ln =
r
L
x
Grounding electrode
Concentric shells of soil
Representation (not to scale)
of grounding electrode system
A formula can be derived using the assumption that, if a voltage is applied to the electrode,
points in the soil of equal distance from the surface of the electrode are at the same potential.
This is not quite true as the shape of the shell being analysed is cylindrical above the point of
the electrode and spherical below the point of the electrode.
This formulae is derived as follows:
It has been shown that the contact resistance between the electrode and the soil is negligible.
As shown in the following tables, the Dwight formula and this derived formula give similar
results. In this course we will use the Dwight formula.
Typical values of soil resistivity are given in the following table.
Soil type Resistivity range (.m)
Surface soils 150
Clay 2100
The value of the resistance depends on the depth of the rod and the soil resistivity. The
diameter of the electrode does not greatly affect the result.
Figure 7.8: Earth resistance as a function of earthing rod depth
Figure 7.9: Earth resistance as a function of earthing rod diameter
The calculated resistances given by these formulae are for uniform values of soil resistivity.
This is rarely the case in practice as the soil typically consists of soils of different types in
layers. The resistivity is also very dependent on soil moisture which can vary greatly with
depth.
Sand and gravel 501000
Shales 5100
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Modified Dwight formula
Derived formula
Buried length of rod (m)
E
a
r
t
h

r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

(
o
h
m
s
)
Diameter
of rod
(mm)
Depth
of rod
(m)
Resistance
()
(Dwight
Formula)
Resistance
()
(Derived
Formula)
12 1 70 65
12 2 39 37
12 3 28 26
12 4 22 21
12 5 18 17
12 6 15 15
12 7 14 13
12 8 12 11
12 9 11 10
12 10 10 9
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
10
15
20
25
Modified Dwight formula
Derived formula
Diameter of rod (mm)
E
a
r
t
h

r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

(
o
h
m
s
)
Figure 2 Earth resistance as a function of
Diameter
of rod
(mm)
Depth
of rod
(m)
Resistance
()
(Dwight
Formula)
Resistance
()
(Derived
Formula)
5 4 25 23
10 4 23 21
15 4 21 20
20 4 20 19
25 4 20 18
30 4 19 18
35 4 19 17
40 4 18 17
45 4 18 16
50 4 17 16
In practice it is usual for a maximum value of earth resistance to be specified. Rods are then
driven and connected in parallel to achieve the required measured value of resistance. They
should be separated by at least a 2.5 times the driven depths to be fully effective; that is, so that
the voltage contours generated around the earth rods as they pass fault current to earth do not
disturb each other.
The specified values of earth resistances are typically less than about 10 ohms. The resistance
of the first rod driven gives an indication of the number of rods that will be required to achieve
the required value.
The approximate number of rods required will be the measured value of the resistance of the
first rod divided by the required value. This assumes that all rods are being driven to the same
depth in similar soils and that they are well separated from each other.
The resistance is tested with a measuring device which passes a current between the electrode
under test and a test electrode placed well away and measures the voltage drop between the
electrode under test and a second test electrode placed well away but in a different direction.
Corrections can be made for the placing of the test electrodes.
Earthing at consumers switchboards must comply with AS/NZS 3000. Although the depth of
electrode rod is specified the resulting earth resistance is not. Reliance is placed on the
combined effect of many consumers earths and the network companys earth systems to
effectively earth the supply system neutral.
Example
A high voltage overhead line is to be constructed with 25 wood poles and an overhead earth
wire. The overhead earth wire is to be earthed at each pole with a maximum resistance to earth
of 10 at each pole. Tests have shown that the average soil resistivity in the area is
55 .m. It is planned to drive 12-mm diameter earth rods to a depth of 2 m.
Estimate the total number of earth rods that will be required.
Using the Dwight formula
Where R = resistance between the electrode and remote earth ()
= soil resistivity in ohm metres (.m)
r = radius of the electrode (m)
L = length of the electrode below the surface (m)
= 27.12
We will need three earth rods at each pole. R 3 = 9.04 < 10
The total number of earth rods will be 75.
R

2L
----------
4L
r
------
\ .
| |
1 ln =
R
55
22
----------
4 2
0.006
-------------
\ .
| |
1 ln =
7.8.1 Wenner four-pin method of determining soil resistivity
Field soil resistivity measurements may be conducted using the Wenner four-pin method and
a soil resistance meter. The Wenner method requires the use of a linear array of four metal
electrodes, pins or probes, driven into the ground, equidistant from each other, as shown in
figure 7.8.
Soil resistance is derived from the voltage drop between the centre pair of pins (potential
electrodes, P1 and P2), with current flowing between the two outside pins (current electrodes,
C1 and C2). The following article is adapted from <http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/
Corrosion-Kinetics/Ohmic-drop-soil.htm>
Figure 7.10:Wenner four-pin-soil resistivity test set-up
A specialised soil resistance meter injects alternating current into the soil between pins C1 and
C2. The meter measures the drop in potential between pins P1 and P2 due to the passage of
the current in the soil and indicates a resistance reading. Soil resistivity is then calculated
according to the formula:
Soil resistance measurements along a line closely parallel to a bare underground pipeline or
other metallic structure should be avoided because a portion of the test current will flow along
the metallic structure rather than through the soil. The presence of the bare metal may cause
the indicated soil resistance to be lower than it actually is.
where K = 2 A is the conversion constant and
is the soil resistivity ( .m);
A is the probe spacing and depth of reading (m);
R is the soil resistance instrument reading ( )
Soil Resistance Meter
2AR =


The resistivity values obtained represent the average resistivity of the soil, between the two
centre pins, to a depth equal to the pin spacing. Resistance measurements are performed at pin
spacings in increments of typically 1 m, 2 m, and 5 m. In some areas, soil resistivity may
change markedly within short distances.
Several readings at different pin spacings and at different areas of the site are normally
required. Readings should be taken along at least two sides of the site and diagonally from
one corner to another. If the pin spacing is increased, then the average soil resistivity to a
greater depth is obtained. Table 7.1 shows illustrative examples of soil resistivity data
determined at four different test sites.
Table 7.2: Illustrative examples of soil resistivity data trends at four different test sites
Table 7.2, data set A, represents virtually uniform soil conditions at least to a depth of 4.6 m.
The average of the readings shown (~960 -cm) represents the effective resistivity that may
be used for design purposes for impressed current groundbeds or galvanic anodes.
Table 7.2, data set B, shows average resistivity increasing as pin spacing increases, with
relatively low-resistivity soils in the first 1.5 m and gradually higher-resistivity soils
encountered below 1.5 m.
If the average resistivity decreases as the pin spacing increases, as in data set C, then there is
a region of lower soil resistivity at depth. For this site, anodes located >2.3 m deep would be
in low-resistivity soil of ~870 -cm. A lowering resistivity trend with depth, as illustrated by
this set of data, will give excellent groundbed performance.
Data set D is the least favourable of these sample sets of data. Low-resistivity soil is present
at the surface but the upward trend of resistivity with depth is immediate and rapid. One such
situation could occur where a shallow swampy area overlies solid rock. Current discharged
from anodes installed at such a location would be forced to flow for relatively long distances
close to the surface before an electrically remote earth is reached.
In such a situation, potential gradients forming the area of influence around an impressed
current groundbed can extend much farther than those surrounding a similarly sized
groundbed operating at the same voltage in more favourable locations such as those
represented by data sets A and C.
Test Pin spacing Soil resistivity ( -cm)
(m) Set A Set B Set C Set D
1 0.76 960 1 100 3 300 760
2 1.5 965 1 000 2 200 810
3 2.3 950 1 250 1 150 1 900
4 3.0 955 1 500 980 3 800
5 3.8 960 1 610 840 6 900
6 4.6 955 1 710 780 12 500

7.9 Layout of overhead lines
Before an actual construction plan can be prepared for the extension of a low voltage or high
voltage overhead line, a considerable amount of field work is required to ensure that adequate
ground clearance is maintained over the length of the line; the constructions used on each pole
are such that the conductors will not swing together in high winds; and the timber supporting
the cables is sufficiently strong.
7.9.1 Layout plan
In the extension of electricity supply on overhead lines, two factors should be considered
before the layout commences. These are:
the distance of the consumer from existing supply, and the nature and size of the load
the route of the line.
The size of the load and the distance from existing lines will determine whether a high or low
voltage extension is required. The nature of the load will determine whether the consumers
load will cause interference to the supply to existing consumers, and hence necessitate the
erection of a transformer solely for this load.
In the selection of the line route consideration must be given to:
the operation and maintenance of the line once it has been constructed
that the revenue from the power consumption must justify the capital expenditure of
erecting the line.
In extending the line along recognised roadways, operation of sectionalizing switches and
replacement of faulty insulators etc. is considerably easier than if the line is erected across
private property. This could be particularly important if wet weather will result in poor soil
conditions. However, if following a roadway results in a substantial increase in cost and makes
the extension uneconomical, it may be necessary to consider the erection of the line across
property.
When the line route has been selected a contour plan is prepared using a clinometer. The
instrument measures the angle of the ground slope and by measuring the horizontal distance
for each reading, the vertical drop in rise of the ground can be computed.
The contour plan can then be prepared. Various scales are used for horizontal and vertical
measurement. These scales are used to agree with the scale on standard sag curves for the
various cables commonly used.
Once the contour plan is drawn pole positions can be plotted and by using the standard sag
curve for the cable selected, ground clearance can be checked along each span. Varying pole
height and spacing will allow a uniform sag to be obtained along the line.
When selecting pole positions in residential areas, it is usual to have a pole located opposite
the boundary of every second block to facilitate servicing. In rural areas where cost becomes
the important factor maximum spacing is required.
7.10 Overhead line inspection and maintenance
7.10.1 Tower and pole top inspection and maintenance
Elevated platform vehicles
This machine reduces labour costs for maintenance of lines, tree trimming and replacement of
street lighting lamps. It provides a greater degree of safety for line workers in hazardous
situations because the bucket is insulated. Its expense can be justified in labour saving and
safety features.
Live line working
Work on live lines is carried out to minimise the electricity outages needed for maintenance
work.
High voltage live line work falls into two categories.
Bare hand live line work is used for very high voltages. The worker is energised at the same
voltage as the conductor being worked on.
For glove and barrier live line work the worker remains at earth potential and uses insulated
tools with insulating barriers to prevent accidentally coming too close to exposed high voltage.
For both methods extensive training and job planning is involved. It is important to ensure that
staff selected for live line work training are of a suitable temperament.
No special training is required for work on live low voltage mains.
The use of elevated platform vehicles is increasing as one of the ways to reduce labour costs.
Use of helicopters
The use of helicopters for conductor stringing in rough terrain is by no means new and their
wider availability will lead to increased use as well as in line patrols.
Hot spot detection
A hot spot detection device will detect burnt bridging clamps, cable box connections and line
joints. A television type receiver allows the viewing of the infra-red image or radiation of the
potential fault, which is seen as a brighter image on the screen. Calibration and photography
allow measurement of the hot spot temperature relative to the ambient temperature.
7.10.2 Pole ground line inspection and maintenance
The most common reason for failure of wood poles is decay just below the ground line. The
decay is not visible above the ground. If it is not detected the pole may fall over causing a life
threatening situation as well as loss of supply for a considerable period while the pole is being
replaced. For these reasons network companies have a rigid programme for routine inspection
and maintenance of wood poles.
Inspection entails digging to expose the pole below ground level. The pole is then probed to
determine the extent of decay. The decayed wood is removed.
The pole is then drilled to check for internal decay. A wood preservative in the form of a rod
containing Boron and/or Fluoride is inserted and the hole plugged.
If there is decay present, measurements are taken and the residual strength of the pole is
compared with the loading imposed by the conductors.
A significant issue with treated poles is the occurrence of soft rot in the sap wood. This is
especially prevalent if the original treatment was at a lower level than specified and/or the pole
is situated in a damp position. Damp positions include suburban footpaths which are watered
and irrigated agricultural areas. Any soft rot that is present is removed and a bandage
enclosing a wood preservative barrier is applied.
If the pole strength at the ground line has reached a critical stage but the pole is sound above
the ground it can be strengthened by driving two galvanised steel reinforcing nails beside the
pole. The nails are shaped to fit either side of the pole and have driving points. They are
driven by a special impact machine. The pole is then drilled and the two nails are bolted
together through the pole. The advantages of this method are reduced cost and the elimination
of any need to disconnect the electricity supply.
Summary
Overhead lines and poles are the most common electrical distribution assets. An understanding
of the component parts and recent developments is necessary to understand the basic
distribution system.
Questions
1. What are the main types of structures used for supporting overhead lines?
2. Why are lines sagged? Illustrate typical methods.
3. Sketch a typical low voltage and high voltage structure and explain the components.
References
Module 8 Underground cables
Module

8
Underground cables 4
Modul e 8 Underground cables 8.1
Objectives
define the terms and explain the types of insulation, sheath, XLPE, pyrotenax, voids, ducts
describe the types of cable and how they are installed and tested for use.
Introduction
Underground power cables are used to transmit large blocks of power at ever increasing
voltages, both AC and DC, aesthetically supplying new buildings and estates. The need for
information on the application of underground power cables and the use of standards for
various types of cables will be emphasised.
8.1 Advantages of cables
When compared with overhead lines, underground cables have the following advantages:
greater freedom from interruption of supply and damage due to thunderstorms (lightning),
wind borne materials, birds, animals, vehicles, etc
avoidance of unsightly appearance
reduced maintenance cost.
Because of these factors, cables are installed in urban or suburban areas, despite the fact that
their first cost is much higher than the cost of overhead lines.
8.2 Construction materials
An underground cable consists of three essential parts:
conductor
insulation
sheath.
The relative Australian and New Zealand standards for underground cable manufacture are:
AS/NZS 4026 Electric cables for underground residential distribution systems
AS/NZS 4961 Electric cables Polymeric insulated For distribution and service
applications
AS/NZS 1026 Electric Cables Impregnated paper insulated For working voltages up to
and including 19/33 (36) kV
AS/NZS 1429.1 Electric cables Polymeric insulated For working voltages 1.9/3.3 (3.6)
kV up to and including 19/33 (36) kV
AS/NZS 1429.2 Electric cables Polymeric insulated For working voltages above19/33
(36) kV up to and including 76/132 (145) kV.
8.2.1 Conductors
The conductors are made of stranded copper or aluminium. The degree of stranding is higher
than that used for overhead conductors to provide flexibility and to facilitate bending.
Minimum bending radii are stated by the manufacturers. In service, the conductors are not
tensioned, and therefore need not be very strong mechanically. However, they must be strong
enough to withstand pulling-in tensions.
Aluminium is now cheaper than copper but to achieve the same resistance the conductor is
larger. This means that more insulation is required. For the higher voltages the insulation is a
major portion of the cable cost. For this reason there is a greater trend toward the use of
aluminium for the lower voltage cables.
Formed or non-circular strands are often used to eliminate the voids between the conductor
strands.
8.2.2 Insulation
The conductors of a cable are insulated from one another and from the enclosing sheath. The
principal materials used for cable insulation are rubber, paper, PVC (polyvinyl chloride),
varnished cambric tape, oil etc. Paper itself is a hygroscopic fibrous material and requires
saturating with an oily compound, to render it fit for use as cable insulation. The desirable
properties of cable insulation are high electrical resistivity and high dielectric strength. The
insulation must be homogeneous, moisture free, and must be free of air pockets (voids).
Covered conductors may be categorized depending on their cover thickness as: Covered
Conductor (CC) and Full Thickness Covering (CCT). The conductors are covered with a
track-resistant UV-stabilized cross-linked polyethylene (XPLE) in CC, while there is an inner
non-UV-stabilized high-density polyethylene (HDPE) in CCT.
XLPE insulation is used widely for cables of all voltages up to 132 kV. Impregnated paper
insulation is often used for cables in the 11-kV to 33-kV range.
Paper dielectrics
It has been clearly demonstrated by service experience over many decades that paper insulated
cables have established an excellent record. The electric strength of Kraft paper depends upon
its density and impermeability as well as its thickness. For the same quality of paper, both a.c.
breakdown strength and impulse breakdown of cables are improving by using thinner papers.
For the higher voltage cables, most manufacturers use a variety of paper thicknesses. In a
dielectric, the thinnest paper is closest to the strand where the stress gradient is highest.
Careful consideration must be paid to the temperature which the cable will reach under
conditions of short circuit. With paper insulated cables, short circuit ratings in the past were
given on the basis of the conductor reaching a temperature of 120C, or the sheath temperature
of 250C. With the expansions of systems to meet the ever increasing load demands and the
consequent increase in fault duty, it has become imperative to make the most practical use of
the conductors for both the normal loading and in the event of a short circuit. Paper insulated
cables are now normally rated with a maximum conductor temperature under short circuit
conditions of 160C for stranded, and 130C for solid aluminium conductors.
Impregnating oils and compounds
There has been continual research to produce new and better insulating oils and compounds.
Early paper cable impregnating technique was based on the use of fatty oils (castor oil). These
had inferior qualities and were later superseded by petroleum products.
For the pre-impregnated paper process, highly refined paraffinic based petroleum jelly is used.
This compound has non-draining properties and has the desirable electrical characteristics of
low power factor, high specific resistance, high electrical strength and good ageing properties.
It is also a first class lubricant, assisting the impregnated paper tapes to slide freely during
drumming and laying of the finished cable.
For the mass-impregnated process, the insulated cores are loaded into large impregnating
tanks designed to withstand both vacuum and positive pressures; and vacuum dried using
external and electrical core heating, over an extended period. The tanks are then flooded with
heated impregnating oil and pressurised for some time; after a period of cooling, the cores are
removed from the impregnation tank and without delay passed through the extrusion press and
sheathed. The design of machines enable this operation to be carried out without further
contact with atmosphere.
Synthetic insulation
Generally these materials may be classified under the headings:
Thermo plastics PVC and polythene are typical
Elastometers. These are the rubber like material of which neoprene, butyl rubber and
butadinene are well known
Cross-linked polymers. These materials are in fact combinations of (a) and (b). Two types
now in fairly general use are chemically cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) and ethylene
propylene rubber (EPR).
Generally, the synthetic insulations have three disadvantages as compared with impregnated
paper; one is that they have thermal characteristics which result in lower current rating and/or
short circuit performance; secondly, they are seriously affected by electrical discharges; and
finally, they are more costly.
The introduction of EPR and XLPE provides two materials with a thermal performance
similar to impregnated paper; but unfortunately, they both remain as susceptible to discharge
as the older synthetics.
Mineral insulants (MI)
Highly compressed magnesium oxide (MgO) is used as a dielectric for low voltage cables
developed for use in hot situations where a fire hazard is particularly serious, and for cases
where architectural features are important aspects in the choice of wiring. The conductors can
be of copper or aluminium. The seamless copper or aluminium casing is swaged down and the
resultant work-hardening stresses must be relieved by annealing the finished cable to make it
sufficiently ductile for use.
Being inorganic, MI cables are non-ageing and if properly installed have an exceptionally long
life. There are only two grades of MI cables produced, 660 and 440 volts; and the lengths and
range of conductor sizes are limited. The same insulant is used in the construction of electric
heating elements when using resistance wires.
8.2.3 Sheath materials
The insulation used on the conductor must be protected from mechanical damage and must
also be protected from moisture, gases and any damaging chemicals that may be present in the
soil or air. An air and water tight sheath must therefore be placed around the cable throughout
its length. Metal sheaths used include aluminium and lead or lead alloys.
The reasons for the choice of lead as the most common sheathing material are many and
varied; but the most commonly quoted are cost, availability and ease of processing. There are
others, equally as important, such as flexibility, ease of plumbing, conductivity and corrosion
resistance. Lead alloy sheaths are normally favoured because of their improved fatigue
resistance. The composition of lead alloy sheaths is covered in Australian standards. Alloy E
sheaths are used on power cables subjected to moderate vibrations and alloy B sheaths, for
conditions of severe vibrations, such as major road bridges, railway bridges, etc. For pilot
cables, plain lead or a 0.1% antimony lead are normally used.
Cable sheaths for pressure assisted cables, and cables where a high fault level exists, are
normally of aluminium applied by a direct extrusion process. To ensure satisfactory
performance of an aluminium sheath in underground installations, it is necessary to provide
adequate corrosion protection. This can be provided by a plastic jacket extruded over the
sheath, to which is first applied a bitumen-based flooding compound. This impedes water
penetration and localizes any sheath corrosion in the event of jacket damage.
Cable sheaths are themselves protected against chemical or electrolytic corrosion. The
protective finishes may consist of paper, cotton and/or hessian tapes saturated with a
bituminous compound. Rubber or PVC may also be used for protective finishes. Where
required, additional protection in the form of galvanised steel wire armouring may be used, to
protect cables against mechanical damage.
8.3 Types of cables
Paper insulated cables can be divided into two classes, namely solid-type cables and
pressurised cables. Solid type cables are those in which no control is exercised over the
internal pressure. These cables are manufactured for voltages up to and including 33 kV.
Pressurised cables are those in which the insulation is maintained at a pressure in excess of
atmospheric under all conditions of operation. Pressurised cables are normally used for
voltages above 33 kV.
Both solid-type and pressurised cables can be supplied in single-core or three-core form for
use in three phase transmission systems. Four core solid-type cables are generally used for
415/240-V distribution networks (often called 3 core cables, the neutral conductor being a
smaller cross-sectional area than the phase conductors). Single-core cables have the
advantage of simplicity of construction, layers of impregnated paper insulation, and an overall
metal sheath. Three-core cables are the belted, screened, or separate metal-sheathed types. In
the first two types, the three insulated conductors forming the cores are placed inside one
sheath. In the separate metal-sheathed type cables, the cores are separately sheathed, but are
bound together so that the cable is virtually an assembly of three single-core cables.
8.3.1 Solid-type cables
The belted type of three-core cable is used for voltages up to 22 kV. At higher voltages this
type of cable is subject to failure after a considerable period of service. Trouble starts at the
contact surface between core and fillers, particularly in the central triangle between the three
cores and results in the outer core papers being badly charred. This deterioration gradually
works towards the conductor. Failure is probably the result of tangential stresses and cable
heating cycles which tend to separate the cores.
The introduction of the core screening principle removes the source of weakness in the belted
type cable, and enables three-core cables to be operated at 33 kV. In the screened cable, no
belt insulation is used, and a metallic conducting surface is provided over each core. This
metallic layer may consist of perforated aluminium foil, or alternatively a thin copper tape
applied with a narrow gap between turns. Electrical contact is maintained between the metallic
screens and the sheath of the finished cable, so that the outer core surfaces are therefore
maintained at earth potential.
Separate metal-sheathed type cables represent a further development of the screening
principle, each core being screened and then individually sheathed with lead or aluminium.
Solid-type single-core cable Solid-type three-core cable
1
2
---
Three-core solid-type cables are available up to and including 33 kV; but at higher voltages,
considerations of weight and bulk render them impracticable. Single-core cables are used
under these conditions, and also at lower voltages, if large conductor cross-sectional areas are
required.
Mineral insulated metal sheatheds (MIMS) cables are special cables of which Pyrotenax
is an example. They are used for 415/240-V systems in powerhouses, factories, oil refineries
and airports, at operating temperatures up to 250C without deterioration. (MIMS cables are
rated on a different basis from the more conventional cables, as considerably higher
temperatures rises are permitted).
The MIMS cable has copper conductors insulated with highly compressed magnesium oxide
enclosed in a copper sheath. They are available with one, two, three, four or seven cores.
Special jointing techniques are necessary.
8.3.2 Pressurised cables
Solid-type cables are perfectly satisfactory for operation at voltages up to 33 kV, and have
been used at 66 kV in single-core form. However, solid-type cables are limited to relatively
low values of stress and operating temperatures.
To meet the demand for cables capable of operating at higher voltages, pressurised cables have
been developed. These fall into two categories:
(a) Gas pressure cables are simple cables charged with an inert gas (dried nitrogen) at
high pressure (1 380 kPa). On long routes, pneumatic feeding points with gas
sectionalising joints are usually provided every few kilometres.
(b) Oil-filled cable incorporates oil ducts which are kept full of oil under pressure by
means of pressure tanks.
Gas pressure cables, designed on the principle of suppression of ionisation in the cables with
gas pressure, fall into categories of:
Self contained cables with either
internal gas pressure constrained within a metallic sheath
or
external pressure operating through a flexible membrane
Pipe type cables where the gas pressure within the pipe operates directly on the
unsheathed cable cores previously pulled into the pipe conduit.
The design of the gas feeding system, joints and accessories requires free passage at all times
of the inert gas (nitrogen) as the pressurizing medium (usually at 1 380 kPa). For this reason,
cable designs having surplus impregnating compound are unacceptable.
8.4 Cable installation methods
Underground cables may be installed in any of the following ways.
laid direct in the ground
drawn into underground ducts
installed outdoors in free air, shielded from the sun
used for distribution in and about buildings, in ships, in mines
submarine installations across rivers, channels, etc.
Cables laid directly in the ground and drawn into underground ducts are the two methods most
frequently employed.
The method adopted depends on accessibility and future plans for possible additional cables.
The direct system. This method is adopted wherever possible because it is usually less
expensive and provides better conditions for heat dissipation than drawing cables into
underground ducts.
Single-core cables, making up a three phase circuit when laid direct in the ground, may be
placed in flat horizontal formation or in trefoil.
Where more than one three phase circuit is laid in the same trench, the circuits are separated
from each other. This reduces the effect of mutual heating and ensures that a fault occurring on
one circuit would not damage an adjacent one.
After the cables have been laid, suitable protection is placed above them in the form of tiles or
reinforced concrete slabs. This protection gives warning of the presence of cables, and serves
to protect the cables against accidental mechanical damage, should the ground be opened up at
a later date.
Draw-in system. In urban areas where excavations are expensive and inconvenient, the draw-
in duct system is often used.
Cable ducts may be glazed earthenware, concrete, cement, PVC or steel pipe. Multiway ducts
(generally from two to nine way, as required) are made of concrete. Duct diameters vary from
50 to 150-mm internal diameter; the duct size depends on the size of cable to be installed.
Ducts are installed between manholes; a manhole (cable pit) being an opening in the
underground duct system which houses cable joints and/or cable bends. Holes are generally
constructed of reinforced concrete or brick, while the lids for holes are made of steel.
The draw-in system is relatively expensive to construct, and it does not provide such good
facilities for heat dissipation as the direct system, so cable ratings have to be somewhat
reduced. However, the great advantage of the duct system is that once ducts have been
installed, then repairs, alterations or extensions to the cable system may be made without re-
opening the ground.
8.4.1 Selection of cable route
When selecting the cable route the following factors should be considered:
minimum route length for the planned network required
location of existing and future supply points
type of sinking, and its effect on cable rating
location of other utility services and underground obstructions
reinstatement costs and future surface development
accessible joint locations
easements, way leaves, right of ways and other forms of legal access
proximity to railway d.c. traction systems
locations of known areas or termite infestations.
In addition, oil-filled cable installation must be designed so that the hydraulic pressure within
the system will, at no point or for any condition of loading, be less than atmospheric; also it
must not exceed the design pressure limits for the cable and various accessories. It is important
therefore to consider:
the profile of the cable route in relation to the static pressure set up within the cable when
laid
the rise of pressure due to loading conditions
the fall of pressure when the cable is cooling.
In order to fulfill these static and transient conditions, an oil filled cable installation is usually
divided into oil sections, separated by stop joints which permit electrical connection but stop
oil communication between the sections. Obviously separate oil feeding and storage
arrangements would be required for each section.
8.4.2 Statutory provisions
When the cable route has been selected, it should be checked for compliance with
requirements of the various statutory authorities concerned.
The available space in foot ways is allocated in strip widths to various authorities, who confine
the laying of their services to the allocated space.
8.5 Cable sizing
The three criteria for selection of a cable size are, load current carrying capacity, short circuit
rating and voltage drop.
For low voltage cables AS/NZS 3008 can be used as a guide. It is called up by AS/NZS 3000
for consumers installations.
Manufacturers trade catalogues are also used for cable selection.
8.5.1 Load current carrying capacity
The load current capacity and short circuit capacity are both limited by the allowable
conductor temperature rise. In the case of a constant load current the temperature rise is given
by the rate of heat generation divided by the rate of heat transfer away from the conductor. The
heat needed to raise the conductor temperature has no effect under steady state conditions.
The short circuit rating is limited by the temperature rise which is a function of the heat
generated and the heat used to raise the conductor temperature. There is negligible heat
transfer during the time of the fault.
Cyclical loading capacity of the cable is limited by the conductor temperature rise and is a
function of the heat generated, the heat used to raise the conductor temperature and the heat
transferred away from the conductor.
In a current-carrying conductor, the power P dissipated in the form of heat depends on the
resistance R of the conductor and the value of the current I passing through it according to the
relationship
Since the value of the current is specified by the load, it is not practicable to reduce the current
in order to diminish the conductor power dissipation. It is therefore the value of the conductor
resistance that effectively influences the amount of conductor heating and so fixes the size of
the cable to be used.
Resistance is determined by the equation
where is the resistivity of the conductor material,
L is the conductor length, and
A is the conductor cross-sectional area.
The resistivity of hard-drawn copper at 20C (17.7 n.m) is lower than that of aluminium at
20C (28.3 n.m) since of the two metals copper is the better conductor.
The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length, but conductor length is a
physical property that usually cannot be conveniently varied for the sake of changing the
resistance.
By increasing the cross-sectional area of the conductor, however, the resistance can be
decreased proportionally. While it is true that, for a given temperature rise, more current can
be carried by a larger conductor than by a smaller conductor, it should be noted that as
conductors become large, they become difficult to install. Large conductors require more
insulation, which greatly increases the cost of the cable. Large conductors can be avoided by
paralleling two or more smaller conductors but with added cost and potential for faults to arise
due to the need for more joins and fittings.
Another important factor to be considered is the tendency for current density to be higher near
the surface of the conductor than closer to the centre. This phenomenon is known as the skin
effect. Skin effect increases the effective a.c. resistance of a conductor. An increase in
frequency causes the non-uniform current distribution in the conductor cross-sectional area to
be constrained towards the outside.
P I
2
R =
R
L
A
----------- =
The skin depth in metres is calculated from the equation
where f is the frequency (Hz),
is the resistivity of the conductor material (.m),
0
is the permeability of free space (4..10
-7
H/m), and
r
is the relative permeability of the conductor material (typically 1.0).
When selecting a cable, the load current must first be determined. Reference is then made to
current rating tables for voltage, method of installation and type of cable to be used. The
conductor cross-section selected must be large enough to carry the current, after having made
allowances for cable grouping, final conductor temperature, together with other correction and
rating factors which may be applicable to the installation. A check must be made to ensure that
the voltage drop in the cable selected is within the required limits.
8.5.2 Short circuit rating
The temperature rise in the conductors during a short circuit is a function of the conductor
mass, the conductor resistance, the short circuit fault current and the time taken for the circuit
protection to interrupt the fault current. The final conductor temperature will be the operating
temperature plus the temperature rise during the fault.
Where
I = fault current
R = conductor resistance per unit of length
T = time to interrupt the fault current
A = cross-sectional area of the conductor
M = mass of the conductor per unit of length
m = specific gravity of the conductor material
c = specific heat of the conductor material
t = temperature rise during the fault
The heat input per unit of length is given by I
2
RT = cMt
= cmAt
The temperature rise is given by
8.5.3 Voltage drop
To calculate the voltage drop it is necessary to allow for both the resistance and reactance of
the cable. For long cables the capacitance of the cable can be significant. Thus, the reactive
current flowing through the cable will not be constant throughout its length.
1
f
1
---
0

r

------------------------------------------- =
t
I
2
RT
cmA
------------ =
8.6 Electrical limiting factors
Whilst the use of underground cables for the transmission and distribution of electricity is
desirable, careful consideration must be given to certain limiting factors, which are
experienced in cables to a greater extent than in overhead systems.
8.6.1 Capacitance
In overhead systems the capacitance to earth is generally negligible. However, in underground
cable transmission, the capacitors formed by the comparatively small thickness of insulation
between conductors and earth must be considered.
The capacitance of each core to sheath is C
s
. The capacitance between any two cores is C
c
.
The delta connected capacitances C
c
are converted to equivalent star-connected capacitance by
multiplying by three. Therefore the effective capacitance of each conductor to neutral or earth
is
C
n
= C
s
+ 3C
c
8.6.2 Electrostatic stress
The electrostatic stress at any point in the dielectric of a single core cable can be calculated in
terms of the applied voltage and the cable dimensions, by using a simple mathematical
formula. In the case of a three core cable, the magnitude of the dielectric stress cannot, in
general be determined in this manner, and again experimental data is used.
In a three-core cable, the electrostatic field is polyphase and rotates at uniform angular
velocity around the geometric centre of the cable. The highest stresses occur in the triangular
section of the cable formed by joining the centres of the conductors.
The stress of greatest importance is the maximum stress in the cable dielectric. In a three-core
belted cable, this occurs at the conductor surface nearest to the centre of the cable.
These factors include:
capacitance
electrostatic stress
dielectric loss.
Core-sheath capacitances
C
C C
C
C C
s
c
c
c
s s
Conducting
sheath
In a three-core screened cable, the metallic screen around the insulation excludes the relatively
weak cable-fillers from the electrostatic field and the stress is considerably reduced.
Before considering the effect of dielectric losses we will discuss void formation in cables.
Void formation in the dielectric may be due to either faulty material during manufacture, or the
effect of the load cycle in service.
To eliminate voids, great care is taken to de-gasify the impregnating compound before use and
avoid any impregnation in the dielectric due to loosely wrapped or creased paper on the cores,
or bad contact between the cores and fillers in a three-core cable.
As the cable heats, the compound expands. Owing to the temperature coefficient of the
compound being much greater than that of the lead, the sheath is distended. When the cable
cools down during periods of light load, the compound contracts but the lead does not contract
with it. Voids are formed in the dielectric. In the case of a three-core cable, voids tend to form
in the fillers or between the filler and the core.
8.6.3 Dielectric loss
The energy losses occurring in the dielectric of cables are due to leakage and dielectric
hystersis. The leakage loss is the I
2
R loss of the current passing by conduction through the
resistance of the dielectric and is independent of frequency. It occurs in both d.c. and a.c.
voltages. The leakage current stresses the dielectric; the hysteresis loss is proportional to the
electrostatic stress;, that is, to the square of the applied voltage.
With a.c. voltages there is a further loss of energy, usually termed hysteresis loss, and which
under normal operating conditions is very much greater than the leakage loss. Energy is
consumed in reversing the stresses in solid dielectrics and this appears as heat, causing a rise
in temperature of the dielectric. At normal working stresses the dielectric hysteresis loss is
proportional to the electrostatic stress, that is, the square of the applied voltage.
Normally the dielectric losses of paper insulated cables are small, but in the case of cables for
high voltages where stresses are necessarily pushed to their limit, they may have to be taken
into consideration in fixing the current rating of the cable. In practice it has been found that the
dielectric loss falls to a minimum at a working temperature of 40C and rises at temperatures
on either side.
When electrostatic stress is high, additional dielectric loss often occurs due to the development
of ionisation, generally as a result of the pressure of voids. The void is liable to ionisation
partly because, owing to its low permittivity it is subjected to a high electrostatic stress; and
partly because the dielectric strength is small compared to that of the impregnated paper.
In the case of single core cables, the presence of the lead sheath around each conductor
introduces a further consideration by way of sheath currents.
Sheath currents are set up by the flux due to the current in the conductor. They are dependent
on the magnitude and frequency of the current in the conductor, the arrangements and spacing
of the cables, the sheath resistance and whether the sheaths are bonded or unbonded.
The induced sheath currents are of two kinds:
currents where outward and return paths lie in the sheaths of single cables
currents where outward and return paths lie in the sheaths of separate cables with bonded
sheaths.
If the lead sheaths are open circuited at one end, then case 2 does not occur. However, this
means that the path for earth fault current is impeded and in practice to minimise losses the
cable sheaths are specially cross-bonded at regular intervals along the entire route.
8.7 Cable testing
Need for testing
Electrical and mechanical tests are required to be carried out on cables during and after
manufacture, and also after laying. Should a cable fail in service, electrical tests are required to
locate the faults. Further tests are required after the repair, to check that all is in order before
the cable is put back into service.
We refer to the Australian Standards for guidance for the straightforward tests at the
manufacturers works and on site.
These tests fall into four categories.
type tests
sample tests
routine tests
site tests.
Type tests
Type tests are required to be carried out by the manufacturer for each type of cable that is
produced.
The production of a certificate, to the effect that the tests have been carried before a competent
witness, is usually a requirement in purchase specification.
Type tests may include bending tests, impulse tests, load cycle tests, tests of anti-corrosion
coverings and other tests agreed between the manufacturer and the purchaser.
Sample tests
The purchaser may specify that sample tests be carried out, and may include bending tests,
drainage tests on non-draining cable, and mechanical strength tests on paper tapes used for the
completed cable.
Routine tests
These tests are applied to every length of cable manufactured and as final check on quality of
materials and workmanship in the factory.
Routine tests usually include conductor resistance tests, applied high voltage tests, dielectric
power factor/voltage tests, voltage tests on anti-corrosion coverings, measurements on
insulation and sheath thickness, and such others the manufacturers may choose to apply to
guarantee the quality of the product.
Equipment for the measurement of discharges is being used by at least one major
manufacturer, to ensure the quality of extruded plastic insulation on high voltage cables.
Site tests
With pressure cables and oil filled cables, mechanical and physical tests are carried out, both
during the jointing procedure and after completion, to ensure the correct operating conditions.
Electrical tests only are referred to in this paper. For other tests, refer to the bibliography. With
all types of cable electrical tests are usually specified to be carried out before commissioning,
to ensure that the cable has been jointed correctly and is ready for service. It is also necessary
to commence a historical data record on a new cable, so that possible future faults may be
readily located. Certain electrical tests may also be required for the design and correct
operation of the protective relay system.
Loop resistance of conductors. It is usual to measure the loop resistance of the
conductors as a check on soundness of joints, switchgear or terminal connections and also
for future reference. To make the measurement, a heavy shorting connection is necessary
and an instrument of reasonable accuracy is required.
Phasing. The phasing is checked by a suitable method, such as earthing the cores in turn at
one end and checking to earth at the other.
Capacitance. Capacitance values are recorded for future reference. For belted cable, it is
usual to measure the values of each core to earth with the other cores earthed, and each
core to one other core with the third core floating. With screened SL cables, it is necessary
only to measure the value of each core to earth.
Insulation resistance. Because of dielectric absorption, the measurement of the true value
of the insulation resistance is difficult and time consuming. It is usual to apply a fixed d.c.
voltage for a fixed time and the value of the insulation resistance is determined from the
voltage and current measurements.
High voltage tests of cable insulation. Tests on site are made with a high voltage direct
current test set. For belted cables and screened cables, the core screens are terminated
1 2
3
C
CC
C
CC
inside a common compounded chamber such as trifurcating box. A voltage is applied
between each of the cores in turn, by making one core positive and the other core negative.
In a separate test, voltage is also applied between the three cores connected together and
earth. The leakage current is measured during the test and the usual criterion applied is that
the measured value shall not increase during the period of the test.
Tests on anti-corrosion coverings. Tests on these coverings are made progressively as
each joint is made. When all jointing is completed, a final test to include all the auxiliaries
is carried out. An insulation test at 2.5 kV d.c. has been found to be adequate for this
purpose. However, a 10-kV or 7.5-kV routine test may be specified.
8.8 Cable failure
Failure of cables in service is usually due to inadvertent mechanical damage, or to overvoltage
from lightning strikes or switching surges. The cause of cable failure due to ageing is
undoubtedly dielectric deterioration, following development of voids and subsequent
ionisation.
Strong electrostatic fields in the voids result in the formation of wax like substance, with the
liberation of hydrogen and other gases. Although the wax is reasonably stable, the hydrogen
tends to produce water by reaction with some of the other gases involved. This accelerates
ionisation and is accompanied by carbonisation along the interfaces and between the gaps in
the paper tape, ultimately heating discharge paths and destroying the insulation.
Another type of cable breakdown is one of thermal instability. This type of failure occurs
normally on very high voltage cables where dielectric losses are high. With an increase in load
of the dielectric losses increase which causes a temperature rise. Due to this increase in
temperature the dielectric losses continue to increase and the temperature rises progressively
until at some spot the dielectric is destroyed by burning.
8.9 Location of faults
Many advances have been made in instrumentation techniques and most faults can be located
very accurately. Fundamentally there are two types of faults which occur in a power cable:
one, is the failure of the insulation and the other is failure of continuity. These may or may not
exist together and one or more cores may be affected. The faulty cable is de-energised.
In deciding upon the method of location it is necessary first to carry out preliminary tests of
continuity and insulation resistance of conductors, and determine the characteristics of the
fault.
Generally, the procedure is to carry out the preliminary tests on the de-energised cable; if
necessary convert the fault conditions; carry out approximate location tests from one or both
ends of the cable; and finally to pinpoint the fault accurately at the site.
Discussion of location methods is not covered in this study book.
Summary
Underground cables have been considered a speciality with the evolution of different types of
cables, a slow process due to the necessity for considerable research and type testing prior to
application.
The art of jointing and terminating cables has been simplified for the widely-used low voltage
cables. Research into alternative dielectrics for higher voltage cables continues.
With the advent of synthetic insulation, manufacturers have documented experience and
provide instruction for laying, jointing and terminating.
Questions
(a) Describe with sketches solid-type single-core and three-core cables.
(b) What features are to be considered for the selection of a cable for a particular installation?
References
Section
4
Transformers 1
Module 9 Transformers
Module

