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r
d
r
ln 2 10
7
r
= relatively permeability of the material
d =Distance between two conductors
r =radius of the first conductor.
10. How inductance and capacitance of a transmission line are affected by the
spacing between the conductors?
If the conductors of a 3 phase transmission line are not equidistant from
each other the flux linkages, inductances and capacitances of various phases
are not different. This causes unequal voltage drops in the three phases and
transfer of power between phases due to mutual inductance even if the
currents in the conductors are balanced. Thus spacing between the
conductors play a major role in overhead transmission.
11. What is transposition? Why is it done?
(or)
Why transmission lines are transposed?
When three phase line conductors have unsymmetrical spacing the flux linkages
and inductances of each phase are not the same. This results in the unequal voltage
drops in the three phases even if the currents in the conductors are balanced.
Therefore the voltage at the receiving end will not be the same for all phases. To
avoid the unbalancing effect the positions of the line conductors are interchanged at
regular intervals along the line so that each conductor occupies the original position
of every other conductor over an equal distance. This exchanging of positions of
conductors is called transposition.
12. What is the necessity for a double circuit line?
The necessity for a double circuit line in overhead transmission system is to reduce
the inductance perhaps
13. Write an expression for the inductance of each conductor for a 3 phase overhead
transmission line in which the conductors are unsymmetrical spaced but
transposed.
If the current carrying conductors A,B,C are spaced asymmetrically
and are transposed to avoid the unbalancing effect then the inductance of each
conductor for a 3 phase overhead transmission line is
=
m H
r
d d d
/ 10 ln 2 5 . 0
7
3
3 2 1
1
1
]
1
,
_
+
Where d1,d2,d3 are the distances between the conductors
r- radius of the conductors
14. Distinguish between GMD and GMR.
S.NO GMD(Dm) GMR(Ds)
1.) GMD is also called as mutual GMD GMR is also called as self GMD
2.) GMD is defined as the geometrical mean
of the distances from one end of the
conductor to the other end. (i.e. between
the largest and smallest)
GMR is defined as the limit of
geometric mean of distances
between all the pairs of elements in
that area as the number of elements
increase without limit
3.) Mutual GMD depends only upon the
spacing and is independent of the exact
size, shape, orientation of the conductor.
Self GMD of a conductor depends
upon the size and shape of the
conductor and is independent of
spacing between the conductors.
4.) For a single phase line Dm=spacing
between conductors=D.
For a single phase line Ds=0.7788r
5.) For a single circuit 3phi line
Dm=(d1*d2*d3)
1/3
For a single circuit 3 phi line
Ds=0.7788r
6.) For a double circuit 3phi line Dm-
=(D
AB
*D
BC
*D
CA
)
For a double circuit 3phi line
D
s
=(D
S1
*D
S2
*D
S3
)
15. Write an expression for electric potential at a charged single conductor?
Electric potential at a charged single conductor A is
r o
A
A
x
dx Q
V
2
Where Q
A
=charge per meter length
o
+ + +
.....
1
ln
1
ln
1
ln
2
1
2 1
d
Q
d
Q
r
Q V
c B A
o
A
R
R R
V
V V
regulation
Where
'
R
V
Where V
R
, I
R
, Cos
R
are the receiving end voltage, current and power
factor respectively.
V
s
, I
s
, Cos
s
are the sending end voltage, current and power factor
respectively.
4. Explain the influence of power factor on the refulation of a transmission line.
1.) when the load PF ( cos
R
) is lagging or unity or leading that IR cos
R
> IX
L
sin
R
then voltage regulation is positive (receiving end voltage is
lesser than the sending end voltage) and increases with the decrease in
power factor for lagging loads (for a given V
R
and I.
2.) when the load PF is leading to this extent that IR cos
R
< IX
L
sin
R
the voltage regulation is negative and decreases with the decrease in PF for
leading loads (for a given V
R
and I)
5. Under what circumstances, the receiving end voltage may be higher than that
of the sending end?
When load PF cos
R
is leading, IX
L
sin
R
>IR cos
R
then regulation is negative (i.e.). the receiving end voltage may be higher
than that of the sending end.
Where I load current
X
L
-loop reactance
cos
R
- receiving end power factor(leading)
6. Explain how capacitance effects are taken into account in medium
transmission lines.
Medium transmission lines have sufficient length (80-250km) and operate
at voltages greater than 20kv. In such lines the capacitive current is
appreciable and hence cannot be neglected. So to obtain reasonable
accuracy the effects of capacitance must be taken into account.
7. What are the methods that are used for obtaining the performance
calculations of medium lines?
