MAE 244 Electrical Resistance Strain Gages Lab-1 a.

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MAE 244 Electrical Resistance Strain Gages Lab-1 a.2

Theoretical Background
Definition of Normal (Extensional) Strain

When an elastic body is subjected to external loading, adjacent particles in the body may undergo
different displacements, so that a relative motion occurs between them. This relative motion is
called elastic deformation, and it is measured in terms of STRAIN, which is a non-dimensional
parameter defined as follows:
change in length
Normal (Extensional) Strain =
original gage length
or :
∆L
ε= [in/in, m/m]
L
Because strain is typically very small, we define microstrain,
microstrain ( µε ) = Strain x 10 6

P = applied load

L + ∆L L
(original length plus (original length)
change in length)

Figure 1.1 Uniaxial Loading Creates a State of Normal Strain.

 Measurement of Strain   ⇒
     STRAIN GAGES
   
Strain is never measured directly, but it is derived from direct measurements of other parameters,
that may rely on one of the following principles:

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MAE 244 Electrical Resistance Strain Gages Lab-1 a.3

(1) Mechanical ⇒ extensometers can measure directly the change in the gage length of the
test specimen. The corresponding strain is then obtained from the above formula, by
using the initial size of the gage length.

(2) Optical ⇒ Some optical phenomena (e.g. birefringence) are related to strain ⇒ changes
caused by loading in certain optical patterns provide an indirect measurement of the
corresponding strains.

(2) Electrical: ⇒ The electrical properties of some materials change as a result of elastic
deformations ⇒ this effect provides another approach to measuring strain.

Basic Principles of Electrical Resistance Strain Gages

The electrical resistance of a conducting wire changes when the length of the conductor changes
through elastic deformation (stretching). If such a wire is bonded to the surface of an elastic body
that undergoes a deformation, it becomes a means of measuring the extent of the corresponding
strain, as an electrical analog of the associated change in resistance. This is the basis of the
electrical resistance strain gage, which is probably the most pervasive device for measuring strain.
The actual strain gage, however, is not constructed as a straight segment of conducting wire, but
is wound back and forth many times (very much like a tight serpentine), so as to reduce its overall
size while maintaining the capability to generate a large change in electrical resistance for a
relatively small change in the total length of the wire.
Most modern gages are of the foil type, where the conducting wire is printed to the desired
pattern on an expendable foil, with an acid resistant ink. When dipped in acid the foil is dissolved
away, and the conductor remains attached to thin, flexible, supporting backing. Samples from a
batch of new strain gages are then calibrated in a known strain field by noting the corresponding
changes in resistance. The Gage Factor, or the Sensitivity Factor of the strain gage is,
subsequently, calculated from the measured pair of changes in electrical resistance and length:
∆R ∆L
= Sg S g = gage factor or sensitivity (1)
R L

Since the SENSITIVITY Factor of every particular gage is known in advance when the gage is
attached to a structure subjected to elastic deformation, the strain induced in the structure is
measured by the gage indirectly, according with the following relationship:
∆L 1 ∆R
ε= = (2)
L Sg R
NOTE: An one-element strain gage measures only the NORMAL (Extensional) strain
component in one, chosen direction. The measurement of shear strain components by using strain
gages requires multiple measurements of normal strain components in different directions, at the
location where the shear strain is sought.

Strain Gage Circuits

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MAE 244 Electrical Resistance Strain Gages Lab-1 a.4

FUNCTION – closed electric circuits of resistors and DC power supply, whose function is to
convey a small change in electrical resistance into a large change in voltage that can be readily
measured, displayed, and recorded.
Consider a foil gage mounted on a bar of steel (Young's Modulus, E=30x10 6 psi), experiencing a
stress of 10,000 psi at the location of the gage. The corresponding change in electrical resistance
is very small, as indicated below for a strain gage with a gage factor, Sg=2.
∆R 10,000 Ω
= Sg ε = 2 6 = 0.00066
R 30x10 Ω

This change in resistance is a very small quantity, but fortunately simple circuitry can be
constructed that measures it accurately. The main types of such circuits are reviewed here.