9
Transformers 2
Modul e 9 Transformers 9.1
Objectives
outline the main factors contributing to transformer noise production
list techniques to minimise transformer noise emission
describe and compare the two main functions of voltage regulating transformers
explain the purpose of the Buchholz relay and describe its features and operation.
Introduction
In this module we build on previous studies of transformers. We consider the problem of noise
emission from large power transformers located in built-up areas. We discuss the main types
of regulating transformers and their functions of voltage magnitude control and voltage phase
shift adjustment. Also, we study the operational features of the Buchholz relay as an essential
component of the protection system for large oil-immersed transformers.
The two standards which cover most aspects of power transformers are AS 60076.1 and
AS 2374.2. These are Australian standards derived from international standards.
9.1 Transformer noise
The increasing use of large power transformers for electrical distribution from suburban
substations makes the acoustic noise produced by such transformers a significant social
problem. The hum developed by energized power transformers originates in the core, where
the laminations tend to vibrate due to magnetic forces. The noise is transmitted via the oil to
the tank sides and then to the environment.
The main factors in transformer noise production are:
(a) magnetostriction; i.e. the very small extension, with corresponding reduction in cross-
section, of sheet-steel strips when magnetized
(b) the mechanical vibration developed by the laminations, depending on the tightness of
clamping and the rigidity of structural parts
(c) the mechanical vibration of the tank walls
(d) the degree of damping provided (stiffening and bracing may be counter-productive if the
effect is to raise the natural vibratory period from below 100 hertz up into the audible
frequency range).
Transformer noise emission may be minimised by:
(a) reducing lamination vibration through attention to constructional features such as tightness
of clamping and uniformity of plates
(b) preventing vibration of the tank walls by suitable design of the tank and stiffeners
(c) sound-insulating the transformer from the tank by padding or oil barriers
(d) sound-insulating the tank from the ground using vibration-absorbing mounts
(e) providing suitably positioned sound barriers for noise reflection and reduction of
transmission to the surrounding air
(f) using a lower flux density is effective but usually not practicable.
9.2 Regulating transformers
Transformers which provide a small adjustment of voltage magnitude, usually in the range of
10%, and others which shift the phase angle of the line voltages are important components
of a power system. Some transformers regulate both voltage magnitude and phase angle.
A type of transformer designed for small voltage adjustments rather than large changes to
voltage levels is called a regulating transformer.
Figure 9.1: Regulating transformer for voltage magnitude control
Series
transformers
n
Exciting
transformer
a
b
c
V
an
V
an
V V
an an
+
Figure 10.1 shows a regulating transformer for control of voltage magnitude. An adjustable
portion of the voltage V
an
is fed into the primary of the series transformer whose secondary is
in series with phase a. Similarly, voltages are added to V
bn
and V
cn
. This technique can be
used to maintain voltage magnitude automatically on radial feeders under varying load
conditions. In loop systems it can be used to control reactive power flow.
Figure 9.2: Regulating transformer for voltage phase angle control
Voltage phase angle adjustment can be achieved using the system shown in figure 9.2, where
the windings drawn parallel to each other are on the same iron core. In this arrangement, the
voltage to neutral V
an
is increased by a component V
an
which is in phase, or 180 out of
phase, with V
bc
. The phases of the remaining voltages are similarly advanced. Adjusting the
taps on the secondaries adjusts the amount of phase advance.
Figure 9.3: Phasor diagram for the phase angle control regulating transformer
The phasor diagram of figure 9.3 shows how the three line voltages are shifted in phase angle
with very little change in magnitude.
V
an
V
an
V V
an an
+
V
bn
V
cn
V
bn
V
cn
V V
bn bn
+
V V
cn cn
+
9.3 Methods of cooling power transformers
Core and winding resistance losses in transformers generate heat. This heat must be dissipated
and some means of cooling must be provided, to prevent excessive temperature rise in
windings.
More efficient heat transfer than can be obtained by natural radiation becomes necessary. For
smaller transformers, natural air cooling is sufficient.
For larger sizes, the transformers are usually immersed in an oil or synthetic liquid-filled tank.
The surface area of the tank can be effectively increased by various means. A common method
is to weld several vertical tubes on the tank sides so that oil can circulate naturally through
them. Alternatively, oil can be pumped through external radiators.
On very large transformers, forced cooling is achieved by blowing air over the tank; or over
specially designed heat exchangers, through which the oil is pumped to be cooled.
Transformers used in the transmission and distribution system are usually immersed in oil in
steel tanks. The transformer oil is used both for insulation and cooling.
For the very small distribution transformers there are no special oil cooling arrangements.
The larger distribution transformers are fitted with cooling fins to increase the cooling of the
oil by the air.
Many zone substation transformers have either large cooling fins bolted to the transformer or a
separate bank of cooling fins connected at the top and bottom with oil pipes.
To aid the cooling, electrically powered fans are often fitted. Transformers with separate banks
of cooling fins are often fitted with an oil pump in the connecting pipe work to circulate the
oil.
The cooling methods of transformers are described using a standard classification code set out
in IEEE C57.12.00 as follows.
First letter: Internal cooling medium in contact with the windings:
O mineral oil or synthetic insulating liquid with fire point < 300C
K insulating liquid with fire point > 300C
L insulating liquid with no measurable fire point.
Second letter: Circulation mechanism for internal cooling medium:
N natural convection flow through cooling equipment and windings
F forced circulation through cooling equipment (cooling pumps), natural convection flow
in windings (non-directed flow)
D forced circulation through cooling equipment, directed from the cooling equipment into
at least the main windings.
Third letter: External cooling medium:
A air
W water.
Fourth letter: Circulation mechanism for external cooling medium:
N natural convection
F forced circulation (fans, pumps).
Thus, for a transformer which is immersed in oil in a tank cooled by natural air flow, the
cooling method would be described as ONAN.
If the fans were added to help cool the oil, the cooling method would be described as ONAF.
If the oil was pumped to a heat exchanger to aid the cooling, and fans were used to cool the
heat exchanger, the cooling method would be described as OFAF.
An example of part of the rating plate of a zone substation transformer is:
Rating 15/20/25 MVA
Cooling ONAN/ONAF/OFAF
This transformer would be fitted with both cooling fans and an oil pump. The transformer is
rated at 15 MVA without the fans or the oil pump running, 20 MVA with the fans only running
and 25 MVA with both the fans and the oil pump running.
The fans and the oil pump would normally be thermostatically controlled.
A transformer designated as ONAN/ONAF/ONAF would have the cooling fans switched in
two separate stages.
9.4 Transformer protection: Buchholz relay
Oil-immersed transformers depend on the continuous circulation of high quality oil for
cooling of the transformer under normal operating conditions. Transformer faults that cause
the oil to heat to such an extent that it dissociates into gaseous components can drastically
reduce the efficiency of the cooling system. Such faults can cause major damage unless the
transformer it is quickly tripped out of service.
Buchholz relays were developed by Max Buchholz in 1921 and have been extensively used
since then.
The Buchholz relay is a mechanical-hydraulic device attached to an oil-immersed transformer,
being fitted in the pipe connecting the transformer tank with the separate oil conservator tank,
as shown in figure 9.4.
Figure 9.4: Arrangement of transformer oil expansion system
Figure 9.5: Buchholz relay
When an electric arc or overheating develops inside the transformer, gas is generated. The
relay has two different detection modes. A slow production of gas accumulates in the top of
the relay and forces the oil level down. A site glass (A) indicates the volume of gas collected.
A float operated switch (B) in the relay is used to initiate an alarm signal. This same switch
will also operate on low oil level, such as a slow oil leak.
A second, lower level, float operated switch (C) is usually wired to open the circuit breakers
and take the transformer off line. If an arc forms, gas accumulation is rapid, and oil flows
rapidly into the conservator. The rapid flow of oil operates a switch (D) attached to a vane
Transformer
tank
Buchholz relay
Oil level
Conservator
Breather
Oil feed
pipe
Front View Rear View (Cover Removed)
A - Gas Collection Chamber
B - Upper Float
C - Lower Float
D - Oil Surge Detector
located in the path of the moving oil which operates the circuit breakers and takes the
transformer off line before the fault causes additional damage.
Buchholz relays have a test port to allow accumulated gas to be withdrawn for testing. This
port is often piped down to ground level. Flammable gas found in the relay indicates some
internal fault such as overheating or arcing, whereas air found in the relay may only indicate
low oil level or a leak.
So, two types of fault that a Buchholz alarm could indicate are:
gas generation due to a fault
low oil level.
After an alarm or trip signal has been activated the gas should be collected and analysed before
the transformer is returned to service.
The purpose of the gas sample taken from the Buchholz relay after an alarm initiation is to
determine the nature of the fault in the transformer.
For information on current transformers refer to AS 60044.52004.
Summary
One of the difficulties of operating large power transformers in urban and residential areas is
the problem of continuous noise emission. Transformer design and installation aspects must
be considered so as to reduce the inherent noise from such electrical plant, and thus the likely
social impact of such noise.
Regulating transformers are essential elements of a power system. They are designed to adjust
voltage magnitude or phase angle. These transformers add a small component of voltage,
typically less than 10%, to the line or phase voltages, with or without a small phase shift, as
required to maintain values within statutory limits.
A crucial element in the protection system for an oil-immersed transformer is to detect any
sudden gas build-up as an instant warning of a transformer internal fault. The Buchholz relay
is designed to trip due to oil-vapour-production effects of transformer fault conditions. The
relay can operate an alarm or trip the transformer circuit breaker, depending on the fault level.
Section
5
Surges; insulation
co-ordination 1
Module 10 Insulation and insulation co-ordination
Module
10
Insulation and insulation
co-ordination 13
Module 10 Insulation and insulation co-ordi nation 10.1
Objectives
Upon completion of this module, you should be able to:
explain the excess voltages and currents caused by lightning, switching overvoltages, short
circuits and resonant circuits
measure and prevent the most onerous of these causes affecting electrical equipment
have an appreciation of the term Basic Insulation Level together with a knowledge of the
effects of new insulation materials.
Introduction
Due to economic and technical requirements much attention is being given to improvement in
reliability and to estimation of the life of power system equipment. In this respect the
performance in service of the new and traditional insulating materials is of particular
significance. Our objective with insulation co-ordination is to:
prevent breakdowns due to overvoltages
where prevention is uneconomical or impractical, to confine breakdowns to locations
where they cause a minimum of damage and the best possible disturbance to system
operation.
In a substation this requirement is met if all the items of equipment such as circuit breakers,
transformers, post and tension insulators, have withstand voltage characteristics greater than
the protective level of the surge diverters or the air gaps provided for overvoltage protection.
The level of insulation selected for transmission lines, which represent by far the greater part
of any network, depends on their location, exposure to lightning, and liability to
contamination. As lightning is the major hazard to electrical equipment, coordination of
insulation is applied principally to outdoor high-voltage systems.
10.1 Basic insulation level
To enable this correlation, a figure known as the Basic Insulation Level is selected for the
equipment to be protected. Once this figure is selected the problem then reduces to:
the breakdown or flashover strength of all insulation will equal or exceed the selected level
the application of protective devices that will give the apparatus as good protection that
can be justified economically.
Table 10.1 shows typical basic insulation levels for equipment operating at standard voltage
levels.
10.2 ELE2704 El ectricity suppl y systems
Reference should be made to Australian Standards AS 1824.11995 for Insulation co-
ordination Definitions, principles and rules, and AS 62271.1002008 specifically for items
of high-voltage electrical equipment, e.g.:
transformers
circuit breakers
current transformers
surge arrestors/diverters.
Table 10.1
The values shown in parentheses in column 3 are included in view of their extensive use in
present practice. It is expected, however, that these higher values will be gradually superseded
with improvements in insulation co-ordination techniques.
Once a value of basic insulation level has been selected, equipment must be designed to be
capable of withstanding the impulse voltage without breakdown, flashover, or puncture. The
system must then be suitably protected to ensure that applied surges do not exceed this value.
10.2 Causes of momentary excess voltages and
currents
The causes of momentary excess voltages and currents may be summarised under the
following headings:
lightning
switching
short circuits
resonant circuits.
Nominal System
Voltage
(kVr.m.s.)
System Highest
Voltage
(kVr.m.s.)
Basic Insulation
Level (Impulse
Withstand
Voltage)
( kV Peak)
11
33
66
110
12.1
36.3
72.6
123
75 (95)
170 (200)
325 (350)
450 (550)
Lightning
Electrical discharges in air normally require for their initiation a local field intensity of 0.3 kV/
m but in the presence of moisture this value may be reduced to 0.l kV/m. From photographs
taken during lightning storms the lightning discharge is known to proceed from cloud to
ground in the manner illustrated in figure 10.1.
Figure 10.1: Development of a lightning flash to earth
Once the stepped leader strokes have reached the ground a faster more luminous discharge,
termed the return stroke, travels upwards along the original channel. The process may end here
but more commonly a second leader stroke, termed the dart leader stroke which is faster than
the first and not stepped, may occur after an appreciable time interval and this is immediately
followed by another return stroke. As many as forty of these returns have been photographed
on occasions making up the one complete lightning discharge.
Typical values of t
1
, t
2
and t
3
are:
t
1
= 0.01 s
t
2
= 50 s
t
3
= 0.001 s
The interval between successive strokes T = 0.05 s with cloud heights up to 1.6 km.
From electrostatic field measurements the leader stroke is known to lower negative electricity
from the cloud into the atmosphere which results in an accumulation of positive charge on the
earth below. However, the opposite charge arrangement does occur, with the ratio of negative
to positive strokes being 5 to l in temperate regions, with a considerably higher ratio in tropical
regions.
A typical wave shape is shown in figure 10.2. The first (impulsive) part of the wave shape
(figure 10.2(a)) which has strong explosive effects, is usually followed by a long current tail
(figure 10.2(b)) which discharges smaller currents for a considerably longer time. It is in this
tail that the main energy of the lightning strokes is contained and these long continuous
currents may have incendiary effects on wood line supports, overhead earthwires, etc..
The magnitude of lightning stroke currents can be shown by the summarising curve of the
frequency distribution (figure 10.3).
t
3
t
2
t
1
T T
Figure 10.2: Wave shape of lightning current
Figure 10.3: Currents in lightning strokes to transmission lines (above 5kA)
The curve represents the proportion of current values exceeding that shown on the
vertical axis.
It should be realised that this is only a brief outline of lightning phenomena and atmospheric
conditions have a marked effect on the ionisation process.
Switching
The magnitude of overvoltages caused by switching is much less than that resulting from
lightning but it may nevertheless be sufficient to cause damage and will become an increasing
problem as transmission voltages continue to rise. Figure 10.4 shows typical magnitudes of
overvoltages due to switching.
The transient voltages and currents resulting from switching arise from the redistribution of
the stored energy in the circuit inductance and capacitance.
Figure 10.4: Magnitude and prevalence of transient voltages due to switching and faults (excluding
voltages less than twice system peak V)
The energy will be transferred from circuits at the natural frequency
Closing a circuit may result in excessive transient currents and possibly voltages, while its
opening usually results only in excess transient voltages.
Short circuits
The calculation of fault currents shows that unexpectedly high voltages may occur under
certain circumstances. Although some of these voltages are only a fundamental frequency, due
to the rapid clearing times of modern circuit breakers they can be extremely damaging. Actual
voltage values are difficult to determine due to corona, impedance and saturation which tend
to limit their magnitude.
Resonant circuits
Resonant conditions likely to cause overvoltages are nearly always associated with system
capacitance to earth or between phases and in most cases arise as a result of a broken
conductor, a blown fuse, or even the opening of one phase of a circuit breaker before the other
two.
Resistance, impedance and certain other factors limit the magnitude of these overvoltages and
further discussion is beyond the scope of this course.
f
n
1
2 LC
---------------------- = (neglecting resistance)
10.3 Measurement of surges
Measurement of the magnitude of surges on transmission lines is carried out using one or more
of the following:
klydonograph
CRO
tubes
paper gaps
fuseable wires
magnetic links
fulchronograph
magnetic surge front recorder.
Those in more common use are:
magnetic link (also called surge crest ammeter links)
magnetic surge front recorder.
Magnetic links
These links consist of a bundle of cobalt steel laminations arranged in line of magnetic flux
and fixed a predetermined distance from the conductor whose current it is desired to measure.
It is placed in position in an unmagnetised condition and any remanent magnetism produced in
the steel is a function of the current producing it. A special instrument measures the remanent
magnetism and is calibrated directly in terms of the magnetising current. The polarity of the
surge is indicated by the direction of magnetisation. Because of its cheapness, the magnetic
link can be installed at a large number of installations in the field and left without attention
until a disturbance has occurred.
Magnetic surge front recorder
An important factor of the surge waveshape is the rate of rise of the surge and this can be
obtained from the average rate of rise line drawn between the 10% and 90% crest value points.
The magnetic surge front recorder consists of three circuits containing resistance and
inductance with differing time constants. They are connected across an inductance carrying
the main surge current or a loop inductively coupled with the conductor carrying the surge.
Magnetic Links are placed within the field of the three inductors to record their maximum
current. With inductance in the auxiliary circuits, the maximum current in any one of them is
proportional to the average rate of rise of the main surge current over a definite range. Three
such circuits are adequate to cover a desired range of wave front duration.
10.4 Preventing damage to equipment due to
surges
Due to the fact that when a surge is present on a line, so many factors can influence its
magnitude it becomes virtually impossible to insulate system components for all conditions. It
is therefore considered necessary to install protective devices in substations to prevent
transformers and other equipment being subjected to voltage surges.
Surge arrestor electrical characteristics
The ideal surge arrestor should have the following electrical characteristics:
it must take no current at normal system voltage
any abnormal transient voltage above the breakdown value must cause it to break down as
quickly as possible
breakdown having taken place it must be capable of carrying the resulting discharge
current without damage to itself and without the voltage across it exceeding the
breakdown value
the power frequency current following the breakdown must be interrupted as soon as the
transient voltage has fallen below the breakdown value.
Rod gaps
Rod gaps are simple and cheap, but do not meet all requirements.
When lightening strikes and causes an arc across the gap the air is ionised. If there is enough
power supply voltage across the gap, the arc will not extinguish when the lightening strike
ends and there will be a power follow arc which will be maintained for as long as sufficient
power is supplied to it.
The rod gap does not prevent this power follow current and so the arc must be extinguished by
the circuit protection. If the protection is a fuse the transformer will be off line until service
staff replace it.
Since no current-limiting resistor is used, the impulse voltage collapses to zero on sparkover.
If the gap is installed near a transformer, the winding can be subjected to a very large step
impulse which can place dangerous stresses on the turn insulation and cause the transformer to
fail. For this reason many network companies do not use rod gaps
Surge arrestor construction and function
The surge arrestor consists essentially of a cascade connection of a number of spark gaps in
series with resistance blocks, the whole being contained in a porcelain housing.
The multiple spark gap has the double object of securing the fastest possible operation at
voltages above the breakdown value and of interrupting the power follow current at the first
current zero. The resistance elements have non-linear characteristics and limit the power
follow current to a value that the gaps can easily interrupt, and also limit the residual voltage
drop to a predetermined value while discharging the surge energy.
Figure 10.5: 11 kV Surge arrestor
These elements have low resistance at high currents and high resistance at low current; this
characteristic is shown by:
The chief mechanical requirement of a surge arrestor is that the porcelain housing shall keep
out dust and moisture. Failure in this respect leads to a breakdown at normal system voltage
and usually complete destruction of the arrestor.
where
V = k I
b
k = constant (depending on the size of the element)
b = 0.2
I = current
Surge arrestors are
manufactured in a wide range
of porcelain and polymeric
designs with ratings up to
500 kV.
Transmission line surge
arrestors suspended at set
intervals along the line:
allow operation at an
increased line voltage.
minimise circuit breaker
tripping and possible
system outage resulting
from back flashover on a
line.
absorb switching over-
voltages along the length
of the line, reducing surge
severity at the substation.
allow transmission systems
to be operated even where
sub-soil gives poor tower-
footing resistance.
Modular single column
polymeric surge arrestor
Modular series parallel
polymeric surge arrestor
Polymeric housed surge
arrestor
Porcelain housed surge
arrestor
Arrestor selection
The selection of a surge arrestor is guided by the impulse level of the equipment to be
protected. Thus the maximum permissible sparkover voltage and the residual voltage must be
below the withstand voltage of the equipment. The magnitude of the currents which the
lightning arrestor is designed to discharge is limited to those corresponding to voltages that
can be supported by the line insulation without flashover. It is not practical to design them to
discharge power current for any appreciable time, i.e. a lightning discharge may be of the
order of several thousand amperes but the discharge time is measured in microseconds and the
energy absorbed is small compared with that absorbed due to a few amps of power flow for a
few cycles.
The first consideration, therefore, should be the maximum line ground voltage to which the
arrestor may be subjected during system operation or fault.
Figures 10.6(a) and 10.6(b) show the characteristic volt/time curves for an arrestor and its
operating characteristic superimposed on a line surge.
10.5 Location of surge arrestors
It can be shown that the surge voltage between line and ground entering, say a substation, is
given by:
Figure 10.6 (a)
Surge voltage E L
di
dt
----- Ri 2Kt 2Kt
a
+ + + + =
E arrestor sparkover voltage kV ( ) =
K steepness of wavefront kV s ( ) =
t time for surge to travel between arrestor and equipment =

t
d
v
--- =

distance from Arrestor to Equip.
1000
----------------------------------------------------------------------------- =
Modul e 10 Insulation and insul ati on co-ordination 10.11
Figure 10.6 (b)
t
a
= discharge time of arrestor
L = inductance of line
R = resistance of line
i = surge current
As L will be a maximum at current zero, the Ri term can be neglected; and as E, L, K, and
t
a
will be constant for the particular wave, the only variable is:
Hence to reduce the magnitude of the surge voltage, we must place the arrestors as close as
possible to the equipment to be protected. In practice, the arrestors are now placed on the
equipment terminals.
10.6 Line outages
It is obvious from the previous work that insulation requirements of transmission lines are
determined by lightning and switching transients and not by the normal frequency voltage. For
lines up to the highest voltage now in use lightning disturbances resulting from direct strokes
are usually a principal factor in causing outages.
Protection against direct strokes requires a shield to prevent lightning from striking the
conductors, together with adequate facilities to pass the discharge to ground and carefully
selected insulation structures so that this discharge will have no effect on the conductors.
di
dt
-----
t
d
1000
------------ =
Inherent protection during design
The design of a transmission line against lightning to achieve a desired performance is
practically independent of the operating voltage. The basic principles are:
earth wires with sufficient mechanical strength must be located to shield the line conductor
adequately from direct strokes
adequate clearance from the line conductor to the tower or to ground must be maintained
so that the full effectiveness of the insulating structure can be obtained
adequate clearance between earth wires and conductors must be maintained, especially in
mid-span, to prevent flashover to the conductors up to the voltage level used for the line
design
tower footing resistances must be as low as can be economically justified.
The above points can be better visualised from figure 10.7.
In practice it is found that the best shielding angle is 30. This is a factor of line performance
and tower cost.
The earth wires must be located sufficiently high above the conductors as not to reduce the
insulation structure due to sag from snow, sleet etc. or due to whipping of the conductors in
high winds or during severe fault conditions.
The problem of low footing resistance is naturally one of balancing the cost of achieving a low
enough value against the cost of increasing line insulation to achieve the desired performance:
Figure 10.7: Ground wire arrangements on 230-kV line
Modul e 10 Insulation and insul ati on co-ordination 10.13
It is normal practice to shield transmission lines with overhead earth wires throughout their
length. However, the distribution lines and most sub-transmission lines are not shielded. It is
normal to shield all lines connecting to zone substations for a sufficient distance to limit the
steepness of the lightning surges entering substations to within values that can be handled by
the substation surge arrestors.
Flashovers and outages
Not all lightning strokes cause flashovers and not all flashovers cause outages. In practice, it is
found that for steel tower lines about 85% of flashovers cause outages and for wood pole lines
approximately 50% of flashovers cause outages.
Flashovers and line outages are based on the stroke current probability curve.
A transmission line with a protection level for 100-kA stroke current maximum may have an
expected probability factor of 0.7 outages per 100 kilometres per year while a line with
protection level of 20-kA stroke current maximum may have an expected probability factor of
30 outages per 100 kilometers per year.
Adding insulators and reducing tower footing resistance results in an increase of protection
level.
In wood pole lines the insulation path may be combination of wood, porcelain and air and the
insulation strength of the flashover path must be determined and converted into an equivalent
number of insulators. The insulation strength of insulators in air can be determined and the
insulation strength of the wood derived.
On wood pole lines the percentage of line outages from flashovers is reduced to 35% because
of the additional insulation strength of the wood path preventing a power follow current.
Clearly the importance of the line from both a supply point of view and also a system stability
point of view will determine the value placed on the outage rate that can be tolerated.
The University of Queensland Electrical Engineering Department has done considerable
research into this field.
Questions
1. Discuss the ways in which large voltage surges can be introduced onto a power system.
2. Draw a diagram showing a typical application of a surge diverter connected to a large
transformer in a substation and explain its operation and the reason for your choice of
location.
3. Discuss line outages and some design aspects to minimise outages resulting from
flashovers.
4. Discuss the characteristics of surge arrestors and the voltages they can support and how
their flashover is co-ordinated with line insulation levels.
Section
6
Loads, scheduling and
voltage control 1
Module 11 Loads and scheduling
Module

11
Loads and scheduling 2
Modul e 11 Loads and scheduli ng 11.1
Objectives
Upon completion of this module you should be able to define the terms:
demand, maximum demand, demand factor, utilisation factor, plant factor, diversity factor,
load factor
describe the important features of a load study.
Introduction
A load study is the determination of the voltage, current, power and power factor or reactive
power at various points in an electric network, under existing or contemplated conditions of
normal operation. Load studies are essential in planning the future development of the system,
because satisfactory operation of the system depends on knowing the effects of
interconnections with other power systems, of new loads, new generating stations and new
transmission lines before they are installed.
11.1 Types of loads
Classification of load without also specifying the basis of the classification may be
ambiguous. Loads are usually classified for a specific purpose. However, the categories used
in the industry are not generally applicable to all conditions in which the classification of loads
may be required. The loads may be classified with regard to the relative environment or
geographical location, type of business of the consumer (i.e. manufacturing or services only),
dependence of consumer upon the electric service, effects of the load upon other loads and the
system in general, the applicable electric service rate schedule or loads requiring special
considerations. The classification may be applicable to a single electric service or a mixed
groups of various types of service in an area. Some of the various manners of load
classifications are shown in table 11.1 (overleaf).
The term capacity is often used to imply the limit of the output quantity, generally the power
output.
The thermal capacity is the continuous power, limited by the temperature rise permissible for
the plant.
The voltage drop capacity is the continuous power, limited by the permissible voltage drop
consideration.
The rated capacity is the continuous power rating under specified operating conditions
without exceeding the permissible temperature rise limits.
Per unit value is the ratio of the value of a given quantity, to the value of a reference quantity
of the same type; (often termed as a factor).
Table 11.1: Classification of loads
11.2 Load and demand terms
11.2.1 Demand
The demand of an installation or system is the load at the receiving terminals averaged
over a specified interval of time. Load is the commodity under consideration and may be any
of the various types of power such as active power, reactive power, apparent power or current.
Hence demand is expressed in kilowatts, kilovars, kilovolt-amperes or amperes.
The period over which the load is averaged is the demand interval. The demand interval is
determined by the particular application under consideration. It may be governed by the rate of
heating of the apparatus under consideration or the duration of the load. The load may be only
momentary, such as the loads due to resistance welders or motor-starting currents. However,
Percentage value
Per unit value
=
=
per unit value 100.
Percentage value/100.
Manner of classification Classification
1. Environment or geographical location (a) Inner city
(b) Urban
(c) Suburban
(d) Rural
2. Type of consumer (a) Domestic (residential)
(b) Commercial (deals in
services only)
(c) Industrial (manufacturing)
3. Dependence on electric service (a) Critical
(b) Emergency
(c) Normal
4. Effects upon other loads (a) Transient (cyclic and
non-cyclic)
(b) Steady-state (normal)
5. Electric service rate schedule (a) Residential
(b) Commercial lighting
(c) Commercial power
(d) Industrial
(e) Rural
the apparatus may have a long rate of heating such that demand intervals of 15 minutes,
30 minutes, 1 hour or even longer may be more practicable. A statement as to the demand
should always indicate the demand interval. Unless the statement indicates the demand
interval it is meaningless.
The variation in demand with demand interval for a given load is shown in figure 11.1. Such
a load cycle can be obtained on a recording meter, which is over-damped in such a manner that
rapid fluctuations in load are not recorded. It should be observed that the demand imposed by
a particular load cycle is dependent upon the coincidence of the boundaries of the demand
interval and the variations in load.
Figure 11.1: The variation of demand with demand interval
Continuous rating and demand
The demand should not be confused with the rated continuous load. The demand is the
average load which a device imposes on a system during an interval. The continuous rating is
the nameplate rating of a device when operated at specific fixed and rated conditions, at which
certain limits such as temperature will not be exceeded. While the demand is the average load
a device imposes on a system in a specified interval of time, the rated continuous load is a load
it would impose under a specific set of rated conditions. However, it is possible for the
demands of some loads to approach their continuous ratings.
Average value
area under demand curve
demand interval
------------------------------------------------------------ =
Max 15 min Demand
Max 30 min Demand
Max 1h Demand
Area under the curve
= energy supplied
Average load
12N 12M 12M
Time of Day
0.2
0.4
0.5
0.8
1.0
L
o
a
d
(
M
W
)
11.2.2 Maximum demand (MD) or peak load
The maximum demand of an installation or system is the greatest of all demands which
have occurred during the specified period of time. Maximum demand is expressed in
appropriate units of the type of load being considered such as kW, kVA, amperes or other
suitable unit. It is usually the maximum demand which is of greatest interest. It is the most
severe normal condition imposed on a system which has thermal loading or voltage drop
limits. As in the case of demand, a statement of the maximum demand must define the
demand interval. However, it must also define the period during which the particular
demand was the maximum of all demands such as daily, weekly, monthly or annual. To be
complete, the statement should also indicate how the demand was observed, if integrated
(block interval) or logged demand: e.g. a statement of the maximum demand may be stated as
maximum monthly, 30 minute integrated demand (in the mathematical sense).
The block internal is the time interval over which the power (kW) is integrated to give the
energy (kWh). The logged demand is simply the kW value at the time that it is logged could
be logged every half-hour, or whatever, depending on the purpose.
The manner in which the maximum demand of a system or part of a system changes with
demand interval can be seen from figure 11.1. If the load is time variant (not constant), the
longer demand interval results in a lower maximum demand. However, if the load is constant
for the duration of a given demand interval, a reduction in the demand interval does not result
in an increase in the maximum demand.
11.2.3 Load or demand curves
In practice, electricity is bought and sold on the basis of demands, which are in fact the
average demands registered over a fixed time period (usually 15 minutes, 30 minutes or in
some cases 60 minutes). A 30 minute period is recommended for the following reasons:
there is no undue penalty for inadvertent peaks of short duration (e.g. motor starting)
from a consideration of the various thermal time constants of electrical equipment
most available metering equipment provides for registration of a 30 minute demand.
The maximum demand or peak load of an installation (or system) is usually expressed as the
greatest of all the 30 minute demands that have occurred during a given period of a month (or
a year).
Load or demand curves therefore might best be plotted in the form of a histogram, since each
demand is the average demand over a prescribed time interval.
The daily load curves for most supply authorities show two marked peaks: One peak during
the morning is a result of industrial and commercial load and the other during the evening
period (usually 5.30 p.m. to 6.00 p.m.), is a result of domestic load. In highly industrialised
cities, it is often found that the morning peak is the higher of the two.
11.2.4 Demand factor (DF)
The demand factor is the ratio of the maximum demand of a system to the total
connected load of the system. Note, the demand factor of a part of the system may be
similarly defined as the ratio of the maximum demand of the part of the system to the total
connected load of the part of the system under consideration.
The connected load is the sum of the continuous ratings of the load consuming apparatus
connected to the system or any part thereof. The connected load and maximum demand are
expressed in the same units. In order to be specific, any statement of the demand factor should
indicate the demand interval and the period over which the maximum demand applies.
The demand factor is usually less than unity. It can be unity only if the total connected load is
energised simultaneously for a period as great as the demand interval. The demand factor may
indicate the degree to which the total connected load is operated simultaneously.
Although the demand factor may apply to an entire system, it is usually applicable to a
customers service, which may be to an industrial or commercial distribution system or a
residence.
11.2.5 Utilisation factor (UF)
The utilisation factor is the ratio of the maximum demand of a system to the rated
capacity of the system. Note, the utilisation factor of a part of a system may be similarly
defined as the ratio of the maximum demand of the part of the system to the rated capacity of
the part of the system under consideration. The maximum demand and the rated capacity are
expressed in the same units so that the utilisation factor is dimensionless. However, a
statement of the utilisation factor should indicate the demand interval and the period over
which the maximum demand applies. While the demand factor may indicate the degree to
which the total connected load is being served simultaneously, the utilisation factor indicates
the degree to which a system is being loaded during peak load with respect to its rated
capacity.
The rated capacity of a system (or part of a system) is usually determined by its thermal
capability. However, the voltage drop limitation may be reached due to a load which is less
than the system thermal capability. Even though the thermal capacity is higher than the voltage
drop capacity, the smaller of the two capacities is the basis for the utilisation factor. Hence, to
be specific, the statement of utilisation factor should indicate the basis of the rated capacity.
11.2.6 Plant or capacity factor (PF)
Plant factor is defined as the ratio of the average generator load to the total rated
capacity of the equipment supplying that load.
Thus:
Utilisation factor
Plant factor
Demand factor }
(over an interval }
System maximum demand (in MW)
Total connected load in the system (in MW)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- =

System maximum demand
System rated capacity
---------------------------------------------------------------- =