The methods that are used for obtaining the performance calculation of
medium lines are
1.) end condenser method
2.) nominal T method
3.) nominal method
8. Draw the T equivalent circuit of a medium transmission line.
Where - load current per phase
- resistance per phase
- inductive reactance per phase
- capacitance per phase
- receiving end power factor(lagging)
- sending end voltage
- voltage across capacitor C.
9. Draw the equivalent circuit of a medium line.
10. What is Ferranti effect?
The phenomenon of rise in voltage at the receiving end of the lightly loaded
or unloaded line is called as Ferrantis effect.
11. What is the difference between nominal T and nominal configuration?
S.NO Nominal T
Nominal
1.) In this the whole line capacitance is
assumed to be concentrated at the
middle point of the line and half the line
resistance and reactance are lumped on
its either side
In this the whole line capacitance is
assumed to be divided into two
halves, one half being connected at
the receiving end and other half at
the receiving end.
2.)
Full charging current flows over half the
line
Capacitance at the receiving end has
no effect on the line drop. But the
charging current of the second half
capacitance is added to obtain the
total sending current
3.) T-equivalent circuit
-equivalent circuit
12.) What are the limitations of nominal T and methods in transmission
lines problems?
Generally the capacitance is uniformly distributed over the entire length of
the line. But for easy calculations in nominal T and the capacitance is concentrated at
one or two points also in nominal method the capacitance connected in the load side has
no effect on voltage drop. Due to all these there may be considerable error in calculation.
13. How the capacitance effects are taken into account in a long transmission line?
Long transmission lines have sufficient length and operate at voltage higher than
100kv the effects of capacitance cannot be neglected. Therefore in order to obtain
reasonable accuracy in long transmission lines calculations, the capacitance effects must be
taken into account.
14. what is surge impedance?
The square root of the ration of line impedance(Z) and shunt
admittance(Y) is called the surge impedance(Z) of the line.
15. Define surge impedance loading or natural power of the line?
Surge impedance loading is defined as the load of unity PF that can be
delivered by the line of negligible resistance.
o
RL
SIL
Z
V
P
2
Where
2
RL
V -line voltage at the receiving end
Zo-surge impedance in ohms
P
SIL
-surge impedance loading.
16. What are the ABCD constants?
ABCD constants are generalized circuit constants of a transmission line.
They are usually complex numbers. Input voltage and current are expressed
in terms of output voltage and current. The constants A and D are
dimensionless B and C are ohms and mhos respectively.
17. What are the units for A,B,C and D in the ABCD parameters?
A and D are dimensionless B and C are ohms and mhos respectively.
18. What are the methods use for voltage control of lines?
The methods used for voltage control of lines are
1.) by using over compound generator
2.) by excitation control
3.) by use of tap changing transformers
4.) auto-transformer tap changing
5.) booster transformer
6.) induction regulator and
7.) by improvement of power factor.
19. What are the voltage regulating equipments used in transmission system?
Synchronous motors, tap changing transformers, series shut capacitors,
booster transformers, compound generators, induction regulator.
20. What is a power circle diagram?
A power circle diagram is a diagram drawn for the transmission line network
involving the generalized circuit constants and the sending end voltage V
s
and receiving end voltage V
R
.
21. What is the use of power circle diagram?
Power circle diagram is used to determine the maximum power that can be
transmitted over the line both at the receiving end and sending end.
22. Define attenuation in a transmission lines?
Attenuation is defined as the power loss in line. It is nothing but the
transmission loss (i.e.). the difference between the sending end power and
receiving end power.
23. What is steady state stability limit?
Steady state stability limit is the maximum flow of power through a
particular point of power system without loss of stability when the power is
increased very gradually.
24. Define critical disruptive voltage.
It is the minimum phase to neutral voltage at which corona occurs
25. Define visual critical voltages
Visual critical voltage is defined as the min. phase neutral voltage at which
corona glow appears all along the line conductors
26. Write an expression for the power loss due to corona.
( )
2
25
2 . 242
c
V V
d
r
f
P
,
_
X 10
-5
KW/km/ph
where f - supply frequency Hz
V phase to neutral r.m.s voltage in kV
Vc critical disruptive voltage (r.m.s) per phase
UNIT IV
1. What are the advantages of underground cables over overhead lines?
1.) underground cables are less liable to any interruptions caused by
lightning or storms, birds and other severe weather conditions.
2.) They reduce accidents caused by the breaking of the conductors
3.) They provide better general appearance
4.) They have small voltage drop across them.