Wheatstone Bridge
The Wheatstone bridge was the first circuit designed to measure ∆R and is very accurate because
it is based on a null principle. Its configuration is sketched below, where Ohm's Law, relating
voltage to current and to resistance, V = I*R, can be applied to express the currents in the various
arms of the circuit as follows:

B
R1 I AB R2
A C ∆E V
IAD IAB =
R3 R1 + R2
R4 (4)
V
D IAD =
V R3 + R4

The corresponding voltage drops across the various arms are:

R1V R4 V
V AB = , V AD = (5)
R1 + R2 R3 + R4

The difference in electric potential between connections (nodes) B and D is therefore

 R1 R4 
E = V AB − V AD = V  − (6)
 R1 + R2 R3 + R4 

If the four resistances in the circuit change by various levels, ∆R1, ∆R2, ∆R3, ∆R4, respectively, the
voltage drop between the nodes B and D will also change, by an amount equal to ∆E:

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MAE 244 Electrical Resistance Strain Gages Lab-1 a.5

 R1 + ∆R1 R4 + ∆R4 
E + ∆E = V  − (7)
 R1 + R2 + ∆R1 + ∆R2 R3 + R4 + ∆R3 + ∆R4 

In a balanced bridge, E=0, so that Eq.(6) yields the following relationships between the
resistances in the circuit:

R1 R4 R2 R3
= or = =r (8)
R1 + R2 R3 + R4 R1 R4

When the bridge is balanced,, r = 1, and Eq. (7) yields:

  ∆R1 ∆R2 ∆R3 ∆R4   ∆R1 ∆R3 ∆R2 ∆R4  

 r R1 − R2 + R3 − R4  − r R1 R3 − R2 R4  
∆E = V   (9)
 ∆R1 ∆R2   ∆R3 ∆R4 
 (1+ r ) + +r (1 + r) + +r 
  R1 R2   R3 R4  
The Wheatstone bridge is an inherently nonlinear device, since the relationship between the
changes in resistances, ∆Ri , and the change in voltage, ∆E, is not linear. When large resistance
changes are expected, such as in the case of "Semiconductor Gages", the full, non-linear
relationship must be considered. However, the relationship between the resistance and the voltage
changes can be linearized in the particular case of small resistance changes.
If the following condition is met:
2
 ∆R  ∆R
 R  〈〈 R
then Eq.(9) yields:
Vr  ∆R1 ∆R2 ∆R3 ∆R4 
∆E = − + − (10)
(1 + r)2  R1 R2 R3 R4 

This is the fundamental equation for analyzing the Wheatstone bridge. It is important to note
that the measured voltage is, in general, E+∆E, but E = 0 when the bridge is initially balanced,
and the voltage change ∆E caused by the changes in resistances, is measured directly. It is also
noted that some resistance changes in the expression of ∆E (Eq.(10)) are positive, while others
are negative. This alternation of signs is used to great advantage as a possible approach to
temperature compensation of strain measurements.
Single Active Gage: If only one of the FOUR arms of a Wheatstone bridge contains an active
resistor, suppose that R1 is the only active gage, then ∆R2 = ∆R3 = ∆R4 = 0, and the Wheatstone
bridge equation, Eq. (10), reduces to

Vr  ∆R1 
∆E = (11)
(1 + r)2  R1 

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MAE 244 Electrical Resistance Strain Gages Lab-1 a.6

where the resistance change ∆R1 is related to the length change of that resistor through the Gage
Factor of the corresponding strain gage:

1 ∆R1 (1+ r )2 ∆E
ε= = (12)
Sg R1 rSg V

where V is the excitation voltage and ∆ E is the measured output voltage., i.e the CHANGE in
the voltage drop across the bridge, ∆E, associated with a change ∆R1 in the ACTIVE gage.

Strain Indicators
A convenient tool for determining strain is the strain indicator. The basic function of a strain
indicator is to determine the strain directly, without hand calculations, by using the Wheatstone
bridge equation. A full, half or quarter bridge arrangement may be used with a strain indicator.
The gage factor must be set on the indicator and the bridge must be balanced. Note the procedures
for connection for each bridge arrangement before you start your experimental setup.

Temperature Compensation and Special Circuits

An examination of Equation (10), reveals that the output from the Wheatstone bridge is dependent
on the number of active gages, as well as on their placement in the circuit. For example, if two
identical gages register the same ∆R in the arms "1 and 2" of the bridge, there will be no voltage
change, ∆E = 0, whereas if the same identical gages are placed in positions "1 and 3" of the
bridge, then the output will double, i.e. the voltage change ∆E will be doubled. This principle can
be used to our advantage. For example, we can add an active gage to position 1 and a dummy
gage to position 2 of the bridge, in order to compensate for temperature. A dummy gage is a strain
gage mounted on the same material as the active gage but it is not loaded. Thus, any strain
component associated with expansion or contraction due to a shift in temperature would cause
identical resistance changes in the active and the dummy gages, which will cancel each other in
accordance with the bridge equation, Eq.(10). The value of ∆E measured through such a bridge
configuration would, therefore, represent only the effect of loading on the active gage, R1 without
any contamination from changes in the ambient temperature.

active dummy

Vr  ∆R1 ∆RT ∆R2 ∆RT 

∆E = + − −
(1 + r)2  R1 R1 R2 R2 

One may notice, indeed, that ∆R2 =0, since the dummy gage is placed on a separate specimen
made of the same material, but not loaded, while R1 = R2 in a balanced bridge, and ∆R3 and ∆

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MAE 244 Electrical Resistance Strain Gages Lab-1 a.7

R4 are equal to zero, since the corresponding resistors are not strained (inactive). The bridge
equation (10) reduces again to Eq. (11), as in the case of a single active gage, with no temperature
effects (used in a setting where the environment is controlled to maintain constant temperature).