Average load output by the plant
Total rated capacity of the plant
------------------------------------------------------------------------------ =
11.2.7 Diversity factor (div. f)
The diversity factor is the ratio of the sum of the individual maximum demands of the
various subdivisions of a system to the maximum demand of the whole system. Note, the
diversity factor of a part of a system is similarly defined as the ratio of the sum of the
individual maximum demands of the various subdivisions of the part of the system, to the
maximum demand of the part of the system under consideration.
The diversity factor is equal to or greater than unity. It is unity if all individual maximum
demands occur simultaneously or are coincident. A group of loads in which the maximum
demands are not coincident will have a group maximum demand less than the sum of the
individual maximum demands. The diversity factor for the group will be equal to or
greater than unity.
Typical diversity factors are set out in table 11.2.
Table 11.2: Diversity factors for domestic consumers
11.2.8 Load factor (LF)
The load factor is the ratio of the average load over a designated period of time to the
peak load occurring in that period. It is the average load in per unit of peak load. The peak
load may be the maximum instantaneous or the maximum average load over a designated
interval of time (maximum demand). The peak load in this definition is usually intended to be
the maximum demand. In commercial transactions, the peak load is taken as the greatest of all
averages of load (demands) over a specified interval of time, occurring within a given period
of time. The average and maximum loads must be expressed in the same units, for the load
factor to be dimensionless. The load factor is applicable to any of the various types of loads in
table 5.2.
The definition of load factor must be specific in that it defines the demand period, the period to
which the maximum demand and average load apply, the manner of measurement of the
maximum demand and the load commodity involved.
div.f.
sum of individual maximum demands
maximum demand of the whole system
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- =
Elements of System between
which diversity factors are
stated
Typical value
diversity factor
Between users
Between transformers
Between feeders
From user to transformer
From user to feeder
From user to generating station
3.0
1.3
1.15
3.0
3.9
5.0
load factor
average load over the period
peak load during the period
-------------------------------------------------------------------- =
If the peak load lasts only for a short duration over a demand interval of longer period, it
results in a smaller load factor. Since the energy consumption is distributed over a greater
time, the average load is less for the longer period, with no change in the maximum demand.
If the load cycle is composed of identical variations, then the load factor is higher.
The annual load factor for a seasonal load will be considerably less than either the daily or
weekly load factor of that load, for the period in which maximum demand occurred. The
weekly load factor will probably be less than the daily load factor for the day of maximum
demand for that particular week.
The load factor is greater than zero, but is less than or equal to unity. A load which is constant
during the period will have a load factor of 1.0 per unit (or 100%) because the average load
and peak load will be equal. Usually, the load factor is much less than this value. An electric
clock has a load factor of 100%, but the load is relatively insignificant in terms of maximum
demand and kWh consumption.
Load cycle
Generally, the load factor for a given load cycle is also a function of the demand interval,
because the maximum demand is usually dependent upon the demand interval. However, the
load factor of a given load cycle, in which the peak load is sustained over several demand
intervals, will be unchanged by increasing the demand interval. If the demand interval is equal
to the duration of the peak, both the average and the peak loads remain constant over that
range of demand intervals. Then the load factor is 1.
Peak
Average
t
kW
Low Load Factor
t
kW
High Load Factor
Peak
Average
t
kW
Peak =
Average
Basically, the load factor indicates the degree to which the peak load is sustained during
the period. Load cycles of various shapes and various peak loads may have equal load factors.
The only requirements for equal load factors is that the ratios of the respective average to the
peak loads be equal.
11.3 Composite loads
The coincident demand of a group of users is not so great as a sum of the individual demands.
This fact has much of the economic justification of the electricity supply industry. The
amounts saved in the cost of generating capacity are available to construct the distribution
system. The concentration of capacity in large units makes power production cheaper than it
can be in small plants. The daily load curve of an electric authority serving a large city is a
composite of the demands made by various classes of user. Industrial users make their heaviest
demands in the morning and a considerable part of the load had disappeared before the
demand for lighting in the afternoon nears its peak. There is also a diversity of demand made
by the transformers on a radial feeder system. The maximum load on the feeder is less than the
sum of the transformer loads.
11.4 Scheduling plant to meet expected loads
Electricity has to be generated as it is consumed since it cannot be stored except in limited
quantities. The rate at which electricity has to be supplied to the system from the generating
stations to meet the requirements of all the consumers simultaneously is known as the system
demand. The total amount of generating plant able to be provided therefore, has to match the
estimated maximum system demand. Due to the daily routine of the public and the seasonal
effects of the weather, system demand varies, high in the winter and low in the summer.
Furthermore the demand at night is low relative to day time demands. The average demand
throughout the year expressed as a percentage of the maximum demand which occurs in
winter months is known as a system load factor. The annual system load factor of a large
system is of the order of 50%.
The system requirement at any time is met by loading the most efficient stations in order of
merit of fuel cost. In a competitive market coordination of the generating units is arranged by
utilising the lowest priced generation first. As the load increases during the day the more
expensive plant is brought on line.
The co-ordination of the generation of electricity (in a group of power stations connected to
a grid system) leads to considerable saving, as compared with the same loads fed from a
number of independent power stations. The coordination of generation:
enables the total generating capacity to be reduced, since less spare capacity required
allows the system to be planned so that the maximum size of generating unit is installed
(and hence the cost per kilowatt is a minimum)
enables the generating plant to be loaded so that the minimum amount of fuel is consumed,
by concentrating generation in the most efficient power stations.
Figure 11.2: Load duration curve for a typical week
In figure 5.2 the output of the stations supplying the various demand levels is plotted in
horizontal strips. It should be noted that those stations with the cheapest fuel costs are on load
for the maximum time. Stations with higher fuel costs are only put on load when required by
the system demand. Those with the highest fuel cost of all are kept in reserve and would
operate for very short periods only during the winter and might not be required to run at all. It
should be noted that the method of representation shown in figure 11.2 is a simplified
diagrammatic representation. For example, the stations which are on reduced load factors are
not running continuously for the periods shown and shut down continuously for the remainder,
but are running on two shifts or single shifts.
The load duration curve may be divided up roughly into three parts:
the lower part known as the base load region in which the plant is operated on a three shift
basis
the intermediate range in which plant operation is on a two or single shift basis
the upper part in which the load exceeds a certain value for short times only known as the
peak load where the plant is operated only when required for short time.
Demarcation between these classifications is however not clearly defined.
11.4.1 Seasonal load variations
A fact that has a very important bearing on the cost of electricity is that, not only does the
demand vary throughout the 24 hours of each day, being lowest during the night and rising
during the day with peaks at certain times but, because of air-conditioning, the demand is
higher in the summer (hot, wet) than the winter (cold, dry).
Peak Load
Intermediate
Load
Base Load
Output of Station No. 1
168 0 Hours
M
W
P
1
P
2
P
3
P
4
P
5
P
6
P
7
P
8
11.5 Planned outage for maintenance
It is necessary to plan maintenance programmes so as to ensure that there is enough plant left
in operation at all times, to meet the load with sufficient margin and guard against breakdown.
Load curves are used for scheduling plant outages.
Major overhauls of generating plant are scheduled for summer time when the load is lowest as
shown on figure 11.3. Similarly, minor maintenance on base load plant may be carried out at
night rather than during the day when the plant may be needed.
Figure 11.3
The amount of plant which can be allowed out for overhaul is assessed from knowledge of the
installed capacity, breakdown characteristics of the plant and the demand. The required spare
plant margin is assessed, therefore, by considering the probable simultaneous effect of the
three risks involved, in addition to the average level of plant outage. These risks are:
plant outage rate higher or lower than the average
the occurrence of weather of greater or less severity in the winter and average cold spell
conditions
the average cold spell demand in the event being higher or lower than estimated.
The combination of the individual risks is assessed as a combined risk. It would be possible to
imagine a serious combination of circumstances: such as, very severe winter coupled with an
unduly high rate of breakdown of generating plant, together with a large unforeseen increase
of new load. To cover all of these would require a very large margin of spare generating
capacity and in any event, these conditions might never arise. An acceptable risk is considered
to be one which might require load disconnection in three winters out of a hundred. The 1981
power restrictions in NSW were an example of the consequence of this risk factor.
Potential
Overhaul
Demand
I
n
s
t
a
l
l
e
d
C
a
p
a
c
i
t
y
100%
50
A
l
l
o
w
a
n
c
e
for
D
is
trib
u
tio
n
J A S O N D J F M A M J
Module 11 Loads and scheduli ng 11.11
11.5.1 Cost of outages
It is not possible to place a value on the cost of deliberate or involuntary reduction in load.
Apart from the electricity supply authoritys loss of revenue, which may be insignificant,
consumers could be involved in serious loss by upsets to production processes, damage to
plant and in other ways resulting in a loss of good will which must be preserved. If the
electricity industry is to continue to attract a continually increasing proportion of the energy
market, such losses must be prevented.
Breakdown of plant within the limits allowed would not cause any loss of supplies to
consumers (on the assumption that an adequate margin of spare plants has been allowed). But
it would be a source of considerable loss to the electricity supply authority, particularly if the
plant would have been operating in the base load region. This is due to the need to replace the
energy which would have been generated by the broken down plant, by electricity produced by
a more costly power station. Furthermore, each plant lower down in the order of merit list
would be called upon to increase its output; and it would also be necessary to bring onto load
(albeit for a short period) some plant capacity more costly to run than any which would have
been required otherwise. The inability of new plant to be available on the contractual date and
the ability of plant to perform to the guaranteed output are additional factors to be considered.
Summary
The load factor indicates the degree to which the peak load is sustained during the period.
We have shown that the coincident demand of a group of users is not so great as a sum of the
individual demands. The diversity of demand made by the transformers on a radial feeder
system which makes the maximum load on the feeder less than the sum of the transformer
loads.
Like all public utilities, assets in the electricity industries are not fully utilised. A challenge
exists to utilise both the generating and transmission as well as the distribution capacity, to
plan for future growth and development without incurring major capital expenditure.
Questions
1. Define the terms demand, maximum demand, diversity, load factor.
2. How are seasonal load variations used to advantage in a power system?
3. What is the use of a load duration curve? Sketch the curve and identify the components.
Problems
1. A diesel-generator supplies 720 kWh in a 24-hour day to a factory with a connected load
of 400 kW. The load factor is 0.25. What is the demand factor?
2. A factory with a connected load of 1 000 kW has individual loads of maximum demands
200 kW, 300 kW and 600 kW. What is the diversity factor?
3. A three-phase 415-V feeder supplies an induction motor rated at 100 kW, 0.95 efficiency
and 0.9 lagging power factor. Its load factor is 0.75. What is the maximum demand
supplied by the feeder?
4. A transformer supplies three circuits having maximum demand values 100 kW, 130 kW
and 250 kW, with diversity factors of 1, 1.3 and 1.25 respectively. What is the maximum
demand on the transformer?
5. Plot the daily MW demand curves for the following data and hence plot the total demand
curve. Calculate the Average Daily Demand.
References
[Answer: Mean Load = 720/24 = 30 kW; CL = 400 kW.
MD = = = 120 kW = MD
DF = MD/CL = 120/400 = 0.3 ]
[Answer: div. f = (200 + 300 + 600) / 1000 = 1.1]
[Answer: MD = 100/(0.95 0.9 0.75) kVA ]
[Answer: MD = kW]
ML
LF
---------
30 10
3
0.25
--------------------
100
1
---------
130
1.3
---------
250
1.25
---------- + +
\ .
| |
Hours 24
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Domestic 35 30 20 20 25 35 70 100 80 50 45 40 40 45 40 50 60 120 150 140 120 110 80 55
Industrial 40 40 38 35 35 40 42 40 65 70 70 75 50 65 75 70 60 30 35 38 40 40 40 40
Commercial 8 7 5 5 5 5 10 50 70 90 95 85 80 70 70 75 70 50 40 35 35 25 20 10
Module 12 System voltage control
Module
12
System voltage control 3
Modul e 12 System voltage control 12.1
Objectives
describe how voltage is controlled in a distribution system and how compensation forces
change in variable voltage transformers for light and heavy load conditions
appreciate the system reactive power balance in a transmission system and be able to
suggest economical compensation
know the requirements of the Electricity Act and be able to explain the variation between
the sending and receiving end voltages and apportion the voltage drops, V.D.s.
Introduction
The subject of this module is that the supply voltage to the consumers terminals is maintained
within statutory limits regardless of load variations.
Generally, the power received by consumers is of high quality if:
continuity of supply is maintained
constant system frequency is secured
the voltage applied to the consumer terminals is maintained within statutory limits
regardless of load variations
the waveform is sinusoidal
there are no transient high voltage spikes.
Dealing in this module with voltage problems only, the voltage level of the entire system
should be considered from the point of view of maintaining the consumers terminal voltage
within statutory limits but not ignoring operational requirements for various transmission
sections such as tie lines between generating stations and transmission and distribution lines.
For instance, it is essential that reactive power interchange between stations should be so
adjusted that voltages on the system remain stable. In fact, generation of reactive power should
take place at load centres particularly when long transmission lines are involved while power
interchange between stations should be achieved at high transmission power factor.
The network between the power stations and load centres has many voltage levels and is
composed mainly of overhead lines, cables and transformers. Several different voltage levels
are used between the generating source and the consumer so that the system is technically
viable and the overall cost of supplying electricity is minimised. Transformers are used to
interconnect the different voltage networks and if fitted with tapchange equipment, can vary
one network voltage relative to another.
For the purpose of voltage control these networks can be grouped as follows:
66/11-kV and 11-kV/415-V distribution systems
275/132/66-kV transmission system.
The way these networks are interconnected and the inter-network voltage control facilities are
illustrated in figure 12.1.
Figure 12.1
From this it is seen that the voltage supplied to consumers at 415 V is controlled by the 11-kV
system voltage and by the voltage regulation between the 11-kV feed and the consumer. The
effect of lagging power factor loads is to increase this regulation. Local problems may arise
due to excessive voltage drop when the demand is high or where special operating
arrangements are necessary. But, in general, the consumer voltage can be maintained at the
correct level provided the 11-kV voltage is controlled within certain limits. This is done by the
automatic voltage regulating (AVR) equipment operating the on-load tapchanger on the
incoming 11-kV transformers. The effects of local voltage regulation as the load rises may be
offset by raising the 11-kV system voltage. This is done automatically by the AVR equipment
where necessary.
The AVR equipment on the transformers feeding the 11-kV systems can maintain the 11-kV
system voltage at its required levels only if the transformer HV voltage is kept within the
tapping range of the transformer. Similar problems occur on 66-kV systems but so long as the
132-kV voltage is kept within the tapping range of the 132/66-kV transformers then, to a large
extent, this can be overcome.
As we progress up the system voltage levels the problem becomes more complex and changes
its nature. This is partly due to the character of the higher voltage systems which tend to be
interconnected rather than radial systems, and partly due to the characteristics of the main
items of plant which make up the system.
At the grid voltage level, voltage control is related to the generation and consumption of
reactive power.
The distribution systems can cope with the effects of changing reactive power (VAR)
requirements of the load and system by automatically regulating their voltages. The grid
system however, has not only to operate at the required voltage level but also has to satisfy the
changing reactive requirements of the distribution networks and that resulting from its own
system.
66
66
kV
275 kV Line
12.1 66/11-kV and 11-kV/415-V distribution systems
Transformer tapchanging
Consumers are supplied from 4l5-V lines which are fed from 11 000/433-250-V transformers
having off-load taps with a range 0 2.5% 5%.
11-kV lines are fed by on-load tapchanging transformers with a range of say 66 kV+ 5% to
5% in 1.25% steps/11 kV. These transformers have line drop compensating (LDC) equipment
and automatic voltage regulating (AVR) equipment.
AVR and LDC equipment in 66/11-kV transformers
An essential component of the operation of a single on-load tapchanging transformer is a relay
function which senses the level of supply voltage. When the disparity from a pre-determined
reference voltage i.e., base voltage reaches a certain level it closes a pair of contacts to operate
the tapchanger in the direction required to reduce the disparity. For practical reasons,
transformers are tapped in discrete steps, usually in this country between 1.25 and 1.5% of the
nominal voltage and theoretically, the output voltage variation can be maintained to within one
half of the step-voltage percentage.
1.25% to 1.5% is the limit to the step change in voltage which cannot be noticed by the change
in lighting level provided by incandescent lights.
This relay function may be carried out by the Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
(SCADA) or by a Intelligent Electronic Device (IED)
A choice of relay sensitivity (i.e. percentage variation from normal voltage required to contact
in either direction) is very important in relation to the percentage tapping steps on the
transformer. To take the extreme case if a tapping step of 1.5% is used and the relay sensitivity
is set to within + 0.75% to 0.75% (sometimes referred to as a relay bandwidth of 1.5%)
initiation of a tapchange in one direction would alter the voltage sufficiently to cause a tap-
change in the reverse direction giving a continuous hunting. The transformer tappings are
normally at constant percentages of the nominal primary (HV) voltage. Thus the percentage
change as seen by the relay (on the secondary or LV side) for constant primary voltage will
vary over the tapping range.
For example, with a tapping range of +15% to 15% in steps of 1.5%, the change per tap as
seen by the AVR will vary between about 1.3 and 1.7%.
A further requirement is that of compensating for the regulation of the network beyond the
transformer owing to changes in load. This is often a matter of compromise since the supplies
are given to some consumers (mainly industrial) at 11 kV and the variations of load with time
will not normally coincide with that of consumers supplied at say, domestic distribution
voltage levels, but some degree of compensation is desirable and can be obtained. The
accepted method is to feed a fixed proportion of the load current (by means of a current
transformer) through an impedance simulating the network to be supplied and to connect this
impedance so that the associated voltage control relay senses the original or open-circuit
voltage minus the drop in the impedance The transformer output voltage will then show a
rising characteristic with increasing load.
Figure 12.2 shows a typical LDC circuit. It can be seen that a dummy impedance (r + jx) is
connected in the automatic voltage regulating relay circuit to represent the line impedance to a
selected point (R) on the line which is to be maintained at a constant voltage.
The deviations are for optional study only.
Figure 12.2
Referring to figure 13.2(c), we have:
Multiply by to convert to L L voltage and we have:
equation 1
Receiving end voltage, V
AN2
V
AN2
V D ( ) =
V
AN2
I
A
r jx + ( ) =
3
30
V
AB2
V
AB1
3 I
A
r 3 I
A
x =
90 + 30 30
Similarly, referring to figure 12.2(a), we have:
Voltage applied to relay,
equation 2
Using the fact that the ratio of voltage drop/sending end voltage in equations 1 and 2 should be
the same for correct compensation, we may derive the equations:
If R and X are set as shown above, the required or base voltage (as determined by the AVR
relay balance voltage, which may be set within the range of say 5% of nominal 110 V) would
be maintained at point R for all loads and all p.f.s.
Voltage limits at consumer terminals
The Electricity Act Regulations require the Electricity Board to maintain voltage limits as
follows:
6% of nominal in towns and rural areas
=
Now =
=
=
R = (ohms) where K
2
= CT ratio
K
1
= VT ratio
and X = (ohms)
Thus if R and X may each be altered in 20 steps of 0.5 ohms, we have:
R = (steps)
X = (steps)
V
AB2
V
AB1
K
1
------------
I
B
I
A
K
2
--------------- R
I
B
I
A
K
2
--------------- jX + +
I
B
I
A
I
B
3 I
A
3 + = +
30 30
V
AB2
V
AB1
K
1
------------
3 I
A
R
K
2
---------------------------------------
3 I
K
2
-------------------------------------------------
90 + 30
+30
V
AB1
K
1
------------
3 I
A
R
K
2
----------------------------------------------
3 I
A

K
2
--------------------------------------------------------------
30
90 + 30
K
2
r
K
1
-------------
K
2
r
K
1
-------------
K
2
r
0.5K
1
--------------
K
2
x
0.5K
1
--------------
Choice of base voltage for an 11 kV line
This is governed by the tap settings used on the 11 kV/415 V transformers and the AVR relay
bandwidth. Normally the tap settings used would be 11 000/433 2%, i.e. 422 V; 11 000/433
and 11 000/433 + 2%, i.e. 444 V. A typical AVR relay bandwidth would be 2%, i.e. if the
tapchanger were manually raised 2 taps and placed on auto the AVR would cause it to come
back one tap. Under these conditions, a suitable base voltage would be 10 760 V. With this
base voltage, a transformer on tap 444 V would give the following voltage during the night
when the line voltage is base voltage plus one tap, i.e. 10 760 + 140 V.
, which is the maximum permissible (415 + 6%)
Satisfactory voltage range on an 11-kV feeder
The maximum allowable voltage is related to the 422-V tap. Suppose a transformer on tap
422 V is lightly loaded, then the maximum allowable voltage to give 440 V (i.e. 415 + 6%) on
the L.V. side is:
The minimum allowable voltage is related to the 444-V tap and to allowable V.D. in L.V.
mains. The minimum allowable voltage at consumers terminals is 415 6%, i.e. 390 V.
Good practice requires that the length of L.V. and consumers mains should be such that the
V.D.

in them does not exceed about 15 V from transformers at the end of the 11-kV feeder.
If the transformer is say 2/3rds fully loaded, its internal V.D. would be about 12 V. Thus the
transformer is required to provide a voltage not less than 390 + 15 + 12 = 417 V. The
minimum allowable 11-kV line voltage is thus:
Thus the maximum allowable V.D. along an 11-kV feeder is 11 500 10 400 = 1 100 V
approximately.
Typical case
Suppose we have an 11-kV feeder with 11 000/415-V transformers distributed along its length
and loaded so that at the time of feeder M.D., the V.D. from sending to receiving ends is
1100 V. The line voltage gradient would be maintained as shown in figure 12.3(b).
Transformer taps should be chosen as shown in figure 12.3(a). Then the voltage variation at
the terminals of transformers feed-off the line would be as indicated in figure 12.3(c).
The LDC should be set to maintain a base voltage of 10 760 V at point R shown on figure 12.3.
If we assume that the line impedance from 33/11-kV transformer to point R is (8.2 + j6.) and
the CT and VT ratios are 200/5 and 1100/110, then the LDC would be set as follows:
444 10 760 140 + ( )
11 000
------------------------------------------------- 440 V =
440 11 000
422
------------------------------- 11 500 V =
11 000 417
440
------------------------------- 10 400 V =
This example illustrates the transformation 11 kV/433 V 2.5%. To extend this application
they are specified as 11 kV/433 V 2.5%, 5% with the same principles applying.
Distribution transformers usually have off line tap changing equipment used to set the
transformer ratio according to where the transformer is located in the system.
Typical taps for the 11-kV/ 415-V transformers are 11 000/433 plus and minus 2.5% and 5%.
The transformer taps are set such that transformers closer to the zone substation supplying the
feeder are set at the higher primary voltage tap and transformers further from the zone
substation are set at a lower primary voltage tap. At intermediate locations the appropriate
intermediate tap positions are used.
Transformers at the zone substation supplying the load are usually fitted with automatic on-
line tap changes. A large range of tap ratios is provided. The individual voltage step is
typically 1.25%, this being the largest step voltage change which is not discernible by a
change in light output of an incandescent bulb being supplied as part of the connected load.
The step voltage change which is just discernable from the light output of a discharge-type
light bulb is higher.
The voltage regulating equipment is designed to increase the supply voltage at times of greater
load so as to compensate for the voltage drops in the high-voltage feeder, the distribution
transformers, the low-voltage mains and low-voltage service lines during these periods. This is
called line drop compensation.
The voltage at the point of supply to the customer's installation must be kept to within the
statutory limits at all times. These limits are typically plus or minus 5%. Therefore, for a
415 V supply the voltage at the point of supply must be maintained at between 394.25 V and
435.75 V.
To set up the system to allow for the maximum voltage drops we could arrange it as follows:
Transformers close to the zone substation would be set on 11 550/433
Transformers at the far end of the feeder would be set on 10.450/433
The no-load float voltage would be set at 10 516 V, giving the close customers a point-of-
supply voltage of 394.25 V at no load and the far customers a point-of-supply voltage of
435.75 V at no load.
For the customers closest to the point of supply there will be some voltage drop in the short
length of 11-kV line, the transformer and the low voltage lines at the time of maximum load.
R = = 3.3
and X = = 2.4
The ratios are then: 11 550/433
11 275/433
11 000/433
10 725/433
10.450/433
200 8.2 110
5 11 000
--------------------------------------
200 6.0 110
5 11 000
--------------------------------------
If this voltage drop is calculated to be 4% for the closest customer then we could set the line
drop compensation to boost the line voltage at the zone substation to 12 000 V, which is
usually the highest design operating voltage.
This would give the closest customer a voltage of 432.6 V.
To maintain the voltage for the furthest customer, at the time of maximum load, we also need
to allow for the voltage drop in the transformer and low voltage lines. If this is 3% we need to
maintain a line voltage of at least 9514 V to maintain a voltage of 394.25 V at the customer's
point of supply.
Therefore the maximum voltage drop along the feeder is: 12 000 9514 = 2486 V
This voltage arrangement is illustrated in figure 12.3.
Figure 12.3: 11 kV line voltage profile
There is more voltage drop per unit of length in the part of the feeder closest to the zone
substation because of the higher loading in this section. Changes in conductor sizes along the
figure would also result in changes in the slope of the curve.
It can be seen that the critical points are at the start and finish of the feeder. Customers at the
null point, R, would be connected to a transformer with the ratio set at 11 000/433 and so
would get a consistent supply of about 414 volts.
12,000
10,516
9,514
415
435.75
394.25
P
o
i
n
t
o
f
S
u
p
p
l
y
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
H
V
L
i
n
e
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
Distance Along Feeder
Voltage range for the
closest customer
Voltage range for the
most distant customer
R
R
In practice this amount of voltage drop cannot be fully accommodated because the load
profiles of all of the customers do not coincide. In the case of a zone substation area
comprising purely domestic customers, the condition of all of the loads coinciding, while not
being met entirely, will be reasonably close so that a high voltage drop along the feeders can
be accommodated. On the other hand, in the case of a zone substation supplying a combination
of domestic, industrial and commercial load, the individual load profiles will not coincide and
a much smaller line voltage drop can be accommodated. There is also a need to provide a
safety buffer between the calculated voltages and the statutory limits.
A practical method of setting up a zone substation distribution area is to work at a time of
about half the peak load. The line drop compensation is then set to give the required voltage
boost for the half-load situation and then each of the distribution transformer tap positions is
set to give close to 415 V at the customer's point of supply.
F
i
g
u
r
e

1
2
.
4
:
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

d
r
o
p

p
r
o
f
i
l
e

d
i
a
g
r
a
m
Module 12 System vol tage control 12.11
12.2 66-kV system
The 66-kV system would be fed by on-load tapchanging transformers with a range of say
132 kV + 10% 20% in 1.25% steps/66 kV. These transformers also have load drop
compensating (LDC) equipment and automatic voltage regulating (AVR) equipment.
The 66-kV base voltage and the R and X settings would be chosen to maintain a satisfactory
voltage range at the terminals of all 66/11-kV transformers.
Alternative ranges are 10% and 5% + 15% and care must be taken in paralleling
transformers with different steps.
12.3 Voltage control
To maintain the voltage at consumers terminals within specified limits, the following methods
are used:
(a) The terminal voltage of the generator, at any load or power factor, is kept constant by
automatic voltage regulators.
(b) Main step-down transformers are designed for automatic on-load tap-changing. When the
secondary voltage varies from a specified value, the automatic tap-changer
automatically changes the transformer turns-ratio without interrupting the supply, and
corrects the secondary voltage. For this purpose, the windings are provided with tappings,
so that turns can be inserted or taken out, thus altering the turns-ratio to boost or buck
the output voltage.
(c) Distribution transformers (i.e. those stepping down to the normal supply voltage of
415/240 V) are usually provided with a manually-operated, off-load tap changing device,
giving a choice of 5 close ratios. This allows the most suitable ratio to be selected for a
particular location.
(d) Static reactive power compensator with electronic controls can be used to supply
positive or negative reactive power to the system, and thus improve the voltage levels.
(e) Shunt capacitors switched in parallel with highly inductive loads (e.g. induction
furnaces), can improve the power factor and also reduce feeder voltage drop.
(f) Synchronous capacitors. A synchronous machine, if over-excited will provide leading
reactive power into the a.c. supply system. This will improve the stability of an otherwise
weak power system.
The consumer demand for reactive power varies in a somewhat similar way to the demand for
active power. However, it is interaction between the changing power flows and the series
components of the network and to a lesser extent between the system voltage and the shunt
elements which give rise to voltage control problems.
A mis-match between the active power generated and the active power (MW) demand will
tend to cause variations in the frequency but a mismatch between the reactive power generated
and demanded will cause the system voltage to vary.
For effective voltage control the resultant reactive load to be met by the generators must be
within the voltage regulating range of the plant supplying the system active load.
The control of voltage on the grid is more complex than the control of voltage on the
distribution system because of:
the inter-connected nature of the grid
the characteristics of the main items of plant which make up the system.
A brief look at the plant characteristics will help to explain this. Most system elements have a
series inductive reactance component and a shunt capacitive reactance component. This is
illustrated in figure 12.4 which shows a simple representation of an overhead line or cable
(figure 12.4(a) and a transformer (figure 12.4(b)).
Figure 12.5: Equivalent networks
The interaction between the series current (I) and the series impedance (R
1
+ jX
1
) causes real
and imaginary (reactive) power loses, MW and MVAr respectively; and also causes voltage
regulation, which to a first approximation is given by:
V (PR
1
+ QX
1
) where all quantities are per unit values and P and Q are the in-phase and
quadrature components respectively of the circuit power flow.
From the typical circuit parameters given in table 12.1, it is seen that the X/R ratio increases as
the system voltage increases. Thus at the higher voltages the quadrature component Q of the
circuit load has a much greater effect on the voltage regulation than the in-phase component P.
Table 12.1
Although the series impedance of virtually all the system components is inductive and thus
absorbs MVAr the shunt impedance is capacitive for overhead lines and cables and inductive
for transformers. The shunt capacitance gives rise to MVAr gains (i.e MVAr generation) on the
system, which are proportional to voltage squared and consequently are greater at the higher
voltages shown in table 12.1.
The magnetising inductance of transformers constitute MVAr losses (i.e. MVAr load), which
may increase rapidly with voltage, due to core saturation.
The combined effect of the shunt and series MVAr gains and losses for overhead lines and
cables is shown in the last column of table 12.1 where the change in MVAr requirements
between zero and full load at unity power factor is given. Thus overhead lines generate MVAr
when lightly loaded but absorb MVAr when heavily loaded. Cables generate MVAr for all
creditable loading conditions. (See table 12.2)
Table 12.2: System MVAr gains and losses
A further effect of the series inductive reactance is that when the circuit load has a lagging
power factor, the receiving end voltage is lower than the sending end voltage but when it has a
leading power factor the voltage may rise along the line.
The distribution systems can cope with the effects of changing MVA requirements of the load
and system by automatically regulating their voltages. The grid system however has not only
to operate at the required voltage level but also has to satisfy the changing reactive
requirements of the distribution networks and that resulting from its own system.
Plant
Normal
Rating
(MVA)
X/R
Ratio
Shunt MVAr
gain at
1 p.u. V
(MVAr/km)
Resultant Reactive
Requirements (MVAr/km)
No Load Full Load
132 kV
(a) O/H Line
(b) Cable
200
200
3.4
4.5
0.068
2.63
+0.68
+2.63
0.62
+2.3
33 kV
(a) O/H Line
(b) Cable
25
25
1.9
0.78
0.0047
0.21
+0.0047
+0.21
0.24
+0.16
MVAr Gains MVAr Losses
O/H Line shunt gains,
Cable shunt gains,
V
2
V
2
O/H Line series losses
Cable series losses
Transf. series losses
Transf. shunt losses
Shunt reactor losses
I
2
I
2
I
2
V
2
V
2
Generation connected to the grid network assists in controlling the voltage by the action of its
automatic voltage regulator in conjunction with the on-load tapchanging facilities of the
generator transformer.
When the system is heavily loaded the resultant MVAr demand presents a lagging power
factor to the generators but when it is lightly loaded the resultant MVAr demand presents a
leading power factor to a reduced number of generators supplying the active (MW), load. A
generators capacity to absorb MVAr i.e. operate with reduced excitation is limited and this,
combined with the fact there are fewer generators needed to supply the active load, gives rise
to the present day problems in controlling system voltages at times of light load.
A typical generator at full MW output can operate with power factors ranging from 0.95 lead
to 0.85 lag. A generator absorbing MVAr is operating near to its stability limit and
consequently if it has to absorb more MVAr due to a disturbance on the system, then it may
become unstable and pole-slipping may occur with serious system repercussions.
In general, provided the system net reactive balance remains within the generator reactive
capability then the grid system voltage can be satisfactorily controlled although there may be
isolated areas with local problems due to excessive MVAr transfers for the transmission
distances and voltages involved. The voltage control is a matter of balancing local MVAr
requirements to minimise MVAr transfers.
12.4 System reactive power, i.e. VAR balance
The VAR load of each consumer is the product of the supply voltage and the out-of-phase
component of load current. This VAR load establishes the alternating magnetic fields of such
equipment as motors, lighting ballasts and transformers.
In addition, there are the VAR requirements for establishing the magnetic fields of
transmission and distribution equipment. These include lines, transformers and auxiliary
motors. These VAR requirements are the VAR losses (I
2
X losses)
Some of the above requirements are met by VARs generated by transmission line and cable
capacitance. Others may be supplied by static or synchronous capacitors provided for the
purpose. Excessive line and cable charging may be absorbed by especially provided shunt
reactors or removed by switching lines out of service during periods of light load.
The balance of all VAR requirements must be met by the generators whose prime function is
power generation. This balance is usually inductive during the day when the system load
varies from medium to heavy. At such times generators supply VARs to the system. The
generators field currents must be increased above those required for zero VAR loading i.e.
they must be over-excited.
At times of light load, such as night, the balance may be capacitive. Generators then have to
absorb VARs and field currents must be below those required for zero VAR loading i.e. they
must be under-excited.
The VAR balance may be summarised as follows:
Total VAR generation = over-excited generator VARs + over-excited synchronous
capacitor VARs + static capacitor VARs (shunt and series)
Total VAR load = Consumer VAR load + net system VAR losses (i.e. I
2
X line
charging) + shunt reactor VARs + under-excited generator VARs + under-excited
synchronous capacitor VARs.
Table 12.3 shows forecast VAR balances for the NSW system for two critical times of the year
when the system MW loads are 4 175 MW and 840 MW respectively.
Table 12.3
12.5 The future
We have seen that the quality of the power supply depends on the reactive power conditions in
the system. In Queensland other than along the coastal backbone, loads are occurring which
cause steady state and short time voltage rises in the event of a fault. These can cause the grid
voltage levels to be exceeded.
Coal mining loads and the further installation of the 50-kV railway electrification in Queensland
will cause reactive power problems. With the interconnection of isolated power stations due to
low system fault levels caused by the long lines, major voltage fluctuations may occur.
Additional compensating facilities i.e. series and parallel connected capacitors, reactors and
controlled static compensators will have to be installed.
Time of System
peak MW load
(Winter 6pm)
Time of System
Min. MW load
(5am Boxing Day)
MVAr load due to:
Bulk supply consumers
System losses (I
2
X
Line Charging)
Shunt reactors
Under-excited synchronous
condensers
Under-excited generators
Total MVAr load
MVAr generation due to:
Static capacitors
Over-excited synchronous
condensers
Over-excited generators
Total MVAr generation
System MW load
1 490
870
0
0
0
2 360
907
215
1 238
2 360
4 175
360
948
60
154
374
0
0
0
0
0
840
Industrial loads such as arc furnaces and rolling mills are subject to frequent reactive power
fluctuations. Static compensators are used because they are able to balance out unsymmetrical
reactive power fluctuations and help to reduce flicker voltages.
Static compensators consisting of thyristor controlled reactors and thyristor switched
capacitors can vary over a range from inductive to capacitive,

being limited by the rating of the
transformer matched to the system voltage and the secondary voltage decided upon for the
controlled and switched compensator elements.
Questions
1. Discuss the control of voltage in a distribution system. Illustrate line drop compensation.
2. Discuss scheduling of the transmission system reactive power and varying daily reactive
demands.
3. How is voltage hunting prevented in on-line tap changing (OLTC) transformers and
regulators?
4. Shunt reactors, synchronous condensers and static capacitors assist in reactive power
control. Describe how these and other means are used to economise power transfer over
long distances.
Section
7
High voltage testing,
commissioning 1
Module 13 High voltage testing and investigations
Module
13
High voltage testing and
investigations 1
Modul e 13 Hi gh voltage testing and investigati ons 13.1
Objectives
identify the difference between withstand and flaw testing and be able to illustrate simple
AC, DC, impulse and corona test sets
understand the difference in procedure and be able to describe the testing of transformers,
cable, lightning arrestors
be able to explain impulse testing using diagrams to illustrate a simple multistage impulse
generator.
Introduction
In this module we examine high voltage testing and investigations.
High voltage testing is carried out to detect cracks or impurities in insulation mediums which
may cause in-service failure of the insulation. Mechanical failure of conductors or conductor
supports is rare and insulation failure due to excessive temperature, vibration, chemical
reaction, moisture, etc. is responsible for most sustained faults on power systems. Once a flaw
has developed in the insulation tracking may occur which causes carbonisation and eventually
failure. Periodic testing at voltages greater than those experienced under normal operating
conditions reveal any problems which may be developing in the insulation before they become
serious enough to develop into a fault and possibly cause loss of supply.
The equipment successfully withstood the tests. No visual or audible indications of failure
have been observed. This is confirmed by the attached oscillograms. So read the test results.
On the other hand there exists a body of opinion that indiscriminate testing can cause
undetected damage leading to subsequent breakdown in service.
13.1 Form of testing
In general terms a voltage which is greater than the normal in-service voltage is applied
between line and ground of the apparatus being tested and this potential is held for a specified
period of time. If the test is satisfactory, a low, constant leakage current will flow. If the
insulation is faulty, it will tend to breakdown allowing a discharge. Most test sets are designed
to supply only very small currents at rated test voltage and if breakdown occurs the primary
voltage to the set is disconnected.
13.2 Types of test
The basic types of tests used are:
withstand
flaw detection.
The withstand test is used mainly during the design stages of electrical equipment. During the
test the applied voltage to the sample is increased until the sample fails or, in the case of
insulators, external flashover occurs. Naturally, this type of test is not applied to equipment
which is required for service.
Flaw detection testing is the type of testing commonly applied to equipment which is required
for service. It is carried out in the manner described in 2 and is used to detect e.g. cracks in HV
bushings or CTs, faulty conductor insulation in HV cables, etc..
13.3 Types of high voltage test sets
We will discuss four types of test units. These are:
a.c. test sets
d.c test sets
impulse test sets
corona test sets.
Initially, we will consider HV AC, HV DC and corona test sets:
HV AC test sets
Portable test sets
The portable test sets have a small petrol or diesel driven a.c. generator which provides 240-V
supply to the primary winding of a step-up transformer. These sets come in the range from
1025 kVA with a maximum test voltage output of about 150 kV r.m.s. and are suitable for
testing cables and rotating machinery. The variation in applied test voltage is achieved by the
use of an auto-transformer on the primary winding giving 0 to 120% of supply voltage
(figure 13.1).
Figure 13.1: Portable HV AC test set
Laboratory test sets
Figure 13.2 shows the circuit diagram of a large HV test set which is of the cascaded HV type.
Maximum test voltage obtained from these units is about 300 kV rms. Once again output
voltage control is achieved by the use of variable voltage transformer on the 240-V supply
winding. (In some cases a saturable reactor is used.)
Figure 13.2: Cascaded HV AC test set
In larger step up transformers of this type, care must be taken to minimise the voltage
difference between turns in successive layers in the HV winding to avoid corona losses or
breakdown to the earthed core.
Test sets up to about 40 kV rms are air insulated and above 40 kV rms the sets are oil
immersed.
25 000 V
10 kV
Resonance test sets
The inductance and distributed capacitance in the HV windings of these sets is designed to
resonate at supply frequency. The LV winding supplies losses and secondary load. They are
sealed in a steel tank with gas under pressure to reduce size. They are seldom used, due to their
complexity and high cost.
HV DC test sets
The majority of HV DC test sets obtain their test voltages from rectifying a.c. which is
produced either by a motor-driven generator or from a normal 240-V AC supply. Increased
testing voltage may be obtained by including voltage doubler, tripler, or quadrupler circuits
into the output stage.
Figures 13.3 and 13.4 show circuits of a simple half wave set and a full wave set. Variable
voltage transformers are again used in the primary winding of the step-up transformer to
obtain voltage output control.
Figure 13.3: Half wave HV DC test set
In the DC sets filtering is normally carried out to reduce ripple to 5% of the DC output. Sets
with outputs in excess of 40 kV usually have the rectifiers and filters oil-immersed to reduce
the overall size.
Corona test sets
Corona test sets are used for the detection of flaws, voids, cracks, or rough surface conditions.
The sets comprise:
a corona free HV transformer
corona pick-up network
corona detector.
Figure 13.4: Fullwave HV DC test set
The transformer is carefully designed to be corona free. The transformer is wound to have
minimum voltage stresses and gradient set up between turns, is fitted with corona rings and is
oil-immersed. All insulation must be free of voids and the oil filled HV bushing has a corona
sphere on top.
Corona pulses have high frequency components (e.g. at 30 kV, 1 MHz). The discharge which
occurs at the discontinuities is detected by the pickup network and fed into the corona detector.
The detector is a high gain, wide band amplifier which displays on a cathode ray tube.
If corona occurs above a preset level an audible alarm is operated or the equipment is
automatically disconnected.
Figure 13.5: Corona HV test set
13.4 HV bushings
Above 10 kV, HV bushings are oil filled to minimise voltage stresses.
13.5 HV leads
HV leads consist of bare copper wire supported on dry varnished wood supports or suspended
on nylon cord from the roof. Ordinary copper wire is used to connect the ground terminal of
the set to one side of the test object and provide an earth on the HV terminal of the test set at
all times except when the actual test is being carried out.
Figure 13.6
13.6 HV measurement
Several methods of measuring the HV output are used:
capacitive voltage divider
CRO with the HV applied directly across the plates
electrostatic voltmeter
resistor-ammeter method (i.e. V = IR where R is in megohms and I is in mA)
sphere gap this is only a peak voltage measurement. The gap between the sphere is pre-
set for breakdown at peak volts. This method is generally unsuitable because correction
factors have to be constantly applied for varying atmospheric conditions.
kV reading
C across voltmeter
C total
--------------------------------------------- =
13.7 Breakdown of test object
Figure 13.7 is a circuit of a simple portable a.c. test set showing leakage indication and voltage
control. The step-up transformer is a specially wound high reactance transformer.
Figure 13.7: SmallAC test set
Figure 13.8 shows an HV DC test set. With the larger test sets disconnection of the HV from
the test object after breakdown is normally carried out by opening a CB on the primary
winding of the step-up transformer. Metering is also permanently connected and allows
continuous monitoring of both voltage output and leakage current.
Figure 13.8: HV DC test set
13.8 Selection of test set
Because of the high cost in manufacture,