2. What are the usual insulating materials for cables?
1.) rubber
2.) polyethylene
3.) polyvinyl chloride
4.) fibrous material such as paper or jute etc
5.) enamel
6.) gutta-percha
7.) vulcanized Indian rubber
8.) varnished cam brie etc.
3. What is vulcanization?
A compound of pure rubber with mineral matter such as sulphur,
zinc oxide etc is rolled into thin sheets and cut into strips, that
rubber compound is then applied to the conductor and is heated to a
temperature of about 150C. this process is called vulcanization.
4. What is empire tape?
Empire tape is a cotton cloth impregnated and coated with varnish.
It is nothing but varnished cam brie.
5. How are cables classified based on an operating voltage?
According to operating voltage cables are classified as
1.) low tension cables (LT) up to 1000 volts
2.) high tension cables (HT) up to 11,000 volts
3.) super tension cables (ST) from 22,000 volts to 33,000volts
4.) extra high tension cables (EHT) from 33 to 66K volts
5.) extra super voltage cable beyond 132 KV
6. What is the purpose of a metallic sheath in a cable?
The purpose of a metallic sheath in a cable is to prevent the entry of
moisture or gases or other damaging liquids into the insulating
material.
7. What do you understand by the term bedding in a cable
Over the metallic sheath there is a layer of bedding which consists
of paper tape compounded with fibrous material like jute or Hessian
tape etc. its purpose is to protect the metallic sheath from corrosion
and from mechanical injury due to armouring.
8. What is serving in a cable?
Like bedding, a layer of fibrous material is provided over the
armouring in order to protect the armouring from atmospheric
conditions. This is called serving.
9. What are the different types of cables that are generally used for 3 phase
service?
The different types of cables that are used for 3 phase service are
1.) belted cable up to 11KV
2.) screened cables from 22KV to 66KV
3.) pressure cables Beyond 66KV
10. Up to what voltage range are belted cables used?
Belted cables are used for voltages up to 11KV in some extra
ordinary cases they are used up to even 22KV.
11. How will you overcome the limitations of solid types cables in pressure
coils?
Solid types cables are limited to a voltage of 66KV. For voltages
beyond 66KV solid type cables are unreliable because there is
danger of break down of insulation due to the presence of voids.
These voids are eliminated by increasing the pressure of the
compound in pressure coils. So pressure coils can be used for
voltages greater than 66KV.
12. What are the methods of laying of underground cables?
Laying of underground cables can be done in 3 methods.
1.) direct laying
2.) draw in system
3.) solid system
13. Define insulation resistance?
The opposition offered by insulation to leakage current is called
insulation resistance.
14. Write the expression for the insulation resistance of a single core cable?
Insulation resistance of a single core cable is given by
1
2
ln
2 r
r
l
R
Where R - insulation resistance
-resistivity of the insulation
l-length of the cable
r1-conductor radius in a single core cable
r2-internal sheath radius
15. Write the expression for the capacitance of a single core cable?
Capacitance of a single core cable is
d
D
l
C
r o
ln
2
farad
Where - capacitance of the cable in farad
l- length of the cable in metres
D-inner sheath diameter in metres
d-conductor diameter in metres
r
relative permittivity of the insulation
16. What is dielectric stress in a cable?
Under operating conditions, electrostatic forces act along the layer
of insulation. This is known as dielectric stress. The dielectric stress
in the cable is equal to the potential gradient in a cable.
17. What is inter sheath grading?
The process of achieving uniformity in dielectric stress by using
homogenous dielectric is known as inter sheath grading. But the
dielectric divided into various layers, by suitably placing the
metallic inter sheaths.
18. List the characteristics of insulators?
Insulators used for over head transmission
1.) should have high mechanical strength in order to withstand the
load due to weight of conductors
2.) should have high relative permittivity in order to provide high
dielectric strength
3.) should have high insulation resistance to prevent leakage of
currents to strength
4.) should have high ratio of puncture strength to flashover voltage
5.) should be non porous free from impurities and cracks otherwise
the permittivity will be lowered.
19. What is safety factor of insulation?
The ratio of puncture strength to flash over voltage is known as safety
factor
20. What is a strain insulator and where is it used?
When there is a dad end or a corner or a sharper curve the
transmission line is subjected to a greater tension. The insulator
which are used to relieve the line of excessive tension are called
strain insulators.
For high voltage transmission lines the strain insulators consisting
of an assembly of suspension type insulators are used.
21. Define string efficiency?
String efficiency is defined as the ratio of voltage across the whole
string to the product of number of discs and the voltage across the
unit nearest to the conductor.
conductor to nearest disc the across voltage n
string the across voltage
efficiency string
) tan (Re
tan Re