HV test sets have comparatively low power ratings
and the output current at test voltage is only in the range of 510 mA. Hence if an a.c. test is to
be carried out, the size of the set required will be dependent on the capacity of the load. With
small samples the leakage current is greater than the capacitive current and so the leakage
current will determine the size.
For test cables and large motors the capacitive current may be much greater than the leakage
current and the capacitive current then becomes the governing factor. Because of this cable
tests are usually carried out using an HV DC test set. A rough guide to the size of set may be
obtained from a calculation of the load capacity.
e.g. a 2-kVA set at 25 kV would test into a 0.008-F load.
or a 10-kVA, 15-kV unit would test into a 0.12-F load.
13.9 Testing general
HV testing is carried out on cables, circuit breakers, insulating oil, transformers; both
distribution and current, lightning arrestors,

insulators and on the primary side of protection
circuits. HV tests are also carried out on safety equipment e.g. HV link sticks and gloves.
All new and overhauled HV equipment is tested before being placed in service to minimise the
risk of failure. The type of test performed on HV equipment is set out in the Australian
Standards. We will now outline some of the more common tests:
Cable test
Table 13.1 shows typical test voltages for single-core cables and multi-core covered cables.
Table 13.1: Test voltages for cables
Z
1
2fC
------------- =
I
E
t
Z
----- =
2E
t
fC =
KVA
2E
t
fC
1 000
------------------ =
Voltage Designation (kV) Test Voltage (kV DC)
33
11
6.6
3.3
66
25
15
7.5
For single core cables one 10 minute test is carried out with the test voltage applied
between the conductor and the earthed sheath
For multi core screened cables (i.e. cables which have an earthed screen surrounding each
active conductor) two 10 minute tests are carried out between conductors and from
conductor to screens in the following manner:
(1) A and B to C and earthed screens
(2) A and C to B and earthed screens.
Belted cables (i.e. cables which have their active conductors only paper insulated one from
the other), three tests are required. The specified test voltage is 36 kV between conductors
and 25 kV to sheath depending on the insulation level of the cable. This is carried out in
three 10-minute tests in the following manner, using a 36-kV step-up transformer with a
centre-tapped secondary:
It will be noted that the table of test voltages states kV DC; DC is normally required because
of the capacitance of the cables as discussed previously.
11-kV CB tests
A typical test on an 11-kV OCB would consist of the following:
Oil tests
The CB oil is pressure tested to check for any impurities which may be present and which
would reduce the dielectric strength and hence its insulating and arc quenching properties. The
oil should withstand a 24-kV minute test across a standard American gap (which uses
1 diameter discs spaced 0.1 apart) or a 40-kV minute test on British Standards gap, using
13-mm diameter spheres spaced 4 mm apart.
CB test
The CB is pressure tested at 24 kV AC
With the CB closed
A and B at 24 kV C earthed
B and C at 24 kV A earthed
and
with the CB open
A, B and C incoming at 24 kV
and A, B and C outgoing earthed.
Each test is of 1 minute duration.
(1)
(2)
(3)
+ 18 kV
A and B
---------------------
EARTH
sheath
--------------------
18 kV
C
------------------
+ 18 kV
A and C
---------------------
EARTH
sheath
--------------------
18 kV
B
------------------
25 kV
A B and C ,
--------------------------
EARTH
sheath
--------------------
Following the pressure tests, the CT ratio and polarity are checked. Finally, the relay pick-up
and CB tripping are checked.
Insulating oil tests
Insulating oils used in transformers and oil filled cables are subjected to rigorous testing for
acidity, viscosity, etc., as well as being pressure tested. The pressure test is similar to that
described for the CB oil.
Transformers
The Australian standard for testing of tower transformers is AS 2374.3.0-1982 : Power
transformers - Insulation levels and dielectric tests - General requirements
The rated withstand voltages of the transformer are verified by the following dielectric tests:
An induced over voltage withstand test.
A full-wave lightning impulse test for the line terminals
A separate source power frequency withstand test for the neutral terminal
An impulse test for the neutral terminal, if a rated impulse withstand voltage for the neutral
terminal has been specified.
Some common test voltages are given in table 13.2.
Table 13.2
The induced voltage withstand test on three-phase transformers is best carried out with a three-
phase test voltage. It can be carried out using a single-phase supply but care needs to be taken
with the earth connections to ensure that the test voltages to earth are not exceeded. To avoid
over saturation of the magnetic core a higher frequency is used. This is commonly generated
by a special synchronous machine. The voltage can then be conveniently increased to the test
value by increasing the excitation of the machine.
The test voltage is applied to the low voltage terminals.
Nominal
voltage
V rms
Highest system
voltage
kV rms
Rated lightning
impulse withstand
voltage
kV peak
Rated short duration
power frequency
withstand voltage
kV rms
415 1 3
11 000 12 75 28
66 000 72.5 325 140
132 000 140 450 185
Modul e 13 High vol tage testi ng and i nvesti gati ons 13.11
Surge arrestors
New arrestors
Batch testing is normally carried out on supplies of new arrestors. (e.g. 1% of the total
purchase).
Recovered arrestors
If a distribution transformer fails from a suspected lightning surge the arrestors are recovered
and returned for test. The information obtained from the test together with the information
from the faulty transformer helps to determine the extent of the protection afforded by surge
arrestors.
The tests performed are:
power frequency withstand
100% impulse spark cover.
For the power frequency test, an AC test set is used and the HV output leads connected to the
line terminal of the arrestor and the earthed ground lead to the earth terminal. A voltage of
l6 kV is applied for 10 seconds and then the test voltage is reduced to below normal operating
voltage of the arrestor for 3060 seconds. The test voltage is again increased to l6 kV for 10
seconds. This procedure is repeated until the arrestor has been subjected to 510 second
periods at 16 kV to earth.
100% impulse spark cover tests are carried out by applying 10 pulses at 50 kV to the arrestor
between line and earth terminals. It should spark over at each test. Spark over is indicated by
the operation of a neon lamp on the HV circuit.
LV arrestors are subjected to similar tests with reduced voltages applied.
13.10 Impulse testing
Impulse testing is important in power system work as it enables the determination of the
effects of voltage surges of short duration on electrical insulation. In service, surges are
produced by lightning strikes to line, switching and general system faults.
In testing, the impulse is a controlled surge obtained from an impulse generator. It is
unidirectional and without any appreciable oscillation. It rises rapidly to a peak and then tapers
off to zero more slowly.
Its waveform shown in figure 13.9 is made up of two exponential curves.
Figure 13.9: Composition of impulse wave
From figure 13.9 we define the following terms and show them in figure 13.10:
duration of wave front (t
1
) is the distance 0 X
1
i.e. zero to peak value of voltage surge.
The nominal value of t
1
is given as t
1
= 1.25 X
2
X
3
,

in s
time to half value of wave tail is the total time from zero to peak, to half peak valve and
t
2
= 0 X
4
,

in s
nominal steepness of wave front is the rate of rise of voltage between points C and D, in
kV/s.
Figure 13.10: Impulse waves
50% Impulse flashover voltage
50% impulse flashover voltage is the peak value of the impulse voltage which will cause
flashover of the test object for 50% of the applications.
If no flashover occurs during the test, the wave is called a full wave.
If flashover occurs the wave is termed a chopped wave.
Impulse puncture voltage
If puncture of the test object occurs on the wave front, the impulse puncture voltage is
measured as V instantaneous.
If puncture occurs on the wave tail the impulse puncture voltage is V peak.
13.11 Impulse generators
We will firstly consider a simple single stage generator capable of impulses up to 10 kV.
Figure 13.11: Single stage impulse generator
In the diagram
In the circuit C
0
is discharged through the sphere gap into the external network consisting of R,
L
1
, and K. If we omit R and the load is purely capacitive then the circuit will reduce to:
C
0
= generator capacitance
K = test object capacitance
L
0
= generator inductance
L
1
= circuit inductance
r = damping resistor
R = tail control resistor
L
0
C
0
+
Gap
r
L
1
R
K
(Test Object)
Figure 13.12
i.e the wavefront duration will approximate the first quarter cycle of an undamped high
frequency a.c. wave.
Figure 13.13: Impulse wavefront duration
From figure 13.13 we see that the wavefront time
f
1
T
---
1
2 LC
------------------ resonant frequency ( ) = =
T 2 LC period of wave ( ) =
T
4
---

2
--- LC quarter period to peak ( ) =
Where C C
0
K + ( ) =
and L L
0
L
1
+ ( ) =
T
1
T
1

2
--- LC <
The damping resistor slows down the initial rate of rise slightly, shown in figure 13.13 as the
damped wave.
For the wave tail duration, it can be shown that
e.g. If a 50 s tail time is required and circuit capacitance
Hence we have a method of obtaining the desired impulse waveshape.
L and C fix a lower limit on the wavefront duration; and r maintains oscillation < 5% of the
peak voltage value.
to achieve impulse voltage levels up to l00 kV multi-stage impulse generators are used
Figure 13.14 shows the cascade connection of the charging resistors and capacitors.
Figure 13.14: Multistage impulse generator
The capacitors are charged in parallel and discharged in series. The gaps G
0
, G
1
, G
2
etc. are
adjusted to fire one after the other as the charging voltage approaches E+.
i.e.
where
t = 0.693 C.R
t = 0.7 C.R
C = (C
0
+ K) (F)
R = tail control ( )
and t is in s.
then
C = 0.0075 F
50 = 0.7 R (0.0075)
R = 9524

As G
0
sparks over the top plate of the charged capacitor C
1
goes to earth at x. This means that
since the capacitor is still holding a charge its lower plate becomes E. As C is also fully
charged its top plate is charged at E+, and the voltage across G
1
is 2E i.e. E+ to E.
Theoretically the output voltage becomes nE but due to losses the actual output is nKE where
K = efficiency factor.
13.12 Impulse voltage measurement
Measurement of the HV is carried out using one of the methods mentioned previously in
dealing with HV AC and HV DC tests.
13.13 Impulse testing procedure
Impulse tests are carried out in a similar manner to that already described. Equipment is
designed to have a BIL which is an impulse withstand voltage and manufacturers test
certificates will indicate the impulse level of the equipment.
For further information of impulse voltage testing refer to Aust. Standard 1931 H.V. Testing
Techniques.
Questions
1. Discuss the types of high voltage test sets used.
2. Describe the tests applied to:
cables
circuit breakers
transformers.
3. Discuss the importance of impulse testing.
Reference
Australian Standard, 1931, H.V. Testing Techniques.
Section
8
Substations: layout;
reliability; safety 1
Module 14 Substations and reliability
Module
14
Substations and reliability 1
Module 14 Substations and reli abili ty 14.1
Objectives
appreciate the difference between the various types of substations and the equipment used
therein
design line diagrams and busbar arrangements to enable alternative supplies during
unplanned system outages and planned maintenance periods
define and explain contingencies and their effects on the reliability of supply systems.
Introduction
A substation may be broadly defined as an intermediate station in a power system, between the
generating station and the consumers.
Substation equipment selection and design can no longer be approached in isolation to
community environmental pressures, and without regard to overall project costs including
operating costs, to the elimination of safety hazards, and to the possible improvement in
system operational experience.
There are two main types of substations:
transformer stations whose purpose is to either step up the voltage to the transmission
voltage, or to step down the voltage for sub-transmission or distribution purposes
A transformer station generally has two voltages (excluding the low voltage supply used
for auxiliary purposes)
Basically, therefore, all transformer substations transform AC voltages and may also
perform the function of switching
switching stations which may be required to provide convenient tee-off points to various
load centres.
14.1 Indoor- and outdoor-type substations
General
Substations may be of the indoor or outdoor types, or they may be a combination of both.
Indoor substations
Indoor substations are completely enclosed in a building, and are usually confined to densely
populated, industrial or commercially developed areas. They may be enclosed in a special
building owned by the supply authority or be located in premises owned by the consumer. This
occurs in large buildings or factories where there is a high electrical demand. Underground
cables are used for the high and low voltage circuits. It is important that adequate ventilation
be provided for indoor substations.
Outdoor substations
The majority of substations in a transmission and distribution system are situated out-of-doors,
and may take a number of forms:
Ground substations: for transmission, sub-transmission and distribution substations.
When used for distribution purposes, ground substations are needed where the transformer
is too heavy for pole mounting, and where suitable space is available.
Kiosk-enclosed substations: for high density industrial and residential area distribution.
These are designed for distribution purposes in residential areas where pole mounted
substations are considered unsightly. The transformer and associated equipment are
mounted on the footpath and enclosed in a small steel kiosk. The substation is fed by
underground cable.
Pad-mounted substations: completely enclosed transformer and CB.
These are a variation of the kiosk-enclosed substations. The transformer and associated
equipment are manufactured as one unit. Cable boxes and fuses are completely enclosed
and no kiosk is required.
Direct-buried substations: used only for special purposes and consist of a transformer
buried in the ground and fed by underground cable. Fuses or switchgear are located above
ground level.
Pole-mounted substations: extensively used for rural and suburban distribution.
Smaller transformers (l0 kVA to 200 kVA) are fitted with hanger brackets which are used
to hang the transformer on a cross arm above the low voltage conductors. Larger
transformers (200 kVA to 500 kVA) are supported by steel structures and brackets fitted to
the pole. Where the transformer capacity is likely to exceed 500 kVA, ground substations
are preferred. Apart from the transformer,

other equipment fitted to pole-mounted
substations may include high voltage drop-out fuses, low voltage fuses, low voltage links
and surge arrestors.
14.2 Equipment installed in substations
Substations may have some or all of the following items installed:
transformers their physical size being governed by voltage and rating
circuit breakers bulk oil, minimum oil, air blast, vacuum, sulphur hexafluoride (SF
6
)
types
isolators
earth switches used to discharge and earth high voltage lines
voltage and current transformers for protection, operation and metering purposes
surge arrestors
insulators
busbars
structures and supports
animal-proof fence
control buildings and equipment including
panels
relays or intelligent electronic devices (IEDs)
control equipment (for example tap changing)
supervisory control and data acquisition equipment (SCADA)
communications equipment
alarms
batteries
micro-wave and/or power line carrier equipment
LV supply and/or standby LV supply
compressor equipment for air blast circuit breakers
oil handling and filtering equipment
control cables
earthing
fire fighting equipment
lighting.
Note: In a substation, circuit breakers are used for the following reasons:
to break up a system into units to improve reliability. For example in figure 14.1, circuit
breakers would clear the faulty transformer only and so maintain supply
Continuity of supply is of the utmost importance, and the degree of reliability is dependent
on the type of load being supplied
minimise the effect of a system fault; for example by installing circuit breakers at locations
A and B in figure 14.2
to improve the operation of a system, for example by installing bus section or bus coupler
circuit breakers as described in section 14.4.
The parts of the single-line diagram of a 66/11-kV substation are given below:
Figure 14.1: Single-line diagram in parts
The CTs (current transformers) are built into the circuit breakers in this case and no physical
space is required in the layout. However separate CTs may be required when additional
protection or metering is needed and will have to be catered for (with section clearances).
A 66-kV Feeder
D 66-kV/11-kV Transformer
Modul e 14 Substations and reli abi li ty 14.5
F
i
g
u
r
e

1
4
.
2
:
P
l
a
n

l
a
y
o
u
t

o
f

a

6
6
/
1
1
-
k
V

s
u
b
s
t
a
t
i
o
n
6
6

k
V
Note: V.T. Voltage transformer
I.S. Isolating switch
C.B. Circuit breaker
S.A. Surge arrestor
Figure 14.3
Line diagram
Bus
A 66-kV Feeder
scale: 1:100
scale: 1:100
Figure 14.4
B 11-kV Transformer Bus. elevation C 11-kV Feeder
Figure 14.5
66 kV
11 kV
S.A.
Figure 14.6
14.3 Basic design requirements for substations
When designing substations, the following basic requirements must be satisfied:
safety for operators and the general public (ground and overhead clearances, protective
enclosures, fences and guards). There are two basic designs:
where it is possible to walk anywhere in the substation. To do this, the bases of
insulators and bushings are to be a minimum of 2.3 m above ground level
some equipment may be installed at a lower level, but must then be enclosed by a
manproof fence or guard to prevent inadvertent contact of live parts by personnel
clearances phase to phase, phase to earth and section clearances as laid down in
AS 2067, or as adopted by supply authorities. Clearances depend largely on the basic
insulation levels (BIL) of the equipment installed in the substations
reliability and quick restoration of supply in the event of faults and/or breakdowns
ease of maintenance without interruption to supply and/or danger to personnel
operational flexibility.

This may also include the control of voltage, power, power factor
and perhaps the means for the control of faults levels
simplicity of protection arrangements
easy access to site and services and adequate space with provision for future extension
amenity and appearance to be as pleasing as possible and environmentally non-polluting
(visual, noise, oil, water, etc.)
total cost to be as low as possible.
The relative importance of any of the above requirements depends on the voltage and on the
particular substation under consideration. For example in some cases no further expansion
may be warranted, so that a minimum space design may be adopted.
14.4 Single line diagrams and busbar arrangements
The single line diagrams that follow show isolators, circuit breakers and transformers. A circle
around an isolator shows that it is open.
Single busbar
In the single busbar scheme, the transformer and out-going circuits are all connected to a
busbar, and it is not possible to maintain supply for a transformer or busbar fault. The single
busbar scheme is simple and cheap, but unless the loads can be fed from some alternative
source, no maintenance or extensions can be carried out without an interruption to supply.
Single busbar with bus-section switch (circuit breaker)
Advantages:
Lowest cost
Small land area
Easily expandable
Simple in concept and operation
Relatively simple application of protective relaying
Disadvantages:
Lowest reliability
Failure of a CB or a bus fault causes loss of entire
substation
Complicated protection required for maintenance
switching
Figure 14.7: Single busbar scheme
Advantages:
Flixible operation
Isolation of bus sections for
maintenance
Loss of only part of the substation for
a breaker failure or a bus fault
Disdvantages:
Additional circuit breakers needed
for sectionalizing
Higher cost
Sectionalizing may cause
interruption of non-faulted circuits
Figure 14.8: Single busbar with bus-section switch (CB)
Modul e 14 Substati ons and reli abi li ty 14.11
With a bus-section circuit breaker (see figure 14.8), the restrictions of the single busbar
scheme apply to the sections individually. For the best service, it is essential that incoming and
outgoing circuits be divided evenly between the sections, and where two feeders go to the one
load, they are arranged to come off separate sections of the busbar. Furthermore, the use of a
bus-section circuit breaker allows for the isolation of a faulty section without shutting down
the whole substation.
The bus section circuit breaker is also used for the load transfer from one bus-section to the
other bus-section, as isolators are generally not used for the breaking of load currents.
Figure 14.9: Main and transfer busbar scheme
Main and transfer busbar
Normally the load is fed from the main busbar as shown in figure 14.9. The transfer busbar is
used when a circuit breaker is to be maintained, as any one circuit at a time can be switched to
the transfer busbar and the protection transferred to the bus coupler circuit breaker.
When feeders and circuits increase in number, that is, as bay requirements increase, then a
bus-section switch may be required as shown in figure 14.10.
Advantages:
Maintain service and protection during circuit breaker maintenance
Reasonable/moderate cost
Moderate land area
Easily expandable
Disadvantages:
Additional circuit breaker required for bus tie
Complicated protection
A bus fault causes loss of entire substation
Figure 14.10: Main and transfer busbar with bus-section CB
Figure 14.11: Main and auxiliary busbar (double busbar) scheme
Main and auxiliary busbar (also referred to as a double busbar)
Here, each load may be fed from either main or auxiliary busbars. Should there be a fault on
one of the busbars then, for the arrangement shown in figure 14.11, the circuit breakers on one
transformer and one outgoing circuit would open, supply being maintained through the
remaining transformer and feeder.
It is also possible to connect all circuits onto the one busbar, so freeing the second busbar for
maintenance purposes if required.
This scheme is very flexible and has been widely used.
As bay requirements increase, it may be necessary to install a bus-section circuit breaker as
shown in figure 14.12.
Figure 14.12: Main and auxiliary busbar (double busbar) with bus-section CB
Double breaker scheme
In the double breaker scheme there are two main
busbars and two circuit breakers per circuit. During
normal operation both buses are energized.
A busbar fault will not interrupt supply to any
circuits. This is a very satisfactory arrangement, as it
permits circuit breaker and some isolator
maintenance without circuit outages.
The double breaker scheme is, however, an expensive
one, and consequently, almost its only application is
for very large generating plant switchyards where full
reliability is required.
Advantages:
Flexible operation and very high reliability
Isolation of either bus, or any breaker, without
outage
Double feed to each circuit
No interruption of service to any circuit from a
bus fault
All switching is done with circuit breakers
Disadvantage:
Very high cost two breakers per circuit
Figure 14.13: Double breaker scheme
Bus Section
C.B.
Main
Auxiliary
Breaker-and-a-half scheme
Main and auxiliary ring busbars
This scheme is a variation of the main and auxiliary busbar scheme shown in figures 14.11 and
14.12. However, the ring auxiliary busbar permits two circuits per bay. This reduces the length
of the substation (with a consequent saving in substation area), and is used in locations where
there are some space restrictions, but where it is desired to retain the full flexibility of the main
and auxiliary busbar arrangement.
Figure 14.15: Main and auxiliary ring busbar scheme
Here there are three circuit breakers for every two
circuits, that is 3/2 or 1 circuit breakers per circuit;
hence the name breaker-and-a-half scheme. During
normal operation, both buses are energized.
This scheme economises in the number of circuit
breakers, while providing virtually all the facilities of
the double breaker scheme.
Protection is more complex (as for example the
middle circuit breaker is associated with two circuits).
This scheme is used for important substations.
Advantages:
Flexible operation and high reliability
Isolation of either bus without outage
Isolation of any breaker for maintenance without
outage
Bus fault does not interrupt service to any circuits
All switching is done with circuit breakers
Disadvantages:
One-and-a-half breakers needed for each circuit
Complicated protection
Figure 14.14: Breaker-and-a-half scheme
Note: Circuit to left of bus-section CB is
not shown.
Ring (or mesh) busbar scheme
Figure 14.16 shows two rings:
Figure 14.16: Ring (or mesh) busbar scheme
In figure 14.16(a) the circuit breakers are inside the ring, while in figure 14.16(b) circuit
breakers are installed in the feeders, and isolators are used to switch the currents inside the
ring.
For this scheme there is a closed loop on the bus with each section separated by a circuit
breaker, figure 14.16(a). This provides greater reliability and allows for flexible operation.
Advantages:
Flexible operation
High reliability
Isolation of bus sections and circuit breakers for maintenance without outage
Disadvantages:
Extension of ring busbar schemes is virtually impossible.
(a) (b)
14.5 Transformer feeders
A transformer feeder comprises a transformer solidly connected to a transmission feeder
without the use of a high voltage circuit breaker on the incoming feeder side of the
transformer, as shown in figure 14.17(a).
Figure 14.17: Transformer feeders
Note that in figure 14.17 (a) two transformer feeders terminate in the one substation for full
reliability of supply.
Where transformer feeders originate from different sources, the feeders would differ in lengths
and it is not unusual under these conditions to install a circuit breaker between the high voltage
feeders at the transformer substation (as shown in figure 14.17(b)) so that the transformers
share the load. This arrangement may be referred to as a one-switch substation.
Transformer feeder arrangements permit an initial economical installation with possibilities of
expansion. The physical layout of the substation may be so arranged that the initial switch
arrangement subsequently forms part of a normal single busbar station.
For transformer feeder circuits adequate protection must be provided to clear transformer or
high voltage feeder faults. This may result in the need for some form of inter-tripping between
the high voltage and low voltage circuit breakers.
14.6 Three-switch substations
Where a two transformer substation with two incoming feeders is fully switched on the high
voltage side, then circuit breakers may be located as shown in figure 14.18 (a) or (b).
Figure 14.18: Three-switch substation configurations
For the arrangement shown in figure 14.18(a), a feeder fault would trip the circuit breaker
associated with the feeder, while a transformer fault would trip two circuit breakers (for
example, if transformer l were faulty, then circuit breakers P and Q would open). A
disadvantage of this arrangement is that the incidence of line faults is greater than that for
transformer faults.
For the arrangement shown in figure 14.18(b), a feeder fault would trip two circuit breakers,
while a transformer fault would only trip the circuit breaker which was associated with the
transformer. The advantage of this arrangement is that for a transformer fault, the full feeder
capacity is maintained.
Whichever arrangement is chosen for a particular application would depend on local
conditions.
It should be clear to the student that in the above comparison of schemes only the high voltage
circuit breakers at the substation have been considered. For a feeder fault, the circuit breaker at
the source end would open, while for a transformer fault the low voltage circuit breaker
associated with the transformer would open as the transformers would most likely be in
parallel.
Figure 14.19 is a typical indication of the equipment installed in a three switch substation
typically say for 132/33-kV operation, with 60-MVA firm transformer capacity. The
equipment includes earthing switches, isolators, circuit breakers, surge diverters, and voltage
transformers.
Figure 14.19: Typical line diagram
14.7 Busbars
Solid, tubular or stranded flexible conductors may be used for busbars and connections to
apparatus in a substation, the choice depending largely on the layout of the substation. Solid
busbars are generally limited to low voltage substations, the solid busbar being of rectangular
section.
Busbar material is usually aluminum or copper. Sometimes steel is used particularly if
distances between busbar supports are large.
Either rigid busbars (supported at regular intervals) or strained busbars may be used, or a
combination of both may be successfully employed in the one substation, as shown in
figure 14.20.
-
Figure 14.20
Strained busbars may be of ACSR (aluminum conductor steel reinforced), all aluminum, or
hard drawn bare copper (HDBC) conductors.
Rigid busbars may be of tubular copper, aluminum or steel (for example, galvanised water
pipe).
For busbars, design considerations must be given to the following factors:
allowance for expansion. Aluminum will expand approximately 6.35 mm per 30 metres of
run for 10C rise in temperature. Expansion and sliding joints must therefore be included
in the run of the busbar
spacing. The spacing between adjacent busbars is a function of voltage and short circuit
current levels. However, local fauna may define clearances to be adopted
supports. For rigid busbars, the distance between supports depends on the tube diameter
and on the wall thickness, that is on the section modulus of the busbar
workability of busbar. The busbar material may require heating prior to bending
jointing. The busbar may be jointed by welding, or by the use of special connectors
the current rating of the busbar section chosen must be adequate.
14.8 Structures
The structures used to support equipment in a substation may be of either concrete or steel.
Reinforced concrete structures may be of circular, square or rectangular section. Concrete
structures have low maintenance costs, but are limited to about a 20-m height.
Steel structures can be designed in any substation arrangement. However, maintenance costs
for steel structures may be high for areas where corrosion of the steelwork is rapid.
14.9 Basic design criterion
The basic design criterion for substations (and certain transmission lines) is that the station
shall be capable of satisfactorily withstanding a single contingency event, i.e. the removal
from service of any line, transformer, bus, circuit breaker etc. either planned or forced, at the
time of peak station load in such a way that:
shedding of customer load is not required
voltage levels are maintained within acceptable limits
the remaining in-service elements are within their thermal limits.
Inherent in this criterion is that loading patterns vary with load factors less than 0.2 in rural
areas and greater than 0.6 in urban areas. This will generally mean that the station and
associated lines will be able to withstand some major second contingency events for a
significant proportion of the time.
14.10 Reliability criteria for substations
It is clearly both impossible and uneconomic to design a transmission or distribution
substation to withstand every possible system disturbance which can occur, particularly those
which involve severe multiple events of very low probability of occurrence.
In recognition of this fact, it is necessary to define certain events against which it is desired to
be secure and which represent a reasonable compromise between reliability and security of the
substation on the one hand and the economic, environmental, social and political effects and
constraints on the other.
While other measures may be taken to reduce the impact of events more severe than those
selected as the basic criteria for station design, some low probability contingencies or
combination of contingencies, can still occur which will result in loss of supply.
Definition of contingencies
Single contingency
The occurrence of a single outage, either forced or planned, from the normal condition which
for design purposes is taken as all lines and plant in service.
Second contingency
The occurrence of a single outage, either forced or planned, from an abnormal system
condition in which a single contingency situation already exists.
Double contingency
The occurrence of two events so close together that no corrective action can be taken before
the second event occurs, e.g. a fault followed by a circuit breaker failure or a double circuit
line outage.
Multiple contingency
The occurrence of some catastrophic event, e.g
.
spread of a transformer fire to adjacent
transformers.
14.11 Electricity supply Workplace Health and Safety
The work of constructing and maintaining an electricity supply system has the potential to be
very dangerous. It is of vital importance that workplace injuries be kept to an absolute
minimum. The cost of an injury to the employee and family in terms of pain and suffering,
medical expenses, lost income and loss of self esteem resulting from a serious injury can be
very high. There is also a significant cost to the employee resulting from the loss of
productivity as a result of any incident.
It is normal for one of the measures of performance of managers in the electricity supply
industry to be the safety performance of the staff under their control.
In the electricity supply industry there are the normal trade-work-type risks as well as
additional potential risks because of:
working in close proximity to lethal voltages
working at heights
working on conductors under high physical tension
working in confined spaces
working in underground trenches
working near electrical equipment where an accidental electrical arc can cause severe
burns
working in adverse weather conditions to repair damage and restore electricity supply,
especially during storms at night.
The combination of working near live conductors at heights is an additional risk in that a
minor electric shock can cause a fall. Also, the rescue of a worker who is receiving an electric
shock, or who is injured, is more difficult and takes longer.
Similarly, the combination of working near live conductors where there may also be high fault
levels and confined spaces, such as behind a switchboard, provides additional risks in that a
worker who is receiving an electric shock or who is injured is more difficult to rescue.
Working in the electricity supply industry is not considered dangerous. It entails sticking
rigidly to set procedures and having a culture of safety first.
In Queensland the major mechanisms used to reduce injuries are:
1. compliance with legislation
2. industry self-regulation
3. engendering a culture of safety in the workforce.
Workplace Health and Safety Act 1995
All work must be carried out in compliance with the Queensland Workplace Health and Safety
Act 1995 and the associated subordinate legislation, which is the Workplace Health and Safety
(Codes of Practice) Notice 2005 and the Workplace Health and Safety Regulation 1997.
The objective of this Act is to prevent a persons death, injury or illness being caused by a
workplace, by a relevant workplace area, by work activities, or by plant or substances for use
at a workplace. A workplace is defined as any place where work is, or is to be, performed by a
worker or a person conducting a business or undertaking. A person may be a worker even
though the person is not paid for work done.
This act is wide-reaching and, with only a few defined exceptions, applies to all work carried
on in Queensland.
This legislation can be viewed at <www.legislation.qld.gov.au>.
Electrical Safety Act 2002
The more specific applicable legislation is the Electrical Safety Act 2002 and the associated
subordinate legislation, which is the Electrical Safety (Codes of Practice) Notice 2002 and the
Electrical Safety Regulation 2002.
The prime purpose of the Act is to eliminating the human cost to individuals, families and the
community of death, injury and destruction that can be caused by electricity.
The Act is again far-reaching and applies to everybody, including the state.
This legislation can be viewed at <www.legislation.qld.gov.au>.
Industry self regulation
The network companies usually establish their own rules and procedures which put into place
measures which not only comply with the relevant legislation but go further in protecting as
far as possible the safety of employees and the public.
Typical examples are:
High voltage switching and access
A switching sheet is prepared and authorised before any switching on the high-voltage
network takes place.
Nobody goes within the approach distance of any high-voltage conductor without being
authorised under an access permit and being able to see physical earths on both sides of the
work site.
Connection of a consumer's switchboard to the supply
No supply is connected to a consumers switchboard without the polarity of the supply
being tested by means of an approved procedure.
Personal Protection Equipment
The conditions under which appropriate personal protection equipment must be worn are
detailed.
Engendering a culture of safety in the workforce
It is widely recognised that safety in the workplace cannot be achieved by rules and
regulations alone. It is vital that every worker be safety conscious at all times. It is a prime
responsibility to take all steps to engender a culture of safety in the workplace. Some
employees have the typically Australian attitude that it cant happen to me. Others believe
that while we should play lip service to the safety procedures it is more important to save costs
and get the work done quickly.
In the electricity industry there are, unfortunately, always some who believe it is more
important to get emergency repairs carried out and supply restored quickly than to comply
strictly with all safety procedures. It is important for managers to make it clear at every
opportunity that safety comes before all else.
An electrical industry worker reports on a historical story with a lesson:
A workplace commonly compiled statistics on serious incidents, 'near-miss' incidents and
injuries. Management wanted to encourage safety to improve and so decided to provide a
monetary bonus if certain target levels of safety statistics were achieved. The effect of this
was that the safety statistics improved and everything seemed to be going along really well
up until there was a fatality. Subsequent investigation found that the only thing that had
changed by introduction of the monetary bonus was how incidents were reported. The
culture that developed was workmates telling each other to harden-up, to not go to first-
aid, and to not report incidents. In reality, safety went markedly downhill after the
monetary bonus was introduced. Unsafe work situations, equipment and behaviours could
not be corrected when they were not reported.
The moral here is that workplaces need a culture that assists safety in becoming an
intrinsic part of work behaviour, so that it is "natural", rather than applied as an external
requirement.
One way to quickly assess whether a worker is safety conscious or not is to observe whether or
not appropriate personal protection equipment is being worn.
Typical personal protection equipment includes:
steel-toe-capped safety footwear to protect the feet from items being dropped, items being
stood on, etc.
helmets to protect the head from items dropped from above, fixed obstructions bumped
against and ultra violet damage when working outdoors
eye protection to protect from flying objects (This can include wind-borne objects.)
ear protection to protect from loud noise, especially when it lasts for long periods
high visibility vests to provide additional protection when working on or near roads, and
so that workers are more conscious of each others presence
protective clothing covering arms and legs to proved UV protection and as an additional
protection against accidental low voltage contact
work gloves to protect the hands from minor physical injuries
insulating gloves to provide protection against electric shock.
Techniques for enhancing safety
An incident is any unplanned event that causes, or has the potential to cause, an injury or
illness and/or damage to equipment, buildings, plant or the natural environment. Incidents can
occur when unforeseen situations arise, as well as when safety procedures are violated.
Incidents range from near-miss incidents to serious incidents and emergencies.
A near-miss incident is an unplanned event that causes little or no damage to plant or
personnel but which had the potential for serious consequences had one thing been different.
For example if a glove you are wearing gets caught in a machine but your hand is not caught
or injured; or if a heavy object falls to the ground but misses those standing there - these are
events where, had one thing been different, a fatality or serious injury would have occurred.
To avoid these particular 'near-miss' incidents, the machinery would have to be suitably
shielded and the area under the heavy object would have to be barricaded.
An injury is generally defined as something which requires medical treatment, even if it is
only the application of a minor dressing.
An injury is anything needing medical treatment, even if only application of a minor dressing.
A serious incident is one where the injury results in the death of a person or which results in
immediate hospitalisation. It also includes dangerous situations which seriously endanger the
lives or the health and safety of people in the immediate vicinity, for example: collapse of
cranes, scaffolds, boilers, etc.; collapse or failure of an excavation; collapse of a building;
implosion, explosion or fire; and escape, spillage or leakage of substances.
The following definitions apply, according to the Queensland Government website
<http://www.deir.qld.gov.au/workplace/incidents/incidents/definitions/index.htm>:
Definitions
Notifiable incident means an incident resulting in:
a person suffering a work injury that is a serious bodily injury
a person suffering a work caused illness
a dangerous event.
Work injury means:
an injury to a person that requires first aid or medical treatment if the injury was caused by
a workplace, a relevant workplace area, a work activity, or plant or substances for use at a
relevant place; or
the recurrence, aggravation, acceleration, exacerbation or deterioration of an existing
injury in a person if:
first aid or medical treatment is required for the injury; and
a workplace, a relevant workplace area, a work activity, or plant or substance for use at
relevant place caused the recurrence, aggravation, acceleration, exacerbation or
deterioration; or
any serious bodily injury, if the injury was caused by a workplace, a relevant workplace
area, a work activity, or plant or substances for use at a relevant place.
Serious bodily injury means an injury to a person that causes:
the injured persons death; or
the loss of a distinct part or an organ of the injured person's body; or
the injured person to be absent from the person's voluntary or paid employment for more
than four working days.
Work caused illness means:
an illness contracted by a person to which a workplace, a relevant workplace area, a work
activity, or plant or substance for use at a relevant place was a significant contributing
factor; or
the recurrence, aggravation, acceleration, exacerbation or deterioration in a person of an
existing illness if a workplace, a relevant workplace area, a work activity, or plant or
substance for use at a relevant place was a significant contributing factor to the recurrence,
aggravation, acceleration, exacerbation or deterioration.
Dangerous event means an event caused by specified high risk plant or an event at a
workplace or relevant workplace area, if the event involves or could have involved exposure
of persons to risk to their health and safety because of:
collapse, overturning, failure or malfunction of, or damage to, an item of specified high
risk plant; or
collapse, or failure of an excavation or of any shoring supporting an excavation; or
collapse, or partial collapse of any structure; or
damage to any load bearing member of, or the failure of any brake, steering device or other
control device of, a crane, hoist, conveyor, lift or escalator; or
implosion, explosion or fire; or
escape, spillage or leakage of any hazardous material or dangerous goods; or
fall or release from a height of any plant, substance or object; or
damage to a boiler, pressure vessel or refrigeration plant; or
uncontrolled explosion, fire or escape of gas or steam.
Major accident under the Dangerous Goods Safety Management Act 2001 (DGSM Act) is
a sudden occurrence (including, in particular, a major emission, loss of containment, fire,
explosion or release of energy) leading to immediate or delayed serious harm or with the
potential for serious harm from hazardous materials. Serious harm is harm that:
causes the death of a person; or
impairs a person to such an extent that because of the harm the person becomes an
overnight or longer stay patient in a hospital; or
results in costs of more than $50,000 being incurred to prevent, minimise or repair harm to
property or the environment.
What is a serious electrical incident?
Section 11 of the Electrical Safety Act 2002 defines a serious electrical incident, and includes
incidents that results in death, or a shock or injury requiring medical treatment by a doctor,
caused by electricity.
What is a dangerous electrical event?
Section 12 of the Electrical Safety Act 2002 defines a dangerous electrical event, and it
includes events involving electrical equipment causing significant property damage; or
unlicensed or unauthorised work; or unsafe activity or equipment is found.
A dangerous electrical event may arise, for example, when:
a person is not electrically safe in a situation involving high-voltage electrical equipment,
regardless of whether a shock or injury is sustained;
someone does electrical work:
without a licence;
unsafely; or
incorrectly.
A non-notifiable incident is one that does not result in a person suffering from a serious
bodily injury or death and is not a dangerous event.
While you do not have to notify Workplace Health and Safety Queensland about non-
notifiable incidents, it is important to record and investigate all incidents including near
misses so action can be taken to prevent similar incidents occurring in the future.
It can generally be shown that, when an injury occurs, there have been a number of incidents
which might have caused that injury. Also, for every serious injury generally there have been a
number of minor injuries which could have been serious. Likewise, for every fatal accident
there have been a large number of incidents which could have caused death. It follows that, if
we can reduce the occurrences of minor accidents, we will reduce the likelihood of a serious
injury or a fatality.
The most effective way of preventing serious injury is to ensure that all incidents are properly
investigated and appropriate measures taken to lessen the likelihood of a reoccurrence.
Care must be taken in changing established work practices. There are examples where
established work practices have been changed to comply with safety requirements and the
change itself has contributed to an accident.
Two examples are:
1. Each line workers safety harness has to be tested at regular intervals. No line worker is to
use a harness that has not been tested within the required period.
There was therefore a need to label each harness so that the line worker could check the
date of the test before using it. To label each harness in a way such that the date could be
changed each time it was tested, it was decided to attach an aluminium tag to the harness
by means of a key ring. The date could be stamped on the tag and the tag replaced each
time the harness was tested. A line worker climbed a pole, placed the strap around the pole
and, instead of attaching the clip on the end of the strap to the D ring provided, he
inadvertently attached it to the key ring. It felt secure until he leaned well back and the key
ring opened up. He fell to the ground and received multiple fractures.
2. An apprentice electrician worked in soft shoes. He was instructed to change to steel-toe-
capped boots. His regular job was to work on a short step-ladder fitting lights to ceilings.
When he got off the ladder in a hurry he often turned at the same time to head in the
direction he was going. Whereas his soft shoes were short enough to turn on the step of the
ladder, his safety boots were not. Soon after changing to the boots, he stepped down, his
boot was caught in the ladder and he received and ankle injury which kept him off work
for about two months.
In both of these examples the reason for the change in the system was commendable. In the
first case the possibilities should have been more thoroughly investigated. In the second, the
apprentice should have been warned of the need to take particular care until he got used to
working in boots.
Whenever any system of work is changed, for whatever the reason, extra investigation and
precautions need to be taken. We are all creatures of habit and will continue to do the things
we successfully did in the past unless warned.
Whenever a work procedure is to be carried out which does not comply with certain guidelines
a risk assessment is usually carried out. This entails detailing everything that could go wrong,
the likelihood of it happening and the consequences. The aim is to minimise the likelihood
and/or the consequences and then determine whether the remaining risk is acceptable.
14.12 Electrical equipment in hazardous areas
In electrical engineering, a hazardous location is defined as a place where concentrations of
flammable gases, vapors, or dusts occur. Electrical equipment that must be installed in such
locations is especially designed and tested to ensure it does not initiate an explosion, due to
arcing contacts or high surface temperature of equipment.
For example, a household light switch may emit a small, harmless visible spark when
switching; in an ordinary atmosphere this arc is of no concern, but if a flammable vapor is
present, the arc might start an explosion. Electrical equipment intended for use in a chemical
factory or refinery is designed either to contain any explosion within the device, or is
designed not to produce sparks with sufficient energy to trigger an explosion.
Many strategies exist for safety in electrical installations. The simplest strategy is to minimize
the amount of electrical equipment installed in a hazardous area, either by keeping the
equipment out of the area altogether or by making the area less hazardous by process
improvements or ventilation with clean air.
Intrinsic safety and non-incendive [not having enough energy to ignite a flammable mixture]
equipment and wiring methods are practices that are designed with low power levels and low
stored energy, so that an arc produced during normal functioning of the equipment, or as the
result of equipment failure, has insufficient energy to initiate ignition of the explosive mixture.
Equipment enclosures can be pressurized with clean air or inert gas and designed with various
controls to remove power or provide notification in case of supply or pressure loss of such
gases.
Arc-producing elements of the equipment can also be isolated from the surrounding
atmosphere by encapsulation, immersion in oil, sand, etc. Heat-producing elements such as
motor windings, electrical heaters, including heat-tracing and lighting fixtures, are often
designed to limit their maximum temperature below the auto-ignition temperature of the
material involved. Both external and internal temperatures are taken into consideration.
As in most fields of electrical installation, different countries have approached the
standardization and testing of equipment for hazardous areas in different ways. As world trade
becomes more important in distribution of electrical products, international standards are
slowly converging so that a wider range of acceptable techniques can be approved by national
regulatory agencies.
Area classification is required by governmental bodies - for example the U.S.A. Occupational
Safety and Health Administration and compliance is enforced.
Documentation requirements are varied. Often an area classification plan-view is provided to
identify equipment ratings and installation techniques to be used for each classified plant area.
The plan may contain the list of chemicals with their group and temperature rating, and
elevation details shaded to indicate Class, Division (Zone) and group combination.
The area classification process would require the participation of operations, maintenance,
safety, electrical and instrumentation professionals, the use of process diagrams and material
flows, a MSDS* and any pertinent documents, information and knowledge to determine the
hazards and their extent and the counter-measures to be employed. Area classification
documents are reviewed and updated to reflect process changes.
* A Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) also known as a Product Safety Data Sheet
(PSDS) is an important component of product stewardship and workplace safety. It is
intended to provide workers and emergency personnel with procedures for handling or
working with that substance in a safe manner, and includes information such as physical data
(melting point, boiling point, flash point, etc.), toxicity, health effects, first aid, reactivity,
storage, disposal, protective equipment, and spill-handling procedures.
MSDS documents are a widely used system for cataloging information on chemicals,
chemical compounds, and chemical mixtures. MSDS information may include instructions
for the safe use and potential hazards associated with a particular material or product. These
data sheets can be found anywhere where chemicals are being used.
There is also a duty to properly label substances on the basis of physico-chemical (relating to
both physical and chemical properties), health and/or environmental risk. Labels can include
hazard symbols such as the European Union standard black diagonal cross on an orange
background, used to denote a harmful substance.
A MSDS for a substance is not primarily intended for use by the general consumer, focusing
instead on the hazards of working with the material in an occupational setting. In some
jurisdictions the MSDS is required to state the chemical's risks, safety, and effect on the
environment.
Also see
Practical Electrical Equipment and Installations in Hazardous Areas by Geoffrey Bottrill,
Derek Cheyne and G Vijayaraghavan.
HB 13-2007 Electrical equipment for hazardous areas
A Handbook by Standards Australia.
Electrical & Instrumentation Equip in Haz Areas Technical Information
Summary
Over recent years, there has been an increased interest in the quantitative assessment of
reliability of supply systems using statistical analysis.

With the growing problem of limited
finance the areas where reliability needs to be improved and areas where reliability standards
may be released without a significant effect on overall reliability can be determined. A new
field offering the possibility of curtailment of escalating costs and greater functional flexibility
of substation control and instrumentation equipment and circuitry is that of software based
systems to replace the conventional hardwired functions.
Questions
1. Sketch four typical single line substation diagrams and discuss the relative advantages and
disadvantages of each.
2. Suggest means of gauging the reliability of a substation configuration and then means of
improvement.
3. In checking designs how does one check safety clearances such as section and ground
clearance? Illustrate with sketches.
4. How can substations be made more mechanically safe and how can provision be made for
maintenance of transformers, circuit breakers, isolators, etc.?
Section
9
High voltage switchgear 1
Module 15 Switchgear
Module

15
Switchgear 1
Modul e 15 Switchgear 15.1
Objectives
define the terms
rate of rise of restriking voltage (RRRV)
breaking capacity
operating duty
outline the way circuit breakers are classified into types; the principles of current
interruption; and the types of isolators.
Introduction
Any electrical line, machine or other equipment needs an apparatus to control the flow of
electrical energy. Circuit breakers are used for making or breaking a circuit under load and
isolators under no load or small loads on low voltage installations. Internationally a circuit
breaker is defined as:
A mechanical switching device, capable of making, carrying and breaking currents under
normal circuit conditions and also making, carrying for a specified time and breaking,
currents under specified abnormal circuit conditions such as those of a short circuit.
The primary function of a circuit breaker is to disconnect any part of a power supply system
which becomes faulty, when the fault has manifested itself as a very large increase in current
of up to twenty five times normal load currents. It must reclose and repeat this function as
distinct from a fuse which destroys itself in the process of clearing the fault.
In this study paper, we examine the switchgear and then circuit breakers to seek an
understanding of their function and operation, how they are constructed and their different
types of duties.
15.1 Classification of switchgear
The term switchgear refers to apparatus used for controlling the flow of electrical energy of
making and breaking electrical circuits of lines, machines and other equipment. Switchgear
may be required to:
open a circuit automatically under heavy current or fault conditions
open a circuit on not more than full load by manual operation
open a circuit on no-load in order to isolate apparatus for repair of maintenance.
Switchgear may also be required to make or energise a circuit
on fault
with load connected to it
on no-load.
Switchgear may be classified as follows:
open type in which the live parts are not provided with protecting covers
frame type where apparatus is mounted on a metallic framework
cellular type in which component parts are mounted in separate fireproof cells or
compartments usually of semi- insulating material
metal enclosed type in which the components are totally enclosed in an earthed metal
casing
15.2 Circuit breakers
Circuit breakers used in transmission and distribution systems include the following types:
air circuit breakers
oil filled circuit breakers (OCBs)
minimum oil content circuit breakers
air blast circuit breakers
vacuum breakers
SF
6
(sulphur hexafluoride) breakers.
(Various types of arcing chambers for these circuit breakers will be studied in the next
module).
Circuit breakers have a two-fold function:
they are required to perform routine switching functions under normal system conditions,
for example load switching
more frequently, they are required to interrupt fault currents safely during abnormal
conditions. This latter requirement is the more severe, and dominated the design of circuit
breakers.
A circuit breaker is equipped with a trip coil connected to a relay or another means, designed
to open the circuit breaker automatically under abnormal conditions such as a short circuit
current.
Circuit breakers may be of single break, double break or multiple break designs.
A circuit breaker requires the following:
switch contacts of low resistance
an operating mechanism
an arcing chamber
frame, housing, and relaying equipment.
A circuit breaker must carry normal load current without overheating, and must quickly open
possible short circuit current without serious damage to itself and with a minimum of burning
to its contacts. The contacts are usually of some form of wedge design held together by spring
pressure.
There are a variety of mechanisms used for the operation of circuit breakers. Most circuit
breakers are held closed by a latch and are tripped by a tripping solenoid acting on a release
latch. Series overload trip coils which actuate the tripping plunger are common on low voltage
breakers and on smaller OCBs up to 11 kV, where accurate tripping time is not so essential.
Direct current operated shunt trip coils actuated by relays are practically universally used on
large circuit breakers and in important installations. Modern circuit breakers can open as
quickly as three hertz (i.e. 60 millisecond), measured from the time of energising the trip coil
to the breaking of the arc.
Closing of circuit breakers may be one of the following means:
manual closing for low voltage units only
spring energy a small electric motor winds up a spring(s)
DC operated solenoid
compressed air
hydraulic or pneumatic energy required to operate contacts is stored hydraulically, the
hydraulic system being under some form of gas pressure.
15.2.1 Principles of current interruption
The main requirements of a CB is that it shall be capable of making and breaking the current
associated with any type of fault occurring on the system, or to carry it for short times without
suffering any damage. These fault currents may be either symmetrical or asymmetrical.
Figure 15.1 (a) shows a typical asymmetrical fault current. It can be seen that the current is
comprised of an AC component which decreases with time (because of increase in generator
impedance) and a DC component which also decreases with time (at a rate which depends on
the ratio (R/Z) of the system impedance between source and fault). Faults near the generator
are of low p.f. (e.g. 0.05) and result in asymmetrical fault current; Remote faults are of higher
p.f. (e.g. 0.3), resulting in symmetrical fault currents. figure 15.1(b).
Figure 15.1: Fault currents
With an alternating current, circuit-breaking normally only occurs when the current wave is at
or near zero. Normal load currents in which the power factor is high, present no difficulty,
because the instantaneous voltage (recovery voltage) appearing across the break of circuit at
the time of the current zero is correspondingly low, figure 15.2(a). However short-circuit
currents are generally at a very low lagging p.f. Therefore, at zero current the recovery voltage
is maximum and will appear across the break after interruption (figure 15.2(b)).
DC Component
S/C Applied
Time
(a) Asymmetrical Fault
Time
S/C Applied
(b) Symmetrical Fault
F
a
u
l
t
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
F
a
u
l
t
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
Figure 15.2: Interrupting currents
The separation of the CB contacts produces an arc across the gap. The arc is of low impedance
and has little effect on the fault current; but at each current zero, the arc goes out. At one of
these current zeros, the gap will have regained its insulating properties sufficient to prevent the
arc from re-establishing. Whether the arc re-establishes depends on the voltage across the
contact and on the degree of ionization of the gas between the contacts.
After contact separation and before arc extinction, the contact gap voltage is due to the product
of fault current and the gap resistance. See figure 15.3.
At current zero, the arc voltage collapses and attempts to recover to the system 50-Hz voltage
(recovery voltage), overshoots and oscillates at the natural system frequency. It is gradually
damped out until the 50-Hz voltage appears across the contacts.
V
V V
Time Time
V
Low Pf
Load
High Pf
Contacts
Open
Contacts
Open
(a) Interrupting Load Current (b) Interrupting Fault Current
I
L
I
F
I
L
I
F
I
L
I
F
Figure 15.3: Contact gap voltage
This high frequency oscillation is known as the restriking voltage and the rate of rise of
restriking voltage (RRRV) is a measure of circuit severity. See figure 15.4.
Figure 15.4: Rate of rise of restriking voltage
For successful current interruption the rate of rise of the dielectric strength of the contact gap
must be greater than the RRRV.
Circuit
EMF
S/C Applied Contacts Seperate
Fault Current
Arc
Voltage
Arc Extinction
Restriking V
Transient
Recovery V
Across CB
Post Zero
Current
V & I Across Contact Gap
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
Time
RRRV
Restriking V Transient
Slope is RRRV
V/s
There is an additional requirement for successful interruption. A few microseconds before
current zero, the power loss from the arc is greater than the power input from the circuit. Also,
at current zero, although the input is zero, the residual arc path still has conductance. Thus, as
the restriking voltage appears across the arc path, a post zero current flows (see figure 15.4).
For successful arc extinction, the power loss must continue to be greater than the power input,
thereby forcing the post zero current back to zero and achieving thermal extinction.
Failure of a CB to clear a fault may be due to one or both of the following:
dielectric breakdown. (Occurs when RRRV exceeds the rate of rise of dielectric strength of
the current gap)
thermal re-ignition. (Occurs when power input to the arc continues to exceed the power
loss from the arc).
15.2.2 Types of interrupter
The most common types of interrupter are air-blast and oil-break.
Air-blast interrupters. In this case a blast of air is used to interrupt the arc. The extinguishing
power in this type is obtained from an external source and its magnitude must be such as to
interrupt the maximum fault current. Thus at low currents, this same power will extinguish the
arc before its natural current zero. This is known as current chopping.
The principle of interruption is the establishment of an arc inside a nozzle through which high
velocity compressed air is flowing. Heat is, therefore, conducted away from the arc until at
current zero, very rapid de-ionization occurs and the arc path is replaced by a column of
compressed air at very high dielectric strength.
Oil-break interrupters. In this type of interrupter unit, the extinguishing power is obtained
from the arc itself. The principle employed is to draw an arc within an arc control device,
which usually takes the form of a vented enclosure. The arc decomposes the oil and vaporises
it into hydrogen (6080%), acetylene and a small proportion of the other hydrocarbons. These
greatly assist in cooling the arc. At the same time, the pressure within the enclosure is built up
due to the restricted venting. Thus final arc extinction is achieved by rapidly cooling and
deionizing the gas, and expelling the arc products from the control device, resulting in a rapid
buildup of dielectric strength. This buildup of dielectric strength is much faster than in the case
of air-blast interrupter units. It increases with increasing current because of pressure rise.
It will be apparent that because the extinguishing power is dependent on the magnitude of the
current being interrupted, long arc durations may be encountered at low fault current.
15.2.3 CB rating
A CBs rating is expressed in terms of the following:
number of poles
service voltage e.g. 132 kV
normal (i.e. load) current
frequency
making capacity.
Breaking capacity. The limit of a CBs ability to interrupt fault currents is known as its
breaking capacity and this is normally expressed as a function of voltage and fault current, in
MVA. The magnitude of the actual fault current depends on the generated power being fed into
the system at the time the fault occurs, and on the impedance of the circuit between the
generators and the fault. The magnitude of the fault current, therefore, varies throughout the
system, being highest near a large power station and lowest in outlying country areas.
Operating duty. AS 62271.1002008 High-voltage switchgear and controlgear specifies that
a CB shall be capable of operating at any current up to its rated making and rated breaking-
capacity in accordance with the following duty:
B 3 seconds MB 3 seconds MB
Extra high voltage, (EHV) circuit breaker may be required to be capable of automatic rapid
reclosure with a cycle such as:
B 20 cycles 3 pole MB 3 seconds 3 pole MB.
15.2.4 Short-circuit requirements
A circuit breaker may be required to cope with the following:
Evolving faults
An evolving fault may arise if a CB operates to clear a fault, causing an overvoltage (e.g. due
to CB restrike). This in turn causes a flashover adjacent to the CB, resulting in a much heavier
fault. This heavy fault may arise at a time when the opening stroke is well under way and there
is little pressure left in the arc control pot. Failure to clear may cause an explosion.
In testing, evolving faults are simulated by arranging arcing horns* on the CB. The horn gap
spacing is reduced until they arc over as soon as the CB first clears, as a result of the
overvoltage produced.
* A good description and pictures of arcing horns (background; operation; switch protection;
contrast with grading rings; references) are given in an article by Wikipedia.
Busbar faults
i.e. faults close to the CB.
The first phase to clear an ungrounded 3-phase fault is subjected to the highest recovery
voltage and RRRV.
Calculations may be done to ascertain a systems RRRV so that the CBs required RRRV
withstand capability is known. Figure 5 shows typical CB and system RRRV fault MVA
characteristics.
Figure 15.5: Busbar faults
Short line faults
Faults a short distance (e.g. 1.6 km) along the line from a CB may give rise to high frequency
transients in very high RRRVs, but of low peak value of the restriking voltage transient.
At very high fault levels and voltages, short line faults rather than busbar faults, may govern
the design of CB interrupter.
Small inductive currents
When an unloaded transformer is switched out, the magnetising current of a few amperes may
be interrupted before the normal current-zero is actually reached (current chopping) an air-
blast CB is prone to do this. When this occurs the magnetic energy in the transformer
represented by this current is dissipated into the capacitance to ground of the transformer and
its connections. See figure 15.6. If this capacitance is small, a correspondingly high voltage
surge will be produced (up to 3 times normal).
Figure 15.6: Small inductive currents
The distributed parallel capacitance C forms a tank circuit with the winding inductance L.
When the current is interrupted, the stored energy of the magnetic field is dissipated into the
electric field of the stray capacitance associated with the winding. The energies are:
W = .L.I
2
and W = .C.V
2
from which
Clearly, if C is small, then V will be large, proportional to .
Air Blast
Oil Break
System
R
R
R
V
(
k
V
/
s
)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
30% 60% 100%
C L
V I. L / C =
1 / C
Capacitive current switching
A CB must be capable of interrupting the capacitive current of unloaded transmission lines
and cables without giving rise to excessive voltage.
The unloaded line can act as a capacitive load on the supply and can have a relatively long
time constant. At some point in time the effective line capacitance may be changed to, say,
when the CB interrupts the current in the ine.
When an unloaded line is opened, the voltage on the line remains and leaks slowly away, so
that half a cycle after interruption, when the voltage on the supply side of the CB has reached
its maximum of opposite sign, the total voltage across the break reaches nearly twice normal.
This may cause the CB to restrike, virtually doubling the capacitive voltage, which in turn may
cause further voltage doubling as the supply voltage changes polarity again, and so on.
In order not to restrike, the CB is required to have an adequate dielectric strength at the end of
a half cycle after interruption. This is generally the case with air-blast CBs but oil break CBs
are not so good.
Out-of-synchronism switching
A further duty required of a CB may be that it shall operate satisfactorily when breaking a tie
line between two systems which have fallen out of synchronism. (figure 15.7)
Figure 15.7: Out-of-synchronism switching
Figure 15.7 shows the worst case when the systems are 180 out of step. In this case the
voltage across the CB is twice system phase-to-neutral voltage.
15.2.5 Resistors
Resistors are used with CBs for 3 basic reasons:
(a) To ensure even sharing of the restriking transient and the recovery voltage across CBs
having a number of interrupter units in series, i.e. to achieve voltage grading.
(b) To reduce overvoltages produced by switching small capacitive or inductive currents, i.e.
to achieve voltage limiting (2 000 to 10 000-ohm resitors per phase).
2 275 kV
Source 1 Source 2 CB
V
A1
V
B1
V
C1
V
A2
V
B2
V
C2
V
A1
V
B1
V
C1
V
A2
V
B2
V
C2
Modul e 15 Swi tchgear 15.11
(c) To reduce RRRV and restriking voltage peak across a CB i.e. to reduce circuit severity
(300 to 3 000- resistors per phase).
The resistor is usually switched across the main contacts of the CB during interruption.
Interruption of the main current occurs then and unity p.f. resistor current is interrupted either
by an auxiliary set of contacts or at the following current zero.
15.3 Isolators
Isolators are used for making or breaking a circuit on no-load. They may be used for making
or breaking some load, particularly on lower voltage installations.
Isolators are manually operated for low and medium voltage circuits and are manually or
motor operated for EHV circuits.
Low voltage isolators (or disconnecting links) consist of knife switches or blades, operated
(opened or closed) separately by special sticks having insulated handles.
Links may be used at voltages up to 22 kV and may be installed in either the vertical or
underslung positions as shown in figure 15.8.
High voltage and EHV isolators may be of the current break, vertical break, double break or
pantograph types (see figure 15.9), generally ganged and operated by a handle at ground level.
An air break switch is a manually operated vertical break type of switch, used to open each
phase of a high voltage circuit simultaneously (ganged). Air break switches are all operated by
a handle mounted at the foot of the supporting structure (see figure 15.10).
Figure 15.8: Links
Insulators
Hinge
Blade
VERTICAL LINK
UNDERSLUNG LINK
Self Aligning
Contact (may be a
Silver Button Contact)
Figure 15.9: High voltage and EHV isolators
Busbars
Insulators
Tabular or Strung Busbar
Busbar
Busbar
Post Insulators
Centre break isolator horizontal operation
(Plan of 3 phase)
Plan of one phase or 3 post
double break isolator
Elevation of one phase of
vertical break isolator
Elevation of Pantograph
isolator in closed position
Modul e 15 Swi tchgear 15.13
Figure 15.10: Air break switches
References
Arcing Horns May be Fitted
Braided Flex
Busbar
Insulator
Busbar or Line
Hinge
Operating Handle
Near Ground Level
Section
10
Protection schemes;
protection relays 1
Module 16 Circuit breakers
Module

16
Circuit breakers 1
Module 16 Circui t breakers 16.1
Objectives
define the terms and explain
explosion pot, de-ion, vacuum and sulphur hexafluoride circuit breakers, auto
reclosing
describe the operation of the various distinctly different circuit breakers.
Introduction
The current carrying capacity of a circuit breaker refers to the current in amperes, which the
switch is capable of carrying continuously without overheating or damaging its contacts.
Circuit breaker also has making and breaking capacity ratings. These are defined in the
Australian Standards, in terms of the current which can be made or broken at the service
voltage of the breaker.
The basic function of a circuit breaker, as distinct from an isolator, is to satisfactorily make
and break a circuit under load or fault conditions. As such it is distinguished from the isolator
by its speed of operation and its ability to quickly control the arc which occurs when a current
is interrupted.
When a short circuit between phases, or an earth fault occurs, there is a large flow of current
into the fault. The circuit breaker is called upon to open a high value of power without damage
to the switch. Simplified, the breaking or rupturing capacity of a circuit breaker in terms of
MVA, is the product of the short circuit breaking current and the rated service voltage
(multiplied by for a 3 phase circuit).
The earlier types of plain break breakers were limited to small breaking capacities. As
systems grew larger, bringing about increased breaking capacities, the arc control device was
introduced. The arc control devices in oil circuit breakers use the pressure of the gas generated
by the arc, to force a flow of oil into the arc path in such a manner as to cool the arc and
extinguish it. In the case of airbreak and air-blast circuit breakers, the arc control device is
designed to lengthen and cool the arc path, and increase the arc resistance by the use of de-ion
grids, magnetic field displacement, or high velocity air blasts.
The speed of operation of the breakers has been considerably increased in recent years, to meet
the needs of the system stability. Also with increasing fault current levels, the time for which
conductors and other transmission equipment carry the fault current must be reduced as much
as possible. Increasing the speed of operation also has a minor effect in improving the
efficiency of arc interruption.
The making current is the short circuit current against which the circuit breaker can be
closed.
3
16.1 Types of circuit breaker
16.1.1 General
The main types of circuit breaker in use fall into five types Bulk Oil, Small Oil Content, Air
Blast, Vacuum and SF6 Breakers. Indoor and outdoor types of breakers are essentially no
different on their internal construction. But their external construction differs in the type of
bushing used; outdoor breakers using an outdoor type of bushing and the indoor types using an
indoor type of bushing.
Another difference is in the method of isolation. Outdoor breakers are usually installed with
separate isolating switches. Indoor breakers are usually racked, either vertically or
horizontally, into and out of connection contained within a totally enclosed metal-clad busbar.
Of the three basic outdoor types, the bulk oil breaker is self-contained, with its current
transformers mounted inside the tank over the bushings. Because of the space limitations, the
small oil content and air blast breakers normally require the use of separately mounted, post
type current transformers.
Auxiliary switches and position indicators provided on breakers, are directly driven from the
mechanism in oil circuit breakers; but separately operated by air cylinders in air blast breakers.
16.1.2 Bulk oil or dead tank breakers
The bulk oil breaker derives its name from the fact that it contains a relatively large quantity of
oil. The oil serves as insulation between the live contacts and earth, as well as across the open
contacts of the breaker. Because of this large quantity of oil available for arc quenching and
cooling, a relatively simple form of arc control device is used. The three phases may be
arranged in one single tank; or a separate tank may be used for each phase. The latter method
has advantages when testing and in the fact that there is no interaction between phases during
arc interruptions.
The plain break oil circuit breaker is used for low breaking capacities. No special means are
used for controlling the arc, and the contacts are exposed to the whole of the oil in the tank.
This type of circuit breaker permits rather long and inconsistent arcing times. Plain break
circuit breakers are used on LV distribution systems. At high voltages, the plain break o.c.b.
would need large space and it is not suitable for very high speed interruption. Hence, special
arc controlling devices have been developed to obtain arc extinction consistently while the
contact gap is still short; separation of the circuit breaker contacts takes place in a chamber.
The plain explosion pot consists of a metal cylinder lined with insulating material. The
drawing of an arc within this pot causes a high pressure to develop, which helps to accelerate
the moving contact bar. When the moving contact has moved out of the pot, a rush of gas and
oil is forced through the throat of the pot, producing rapid arc extinction. The limiting feature
of the plain explosion pot design is that it is liable to burst on high short circuit currents due to
a high rate of gas evolution.
The cross-jet explosion pot is an adaption of the plain explosion pot. A jet of oil and gas is
forced across the arc path. Insulating arc splitters are placed in the explosion chamber to
increase the arc length, weakening and finally extinguishing the arc.
For high voltage bulk o.c.b.s, up to eight explosion pots in series may be used per phase.
For three-phase single-tank bulk-oil circuit breakers, insulating barriers are installed between
phases. Barriers may also be installed between phases and tank, to prevent internal flashovers.
Large bulk-oil circuit breakers are difficult to transport and maintain. The minimum-oil-
content or air-blast (oil-less) circuit breakers are generally used at high and extra high
voltages. Bulk-oil circuit breakers in old installations are replaced by modern low-voltage-
type vacuum breakers, and SF6-type breakers for higher voltages above 36 kV.
The Deion oil circuit breaker employs an interrupting structure consisting of a narrow slot in a
composite stack of insulating plates, interspersed with soft iron plates. The deion method of
arc entinction differs in principle from the other methods described above.
When the contacts separate, the arc is drawn in the narrow slot formed by the plates. As the
slot is very narrow, the arc practically closes the open end of it; and the gas generated due to
heating of the entrapped oil, can only pass through the arc stream. The magnetic field set up in
the soft iron plates by the current, drives the arc towards the closed end of the slot compressing
the gas. This relatively cool gas is then projected across the arc column as it escapes through
the open edge of the plates, thereby extinguishing the arc.
16.1.3 Small oil content or live tank breakers
The small oil content breaker uses only a few litres of oil. The oil serves only for arc
quenching and for insulation across the contact gap when the breaker is open. Because of this
small volume, the arc quenching must be very efficient to avoid excessive carbonisation of the
oil. This type of breaker therefore takes the form of an interrupting compartment which is
insulated from earth, by either an oil-filled porcelain cylinder or solid post insulators. The
three phases are separate, but linked by a common operating shaft. These types have been
widely used in Queensland high voltage substations.
16.1.4 Air circuit breakers
For a.c., the primary extinction process is by lengthening of the arc column until such an
instant of zero current. The cold gas of the surrounding space cool hot gases of the arc and de-
ionize the arc space sufficiently for arc extinction.
For d.c., the arc column is lengthened until it requires more voltage to maintain the arc than is
available. Air circuit breakers usually do not employ an artificial air blast, but may use a
magnetic blowout for lengthening the arc. The magnetic blowout functions by means of the
magnetic field established by the current that is to be interrupted.
The force acting on the lengthening arc column by a magnetic blowout is proportional to the
product of the current and the magnetic field strength, and therefore to the square of the
current (I
2
). This force produces very rapid lengthening of the arc column; that is, the
magnetic blowout produces a very rapid motion of the low inertia arc core.
The cooling of the arc column may be greatly increased by the provision of insulating barriers
across the arc path. The arc is forced by magnetic blowout action over a grid of insulating
barriers, so that the arc column is brought into contact with cold insulating surfaces. The
barriers lengthen and cool the arc, while the magnetic action increases the cooling effect by
forcing the arc to move through the barriers until extinction of the arc.
16.1.5 Air blast circuit breakers
The air blast breaker uses a blast of dry compressed air to operate the contacts of the breaker.
As soon as the contacts part, a blast is established to blow this arc out to such a length that it is
rapidly extinguished. The quantity of air required involves the provision of a central air system
in the station. Clearly, because of noise considerations, air blast circuit breakers are not used in
residential areas.
Most air blast circuit breakers are designed to have automatic sequential opening of their
associated isolating switches, immediately after the circuit breaker has opened.
There are two basic breaker arrangements in use. In the first, the interruptors (contacts) are
open for a period long enough to successfully break the circuit; immediately after that an
isolating arm is opened. Then, with the cessation of the air flow the interruptors close again
under the action of a spring. In a closing operation, the isolating arm is closed and the
interruptors perform no function.
The second arrangement is becoming the preferred design by all manufacturers. There are no
separate isolators. The interruptors are held open by compressed air continuously, while the
breaker is in the open position. There is an auxiliary interruptor associated with each main
interruptor. The action of the breaker is as follows:
the main interruptor opens, leaving a series resistor in circuit
the auxiliary interruptor opens the resistor current.
Air blast circuit breakers may be classified into three main types, dependent on the manner in
which compressed air is directed at the arc:
the axial blast breaker
the cross blast breaker
the radial blast breaker.
The axial blast breaker
When the contacts part, compressed air scavenges the orifice (as shown in figure 16.1.),
thereby extinguishing the arc. The hot gases are exhausted through a baffle to the atmosphere.
Figure 16.1: Single axial blast breaker
Baffle Compressed Air
Figure 16.2: Double axial blast braker
The double-type axial blast breaker consists essentially of two single type constructions
connected in series, as shown in figure 16.2. The principle of the cross blast circuit breaker is
Figure 16.3: Cross blast circuit breaker
The arc splitters divide the arc chute into a number of separate passages, each being fitted with
stacks of thin metal cooling plates.
In the radial blast design the air flows radially into the nozzle as shown in figure 16.4.
Nozzles
Movable Contact
Arc Splitters
Exhaust with
Cooling Plates
Cooling Plates
Arc Shute
Fixed Contact
Compressed
Air
Figure 16.4: Radial blast breaker
16.1.6 Compressed air equipment for air blast circuit breakers
Note that for EHV systems, minimum oil or air blast circuit breakers may be used. The choice
depends mainly on economics. The higher the system voltage, the more breaks (arcing
chambers) per phase are required.
A compressed-air plant is required for any electrical installation equipped with air blast circuit
breakers. The circuit breakers must receive sufficient air at the right pressure at all times. The
quality of the air is important; dryness being an essential requirement so that the internal
insulation of the breaker shall not be affected by moisture. Moisture in the air can be removed
by compression to a pressure about twice that which will be used at the breaker.
The design and layout of the compressor plant is related to the number and size of the air blast
circuit breakers in the station. Where an installation consists of only a few air blast circuit
breakers, a single pressure unit system is preferred. Compressors and main storage receivers
are generally installed in duplicate, for maximum reliability and maintenance purposes. The
compressors must have a delivery capacity sufficient to make up working and leakage losses.
Figure 16.5 shows the layout of a typical duplicate double-pressure compressed air scheme.
Note the ring main pipe system.
Figure 16.5: Duplicate double-pressure compressed air installation
Drain
Circuit
Breaker
Receivers
Reducing
Valve
Air
Filter
Air
Compressor
Cooler
Main Air
Storage
Receiver
16.1.7 Vacuum breakers
Vacuum devices have been used for many years for switching capacitors. They offer benefits
of reduced maintenance and longer equipment life. They find wide application in metal-clad
switchgear. A vacuum device contains contacts in a ceramic body bottle. The vacuum is so
hard that the mean free path of electrons is larger than the gap between the contacts at their full
opening. The contacts are of special non-gassing metals. The moving contact is magnetically
operated. Contact travel is short. The contact acceleration, opening speed and retardation need
to be controlled to optimise performance and extend the life of the bellows. Smart closure of
the contacts is desirable to minimise pre-arcing high speed contact bounce and unnecessary
contact erosion.
Vacuum breakers are widely used in 11-kV metal-clad switchgear and 11-kV reclosers. Their
long life, and maintenance-free characteristics, will encourage improved design for other
higher voltages. Vacuum interruptors are now being offered for indoor and outdoor 36-kV
circuit breakers.
16.1.8 SF6 (sulphur hexafluoride) breakers
In recent years there has been considerable development of compressed gas breakers using the
electro-negative gas SF6. In essence, the design is very similar to a compressed air design, but
using an expensive gas ($10/kg). It must have a closed system, most carefully sealed against
leakage.
The SF6 gas is an inert insulating medium. This has led to the production of enclosed SF6
switchgear systems with circuit breakers, busbars, current transformers and voltage
transformers completely enclosed in SF6. The design has an inherent improvement in
interrupting capacity, with regard to dielectric recovery rate. Because of the saving in volume
space, SF6 switchgear is chosen for indoor high-voltage substations; they are less commonly
used in outdoor or low-voltage situations.
16.2 Contacts
The modern design of contacts uses a line or point of contact under a considerable pressure.
Examples of these are:
butt contacts, used in the interruptor units in most designs of air blast circuit breakers
the finger contacts used in oil circuit breakers.
For all types of contacts, maintenance of correct pressure is of great importance, because the
voltage drop across the contact is largely dependent on it. See figure 16.6.
Figure 16.6: Variation of voltage drop with contact pressure for a typical contact arrangement.
The actual current density at the line or point of contact is extremely high. A mass of metal is
usually provided behind the contact surface to dissipate the heat developed at the point of
contact. In contact assemblies of high current ratings, the fixed contact is usually broken up
into a number of separate contacts, each with its own spring loading.
When dressing contacts, it is very important to maintain the original profile. Any appreciable
reduction of the size of the contact may either shift the position of the designed line or point of
contact, or reduce the pressure on the contact. Where the design allows for a certain volume of
the contact to be lost in dressing, the spring pressure is usually made adjustable and this should
always be carefully checked after dressing.
Good design of a contact usually allows some form of wiping action prior to the contacts
reaching their final position. This may be either a rolling action as used in most contactors, or
a sliding action. Where a butt contact is used in an oil circuit breaker, there is normally a small
amount of sliding action provided by the moving contact.
This rolling or sliding action serves to remove any blobs of contact material produced by
arcing during a previous opening of the breaker, or by particles of dirt or carbon. It also partly
removes the oxide film which is normally produced on surfaces of contact materials other than
silver. This self-cleaning action is quite important in breakers which have not been operated
for a long time. In this case, if possible, the breakers should be operated several times before
being placed in service. This rolling or sliding action also enables another important
requirement to be satisfied i.e. the arcing which occurs on an opening of the breaker does not
take place on that part of the contact forming the normal load carrying contact.
In the butt contacts of air blast circuit breaker, there is usually no sliding action. But the
pressure of the line (ring) contact is very high and there is a severe scouring action during an
opening operation as a result of the air blast.
Copper is the material almost universally used for the contacts of oil and air blast circuit
breakers. Silver has a better conductivity than copper and oxides very little in air. But its cost
makes it prohibitive for use in large volumes. The use of silver is therefore restricted to inlays
or plating, of contacts exposed to air in isolators and some circuit breakers.
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

D
r
o
p
Contact Pressure
60 90 120 150 180 30 0
For the separate arcing tips (frequently used in oil circuit breakers) and for the points at which
arcing takes place (in air blast circuit breakers), Tungston-Copper alloy insert is frequently
used. This material has a very high melting point but poor conductivity. Therefore it cannot be
used for the current carrying surface. As there are two factors, temperature and time, required
to melt a metal, the use of Tungston-Copper alloys in modern high speed circuit breakers
results in very little burning of the arcing tips.
16.3 Operating mechanisms
The duties of an operating mechanism may be stated briefly as follows:
To make the operation independent of a.c. supplies, a battery source is usually used for closing
and tripping.
The energy source for operating the mechanism will be one of the following:
(a) DC solenoid. With this method the breaker is self-contained; but requires a high
current (500 A) for a few seconds. Because of the closing characteristics of a solenoid,
separate and substantial shock absorption at the end of the closing stroke is necessary.
(b) Pneumatic. This required a separate air supply to the breaker; but the action of the air
cylinder is fast, and reliable. Cushioning at the end of the opening and closing strokes
results from entrapped air at either end of the piston stroke.
(c) Spring tensioned by a motor drive. The power unit in these mechanism consists of a
compression spring for tripping the breaker; and another larger compression spring for
closing the breaker and simultaneously charging the tripping spring. The closing
spring is automatically recharged by the motor immediately after each closing
operation.
16.4 Auto-reclosing
Experience has shown that the majority of faults on high voltage overhead transmission lines
involve the dielectric failure of air insulation. The air insulation may be renewed almost
instantaneously. Therefore the faults are not sustained and do not result in major damage.
Such failures generally rise from lightning strikes or switching surges. It is therefore becoming
a practice to reclose a circuit breaker manually almost immediately it has tripped on fault.
Closing: To ensure the closing of the breaker cleanly and smartly without hesitation at
contact touch, and with sufficient force to take the moving contacts through to the
fully home position.
Opening: To ensure release of the holding in latch, on the operation of the tripping device,
thus allowing the breaker to open. The basic requirements of a mechanism are
speed and reliability, particularly on tripping.
In the case of faults occurring on circuits with solid insulation (such as cables, transformers
and generators), the breaker should not be reclosed, since faults occurring in solid insulation
are usually of a permanent nature.
The application of automatic reclosing may be divided into two broad fields.
There is a need to restore supply promptly to radial feeders. Several seconds delay is
tolerable in these cases and usually no great difficulties are involved.
There is a need to rapidly restore system inter-connections, when generator stations
have been completely separated, or when stability of the system may be prejudiced by
sustained loss of a transmission link.
In the latter case, it is the aim of auto-reclosing to restore the system to normal if possible,
before the effects of the original disturbance lead to greater disruption of the system.
Stability may be defined as the ability to maintain synchronism between generators, by the
exchange of sufficient electrical power for a brief time, after an initial disturbance.
Therefore, if a fault remains on the system long enough to cause one part of the system to be
lagging (or leading) another part of the system by more than 90 electrical degrees (referred to
the poles of a synchronous machine), the system may lose synchronism, i.e. become unstable.
In order to prevent this, the circuit breaker should be reclosed virtually immediately. But the
ability to do this is limited by the time necessary to de-ionize the arc path at the location of the
fault. This de-ionization time is of the order of 14 cycles on a 132 kV line.
Any attempt to reclose the line within this period will probably result in a re-establishment of
arcing at the point of the fault. In single-phase reclosing, i.e. the tripping and reclosing only of
the phase affected (by a single phase to earth fault), the time will be increased by about only
5 cycles. This allows for the cessation of the residual arc created by the voltage on the
conductor due to capacitance coupling with the live phases.
16.5 Timing the breaker operation
The practice of dismantling breakers for a routine overhaul has the disadvantage that
components operating quite satisfactorily may have their adjustment disturbed, or efficiency
impaired by the entry of dirt or particles of cleaning material. There is also the risk of human
error in over-tightening or failure to tighten nuts, omitting to replace or spread split pins etc.
These factors, taken with the fact that the reliability of the supply is reduced every time a
breaker is taken out of service for dismantling, have led to the view that the period between
actual overhauls of circuit breakers should be considerably increased. But tests to assess the
performance of the breaker should be made at intervals between the overhauls.
A measure of the overall performance of a breaker and its operating mechanisms can be
obtained by timing the operations of closing and opening with a suitable timer. A better
knowledge of oil circuit breakers can be obtained by use of an instrument which will draw a
chart of the actual contact travel against time. By comparison of the chart obtained on the
routine test with that made at the factory during commissioning, its possible to check
variations or operating speed, performance of damping devices, contact pressures, wear on
mechanical components.
Module 16 Ci rcui t breakers 16.11
Summary
At voltages of 66 kV and below, vacuum and SF6 circuit breakers are replacing oil circuit
breakers. On 66-kV metalclad breakers for indoor use now use SF6 insulation and a vacuum
circuit breaker. Ring main isolators at this voltage will be enclosed in SF6 gas at low pressure
instead of oil. Their switching action may be by a mild puffer action.
The use of synthetic insulating resins has played a part. Because of their various special
properties, new equipment tend to be more compact.
At higher voltages, worldwide equipment manufacturers have been required to develop circuit
breakers of increasing short circuit interrupting capacity, increasing normal current carrying
capacity and reduced breaking times. With the metal enclosing of busbars, disconnect
switches, current and voltage transformers, cable sealing ends etc. coupled with land costs,
siting difficulties and visual limitations for substations, the gas insulated switchgear approach
seems the choice for all future inner city substations.
Questions
1. Describe the construction and arc extinction process of a typical circuit breaking arcing
chamber for each of the following types of circuit breakers:
(a) oil circuit breaker
(b) air circuit breaker
(c) air blast circuit breaker.
2. Write notes on the following:
(a) the rating of circuit breakers
(b) the requirements of compressed air equipment for air-blast circuit breakers.
3. (a) List the main types of HV circuit breakers in use and their applicational aspects.
(b) What are the duties of a circuit breaker operating mechanism?
(c) List the main types of energy source used for operating the mechanisms.
References
Module 17 Protection principles
Module
17
Protection principles 1
Module 17 Protection princi ples 17.1
Objectives
explain what protection is and what are the basic requirements of a protection system;
explain how the complex protection system in a large power station can be broken down to
be analysed
explain how auto-reclosing and under-frequency load-shedding relays are intergrated with
protection relays.
Introduction
In developing a system it is important to appreciate that planning, operating and protection
requirements are interrelated. The practical constraints imposed by a changing electrical
system must be recognised. The key to the proper application of protective devices is a
thorough understanding of system behaviour.
The technique of insulating the various elements of a power system (for example generators,
transformers, feeders, and circuits) has reached a high degree of reliability. However, it is
naturally impossible to guarantee that breakdowns will not occur, owing to mechanical
damage, deterioration and failure of insulation, surges and human error. If the insulation at any
point in the power system breaks down, then it is important that the faulty component be
isolated as quickly as possible in order to minimise the damage, ensure the safety of personnel,
and to maintain continuity of supply to as many consumers as possible.
Isolation of the faulty component is initiated by means of a sample of the fault current passing
through auxiliary apparatus and circuits comprising the automatic protective gear which
energises the trip coils controlling the switch-gear (circuit breakers). As the fault current is
carried not only by the defective component, but by all the components between the fault and
the generating plant, it is therefore necessary that the protective gear associated with the
healthy components must not operate. Only the protective gear associated with the defective
components must operate.
Rapid fault clearance by the switchgear nearest to the fault, initiated by the protective gear,
will limit the damage at the fault location and prevent the effects of the fault spreading into
other sections of the supply system.
Switchgear and protective gear therefore provide an insurance against loss of supply to other
than the faulted component. The switchgear must be capable of interrupting normal and fault
current, while the protective gear must recognise an abnormal condition and operate to secure
its removal with the minimum disturbance to normal system operation. A system cannot be
regarded as properly designed if it is not adequately protected.
Protective gear is a collective term which includes all equipment necessary for recognising,
locating and initiating the removal of a fault from the power system. Relays are almost
exclusively used in protection, but where relays and circuit breakers are not economically
justified, fuses are used. Protective gear also includes current and voltage transformers, wiring
and auxiliary devices required to give successful operation.
There are many types of relays, used separately or collectively. The type of relay used for a
particular scheme depends on the type of protection required and on the type of equipment to
be protected. Faults and abnormal conditions can change the magnitude, direction, phase angle
and frequency of the circuit quantities. The extent of these changes determines the nature of
the disturbance, the type of plant involved and the location of the disturbance relative to the
point in the system where these changes are observed.
The method adopted for securing protection is known as the protection system, while the
arrangement of relays for protecting one or more components of a power system, constitutes
the protection scheme.
17.1 Basic requirements of protection
The following basic requirements apply to protection:
Reliability. Complete reliability is impossible to achieve because there is always the risk
of failure from defective equipment, mistakes by personnel. Normally protective gear is
required to operate infrequently. Failures are sometimes only discovered following a mal-
operation during a fault. Failure may not only be confined to the protective gear, but may
also be due to circuit breaker defects. Failure can however, be reduced to a minimum by
using reliable designs backed by a regular maintenance and testing programme.
In low-voltage situations the circuits being protected are usually in buildings. It is
especially important that the circuit protection is related to the current carrying capacity of
the circuit so that for all overload or fault current conditions the protection operates before
the conductor insulation is damaged. Many building fires have been caused by load or
fault currents which overheated the circuit conductors because the circuit protection failed
to clear the fault or overload currents.
Discrimination. Protection is arranged in overlapping zones so that no part of the power
system is unprotected, and only the zone within which a fault is located is disconnected.
Selective protection (discrimination) determines that the fault is within its own zone and
isolates that zone only. That is, only the protective gear associated with the fault must
operate. This essential feature is referred to as discrimination.
Discrimination occurs when on the incidence of a fault, only the device desired operates. If
the protection is not selective then unnecessary loss of plant and circuits may result.
Speed. To avoid unnecessary damage to plant, protection must operate quickly. However,
speed must not be attained at the expense of selectivity, as this would result in unnecessary
interruptions to supply.
An important reason for fast clearing times is to maintain system stability. The shorter the
time a fault persists, the more load can be transferred between points (between either side
of the fault) without loss of stability. Very high speed protection may not always be
economically justifiable, and this has to be balanced against the possible damage which
may result due to prolonged fault clearing times. However, for very high voltage systems,
total fault clearing times of 0.1 seconds are not uncommon.
Sensitivity. Protection must be sufficiently sensitive to operate reliably under minimum
fault conditions, while remaining stable (inoperative) for maximum load or through-fault
conditions. (Through-fault current is described as follows: When a fault occurs on a power
system, then the protection closest to the fault operates. However, between the period of
time after the occurrence of the fault and before the fault is cleared or isolated from the
system, fault current flows through equipment (through-fault current) between the fault
and the generators).
Simplicity. Protection should be as simple as possible, involving the minimum amount of
equipment and circuitry, consistent with the duty the protection is to perform.
Economy. With the above requirements satisfied, the protective gear chosen for a
particular application must be as economical as possible, that is, its initial cost must be as
low as possible.
Figure 17.1
17.2 Protective zones
It has already been mentioned in the previous section, under discrimination that protection is
arranged in overlapping zones. A protected zone is that part of a power system guarded by a
certain protection, and the zone usually contains one, or at the most two elements of the power
system. Figure 17.1 illustrates a typical arrangement of overlapping zones of protection.
Note that the main protective zones in a power system generally include:
generator protective zone
transformers
busbars
transmission lines and feeders
distribution transformers
low voltage mains
services, consumers mains and switchboards
final sub-circuits.
The point of connection of the protection with the power system usually defines the zone
boundary, and almost invariably corresponds to the position of the current transformers.
Where the current transformers are located on each side of a circuit breaker, the protective
zones overlap, as illustrated in figure 17.2.
Figure 17.2
17.3 Primary and back-up protection
The obvious essential of a protection system is reliability. However, many factors may cause a
protection failure, and furthermore, there is always the possibility of a circuit breaker failure
(not opening under fault). It is, therefore, usual to provide primary and back-up protection to
ensure that in any event, a fault is cleared from the power system.
Primary protection normally takes the initiative in clearing a fault, but should it be prevented
from fulfilling its intended function, then the back-up protection operates. Back-up protection
is generally slower and less selective than primary protection, the sole function for the back-up
protection being to remove the fault from the system before damage results (should primary
protection fail to operate).
Local back-up protection requires the duplication of the primary protection, and ensures
tripping the circuit breaker should the primary protection fail to operate (see figure 17.3).
Figure 17.3
A
A B
C
Primary
Protection
for Circuit
Breaker A
Local
Back-up
Protection
for A
Primary
Protection
for B
Local
Back-up
Protection
for B
for B
Remote back-up protection caters for either protection failure or circuit breaker failure, and is
in common use. If for the system shown in figure 17.3 the protection associated with circuit
breaker B fails to operate for a fault at C, or if circuit breaker B should fail to open, then the
remote back-up protection at the next circuit breaker will operate, that is the remote back-up
protection will cause circuit breaker A to open and clear the fault.
The risk of failure and the consequences, matched against economic considerations, determine
the extent to which backup protection is provided.
17.4 Power, current and voltage transformers
Revise the section on instrument transformers.
Current and voltage transformers insulate the secondary circuits (relays, instruments, meters)
from the primary circuit, and provide quantities in the secondary which are proportional to
those in the primary. The role of a transformer for protection purposes is not as readily defined
as that for metering and instrumentation. Whereas the essential role of a metering transformer
is to deliver to its secondary a quantity accurately representative of what is applied to the
primary, a protection transformer varies in its function according to the type of protective gear
it serves. Hence protection current and voltage transformers must be carefully matched with
the protection relays to fulfill the essential requirements of the system.
There is no great distinction between a protection voltage transformer and a metering voltage
transformer, and quite often the same transformer may serve both purposes.
However, the requirements for protection current transformers (that is current transformers
used for protection purposes) are often radically different from metering current transformers.
The main difference is that the metering current transformer is only required to accurately
perform its function over the normal range of load current beyond which the secondary current
remains constant, so protecting the meters; while the protection current transformer is required
to give satisfactory operation over a wide range of fault conditions from a fraction of full
load current to many times full load (see figure 17.4).
Figure 17.4
Secondary
Current
Protection C.T.
Metering C.T.
Primary Current
17.5 Power transformer protection
Power transformers operate continuously for long periods with very little attention and
maintenance. They are designed with adequate electrical and mechanical features. Still they
may be exposed to external disturbances and develop internal defects and faults. Protection
and monitoring devices are provided for mechanical, thermal, electrical and insulation defects.
A brief outline of protection devices is given here.
17.6 Control and protection systems
An unwanted short-circuit or open circuit in an operating electrical system is often referred
to as fault. Faults result in abnormal currents and voltages. The short-circuit may be between
all three phases, line-to-line, double line-to-ground or line-to-ground. Open circuits may be
due to failure of plant, connectors and conductors.
Circuit breakers. Circuit breakers are installed in the system so that each component, (i.e.
alternator, transformer) may be isolated from or connected to the system. Each component also
is fitted with protection system. In the event of a fault, the protection system will automatically
trip the appropriate circuit breakers.
External causes Result Protection devices
1. Overcurrent Overheating due to
excessive current
Overcurrent relays
2. Short circuit Fuses; Circuit breakers
3. Earth fault " Earth fault relays
4. Overvoltage Insulation failure
5. Lightning surge " Surge arrestors
6. Cooling system Overheating; Thermal, gas relays
7. Mechanical Damage to tank Fences; warning
8. Fire Insulators, oil spill, fire Sprinkler; spillway
Internal causes Result Protection devices
1. Interturn short Overheating, noise Thermal relays
2. Interwinding short "
3. Winding to core " Differential current
4. Open-circuit Abnormal voltage Indicators
5. Oil deterioration Insulation failure; gas Gas relay
6. Loose core Noise
7. Loose winding Noise
8. Insulation failure Spark discharges
Earthing. As shown in the single-line diagram for an electricity supply system (figure 1.2),
the supply system is normally earthed at the origin. In the system shown (figure 1.2), the
alternator star-point and the star-points of the secondary windings of transformers (T1, T2, T3
and T4) would all be earthed, by connection to a system of bars and pipes driven into the
ground adjacent to each component. The reason for earthing is that should an active conductor
anywhere in the system come in contact with the ground (or any device effectively connected
to the ground), a current will flow through the earth and the appropriate earth connection at the
source. The magnitude of this current, in most cases, will be sufficient to operate the
protection system, and isolate the faulty component.
Various methods of earthing, generators, motors and transformers are in practice. The method
of earthing chosen, depends on the system voltage, the apparatus, the permissible fault current
and the type of protection systems deployed.
Protection systems. To prevent abnormal voltages and excessive currents which might lead to
dangerous conditions, protection systems (including fuses) are necessary. Voltage transformers
(VT) and current transformers (CT) provide the necessary voltages and currents for
measurement, control and protection. The various protection systems sense the abnormality;
discriminate to activate the relays; initiate the alarms and trip-signals to interrupt the faulty
circuit within preset time; and permit normal operation.
Lighting and switching surge protection is provided by means of special types of surge
arrestors, properly graded corona rings, arcing horn-gaps and overhead earth wires. In
addition, the basic insulation level (BIL) of apparatus chosen and clearances specified must
conform to the proper insulation coordination requirements.
17.7 Fuses
Fuses are widely used for low voltage installations, domestic and industrial.
When different types of fuses are used in an installation, then the operating curves (time-
current characteristics) for the fuses must be checked to ensure that discrimination is obtained.
Consider for example the simple single-phase installation shown in figure 17.5.
Figure 17.5
The fuse types and fuse rating must be such that for a fault beyond fuse X (or Y), only fuse X
(or Y) will operate, and not fuse Z. Under such conditions discrimination is obtained. If fuse Z
should operate for a fault beyond X or Y, then there is no discrimination, and supply to both
sub-circuits would be lost.
Figure 17.6 will give the student an indication of the time-current characteristics for three
types of low-voltage fuses.
HRC fuses
High rupturing capacity (HRC) fuses are used in low-voltage situations where fault currents
are high. The insulating barrel of the fuse cartridge contains an arc extinguishing compound.
The standard current ratings for low-voltage cartridge fuses in amperes are:
2 4 6 8 10 12 16 20 25 32 40 50 63 80 100 125 160 200
250 315 400 500 630 800 1 000 1 250.
Figure 17.6
Curve 1 is for a 30 A rewireable fuse having a minimum fusing current of 60 A.
Curve 2 is for a 30 A cartridge fuse having a minimum fusing current of 80 A.
Curve 3 is for a 30 A HRC fuse having a minimum fusing current of 50 A.
The minimum fusing current is the current at which the fuse just melts.
From figure 17.6 note that the 30 A HRC fuse has the fastest operating time. For a fault current
of 200 A, a 30 A cartridge fuse (melting in approximately 0.5 seconds) would discriminate
over a 30 A rewireable fuse (melting in approximately 2 seconds). The 30 A HRC fuse would
melt in less than 0.1 seconds for 200 A fault current. If the fault current was 120 A, then the
cartridge and rewireable fuses have similar melting times (about 6 seconds) while the HRC
fuse would melt in approximately 0.4 seconds.
Therefore, if the prospective fault current is known for an installation, then fuse types and
rating must be carefully chosen to ensure that discrimination is obtained.
High-voltage drop-out fuses
Drop-out fuses are commonly used to protect pole-mounted distribution transformers. A barrel
constructed of an insulating material contains the fuse element. The barrel is held in place at
the upper end by a retaining mechanism which relies on a small tensile force in the fuse
element. When a fault occurs the element melts and releases the retaining mechanism at the
upper end of the barrel. This allows the barrel to swing down to a vertical position. The fusing
of the element is not sufficient to extinguish the high-voltage arc. The arc is extinguished by
the action of the barrel falling into a vertical position.
Figure 17.7: 11-kV drop-out fuse
The fuse can be reloaded using a telescopic insulated rod from a safe distance below the high-
voltage conductors. The vertically hanging barrel is unhooked from the lower support and
taken down to ground level to be reloaded. It is then hooked back onto the lower support and
switched into the upper support to re-energise the transformer.
It is easy to see whether the fuse has operated by inspection from ground level.
These fuses are also used as a switching device to remove the transformer from service for
maintenance without the need to de-energise the distribution feeder.
For small distribution transformers the protective zone for the drop-out fuses include the low-
voltage distribution mains.
17.8 Protective devices other than fuses
Electromagnetic low-voltage circuit breakers have a solenoid coil in series with the main
supply. When the current reaches a certain value, then an attracted plunger causes tripping of
the circuit breaker.
This principle is also used on some high voltage (for example 11 kV) circuit breakers installed
on feeders. This necessitates the use of a current transformer.
Figure 17.8
Figure 17.8 shows an elementary scheme for the protection of a feeder. The secondary
winding of the current transformer (CT) circulates its output current in the trip coil (TC) which
is arranged to open the circuit breaker (CB) at a predetermined overload. This scheme may be
employed for the case of a single feeder, but it lacks discrimination for a number of similar
circuit breakers in series. Reliable discrimination would however, be obtained by the use of
protective relays.
In the distribution area, 11-kV,

22-kV and up to 33-kV reclosures are being used and with the
help of low-cost non-fault breaking sectionalisers rural line performance can be significantly
improved.
17.8.1 Miniature circuit breakers
Miniature circuit breakers (MCBs) are widely used for final sub-circuit protection on low-
voltage switchboards. They incorporate a thermal tripping device for overload currents and
low-fault-level currents. A magnetic instantaneous tripping device operates for high fault
levels.
The preferred current ratings for MCBs in amperes are:
6 8 10 12 16 20 25 32 40 50 63 80 100 125.
17.9 Power system neutral earthing
The earthing of AC power distribution systems is concerned with the nature and location of
intentional electrical interconnection between the electrical system conductors and earth.
Under fault conditions, the nature and location of the earthing system have a significant effect
on the magnitudes of line-to-ground voltages and ground-fault currents. A floating (insulated
neutral or ungrounded) system is prone to dangerous over-voltage because of the stray
capacitance coupling to earth of every energised conductor. A floating system that allows
severe over-voltage may cause diminished useful life of insulation, leading to insulation
breakdown and circuit faults.
Module 17 Protection pri nci pl es 17.11
The main advantage in operating with neutrals isolated is the possibility of maintaining a
supply with a ground falut on one line, which places the remaining conductors at line voltage
above ground. Also, interference with telephone circuits is reduced because of the absence of
zero-sequence currents. For normal balanced operation the neutrals of an ungrounded or
isolated system are held at earth potential because of the presence of the system capacitance to
earth.
The purpose of the system earth connection is primarily for zero phase-sequence protection,
although safety considerations are also important. The earth connection must provide a low-
impedance path for earth-fault (zero-sequence) current so that protective relays can operate
satisfactorily.
Impedance (reactance) earthing has the advantages of limiting damage incurred by plant
during earth-fault conditions and of limiting the risk of explosive failure of switchgear, which
is a danger to personnel. In addition, it limits touch and step potentials at a substation or in the
vicinity of an earth fault.
If high-impedance earthing is used, or the system is unearthed, the earth-fault current will be
reduced but the steady-state and transient over-voltages on the healthy lines can be very high.
Consequently, high-impedance earthing is generally used only in low- / medium-voltage
networks, where provision of the necessary insulation against such overvoltages is not too
costly. Higher voltage systems would normally be solidly earthed or earthed via a low
impedance.
The four most common earthing classifications for power distribution systems are listed
below.
1. Solidly-earthed system
Solidly-earthed systems achieve the greatest control of over-voltages but result in the
highest magnitudes of earth-fault current. From a safety standpoint, because of the large
earth-fault current, solidly-earthed systems have the highest voltage gradient, but this is
not usually a problem where earth mats or overhead continuous earth wires are used. It is
essential that adequate earth-return conductors be provided to minimise the inherent step
and touch potentials of the high ground-fault currents associated with solidly-earthed
systems. Also, because the power source under fault conditions is directly short-circuited
to earth, system stability is lower than for resistance or reactance earthing, but can be made
satisfactory with the use of high-speed relays and circuit breakers.
2. Resistance-earthed system
Resistance-earthed systems have an intentional resistance connection between the
electrical system neutral and earth. This resistance is in parallel with the system-to-earth
capacitive reactance. In a high-resistance earthed system, because of this capacitive
coupling, there is a tendency to produce excessive over-voltages. Any perceived advantage
in the fact that high-resistance earthed systems do not require immediate clearing of an
earth fault (since the fault current resulting from the high resistance is of a very low
magnitude) is outweighed by the dangerous over-voltages produced. Furthermore, the low
magnitude of earth-fault current may not operate earth-fault relays reliably. In a low-
resistance earthed system, however, the magnitudes of the line-to-earth potentials can be
strictly controlled and the earth-fault current is sufficient to operate earth-fault relays
selectively.
3. Reactance-earthed system
Reactance-earthed systems are less commonly used in power distribution systems since
the reduction in earth-fault current without the danger of transitory over-voltages is
limited. The resulting fault current can be high (although not as high as for the solidly-
earthed system) and can present an objectionable amount of arcing damage at the fault. A
much greater reduction in earth-fault current is permissible with low resistance earthing
without the risk of over-voltage.
4. Petersen coil (or arc suppression coil) earthed system
The most common type of failure in an electrical power distribution network is a single
line-to-earth fault. The effects of such faults are often mitigated by the use of an earth-
fault suppression scheme.
Resonant grounded earthing systems are based on the Petersen coil principle developed in
1917. In this scheme the high-voltage-system supply-point neutral is earthed through a
high-impedance variable inductor, a so called arc suppression coil, the reactance of which
is tuned to match the total line-to-earth capacitive reactance of the system. When a line-to-
earth fault occurs, the fault current at the point of the fault is the sum of the capacitance
current and the current flowing in the earthing coil.
For a properly tuned system, this method results in a steady-state earth-fault current which
is very small (ideally zero), insufficient to maintain an arc, so that the arcing earth-fault
current becomes self extinguishing. There is therefore no arc damage at the point of the
fault.
Since the topology of an electrical power distribution network is subject to dynamic
changes, it is desirable for the inductance of the arc suppression coil used for neutral
earthing to be variable. Such adjustment is often automated, precise control being
achieved by a motor-driven core in the coil.
Petersen-coil-earthed systems are commonly found in areas having rural overhead lines
and can be particularly beneficial in locations subject to a high incidence of transient
faults. Transient earth faults, caused by lightning strikes for example, can be extinguished
by the Petersen coil without the need for a circuit breaker to extinguish the fault and
without the need for line outages. Furthermore, such a system can be run, if it is designed
to do so, with one phase earthed for a long period until the cause of the earth fault is
identified and rectified.
Consider the single-phase system in figure 17.9 at the instant when the instantaneous
voltages are v on line a and v on line b, where v is the maximum instantaneous voltage.
The sudden occurrence of a fault to ground on line a causes line b to assume a potential of
2v and line a to have zero potential.
Figure 17.9: Single-phase system with arcing fault to ground
L line R line
L line R line
n
a
b
v
C C
Fault
v
Because of the presence of both distributed inductance L and capacitance C in the circuit,
the sudden change in voltage produces a high-frequency oscillation of peak magnitude 2v
superimposed on the power frequency voltages and line a reaches v and line b 3v. These
oscillatory voltages attenuate quickly due to the line resistance present.
The current in the arc to earth on line a is approximately 90 leading the fundamental
voltage and, when it is zero, the voltage will be at a maximum. Hence, if the arc
extinguishes at the first current zero, the lines remain charged at v for a and 3v for b.
The line potentials now change at power frequency until line a reaches 3v when the arc
could restrike causing a voltage change of 3v to 0, resulting in a transient overvoltage of
+3v on line a and +5v on line b. This process could continue and the voltages build up
further but the resistance present usually limits the peak voltage to about 4v.
A similar analysis may be made for a three-phase circuit again showing that serious
overvoltages may occur with arcing faults. This condition may be overcome in an isolated
neutral system by means of a resonance-tuned arc suppression coil.
Consider the simple power system shown in figure 17.10. A single length of line is
supplied by the star winding of a transformer, earthed through an inductor tuned to the
system line-to-ground capacitance. The line is simplified as a pi-circuit model, with the
distributed line-to-earth capacitances lumped into single capacitances at each end of the
line. Consider a line-to-earth fault near the transformer with a fault resistance of R
f
.
Figure 17.10: Simple power system diagram with a line-to-earth fault near the transformer
This system can be analysed using symmetrical components as set out in figure 17.11. The
source impedance and the losses in the earthing inductor are ignored in this analysis.
Fault
R
f
Source
L C
0 /
2
L line R line
C
0/
2 C
0/
2 C
0 /
2 C
0/
2 C
0/
2
L line R line
L line R line
n
Petersen
coil
Figure 17.11: Symmetrical components of the simple power system
The zero-sequence network can be simplified as shown in figure 17.12.
If the earthing inductor L is correctly tuned such that 3L = 1/C
0
then the fault current will
be very small.
Figure 17.12: Zero-sequence network of the simple power system
At the instant the fault is applied, provided the voltage of the faulted line is not zero, a step
voltage change will be applied across L
0
. The resultant current will flow to charge the line-to-
earth capacitance of the far section of the line. Since the source impedance is very low,
oscillations in voltage and current will follow until they decay because of the effect of the
resistance in the circuit.
There are then three voltages being applied to the far end of the lines:
1. the positive-sequence fundamental-frequency voltage;
2. the zero-sequence fundamental-frequency voltage, which is close to the value of the
normal line-to-earth voltage; and
3. a transient voltage, alternating at the natural frequency of the line zero-sequence
inductance and capacitance, and decaying to zero.
Depending on the time of the fault in the fundamental frequency cycle, these voltages may
cause serious over-voltages on the healthy-phase lines.
L
1
R
1
C
1/
2
3R
f
V
C
1/
2
Positive sequence
L
2
R
2
C
2/
2 C
2/
2
Negative sequence
L
0
R
0
C
0/
2 C
0/
2
Zero sequence
3L
L
0
R
0
C
0/
2 C
0/
2
3L
3R
f
V
Questions
1. What are the basic requirements of a protection system? Illustrate the main protective
zones in a power system.
2. Define discrimination and describe three other basic requirements of protection.
3. Explain the terms primary and back-up protection. Outline the tripping circuit of a
circuit breaker.
4. Compare the following earthing schemes, tabulating the criteria for comparison:
solid earthing
resistance earthing
reactance earthing
Petersen coil earthing.
Module 18 Protective relaying
Module
18
Protective relaying 1
Module 18 Protecti ve relayi ng 18.1
Objectives
describe a protection relay and how it has a finite time to operate which can be graded
describe the different items of the unique systems of plant and the meaning of Buckholtz,
reverse power, and pilot wire type
describe how maloperation of protection systems can be investigated.
Introduction
This module deals in detail with the most commonly used protection systems and carries on
from module 14 which observed the positioning of voltage and current transformers.
A modern power system is a complex interconnection of a large number of electrical
equipments to enable the generation, transmission and distribution of electrical current, which
current is normally confined to the conductors of these equipments by insulation. This
insulation may be broken down by failure or accident so that the current then flows in an
abnormal path referred to as a short-circuit or a fault.
When a fault occurs, the energy dissipated may cause extensive thermal and mechanical
damage to the equipment and seriously jeopardise the remainder of the system. It is not
economical to attempt to design the power system to completely prevent these failures, but
rather to include provisions in the design to reduce the effects of faults when they do occur.
Protective relaying is one of several features of design aimed at reducing the effects of faults,
and should be considered in conjunction with these features (system configuration, fault
current limiting devices, etc.) at the time of planning the system.
18.1 Relays
Protective relays are the main devices used in power systems for protection. There are many
kinds of relays in service. Each relay in a protection scheme performs a certain function and
responds in a given manner to a certain type of change in the circuit quantities. For example
one type of relay may operate when the current increases above a certain magnitude (called an
overcurrent relay) while another type of relay may compare voltage and current and operate
when their quotient is less than a given value (called an under-impedance relay).
Protection relays were for many years electro-mechanical devices. Intelligent Electronic
Devices (IEDs) have now replaced electro-mechanical relays. The advantages of IED relays
over electro-mechanical relays are:
Flexibility
Multiple functions can be included in the same relay, e.g. over-current protection and
automatic re-closing.
Selectable functions.
Selectable time current characteristics.
Measuring and monitoring
Circuit breaker monitoring and supervision
Event recording
Fault recording
Disturbance recording
Accurate recording of times of operation
Interconnection with the supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system.
Some examples of the functions that can be included are:
Three phase over-current and earth over-current
Three phase and earth-fault directional over-current
Thermal overload
Negative sequence over-current
Broken conductor
Three phase directional power protection
Under/Over-voltage protection
Under/Over-frequency protection
Circuit breaker failure protection
Cold load pick up
Automatic re-closing of the circuit breaker following a fault.
The time-current characteristic for this type of relay is shown in figure 18.1. From this curve it
is seen that the operating time of the relay decreases as the current increases. The relay is
therefore called an inverse time overcurrent relay. Furthermore, as the current approaches
twenty times full load, the relay operating time tends to become constant.
This type of relay is therefore referred to as an inverse definite minimum time (IDMT)
overcurrent relay.
Figure 18.1
A number of IDMT overcurrent relays (for example, 3) may be calibrated (by selecting
appropriate time settings and current settings) so that their curves lie parallel to one another as
shown in figure 18.2. The curves are separated by a vertical distance corresponding to a time
margin equal approximately to 0.5 seconds.
If now these relays were used to protect sections of the simple radial system shown in figure
18.3, then the relay having time-current characteristics marked 1 in figure 18.2 would be
connected to CT
1
(closest to the generator), and the relays with characteristics 2 and 3 would
be connected to CT
2
and CT
3
respectively. In this way reliable time discrimination for feeder
protection is obtained. Note that the relay with the slowest operating time (characteristic l in
figure 18.2) is closest to the generators. This ensures that the whole feeder is not interrupted
for a remote feeder fault. For example, if a fault occurred beyond the relay with characteristic
3, then the protection should operate to trip circuit breaker 3 only (having faster operating
time).
Figure 18.2
Figure 18.3
Normal load current does not cause operation of any of the overcurrent relays.
The definite minimum time feature is necessary to ensure discrimination should very large
fault currents flow through sound feeders and circuits.
The induction type overcurrent relay has been treated in some detail, and the student should
now be able to understand how discrimination is obtained when using this type of relay for the
protection of parts of a power system.
18.2 Typical protection systems
This section will briefly discuss and illustrate the types of protection typically used for the
various elements of a power system.
Combined overcurrent and earthfault protection
Combined overcurrent and earthfault protection are used on radial distribution feeders. Two
overcurrent relays are connected (one in each of two phases) as shown in figure 18.4, while an
earthfault (E/F) relay is connected between the star point of the overcurrent (O/C) relays and
the star point of the current transformers (CTs).
The earthfault relay is of similar construction to an overcurrent relay, except that the earthfault
relay operates at a much lower current value.
If a short circuit or overload occurs between any two phases, then one or both the overcurrent
relays will operate and so trip the circuit breaker. For example:
a fault between A and C phases causes A phase and C phase relays to operate
a fault between A and B phases causes A phase relay to operate
a fault between B and C phases causes C phase relay to operate
a three-phase fault (between A, B and C phases) would cause A and C phase relays to
operate.
Should an earthfault occur in the distribution system, then a current will flow through the
earthfault relay, tripping the circuit breaker.
Figure 18.4
Protection of parallel feeders
For plain radial feeders, discriminative relay operation is obtained by means of suitable relay
time and current setting adjustments. If however, normal non-directional overcurrent relays
are applied to parallel feeders (see figure 18.5) then any feeder faults will isolate both feeders
completely, causing an interruption to supply. To ensure discriminative operation it is usual for
protection of parallel feeders to install relays which only operate (for faults occurring in the
feeders) in the direction indicated by the arrows as shown in figure 18.6.
Figure 18.5
Figure 18.6
C.Ts C.B.
A typical application for directional overcurrent relays is the ring system illustrated in figure
18.7, where it will be seen that unless directional relays are used discrimination cannot be
obtained. Note that the relays at the generator or source end do not require to be directional.
Figure 18.7
Unit systems
Systems of unit protection using the differential principle have been applied to cable and
overhead line feeder systems for many years. A comparison is made of the quantities at each
end of the feeder.
For systems using the differential principle, a comparison is made of the current entering and
leaving the protected section. Normally the current which enters the protected section must
equal the current leaving it. However, for an internal fault the current entering the section will
not equal the current leaving it (as current is fed into the fault from both ends of the protected
section) and consequently the relays at each end of the section will trip the circuit breakers.
For example, in figure 18.8, if there is a fault in zone A-B then circuit breakers A and B will
trip. If a fault is outside this zone then the current into the section will still equal the current
leaving it, and zone A-B would not be isolated.
Figure 18.8
The quantities at each end of the protected zone are compared by one of the following media:
Pilot wires overhead or underground, either owned by the supply authority or rented
from Telecom. Most modern pilot wires systems use only two cores.
Typical unit systems using pilot wires are the Translay and Solkor (Reyrolle) systems.
Figure 18.9 shows an elementary diagram of a Translay system.
Figure 18.9
Summation of the line current transformers is carried out in a special tapped winding of the
Translay relay. The voltage applied to the pilots is obtained from a secondary winding in the
relay.
Power line carrier channel a high frequency signal is injected on one or two phases of
the power line itself;
Radio link (microwave channel) Power line carrier and microwave channels are
utilised to trip a remote breaker. They may be used to protect long feeders. Besides
protection, channels may also be provided for supervisory purposes, and speed.
Unit systems can have a fast operating time.
Distance protection
Distance relay schemes are a non-unit form of protection offering considerable economic and
technical advantages. Distance protection is comparatively simple to apply, is of the high
speed class, and provides primary and back up facilities inherent in a single scheme. (Distance
protection may be easily modified into a unit scheme by combining with power line carrier or
microwave facilities.)
A distance relay measures the impedance of a transmission line up to a given point. The relay
is arranged to operate only for faults occurring between the relay location and the selected
point, so obtaining discrimination for faults occurring in different line sections.
Distance relays generally have three zones of protection. For the simple system shown in
figure 18.10, the first zone of a relay connected at A would protect 80% of the line length AB,
the second zone for the same relay would protect line AB plus approximately 20% of CD,
while the third zone protects lines AB plus CD.
Figure 18.10
The first zone of a distance relay would operate instantaneously in the event of a fault; the
second zone in about 0.5 seconds and third zone in one (l) second or more.
A typical time-distance characteristic for three zone (step) distance relays is shown in figure
19.11. Distance relays at A look towards B. Relays at B look towards A; C look to D and D to
C. In this way the zones of protection overlap. Note the back up protection facility for zones
two and three.
Generator protection
Faults associated with generating units may result from either insulation failures or abnormal
running conditions.
An insulation failure will result in either an interturn fault, phase to phase fault or an
earthfault.
Some of the abnormal running conditions against which a generator is to be protected include
loss of excitation, overloading, lubrication oil failure, failure of prime-mover or loss of boiler
firing, over speeding, rotor distortion.
The main protection for the stator winding of a generator against phase-to-phase and earth
faults is provided by differential protection as shown in figure 18.11. This arrangement is for a
star-connected stator.
Most modern generating units consists of a generator and its associated generator transformer
and unit auxiliary transformer, and a composite protection arrangement is normally adopted
for the electrical protection of these units.
0.5s
0.5s 0.5 s
0.5 s
Figure 18.11: Differential earthfault protection of a generator star-connected stator
Transformer protection
The protection systems applied to power transformers are Buchholz, overcurrent and earth
fault, restricted earthfault and differential.
The protective system employed is dependent on the capacity and importance of the
transformer.
For small distribution transformers high voltage fuses may be the only protection provided.
When circuit breakers control small distribution transformers, then overcurrent and earth fault
protection is provided. For larger and more important transformers restricted earthfault
schemes are used (see figure 18.12). The restricted earthfault protection scheme is a balanced
system of protection and can be applied to either a delta- or a star-connected winding. In
figure 18.12 the protection is applied to the star winding of a delta-star transformer. For an
internal earthfault on the star winding, the neutral current transformer carries current,
operating the earthfault relay and tripping the circuit breaker.
When transformers are fitted with conservators, Buchholz relays may be installed and these
relays provide gas and oil surge protection. Buchholz relays are generally fitted to
transformers of capacity greater than 500 kVA.
Figure 18.12: Restricted earthfault protection of a large Dy11 transformer
Differential protection is applied to large capacity important transformers. A typical
differential scheme is shown in figure 18.13. Under normal conditions, the secondary currents
in both the primary-side and secondary-side CTs are equal, resulting in no currents into the
relays. As with all differential protection, an internal fault creates an unbalance, which results
in operation of the protection, isolating both sides of the transformer.
Figure 18.13: Differential earthfault protection of a large Dy11 transformer
Note that the current transformers on the delta side of the power transformer are star
connected, while on the star side of the transformer the CTs are delta connected. In this way
the phase differences resulting from the different winding connections are corrected.
Also note that differential protection is not just a restricted earth fault scheme. A restricted
earth fault scheme is designed to detect only an internal fault on one side of the transformer.
A differential protection scheme will detect any internal short-circuit fault within the
transformer.
Busbar protection
Figure 18.14 illustrates a circulating current busbar protection scheme. Under normal healthy
conditions the currents in the secondaries of all current transformers equate to zero, and no
current will flow in relay R. For an earthfault in the protected zone (that is a busbar fault) say
at Z, a current will flow in the relay and trip all the circuit breakers. An external fault at say Y
will cause equal currents to flow (see dotted arrows), but no current will flow in the relay, so
that the circuit breakers will not operate.
In a substation, busbar and circuit breaker arrangements are generally such that the busbar
protection may be arranged in zones, to avoid loss of the complete substation (complete loss of
supply) in the event of a busbar fault. In this way only the faulted zone will be isolated. Bus
coupler and bus section circuit breakers are natural zone separation points.
Module 18 Protective rel ayi ng 18.11
Figure 18.14
Motor protection
Conditions for which motor protection is provided are:
those imposed by external conditions, for example, unbalanced supply voltages, low
voltages, and for synchronous motors the loss of synchronism
internal faults, namely bearing failures, overloads, earth faults.
The actual protection applied depends on the size of the motor and the nature of the load to
which it is connected.
All motors are provided with at least overload protection.
The majority of motor winding failures are indirectly or directly due to overloading, operation
on unbalanced supply voltages, loss of one phase of the supply. Any of these factors cause
heating, resulting in possible deterioration of the insulation until an electrical fault occurs in
the winding.
The motor protection provided must be adequate to prevent insulation failure.
18.3 Functions of protective relaying: summary
Protective relaying is applied to a power system to:
detect and isolate a faulty element as quickly as possible
minimise the extent of damage to the faulted element
minimise the effect of the fault on the remainder of the system
minimise the extent and duration of interruption to supply
minimise the damage to person and property.
Relays are aided in the isolation of faulty equipment by the provision of circuit breakers of
adequate capacity associated with each generator, transformer, transmission line or busbar.
Where relays and circuit breakers are not economically justifiable, fuses are used.
Time should be spent to examine the quality of performance of protection. It is bad business to
spend a lot of money on protection design and equipment and have it fail when it is wanted.
The reason for protection operations may be numerous but usually they can be categorised;
natural causes such as lightning and moisture should far outweigh bad engineering in the
physical sense of poor choice of conductor, poor layout or bad maintenance. In analysing
protective mal operations one should ask two questions.
Was the equipment operation or non-operation correct?
Did the system as a whole suffer unnecessarily?
So long as there is good initial design, thorough commissioning and co-ordinated maintenance
it is uneconomical to propose that protection will be 100% effective. There must be priorities
in design and consistency in each aspect of the protection system.
18.4 A few types of protection relays: summary
A protection relay has the principal functions of protecting the service from interruption, and
to prevent or limit damage to apparatus in case of faults. It is usually associated with
regulating and auxiliary relays. Each type of relay is represented by a specific function
number.
Relays for protection of apparatus Relays with time response
(a) Ground fault protection
(b) Phase fault protection
(c) Bus protection
(d) Transformer protection
(e) Generator protection
(f) Auxiliary circuit.
(a) Definite minimum time
(b) High speed
(c) Inverse definite minimum
(d) Slow speed
(e) Instantaneous.
Module 18 Protective rel ayi ng 18.13
A regulating relay operates because of a departure from predetermined limits of a quantity,
and functions through supplementary apparatus to restore the quantity within these limits.
A current relay is one that functions at a predetermined current value. It may operate on
overcurrent (67), undercurrent (37), or combination of both.
A voltage relay is one that functions at a predetermined voltage value. It may operate on
overvoltage (59), undervoltage (27), or a combination of both.
A power relay is one that functions at a predetermined value of power. It may be for
overpower, underpower (37) or a combination of both.
A differential relay is one that functions by reason of a difference between two quantities of
the same nature such as current, voltage, etc. (87).
An earth leakage relay is a current relay that functions in case of a fault to ground or leakage
current from an equipment to earth (64).
A directional relay is one that functions in conformance with the direction of power, voltage,
current, phase rotation, etc., e.g. reverse power relay (32), reverse current relay (67).
Impedance, reactance and admittance relays operate by the impedance, reactance and
admittance of the circuit between the relay and the fault. These relays are known as distance
relays, usually for the protection of transmission lines (2l).
A frequency relay is one that functions at a predetermined value of frequency. It may be
overfrequency, underfrequency, rate of change of frequency or a combination of all (8l).
Questions
1. Describe a method of protection for ring feeders and show how discriminative relay
operation is obtained for feeder faults.
2. Discuss and illustrate a typical unit system of pilot wire protection.
3. Detail and illustrate the various forms of protection applied to a transformer.
4. Protection philosophy may be difficult to define. Discuss means of assisting the evaluation
of various protection systems and their cost-benefits.
Section
11
Fault calculations and
symmetrical components 1
Module 19 Per unit values: symmetrical faults
Module
19
Per unit values: symmetrical
faults 1
Module 19 Per uni t values: symmetrical faul ts 19.1
19.1 The per unit system
Since voltage levels and apparent power values of generators, transformers and motors can be
different in a large system, the numerical values of impedances and voltage drops would be
meaningless unless related to some base values.
Consider a transformer with power rating of S, primary and secondary ratings of V
1
and V
2
and
current ratings of I
1
and I
2
. The primary and the secondary

winding impedances have
significantly different numerical ohmic values. If we wish to talk of the effects of these
impedances, voltages and currents, we must refer all these to the same side, either the primary
or the secondary. Even then the ohmic value of the equivalent impedance of a transformer of
one power rating will be quite different from that of a transformer with different power rating,
even if their voltage ratings are identical. This will introduce complicated procedures in the
analysis of load currents, voltages, fault levels, etc. The per unit system overcomes many of
these obstacles.
Consider the various electrical details of a three-phase power transformer rated at 5 MVA,
33 kV/11 kV in star-delta (Yd) connection.
Note that the per unit value of impedance expressed on a common base (i.e. transformer
rating) is the same whether it is referred to the high voltage or the low voltage side.
The case for using per unit value is similar to that of foreign currency exchange. For example,
if the Australian dollar and its equivalent Japanese yen are to be related, the common
exchange is based on the American dollar.
Quantities High voltage side Low voltage side
Connection Star Delta
Line voltage (kV) 33 11
Phase voltage (kV) 33 / = 19.05 11
Line current (A) 87.5 262
Phase current (A) 87.5 262 /
Equivalent impedance
referred to () (6.54 + j8.73) (2.18 + j2.91)
Equivalent impedance in per
unit, on 5 MVA base referred
to (p.u.) (0.03 + j0.04) (0.03 + j0.04)
3
3
19.2 Definitions
Consider a single-phase supply of voltage V supplying a current I to an impedance of Z ohm at
a power factor of cos . Choose a base voltage and base apparent power .
.
Then with reference to these chosen base values:
In most case, the kVA (or MVA) rating of the apparatus is chosen as the base apparent
power and the value of impedances is expressed in percentage or per unit. Thus, for a three-
phase generator or transformer of rating kVA and line voltage , assuming star-
connection:
Note: The per unit values of a transformer impedance are the same whether referred to the
low- or the high-voltage side.
Note: Percentage Value = Per Unit Value 100.
The base current is
The base impedance
the per unit value of current
the per unit value of voltage
the per unit value of impedance
Base apparent power
= S
t
= 1 p.u.
the base line-voltage = V
L
= 1 p.u.
the base phase-voltage
= V
L
/ = 1 p.u.
the base line-current
= I
L
= = 1 p.u.
the base impedance
= (V
b
/I
b
) =
If any ohmic impedance of is given at the voltage then its per unit value is:
=
V
b
S
b
I
b
S
b
/V
b
( ) =
Z
b
V
b
/I
b
( ) =
I / I
b
( ) = I
pu
=
V / V
b
( ) = V
pu
=
Z / Z
b
( ) = Z
pu
=
S
t
V
L
S
b
V
bL
V
b
3
I
b
S
t
3 V
L
---------------
Z
b
V
L
3
-------
3 V
L
S
t
---------------
V
L
2
S
t
-------- =
Z
V
L
Z
pu
Z
Z
b
------
\ .
| |
I
b
Z
V
b
----------- S
t
Z
/V
L
2
= =
19.3 Common base: voltage variations
If there are quite a few apparatus of different ratings, then there is a need to choose a common
base, say 100 kVA or 1MVA. This choice is quite arbitrary and a matter of convenience.
So long as the voltage ratings are the same for each apparatus, or transformed by a power
transformer of matching voltage ratio, the per unit values can be scaled in proportion to the
base power ratings. Thus, if is based on and then, to refer the impedance on a
new common base and , we use
However, if the new base voltage V
2b
is different from V
1b
, then
Example 1(a) Transformer: base values of current and impedance
A three-phase transformer is rated at 5 MVA at 33 kV. Calculate the base current and base
impedance values.
Solution
Notes
1. Now any quantity can be expressed as a ratio of the corresponding base
quantity and that would be its per unit value.
Phase voltage value in per unit would be expressed as a ratio of .
Total power value in per unit would be expressed as a ratio of .
2. Per unit impedance values would be based on , providing that ohmic
values have been converted to the voltage level .
Base apparent power
Base line voltage
Base phase voltage
Base line current = Base phase current = 1 p.u.
= = 87.48 A
Base impedance = = 217.8
Z
1pu
S
1b
V
1b
S
2b
V
1b
Z
2pu
Z
1pu
=
S
2b
S
1b
-------
\ .
| |
Z
2pu
Z
1pu
=
S
2b
S
1b
-------
\ .
| |

V
1b
V
2b
--------
\ .
| |
2
S
bt
5 10
6
VA 1 p.u. = =
V
bL
33 10
3
V =
V
b
V
bL
/ 3 ( ) =
33 10
3
3
-------------------- 19.05 10
3
V = =
I
b
S
bt
/ 3V
bL
=
5 10
6
/ 3 33 10
3
( )
Z
b
V
b
/ I
b
( )
19.05 10
3
87.48
---------------------------- =
V
b
S
bt
Z
b
V
bL
Example 1(b) Transformer: actual values of load current and line voltage
For the above transformer, if at a load current of 0.8 p.u. the line voltage is 0.9 p.u., what are
their actual values?
Solution
Example 1(c) Transformer: actual values of active and reactive powers
If the above transformer supplied an output of 0.8 p.u. at 0.8 lagging power factor, what are the
actual values of active and reactive powers?
Solution
Example 1(d) Transformer: ohmic value of impedance
If the transformer equivalent impedance is calculate its ohmic value,
referred to the high-voltage side.
Solution
I =
Load current = 0.8 p.u. = 0.8 87.48 = 70 A
Load voltage (line) = 0.9 33 10
3
= 29.7 kV
= (P + jQ)
Output apparent power = 0.8 p.u.
S = 0.8 5 10
6
= 4 MVA
Since p.f. = cos = 0.8 lag, and sin = 0.6
S = 4(0.8 + j 0.6) = (3.2 + j2.4) MVA = (P + jQ)
Active Power P = 3.2 MW
Reactive Power Q = 2.4 Mvar
=
=
I
pu
I
b
S S
pu
S
b
=
Z 0.03 j0.04 + ( ) p.u. =
Z
Z
pu
Z
b
= 0.03 j0.04 + ( ) 217.8
6.53 j8.71 + ( )
Example 1(e) Transformer: percentage impedance value
Calculate the percentage impedance of the transformer
Solution
Since base voltage is the same based on 20 MVA at 33 kV, the percentage impedance Z
2
is
Example 2 Per unit value of transmission line reactance
A 132-kV three-phase transmission line has a reactance of 43.5 per phase and is connected
to a 20-MVA, 132-kV/33-kV transformer. Determine the ohmic and the per unit values of the
line reactance at 33-kV and 20-MVA common base.
Solution
Method 1
By the transformer impedance transformation principle:
(1) based on its own rating of 5 MVA at 33 kV; (2) based on 20 MVA at 33 kV.
Percentage impedance =
=
=
= 5%
Z
2
=
Z
2
= %
Base = 20 MVA, = 33 kV Assume star connection.
Base current = = = 349.9 A
Base Phase Voltage = = 10
3
= 19.05 kV
Base impedance = = = 54.45
Line reactance at 132 kV = 43.5 =
Line reactance X at 33 kV = 43.5 = 2.72
Per unit reactance X
pu
= = 0.05 p.u.
Z
pu
100
0.03 0.04 ( ) 100
3 j4 + ( )
Z 3
2
4
2
+ =
Z
1
S
b2
/ S
b1
( )
5 20 5 20 =
S
bt
V
bL
I
b
S
bt
3 V
bL
-------------------
20 10
6
3 33 10
3

-------------------------------------
V
b
V
bL
/ 3 33/ 3 ( )
Z
b
V
b
/ I
b
19 053
349.9
----------------
X
1
33
132
---------
\ .
| |
2
X
Z
b
-----
2.72
54.45
------------- =
Method 2
On the 132-kV side of the transformer:
Note that the transmission line per unit reactance has the same value on either side of the
transformer; this is also the p.u. value on the 33-kV side.
Method 3
Example 3: Transmission system: per unit calculations
For the system shown in the single-line diagram below, determine
(a) the per unit transformer resistance, reactance and impedance voltage drops
(b) the transmission efficiency
(c) the transformer impedance in ohms referred to the 11-kV side.
Transformer rating S
t
= 5-MVA, 33/11-kV, Yyo
Impedance Z
t
= (6.53 + j8.71) referred to 33-kV side
Load: S = 4 MVA at 0.8 lagging p.f.
Phase voltage V
1
= = 76.21 10
3
V
Phase current for 20 MVA, I
1
= = 87.48 A
Per unit reactance X
pu
= = 0.05 p.u.
= = 0.05 p.u.
132 10
3
( ) / 3
20 10
6
3 132 10
3
-------------------------------------
I
1
X
1
V
1
----------
87.48 43.5
76.21 10
3
------------------------------ =
X
pu
X
S
bt
/ V
bL
2
( ) = 43.5 20 10
6
/ 132 10
3
( )
2
Generator Feeder
Transformer
33/11 kV
Load
V
sL
V
rL V
rL
= 11 kV
Z
t
I
33 kV
Z
f
= (2 + j3)
4 MVA
0.81agging
Solution
(a) Given: The transformer impedance referred to the 33-kV side:
VA/phase = = =
phase voltage = =
phase current = =
Per unit resistance drop =
= 0.03 p.u.
Per unit reactance drop =
= 0.04 p.u.
Per unit impedance drop = p.u.
= 0.05 p.u.
(b) To find: the transmission efficiency of the system:
Feeder impedance
Z
t
and Z
f
are in series on the H.V. 33-kV side
Let
Load supplied per phase S
p
= VA/phase at lagging
Load current I = =
Power to load per phase P
r
= S
p
cos =
Note: Base impedance Z
b
= and per unit impedance Z
pu
=
Per unit impedance
Note: The reactance-to-resistance ratio (X/R) for this transformer is (0.04/0.03) = 1.33.
This is a comparatively low value. For most of the standard distribution transformers
the (X/R) ratio would be between 3 and 6 (indicating low loss in resistance and hence
high efficiency).
Z
t
6.53 j8.71 + ( ) /phase ( ) R jX + ( ) = =
S
b
S
t
3
----
5
3
--- 10
6
V
b
33
3
------- 10
3
19 053 V =
I
b
S
b
/V
b
5 10
6
3 19 053
------------------------- 87.48 A = =
R I
b
/V
b
( )
6.53 87.48 ( ) = /19 053
X I
b
/V
b
( )
8.71 87.48 ( ) = /19 053
0.03 j0.04 + ( )
0.03
2
0.04
2
+ ( ) =
V
b
I
b
------
Z
t
Z
b
-----
Z
pu
Z
t
I
b
V
b
------ 6.53 j 8.71 + ( )
87.48
19 053
---------------- = =
0.03 j 0.04 + ( ) p.u. =
Z
f
2 j3 + ( ) =
Z R jX + ( ) = Z
f
Z
t
+ 8.53 j11.71 + ( ) = =
4
3
--- 10
6
0.8 = cos
at
33 kV
3
---------------
\ .
| |
S
p
V
p
------
4 10
6
3
33
3
------- 10
3

------------------------------- 69.98 A =

4
3
--- 10
6
0.8 W/phase
Power loss in feeder & transformer =
Overall transmission efficiency
=
(Note: There are three phases)
= or 96.23%
Alternatively:
(c) To calculate Z
t2
the equivalent impedance (in ohms) of the transformer referred to the low-
voltage 11-kV side; assume star-star connection.
= 11 kV;
= 33 kV;
= (6.53 + j8.71) referred to 33-kV side
Using the impedance transformation principle of the transformer:
Voltage ratio = turns ratio; (V
2
/V
1
) = (N
2
/N
1
)
=
=
=
I
2
R 69.98
2
= 8.54 W/ phase
1
3I
2
R
3 P
r
I
2
R + ( )
---------------------------- =
1
125.3 10
3
3 325.3 10
3
----------------------------------
1 0.037 7 0.962 3 =
Overall transmission efficiency
S cos
S cos 3 I
2
R +
------------------------------------------ =
4 10
6
0.8
4 10
6
0.8 3 69.98
2
8.53 +
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- =
96.23% =
V
2L
V
2
V
2L
/ 3 11 / 3 kV = =
V
1L
V
1
V
1L
= / 3 33 / 3 kV =
Z
t 1

Z
t 2
Z
t 1
N
2
/N
1
( )
2
6.53 j8.71 + ( ) 11/33 ( )
2
0.726 j0.968 + ( )
19.4 Short-circuit fault levels
When a short-circuit occurs at the terminals of a circuit, with prefault voltage

, the
impedance of the faulted circuit limits the fault current .
It is usually expressed in MVA and based on this value, the circuit breaker interrupting
capacity is chosen.
In many cases, it is customary to neglect the resistances of the cables, lines, generators, etc.,
and take only the reactance values as the impedance. Such an approximation simplifies
calculations, even though the results may indicate higher fault currents than in reality.
If different voltage levels are involved, then it would be necessary to calculate the
impedances and currents using per unit values on a common base.
Note that all the voltage sources are assumed to have the same voltage. Hence they can be
replaced by a single voltage source, as shown below: .
Note that the circuit is drawn using phase voltage and phase impedances. Simplification of the
circuit may involve the use of star-delta conversions and parallel-series reduction of
impedances.
The impedance between A and G is the fault limiting impedance.
=
The fault level is expressed as the apparent power
=
For three-phase circuits, if a symmetrical 3-phase short-circuit is assumed, then the fault
level is
=
V
f
Z
f
I
f
I
f
V
f
/ Z
f
( )
S
f
V
f
I
f
S
f t
3 V
f L
I
f
E E
1
E
2
= =
Given System Simplified Circuit
Z
1
Z
1
Z
2
Z
2
A
2 A
2
A
1
A
1
F
F
E
2
E
1
Z Z
I
I
G
f
f
E =
N
2
N
2
N
1
N
1
G
E
1
=E
2
Example 4: Transmission system: fault current
(a)
Calculate the percentage impedance of the transformer in example 1 and the fault current in
per unit as well as in amperes at 33 kV, if a symmetrical three-phase fault occurs at the 11-kV
terminals.
Solution
Percentage impedance =
= (0.03 + j0.04) 100 = (3 +j4)
= 5% = 0.05 p.u.
Fault current on 33-kV side:
Prefault phase voltage
Fault current
=
Note: The fault (short circuit) on the 11-kV side draws current from the 33-kV supply and
the current is limited only by the transformer impedance.
(b)
Calculate the fault level in MVA, for a three-phase fault.
Solution
Fault current I
f
= 1 750 A
Pre-fault line voltage V
fL
= 33 kV
=
= 100 MVA
Z
pu
100
Z 3
2
4
2
+ =
V
f
1 p.u. 19.05 kV = =
I
f
V
f
Z
-----
1
0.05
---------- 20 p.u. = = =
20 I
b
20 87.5 1 750 A = =
I
f
V
f
(R + jX) = Z
Fault level 3 V
f L
I
f
= 3 33 10
3
1.75 10
3
Modul e 19 Per uni t val ues: symmetrical faul ts 19.11

Example 5: Distribution system: short circuit MVA fault level
Given the distribution system shown, calculate the
fault levels at (a) C and (b) D at 415 V.
T
1
and T
2
are identical transformers:
Base rating S
t
= 500 kVA
p.u. impedance Z
tpu
= 0.05
Base phase voltage V
b
=
Base current I
b
=
= 696 A
Base impedance
= 0.345
Transformer impedance in ohms:
Assume the resistances of the transformers and the feeder are negligible and that the
impedances represent reactance values only.
(a)
For a three-phase fault at C, the equivalent circuit is as
shown. The fault current is:
I
fc
=
=
= 26.3 kA
Fault level at C =
= 18.9 MVA
11 kV Bus
T
1
T
2
500 kVA
5%
11 kV/415 V
A B
C
D
415 V
0.0073 /ph
0.001 /ph
415
3
--------- 240 V =
500 10
3
3 415
-----------------------
I
b
Z
b
V
b
I
b
------
240
696
--------- = =
Z
t
Z
t pu
Z
b
0.05 0.345 = =
17.25 10
3
= /phase
X
t1
X
t2
X
ac
X
bc
I
fc
C
V = 240 V
V
X
t 1
X
ac
+
----------------------
V
X
t 2
X
bc
+
---------------------- +
2V
X
t1
X
ac
+ ( )
--------------------------- =
2 240
17.25 1 + ( ) 10
3
-------------------------------------------- =
2 240
18.25 10
3
------------------------------
3V I
f c
3 240 26.3 10
3
=
(b)
For a three-phase fault at D, the circuit is as shown.
The fault current is:
=
=
= 3 V I
fd
= 3 240 14.6 10
3
= 10.5 MVA
240V
X
t1 X
t2
X
ac
X
bc
X
cd
D
I
f d
V
1
2
--- X
t 1
X
ac
+ ( ) X
cd
+
--------------------------------------------
240
18.25
2
------------- 7.3 +
\ .
| |
10
3
-------------------------------------------- 14.6 kA =
Fault level at D
19.5 Star-delta conversion
Use double-subscripts for delta-connected impedances.
Use single subscripts for star-connected impedances.
Supply terminals are a, b and c.
, and are in star.
, and are in delta.
Delta-to-star conversion is very often used.
Remember the rule:
(This is somewhat similar to obtaining the equivalent impedance of two impedances Z
1

and Z
2
in parallel).
i.e.
Star-to-Delta Delta-to-Star Circuit
Z
ab
Z
a
Z
b
Z
b
Z
c
Z
c
Z
a
+ +
Z
c
----------------------------------------------- =
Z
bc
Z
a
Z
b
Z
b
Z
c
Z
c
Z
a
+ +
Z
a
----------------------------------------------- =
Z
ca
Z
a
Z
b
Z
b
Z
c
Z
c
Z
a
+ +
Z
b
----------------------------------------------- =
Z
a
Z
ab
Z
ca
Z
ab
Z
bc
Z
ca
+ +
------------------------------------- =
Z
b
Z
bc
Z
ab
Z
ab
Z
bc
Z
ca
+ +
------------------------------------- =
Z
c
Z
ca
Z
bc
Z
ab
Z
bc
Z
ca
+ +
------------------------------------- =
Z
a
Z
b
Z
c
Z
ab
Z
bc
Z
ca
Z
a
Product of impedances connected to a in Delta
Loop sum of impedances in Delta.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Straddle
-------------------- = =
Z
e
( )
Z
e
Z
1
Z
2
Z
1
Z
2
+
-----------------
Product
Sum
------------------ = =
Example 6
The following circuit represents the reactance diagram of a power system. Determine the
reactance between f and N. All reactances are expressed on a common base.
(a) Simplify the above circuit with one e.m.f. source (assuming E
1
= E
2
= E
3
= E
4
) and
fewer reactances by series-parallel reduction.
f
b
c
Let:
X
bf
X
6
X
7
X
8
X
12
+ + + =
X
cf
X
9
X
10
X
11
+ + =
X
ab
X
1
X
2
/ X
1
X
2
+ ( ) =
X
ac
X
3
X
4
/ X
3
X
4
+ ( ) =
X
bc
X
5
=
E
1
X
X
X
X
N
ab
bf
ac
cf
a
b
c
f
X
bc
(b) Convert the delta a-b-c into an equivalent star.
(c) Simplify the circuit reactance by series-parallel reduction.
Example 7
Short circuit calculations
In the power system shown in the figure below, determine the fault current at F for a three-
phase short-circuit. Use 20 MVA at 33 kV as common base.
X
a
X
cf
Let
X
X
ab
X
bc
X
ac
+ + =
X
a
X
ac
. X
ab
/ X
( ) =
X
b
X
bc
. X
ab
/ X
( ) =
X
c
X
ac
. X
bc
/ X
( ) =
( + ) X X
cf c
( + ) X X
bf b
X
sf
X
b
X
bf
+ ( ) X
c
X
cf
+ ( )
X
b
X
bf
X
c
X
cf
+ + + ( )
-------------------------------------------------- =
X
af
X
a
X
sf
+ ( ) =
Common base:
S
bt
= 20 MVA; V
bL
= 33 kV; V
b
= V
bL
/ =
I
b
= S
bt
/( V
bL
) = 20 10
6
/( 33 10
3
) = 349.9 A
Z
b
= V
b
/I
b
= 19 053 / 349.9 = 54.45
X
7
= 43.5 at 132 kV = X
10
= 43.5 (33/132)
2
= 2.719 at 33 kV
X
7pu
= X
7
/X
b
= 2.719 / 54.45 = 0.05 at 33 kV
G
1
G
4
G
3
G
2
11 kV/132 kV
11 kV/132 kV 132 kV/33 kV
132 kV/33 kV
X X
X X
6 8
9 11
X
X
X
X
T T
T T
X X
X
X
1
2
3
4
3 4
1 2
5 12
10
/ph
F
43.5
7
?
3 33
3
10 / 3 19.053 kV =
3 3
Reactance Base Common Base
MVA kV 20 MVA p.u.
X
1
X
2
X
3
X
4
0.25 p.u.
0.15 p.u.
0.20 p.u.
0.25 p.u.
25
12
15
25
11
11
11
11
0.25 (20/25)
0.15 (20/12)
0.20 (20/15)
0.25 (20/25)
0.20
0.25
0.267
0.20
X
5
X
6
X
7
X
8
0.15 p.u.
0.20 p.u.
43.5 /ph
0.20 p.u.
20
40
-
40
11
11
132
33
0.15 (20/20)
0.20 (20/40)
- - -
0.20 (20/40)
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.10
X
9
X
10
X
11
X
12
0.12 p.u.
43.5 /ph
0.12 p.u.
0.10 p.u.
30
-
30
20
11
132
33
33
0.12 (20/30)
- - -
0.12 (20/30)
0.10 (20/20)
0.08
0.05
0.08
0.10
Exercise 1
In the power system shown in the figure below, determine the fault current at F for a three-
phase short-circuit. Use 100 MVA at 33 kV as common base.
G
1
G
4
G
3
G
2
11 kV/132 kV
11 kV/132 kV 132 kV/33 kV
132 kV/33 kV
X X
X X
6 8
9 11
X
X
X
X
T T
T T
X X
X
X
1
2
3
4
3 4
1 2
5 12
10
/ph
F
43.5
7
?
Reactance Base Common Base
MVA kV 100 MVA p.u.
X
1
X
2
X
3
X
4
0.25 p.u.
0.15 p.u.
0.20 p.u.
0.25 p.u.
25
12
15
25
11
11
11
11
X
5
X
6
X
7
X
8
0.15 p.u.
0.20 p.u.
43.5 /ph
0.20 p.u.
20
40
-
40
11
11
132
33
X
9
X
10
X
11
X
12
0.12 p.u.
43.5 /ph
0.12 p.u.
0.10 p.u.
30
-
30
20
11
132
33
33
Exercise 2
For a three-phase power system derive the expression for base impedance Z
b
in terms of the
line voltage V
L
(assume star connection) and the three-phase apparent power S
t
.
Define all symbols used.
Exercise 3
Derive the expression to convert impedance per unit value from one base
to another base with:
(i) differing base powers , ; and
(ii) differing base powers and base line voltages , .
Assume star connection and ohmic impedance . Define all symbols used.
Exercise 4
Two transformers operate in parallel to supply a common load .
Their per unit impedances are and based on their respective
power ratings and . Subscripts t, 1 and 2 refer to the total common load
S
t
, transformer 1 and transformer 2. Assume star connection with load phase voltage ; load
current ; and transformer currents and .
Derive expressions for the complex powers and shared by the
transformers in terms of S
t
, , , and p.u. impedances and .
Draw the power diagram for the case when the load power factor is lagging.
Identify on the power diagram, by symbol and by name, the apparent powers S
1
, S
2
and S
t
; the
reactive powers Q
1
, Q
2
and Q
t
; and the active powers P
1
, P
2
and P
t
.
Z
1 pu
Z
1 pu

1
=
Z
1b
Z
2b
S
1b
S
2b
V
1Lb
V
2Lb
Z
S
t
P
t
j Q
t
+ ( ) S
t
= =
Z
T1
Z
T1

1
= Z
T2
Z
T2

2
=
S
T1
S
T2
S
T1
S
T2
( )
V
I I
1
I
2
S
1
S
1

1
= S
2
S
2

2
=
S
T1
S
T2
Z
T1
Z
T2
Module 20 Unbalanced faults
Module
20
Unbalanced faults 1
Module 20 Unbal anced faults 20.1
Objectives
state sequence components
analyse unbalanced circuits
draw sequence networks.
Introduction
Unbalance in three-phase systems is due to unbalanced impedances of circuits and loads,
under normal and fault conditions. The analysis of unbalanced three-phase systems is made
easy by the use of symmetrical or sequence components.
Any unbalanced three-phase system of voltage or current phasors can be resolved into three
balanced systems of phasors, named positive, negative and zero sequence components.
Consider unbalanced three-phase voltages V
a
, V
b
, and V
c
of sequence a-b-c in figure 20.1(a).
(a) A balanced system of three-phase phasors having the same phase sequence as the original
unbalanced system is called the Positive Sequence System: V
a1
, V
b1
, V
c1.
(b) A balanced system of three-phase phasors having a phase sequence which is opposite to
that of the original unbalanced system, is called the Negative Sequence System: V
a2
, V
b2
,
V
c2
.
(c) A system of three single-phase phasors, which are equal in magnitude and which have
exactly the same time-phase position with respect to any given reference axis, is known as
the Zero Sequence System: V
a0
, V
b0
, V
c0
.
In figure 20.1(a) we have unbalanced three-phase phasors: V
a
, V
b
, V
c
. These can be considered
to be made up of the positive, negative, and zero sequence voltages shown in figure 20.1(b).
The principle of symmetrical components is based on the following fact.
V
a
= V
a0
+ V
a1
+ V
a2
; V
b
= V
b0
+ V
b1
+ V
b2
; V
c
= V
c0
+ V
c1
+ V
c2
Figure 20.1
Note that all the voltage phasors rotate anticlockwise (the conventional direction). The
difference between the positive and the negative sequence systems is the cyclic order in which
the phasors reach their maximum values.
The positive sequence is abc, bca, cab. The negative sequence is acb, cba, bac.
The operator a
A mathematical tool which is very useful in the consideration of symmetrical components is
the operator a. This will now be introduced. We already know the j-operator.
Operator j: Recall that j = 1 . When a phasor is multiplied by j, then it is rotated by 90
in the anticlockwise direction. Also j j = j
2
= 1 = 1 .
The function of the operator a is to rotate a phasor by 120 in the anticlockwise direction.
When a phasor is multiplied by a
2
, it is rotated through 240 anticlockwise (equivalent to a
clockwise rotation of 120) i.e. a
2
= 1 . (see figure 20.2)
a = 1 = (cos 120 + j sin 120) = 0.5 + j 0.866 (equation 1)
a
2
= 1 = (cos 240 + j sin 240) = 0.5 j 0.866 (equation 2)
a
3
= 1 = 1 = 1 + j 0 (equation 3)
A commonly used expression is (a + a
2
+ 1). Substituting the values of a and a
2
given above:
a + a
2
+ 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 = (0.5 + j 0.866) + (0.5 j 0.866) + 1 = 0
(equation 4)
V
c
V
a
V
b1
a b c - -
V
c1
V
a1
V
a2
V
b2
V
c2
V
a0
V
b0
V
c0
Positive Negative Zero
a c b - - a b c - - a b c - -
(a) Unbalanced Voltages (b) Sequence Components
90
180
120
120
240
360 0
120 120 0
A balanced system has only positive-sequence components and no negative- or zero-sequence
components.
Given a balanced system of voltages V
a
, V
b
and V
c
, then:
V
a
= V
V
b
= a
2
V = V
V
c
= aV = V
Figure 20.2: a and a
2
operators Figure 20.3: Balanced voltages
0
120
j 0.866 .
120
j 0.866
a
0.5
1 = a
3
1
a
2
a
a
V
V
V
V
V
V
c
2
a
b
0
120
120
20.1 The sequence systems
The positive phase-sequence system
The balanced system of three-phase phasors that has the same phase sequence as the original
system, is called the positive sequence system. If the original phasors have the phase sequence
of abc, then the phase sequence of the positive sequence system is also abc, as shown in figure
20.4.
The positive sequence phasors are completely determined when the magnitude and phase
position of any one of them is known. The positive sequence phasors are designated as V
a1
,
V
b1
and V
c1
. The subscript 1, indicates that the phasor belongs to the positive sequence
system. The letters refer to the original phasor of which the positive sequence phasor is a
component part.
The negative phase-sequence system
The balanced system of three-phase phasors which is opposite in phase sequence to that of the
original phasor is called the Negative Sequence System. If the original phasors have the phase
sequence abc, then the negative sequence phasors have a phase sequence of acb, shown in
figure 20.5. The sequences bac, cba and acb are all the same the negative sequence.
Since the negative sequence system is balanced, it is completely determined when one of the
voltages is known. The negative sequence phasors are designated V
a2
, V
b2
, V
c2
. Subscript
2 indicates that the phasor belongs to the negative sequence system. The negative sequence
system can be written in the form:
V
a1
= V
1
V
b1
= a
2
V
1
V
c1
= a V
1
= V
1
= V
1
= V
1

= V
1

Figure 20.4
V
a2
= V
a2
V
b2
= V
a2
V
c2
= V
a2
= V
2
= aV
2
= a
2
V
2
Figure 20.5
0
240 120
+120
reference
V
b1
V
c
1
240
120
Vb2
V
c2
Va2
The zero phase-sequence system
Evaluation of sequence components
In the analysis of unsymmetrical faults, the positive sequence voltages produce positive
sequence currents, negative sequence voltages produce negative sequence currents and zero
sequence voltages produce zero sequence currents.
(a) Only the positive sequence network has the voltage source (from the generators). There is
no voltage source in the negative and the zero sequence circuits.
(b) There can be no zero sequence currents if the fault current has no return paths through the
neutral or ground circuit. Thus if the star point is not earthed, or if the connection is delta,
or the fault is only between phases (not involving ground or neutral) there will be no zero
sequence currents.
(c) The line voltages do not have zero sequence components. To resolve the voltages and
currents into their sequence components, we use following relationships:
(d) For ground fault with the neutral earthed, the neutral current is I
n
= I
a
+ I
b
+ I
c
= 3 I
a0
(e) If I
a0
, I
a1
and I
a2
are known, then the fault currents are:
I
a
= I
a0
+ I
a1
+ I
a2
I
b
= I
a0
+ a
2
I
a1
+ aI
a2
I
c
= I
a0
+ aI
a1
+ a
2
I
a2
(f) V
a0
= V
b0
= V
c0
= V
0
Given V
0
, V
1
and V
2
V
a
= V
a0
+ V
a1
+ V
a2
= V
0
+ V
1
+ V
2
V
b
= V
b0
+ V
b1
+ V
b2
= V
0
+ a
2
V
1
+ aV
2
V
c
= V
c0
+ V
c1
+ V
c2
= V
0
+ aV
1
+ a
2
V
2
The zero phase system consists of three phasors, identical in
magnitude and in time phase, as shown in figure 20.6. The zero
sequence system phasors have special significance in earth
fault conditions. The zero sequence phasors are designated as
V
a0
, V
b0
and V
c0
.
Figure 20.6
V
a0
V
b0
V
c0
Given V
a
, V
b
and V
c
: Given I
a
, I
b
and I
c
:
V
a0
= (V
a
+ V
b
+ V
c
) / 3 I
a0
= (I
a
+ I
b
+ I
c
) / 3
V
a1
= (V
a
+ aV
b
+ a
2
V
c
) / 3 I
a1
= (I
a
+ aI
b
+ a
2
I
c
) / 3
V
a2
= (V
a
+ a
2
V
b
+ aV
c
) / 3 I
a2
= (I
a
+ a
2
I
b
+ aI
c
) / 3
20.2 Sequence impedance networks
In the calculation of fault currents in unbalanced faults, a knowledge of the sequence
component currents I
a0
, I
a1
and I
a2
is necessary. Once the components are known, I
a
, I
b
, and I
c

can easily be derived for any unbalanced condition. The first step in the calculation of these
symmetrical components of current is to determine the impedances of the networks through
which they flow. These are not necessarily the same for the currents of each sequence.
There are two reasons for this: (a) the impedances of the generators, transformers etc., may not
be the same for the currents of each sequence; (b) the path of current from the source to the
fault may not be the same for each sequence. It is, therefore, necessary to have a network
impedance diagram for the currents of each sequence.
Consider the power system in figure 20.7(a).
Figure 20.7(a): Line diagram system with 4 generators and 2 lines
Figure 20.7(b): Impedance diagram
Note that the generators G1, G2 and G3 are connected in star (y) with neutral points earthed.
The generator G4 is connected in star, but its neutral is not earthed.
Positive sequence network
The only voltages generated by machines have positive sequence abc. Therefore, the generator
voltages are put in the positive sequence network. Figure 20.7(b) shows the corresponding
positive sequence impedance diagram. In fault calculations, it is assumed that all generated
internal voltages are equal in magnitude and phase. On this basis, the four generator terminals,
G1 G3
G4
Line 1
F
Generators
G2
Line 2
N
N
E
E
1
2
3
4
E
E
1, 2, 3 and 4 are all at the same potential and the diagram can be simplified by joining these
points together and using a single source of e.m.f. E, as in figure 20.7(c).
Figure 20.7(c): Positive sequence network
The network has the neutral terminal N and the fault terminal F
1
.
Negative sequence network
Consider now the impedance of the network to the flow of negative phase sequence currents.
The configuration of the impedance diagram is the same as that for positive sequence. The
impedance values for static equipment, such as transformers and lines, to negative sequence
currents are the same as the positive sequence values. But for generators the negative sequence
impedance may be different from the positive sequence impedance. There is no source voltage
in the negative sequence network, because, only positive sequence voltages are generated.
The negative sequence impedance diagram for the system of figure 20.7(a) is shown in figure
20.7(d).
Figure 20.7(d): Negative sequence network
N
A
E
F
1
N
2
F
2
Zero sequence network
In considering the impedance of the network to the flow of zero sequence currents, it should
be remembered that the three zero sequence currents are, by definition, equal in magnitude and
phase. They can flow, therefore, when the fault provides a path by which they can return to the
system neutral from the phases. Such a path is provided only if the fault is between any of the
phases and the earth, and also the system neutral is earthed, so that the return path to the
neutral is complete. Thus zero sequence currents flow only with earth faults
,
and they
traverse only those parts of the

network directly connected to earthed neutrals. If a
generator or transformer is in delta, or its star point is not earthed, it is not involved in the earth
fault or zero sequence network.
Zero sequence impedances are often quite different to positive and negative sequence
impedances. Figure 20.7(e) shows the zero sequence impedance diagram for the system of
figure 20.7(a). The impedance of generator 4 does not appear in the zero sequence network
because its neutral point is not earthed. There is no voltage source in the zero sequence
network, because, only positive sequence voltages are generated.
Figure 20.7(e): Zero sequence network
20.3 Connection of sequence networks to represent
faults
General
Assuming that all the values of the impedances in the positive, negative and zero sequence
networks are known, each network is now reduced to its single equivalent impedance.
The positive sequence network impedance becomes Z
1
, the negative sequence network
impedance Z
2
, and the zero sequence network impedance Z
0
, as shown in figure 20.9.
All that is now required to enable I
a1
, I
a2
and I
a0
to be calculated is a knowledge of the
voltages across the impedances Z
1
, Z
2
and Z
0
. There is only one driving voltage in the system
as a whole, that of the generators, and this appears in the positive sequence network.
The only way in which negative and zero sequence currents can flow is for the negative and
zero sequence networks to be in some way or another connected to the positive sequence
N
0
F
0
network. The method of connecting the networks depends on the type of fault (phase-to-earth,
phase-to-phase, two-phase-to-earth or three-phase), there being a different connection for
each.
In this module, calculations will be confined to simple analysis for fault currents only.
One-phase-to-earth fault (line-to-ground fault)
Assume that the A phase conductor becomes grounded and that B and C phases are
ungrounded (healthy). Then there is no fault current in lines B and C. Only the current I
a
flows
through the ground and the neutral.
Figure 20.8
Since all the phase sequence currents are equal to (I
a
/3), the sequence networks must be
connected in series, as in figure 20.9.
Figure 20.9
Hence, for a phase-to-earth fault, all the sequence networks are connected in series and the
sequence currents are given by:
Also I
a1
= (I
a
+ aI
b
+ a
2
I
c
)/3 = I
a
/3
And I
a2
= (I
a
+ a
2
I
b
+ aI
c
)/3 = I
a
/3
Hence I
a0
= I
a1
= I
a2
= I
a
/3
E
N
0
N
1
N
2
F
0
F
1
F
2
Z
0
Z
1
Z
2
I Z
a1 1
. I Z
a2 2
. I Z
a0 0
.
E = I
a1
Z
1
+ I
a2
Z
2
+ I
a0
Z
0
= (Z
1
+ Z
2
+Z
0
)
I
a1
= I
a2
= I
a0
=
Neutral and earth fault impedance
If the neutral is earthed through an impedance Z
n
, the zero phase sequence component of
current in each line flows through this impedance. The voltage drop in the neutral is
I
a0
Z
n
+ I
b0
Z
n
+ I
c0
Z
n
= 3I
a0
Z
n
Therefore, the effect of the neutral impedance can be taken into account by including an
additional impedance 3Z
n
in the circuit of figure 20.9.
Similarly if the fault occurs through an impedance Z
f
, this can also be taken into account by
adding a value 3Z
f
to the circuit of figure 20.9.
Hence, the circuit to be used in calculating a line-to-ground fault with a fault impedance Z
f
and the system neutral is earthed through Z
n
is shown in figure 20.10.
I
a0
= E/(Z
1
+ Z
2
+ Z
0
+ 3Z
n
+ 3Z
f
) = I
a
/3
Figure 20.10
Line-to-line fault
Assuming that only b and c phases are under fault and the a-phase is healthy, there is no
current in a-phase. The fault current circulates through b and c phases.
Since I
n
= 0, I
a0
= 0:
I
a
3
----
E
Z
1
Z
2
Z
0
+ +
------------------------------
I
a
3
---- =
E
Z
n
3
Z
f
3
Z
0
Z
1
Z
2
I I I
a a a 1 2 0
= =
Since there is no connection of the faulted phases to earth, the zero sequence currents cannot
flow, and hence I
a0
= 0. The zero sequence impedances are absent.
I
a
= I
a1
+ I
a2
= 0
since I
b
= I
c
I
c
= aI
a1
+ a
2
I
a2
I
b
= a
2
I
a1
+ aI
a2
= aI
a1
a
2
I
a2
(a
2
+ a)I
a1
= (a
2
+ a)I
a2
Figure 20.11 I
a1
= I
a2
(equation 1)
I
a1
= (equation 2)
I
a2
= I
a1
(equation 3)
I
a0
= 0 (equation 4)
Figure 20.12
a
b
c
E
Z
1
Z
2
+
------------------
Line-to-line-to-ground fault (double-line-to-ground fault)
Assume B and C phases are grounded; A-phase is healthy and I
a
= 0. Since the neutral is
grounded, the zero sequence currents flow.
For a phase to phase to earth fault, all three sequence networks are connected in parallel as
shown in figure 20.14. The sequence currents are given by:
I
a
= 0 = I
a0
+ I
a1
+ I
a2
I
b
= I
a0
+ a
2
I
a1
+ aI
a2
I
c
= I
a0
+ aI
a1
+ a
2
I
a2
Figure 20.13
I
a1
=
I
a2
= I
a1
I
a0
= I
a1

Figure 20.14
E
N
1
N
2
F
1
F
2
F
0
Z
1
Z
2
N
0
Z
0
I Z
a1 1
.
I Z
a2 2
.
I Z
a0 0
.
E
Z
1
Z
2
Z
0
Z
2
Z
0
+
------------------ +
-------------------------------
Z
0
Z
2
Z
0
+
------------------
Z
2
Z
2
Z
0
+
------------------
Example 1
Line-to-ground fault
Find the value of the fault current for a single line to ground fault at F in the system shown in
below. Generator line voltage = 11 kV.
Figure 20.15
The impedances of the various parts of the system are shown in table 20.1.
Table 20.1
From table 20.1 note that there is zero fault impedance and that the generator neutral is earthed
through a 12 resistance.
First, work out the sequence networks. Insert the values of sequence impedances and reduce
the sequence networks to their equivalent impedances.
UNIT
IMPEDANCES
POSITIVE SEQUENCE NEGATIVE SEQUENCE ZERO SEQUENCE
Symbol Value Symbol Value Symbol Value
Generator Z
G1
j1.21 Z
G2
j0.883 Z
G0
j0.33
Line X Z
X1
1.25 + j1.80 Z
X2
1.25 + j1.80 Z
X0
1.25 + j6.3
Line Y Z
Y1
1.25 + j1.80 Z
Y2
1.25 + j1.80 Z
Y0
1.25 + j6.3
Fault Z
F
0
Neutral Z
n
12
Z
n
line X
line Y
generator
F
Z
F

(a) Positive sequence network. This is shown in figure 20.16(a)
Figure 20.16
In figure 20.16(b) the network has been simplified by reducing the parallel impedances to a
single impedance, and in figure 20.16(c) the network has been reduced to its simplest form.
The positive sequence impedance is: Z
1
= (0.625 + j2.11)
(b) Negative sequence network. This network and its reduced equivalent impedance are
Figure 20.17
The negative sequence impedance is: Z
2
= (0.625 + j1.783)
(c) Zero sequence network. This network and its reduced equivalent impedance is shown in
figure 20.18.
Figure 20.18
The zero sequence impedance is: Z
0
= (0.625 + j3.48)
(d) The next step is to arrange the sequence impedances into a circuit representative of the
type of fault. For this case, which is a phase to earth fault, the circuit is as shown in
figure 20.19.
Figure 20.19
Z
T
= Z
1
+ Z
2
+ Z
0
+ 3Z
n
= (37.87 + j7.37)
The phase sequence currents are therefore:
The total fault current is:
This total fault current is supplied over the two lines X and Y in parallel. Hence, the fault
current supplied by each of the lines is:
I
a1
I
a2
I
a0
E
Z
T
-------------
6350
37.87 j7.37 + ( )
-------------------------------------
6350
38.58
------------------------------ 164.6 = = = = = =
0 0
11
11
0
I
F
3I
a0
493.8 A = =
11
I
FX
I
FY
493.8
2
------------- 246.9 A = = =
11 11
Example 2
Line-to-line fault
Calculate the currents in each phase for a phase-to-phase fault on the generator shown in
figure 20.20 where phase-to-neutral voltage is 19 kV, and where sequence impedances are:
Since earth is not involved in the fault, the zero sequence impedance does not enter into the
calculation.
For a phase-to-phase fault, the sequence impedances are connected as shown in figure 20.21.
Sequence component currents are:
Z
1
= (0 + j2.6)
Z
2
= (0 + j1.9)
Z
0
= (0 + j0.7)
Figure 20.20
I
a1
=
= (0 j4 220) A
I
a2
= I
a1
= (0 + j4 220) A
Figure 20.21
Generator
I
a
= 0
A
B
C
I
b
I
c
E
Z
1
Z
2
+
------------------
19 000
j 2.6 1.9 + ( )
---------------------------- =
Phase currents are:
There is zero current in a-phase, which is not involved in the fault. The currents in the faulted
phases are equal and opposite.
I
a
= I
a0
+ I
a1
+ I
a2
= 0 + 0 j4 220 + 0 + j4 220
= 0
I
b
= I
a0
+ a
2
I
a1
+ aI
a2
= 0 + a
2
I
a1
aI
a1
(because I
a2
= I
a1
)
= I
a1
(a
2
a)
= I
a1
( 0.5 j0.866 + 0.5 j0.866)
= j1.73I
a1
= j1.73 (0 j4 220)
= 7 300 A
I
c
= I
a0
+ aI
a1
+ a
2
I
a2
= I
a1
(a a
2
) = I
b
= + 7 300 A
Section
12
Supervisory control and
communications
co-ordination 1
Module 21 Co-ordination of power and communications systems
Module
21
Co-ordination of power and
communications systems 1
Module 21 Co-ordination of power and communi cations systems 21.1
Objectives
appreciate the requirements of Telstra and the need for effective earthing systems
be aware of the techniques for the reduction of induced voltage problems
be aware of the different types of coupling.
Introduction
Because there is a wide variation in resistivity there is a tendency to overdesign earthing by
using more earth electrodes than is really necessary. This module attempts to explain Telstras
requirements and explain the mechanisms of influence between the power system and
telecommunication systems.
Modern suburban living creates pressures on the availability of land for service industries. In
many instances it is difficult to avoid the close proximity of power and telecommunications
systems. Power systems operate at high energy levels and under fault conditions are a serious
potential source of hazardous voltages on the telecommunications system. Under normal
operating conditions the power system can also increase interference with the
telecommunications system which, although not hazardous, represents a disruption to service
quality. Power systems operate at voltages up to 330 kV and 500 kV and at many thousand
amps, with potential fault currents of 20 000 A or more. When this is compared with
telecommunications services which normally operate at powers of less than l mW (0 dBm) and
often as low as 1 10
6
N (30 dBm) at the receiving end, it is not surprising that the problem
is almost exclusively one of the power system influencing the communication system.
A further aspect which is worthy of note, is that the communication services which are most
vulnerable are those belonging to the power authority. A particularly difficult example is
power authority aerial pilot cables.
It is essential that communication and power systems be adequately co-ordinated to prevent
potentially hazardous situations developing. Furthermore, lack of co-ordination can also result
in the need for remedial design. The resulting plant modifications are often expensive and may
be disruptive to service.
Clearly the largest potential problem exists between the power authority and Telstra. However,
other uses of private communications systems must be considered. Perhaps the most
significant other user is the railways. Open wire carrier systems are still extensively used in
railway operations and railway easements are a natural potential corridor for power lines.
21.1 Design guidelines
The standards of performance are based upon the International Telephone and Telegraph
Consultative Committee (CCITT) directives concerning the Protection of Telecommunication
Lines Against Harmful Effects from Electricity Lines (International Telecommunications
Union, Geneva, 1974). The CCITT directives have been further studied and adapted for
Australian conditions by a joint Telecommunication Authority/Electricity Supply Association
(ESAA), Central Joint Committee. This Committee has published a number of codes and
guidelines relating to the mitigation of harmful effects on Telecommunications Services. The
key publication is The Code of Practice for Low Frequency Induction (1974) and the Manual
on Co-ordination of Power and Telecommunication Systems Report.
The various categories or risk must be considered separately to derive appropriate guidelines.
These categories are as follows:
conductive coupling
electrostatic or capacitive coupling
electromagnetic coupling or low frequency induction
earth potential rise
lightning.
21.1.1 Conductive coupling
Clearly, direct contact between any power system voltage and a telecommunication system is
potentially hazardous. The hazard exists for both the telecommunication system user and
technicians who may be maintaining that system. Accordingly,

direct contact is a prohibited
condition.
Telstra has issued a number of standards specifying design and test criteria for equipment
connected to telecommunication circuits. These standards specify the power supply design
criteria acceptable to Telstra. Generally, double insulated power supplies must be used in all
instances, to prevent direct conduction of power system voltages to the telecommunication
circuit.
In the event that the power system and the telecommunication system become conductively
coupled then the extent of voltage and current impressed on the telecommunication circuit is
defined simply by Ohms Law. All design, inspection and installation effort should be directed
to ensuring that this situation does not occur.
The greatest potential for a severely hazardous contact situation arises when broken
conductors fall across aerial pilot cables belonging to the power authority. This particularly
applies to high voltage distribution lines where fault clearance times may not be as fast as high
reliability transmission or subtransmission lines. In this event it is possible for substantial
currents to flow down the pilot cable bearer wire and the pilot cable conductors. Special
attention must be paid to the earthing of the pilot cable where it enters a substation or terminal
station. In particular, it is advisable that some form of closely bonded earth connection to the
switchyard earth mat be provided on the line side of the termination equipment. This
connection must be sufficiently remote from the termination to allow fault currents to flow on
earth without creating a personnel hazard for staff working on the pilot termination.
21.1.2 Electrostatic or capacitive coupling
In the majority of cases hazardous voltages are not developed due to electrostatic coupling. In
these situations the voltage induced in the telecommunications conductor is directly related to
the operating voltage on the power line. Accordingly this condition is manifest as noise on the
telecommunication circuit. The noise objective stated by Telstra is 0.8 mV, psophometrically
weighted at 600 ohms at the users telephone instrument. This is equivalent to a transverse
noise signal of 60 dBmp.
In the situation where a telephone line is isolated from earth but suspended parallel to any
power line, then electrostatic coupling can occur. A capacitive voltage divider is created by the
distributed capacitance between the power line and the telephone line and the telephone line
and earth The magnitude of the electrostatic voltage induced into the telephone line is
calculated as follows:
For most practical cases of telephone line and power line separation and extent of parallel
exposure, C
TE
is much greater than C
PT
and consequently the induced voltage V
TE
is small.
As this induced voltage is longitudinal, a noise voltage perceptible to the telephone user (as
defined by the criterion in paragraph 1 of section 21.1.2),will only occur if the telephone
system is out of balance. Most telecommunication cables consist of twisted pairs which are
closely coupled and therefore highly balanced. An out of balance condition can occur
however, at the telephone instrument. Telstra states that a ratio of tranverse voltage to
longitudinal voltage of 0.01 is readily attainable for most communication circuits.
The 0.8 mV noise maximum stated by Telstra is a psophometric value. This means that the
value is corrected by a weighting factor which matches the frequency response characteristic
of the human ear.
equation 1
equation 2
Where C
PT
= Capacitance between power and telephone circuit
C
TE
= Capacitance between telephone circuit and earth
V
TE
= Electrostatic voltage between telephone line and earth
V
PE
= Power system voltage to earth
V
TE
1/jC
TE
( )
1/jC
PT
( ) 1/jC
TE
( ) +
----------------------------------------------------------- = V
PE

C
PT
C
TE
C
PT
+
------------------------- = V
PE

A significant feature of these tables is the very low weighting factor of 0.00071 applicable to a
frequency of 50Hz. This reflects the much lower sensitivity of the human ear to frequencies of
this value. Accordingly, the maximum longitudinal voltage permissible due to electrostatic
coupling using the figures nominated above is given as follows:
This nominal value of 113 volts derived in equation 3 is not an onerous requirement for co-
ordination, when it is considered that most power lines are balanced three phase lines.
Accordingly the voltages V
PE
and V
TE
are vector resultant voltages of a balanced three phase
system. In most instances these voltages will be small for reasonable separations of the power
system power line and the telecommunications line. Furthermore, the Telstra noise criterion is
not a short term noise criterion but applies to average noise levels. Therefore the calculation of
electrostatic voltages is conducted under normal operating conditions.
The above analysis assumes that the full noise criteria for maximum transverse voltage at the
telephone instrument allowed by Telstra is generated by 50 Hz electrostatically induced
voltage. This may not be the case. In particular harmonic voltages may be present. It should be
noted that the psophometric weighting factors applicable to harmonic voltages substantially
increase their effective influence on the quality of the telephone service. In particular third
harmonic voltages have a psophometric weighting factor which is fifty times higher than the
50 Hz psophometric weighting factor.
In normal operation excessive electrostatic voltages are self-reporting. This results because
these voltages appear as an unacceptable noise to the telephone user who will then report the
fault to Telstra for remedial action. This characteristic of electrostatic noise voltages results in
a high probability that particularly severe cases will be detected and appropriate remedial
action taken. It is also evident from the low volume of complaints of this type that electrostatic
coupling is not a severe problem with most normal power and telecommunication
installations.
As a further note, the 0.8 mV criterion set by Telstra represents 60dBmp. Assuming that
minimum signal levels within the Telstra system are 20dBm to 30dBm, then Telstra still
have a reserve margin with this quality of service before the circuit becomes unintelligible. A
signal to a noise ratio of 20dB still results in an intelligible service but this level would be
considered by most users to represent poor performance.
=
equation 3
=
=
Where V
TE
MAX = Maximum electrostatic induced voltage telephone line to earth
P
5
= 50Hz psophometric weighting factor
V
= (tranverse voltage) / (longitudinal voltage)
= voltage coefficient of sensitivity
VINST MAX = MAX transverse voltage allowed at telephone instrument
V
TE
MAX
VINST MAX
P
50

V
---------------------------------
0.8 10
3
0.00071 0.01
------------------------------------
113 volts
A particularly effective method of reducing electrostatically introduced noise is the use of a
continuous cable screen earthed at one end only. This technique substantially increases C
TE
in
equation 2 and results in a considerable reduction of the electrostatically introduced voltage.
This technique is commonly used for power authority communication cabling. However, most
Telstra cables used for normal telephone service do not have an electrostatic screen of this
type.
21.1.3 Electromagnetic coupling or low frequency induction
The agreed maximum levels of low frequency induction applicable in Australia and endorsed
by Telstra and ESAA are as follows:
Category A
1 500 volts for high reliability lines where faults are normally cleared in less than
0.35 seconds.
Category B
10 000 volts for high reliability lines, where faults are normally cleared in 0.350.5 seconds.
430 volts for lines not classified as high reliability (these lines normally clear faults in less
than 2 seconds).
The magnetic field created by the current in a power line can induce a voltage in a parallel
telecommunication line. This induced voltage is proportional to the mutual inductance
between the power line and the telecommunication line as shown in the following equation:
This equation is simplified by the use of the coupling factor C as shown in the following
equation:
E
AB
= 2f M
PT
I
p
L equation 4
f = frequency of current
M
PT
= mutual inductance of power and telephone line
I
p
= power line current
L = length of exposure
E
AB
= CI
p
LK equation 5
C = 2f M
PT
equation 6
K = shielding factor
The coupling factor (C) is a function of earth resistivity and power line and telecommunication
line separation as follows:
Each of the factors in equation 5 above need to be separately considered to appreciate the
induction process. The current to be used is the power line fault current. This current is
calculated for the condition which gives a maximum out of balance current flow. Normally
this occurs with a single phase to earth fault, at the point where the fault impedance creates
maximum fault current. Maximum fault current usually occurs at the substation where the
effective fault impedance is lower.
The coupling factor C as shown in equation 7 is principally determined by the earth resistivity.
It is not possible to accurately determine earth resistivities. Accordingly, the value of induced
voltage calculated may vary substantially. In Australia earth resistivities may vary from as low
as 2 ohm/metre to as high as 10 000 ohm/metre or more. High purity silica sands with very
little entrapped moisture can result in extremely high earth resistivities. Furthermore, the
return currents in the induced voltage situation do not flow near the surface. This is shown by
the following approximate equation:
Because of these difficulties the most practical way to determine earth resistivity in critical
situations is by test, using a parallel conductor and deriving the earth resistivity through
formulae 5 and 7.
The factor S in equation 7, the separation between the power and telephone lines, is
determined as the geometric mean of the separation over any given oblique segment as
follows:
In the case where the power line crosses the telecommunication line at an included angle less
than 45 then this crossing is taken as an oblique exposure. The section of exposure ten metres
either side of the power line centreline is approximated by an equivalent parallel separation of
six metres over that distance. All segments outside the ten metre band either side of the power
line are treated as oblique exposures.
C =
2f n
equation 7
= average resistivity of earth (ohmmetres)
S = separation between power and telephone line (metres)
D
e
= equation 8
D
e
= effective depth of earth return current
= average earth resistivity
f = frequency of fault current
S = equation 9
1
6 10
5

S
2
f
--------------------- +
\ .
|
| |
10
4
ohms/km
658

f
--- metres
S
1
S
2
The shielding factor K in equation 5 recognises the presence of other parallel conductors over
the length of exposure. The most common of these are:
the earth wire on the power line
the sheath of the telecommunications cable
steel tape amouring in the telecommunications cable
galvanised iron pipe encasing the telecommunications cable
other buried metal objects (for example, water pipe, railway lines, gas mains, etc.).
Any other earthed metal conductor in the field of the faulted power line will have an induced
voltage and current. This current will reduce the current flowing in the telecommunications
line. The best shielding is provided by a high conductivity shielding conductor or by a high
inductance shield. Both shielding materials must be continuous over the length of exposure for
maximum mitigation of the induced voltage into the telecommunications cable.
Examination of equations 5 and 7 leads to the following techniques for the reduction of
induced voltage problems:
during the planning stages to avoid parallel exposure of high voltage power lines and
telecommunications cables
to maximise the separation between power lines and telecommunications cables
where such parallel exposure is unavoidable to purchase cables of a type which promote
maximum screening of the telecommunication circuit from induced voltage (for example,
use of aluminium sheath, steel tape armoured cables, or placement of cables in continuous
galvanised iron pipe)
particular design attention to be paid to areas of high earth resistivity.
Furthermore, reference to section 21.1.4 indicates that the acceptable level of induced voltage
may be raised in the instance where shorter fault clearance times and higher reliability can be
achieved by the power authority.
In addition to all these considerations it is still further possible for the telecommunications
circuit to be protected by over-voltage protection devices to ensure that hazardous voltages are
not transmitted to parts of the circuit where they are likely to come into contact with the users.
These measures must be regarded however,

as a final remedial step. Such protective devices
are prone to failure unless properly tested and monitored

and there is a consequent risk that the
hazardous voltage may not be mitigated if these devices mal-operate.
21.1.4 Earth potential rise
No particular precautions are required for telecommunications plant in a location where the
earth potential rise does not exceed 430 volts RMS.
In the event that Telstra and the power authority mutually agree that all power lines
contributing to the earth fault current which will create the earth potential rise are high
reliability then the above voltage limit can be extended to 650 volts RMS.
Where telecomunication circuits are provided to power authority substations, power stations
and switchyards, a potential hazard exists in the situation where a fault occurs at the
switchyard. In this situation the fault current flows to earth through the switchyard earthmat
and results in the entire earthmat potential being raised with respect to a true remote earth. In
the example of a telephone circuit being cabled onto a switchyard site, the telephone cable is a
source of true remote earth at the exchange termination. Therefore, when the switchyard raises
above true earth potential under fault conditions a longitudinal voltage exists on the telephone
cable with respect to remote earth. This condition represents a potential hazard. A similar
hazard exists for power authority pilot and interface cabling which extends beyond the
gradient area for the switchyard.
Any transmission line earth wires and power cable sheaths will represent parallel paths for the
fault current to earth. In general therefore,

the impedance to earth for a switchyard fault is
lower than the measured earth grid impedance to earth, and must be calculated by estimating
the parallel combination of the earth grid resistance and the impedance to earth of all other
parallel paths. Section 21.1 nominated that the maximum allowable earth potential rise with
respect to remote earth without protective arrangements is 430 volts.
In the case of a telephone installation the protective measures used take one of three forms:
isolating transformers with barrier relays
neutralising transformers
or
provision of an insulated environment.
Where small numbers of telephone circuits are required (less than 6 to 8) then a high voltage
isolating transformer is normally used. This transformer is a one to one transformer with a
winding insulation of 15 or 20 kV. The transformer is placed in the circuit as a barrier and
prevents the remote transmission of the earth potential rise. Ringing currents are provided by
ringing relays with a high coil to contact insulation level.
Where larger numbers of circuits are required, then neutralising transformers may be used.
The neutralising transformer has a single coil for each line with the voltage created by earth
potential rise being balanced by a single reverse connected primary winding. One side of the
primary winding is connected to the substation earth grid. The other side is connected to an
earth which represents a true remote earth. Remote earth is obtained by cabling with an
insulated cable to an earth point outside the gradient area of the switchyard. In this
configuration the remote earth connection must be adequately and regularly tested and
maintained to ensure that the protection is effective. Furthermore, it is essential that the
transformer design be such that saturation effects do not reduce the effective protection offered
by the transformer.
An alternative design solution to the problem of earth potential rise for telephone circuits in
substations is to place the telephone instrument in a fully insulated environment. This is
normally achieved by using an all plastic wall mounted telephone in a special telephone
booth. The floor and surrounds are then insulated as necessary with rubber mats and vinyl
tiling such that it is not possible for a person to be operating the telephone and simultaneously
contacting any substation earthed metal work. By avoiding the possibility of simultaneous
contact between the telephone and the substation earth it is then not possible to create a
hazardous situation. This solution has the disadvantage that the telephone circuit is only
available in the one fixed location.
21.1.5 Lightning
In all the above discussion the influencing effect in the telecommunications circuit has been
created by a fault condition on the power system. One special case of power system faults is
that of lightning strikes. Clearly the currents generated by a lightning strike on a power line
have the potential to create similar induced voltage problems to those discussed above. This
particularly applies in new suburb developments in areas of high soil resistivity. The trend for
water and sewerage services to use insulating pipes has resulted in the total installed
equivalent earthmat in new suburb locations being of significantly higher impedance.
Furthermore, normal shielding effects provided by substantial amounts of buried metallic
piping have been removed. In these circumstances there has developed a greater potential risk
to telephone users due to lighting strikes on both the power system and the
telecommunications system.
Summary
The mechanisms of influence between the power system and telecommunication systems are
well known and predictable within a reasonable degree of accuracy. Therefore, if
telecommunication and power services are to coexist peacefully without potential risk to
telecommunication system users or degradation of communication service, then early joint
planning of facility installation is essential. Such joint planning is capable of managing the
risk to an acceptable known level. Considerable effort has been made within Australia over the
last decade to publicise the engineering need for co-ordination of power and
telecommunication circuits. The result has been a general reduction in the need for remedial
design and action and a substantially improved understanding of the factors affecting this
potential hazard.
In the future there is considerable promise that telecommunication circuits will be
substantially less susceptible to induced currents and voltages due to power system
disturbance. Fibre optic systems, which use a totally insulated glass fibre as the transmission
medium, are not susceptible to the various problems of influence from the power system
discussed in this paper. Indeed, some of the first examples of commercial use of fibre optic
cables relate to the need to mitigate induced voltages for equipment working in the power
system environment.
As well as being intrinsically free from induced voltage effects this technique has many
advantages to the telecommunication authority because it also provides high quality bearers
with substantial channel and data handling capacities. It would appear that the more
widespread introduction of this technology for trunk systems would reduce the current
problems of parallel routing of long haul telecommunication services and major transmission
lines.
Furthermore, it should also be possible, by proper design and forethought, to plan
telecommunications distribution systems such that minimum influence occurs from the power
system.
As the power system is the influencing system, power authority engineers should be
thoroughly aware of the requirement for co-ordination of power and telecommunication
systems to eliminate potential personnel hazard, improve the grade of service of the
communication system and to eliminate the need for costly remedial engineering and
installation work on both systems.
Question
1. Describe why it is necessary to install a substation earthing system. How is an adequate
earthing system provided in a substation?
References
Telstra Australia/Electricity Supply Association (ESAA) Central Joint Committee, The code of
practice for low frequency induction.
Manual on co-ordination of power and telecommunication systems report.
Figure 21.1 (a): Diagrammatic representation of substation busbar fault
R
g
Earth Grid Resistance
Z
t
Transformer Impedance
R
t
Tower Footing Resistance
Z
c
Cable Sheath Impedance
Figure 21.1 (b): Equivalent circuit

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ELE2704

Electricity supply systems

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Modul e 6 Transmission l ines, feeders and distributors 6.5

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[4] Cable length L

[6] Cable length L S

high compression and tensile strength

7.46 ELE2704 Electri ci ty supply systems

Module 7 Overhead l ines 7.47

Modul e 19 Per uni t val ues: symmetrical faul ts 19.11

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