Vr  ∆R1 
∆E =
(1 + r)2  R1 

Special Configurations for Multi-Axial States of Stress

Similarly to the temperature compensation approach, certain stress components can be removed
from the strain measurement through appropriate arrangements of the Wheatstone bridge circuit.
Consider the following options of placing strain gages in the various four arms of Wheatstone
bridge circuits: Circuit (a) - will result in a doubling of the output; Circuit (b) - output will
include axial and transverse strains added and doubled; Circuit (c) has two active gages and will
eliminate axial but double output due to bending; Circuit (d) has two active gages that will
eliminate bending but double output due to axial strain.

a) b)
42 1
1
3 3
2 active 4 active

T-B -(T+B) 2 active - bending (B)

1 2 eliminate axial (T)
c) 4 3 1
2

T-B 2 active - axial

1 2 elimate bending
d) 4 3
T+B 1
3

Fig. 1.2 – Special Arrangements of Wheatstone Bridge Circuits

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MAE 244 Electrical Resistance Strain Gages Lab-1 a.8

BEAM BENDING THEORY FOR LINEAR, ISOTROPIC MATERIALS

How to determine the Young's modulus, E by experiment

The elementary beam theory for symmetric bending of linear, isotropic materials leads to the
simple "flexure formula" for the maximum axial (normal) stresses at the top and the bottom
boundaries of the beam, which in the case of a cantilever beam may be expressed as follows:
Mc
σ= , (13)
I
1 3
Where, the cross sectional moment of inertia: I = bh
12
Bending moment: M = Pd
The symbol "P" in the above equation denotes the magnitude of a concentrated force applied at
the free end of the beam. In the distance "d" from the applied load in Fig.1.3, where the Bending
Moment, "M", and the maximum stresses, σ, are to be determined. "c" is the distance from the
neutral axis to the top (or bottom) of the beam (normally defined as half the height "h" of the
beam, c= h/2).

L 
d 

b 

h 

deflection =  δ

Weight Aluminum beam = 0.12  Load = P 
Weight Composite beam = 0.039 lbs 
lbs 

Figure 1.3 – Parameters of Cantilever Beam Instrumented with Axial Strain Gage.

NOTE: The expression of the maximum normal stress, σ, in Eq.(13) above is valid for any
loading scenario, since the single loading parameter that it involves is the bending moment, "M",
in the cross-section of interest. The formula shown in Eq.(13) for the bending moment "M"(d)
depends on the specific loading scenario, boundary conditions, and geometry of the beam; the
form shown in the above equation is valid only for the case of a point-load, "P", applied at the
free end of a cantilever beam.

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MAE 244 Electrical Resistance Strain Gages Lab-1 a.9

The UNIAXIAL Hooke's law for linear, isotropic materials yields:

σ
σ = Eε → E = (14)
ε
where E is the Young's modulus (stiffness constant) of the material. If a theoretical σ is calculated
from Eq.(13) and ε is measured by the strain indicator, E can be obtained by the above equation.

An optional way to calculate the strain, ε

Solving for the strain, ε in Equation (14) and substituting into Equation (13), the following
equation is obtained:
Mc
ε= (15)
EI
The tip deflection, δ, of a cantilever beam is, on the other hand, given by the following formula:
PL3
δ= (16)
3EI

where "L" is the overall length of the beam.

Solving Equation (16) for the load "P", and substituting the result into Equation (13), the bending
stress, "σ", can be expressed in terms of "δ" at any position along the beam as defined by the
distance parameter "d" (see Fig.1.3), and Equation (14) can be solved for strain and rewritten in
terms of the tip deflection as follows:
3δcd
ε= (17)
L3

Equation (17) can be used now to calculate a "theoretical" value of strain at the any distance, "d"
from the tip, for a measured tip deflection, and compare it to the strain measured by a strain gage
at that location along the beam.

Approximate Analysis of a Composite Beam

Beam bending experiments performed on homogeneous, isotropic beams are common, and they
conform, usually, with prescribed, standard guidelines and procedures, as those specified in the
standard D-790 of ASTM (the American Society for Testing and Materials). When the tested
beams are made of composite materials, the above formulas must be modified to account for the
non-homogeneous and directional dependent properties of such materials. The internal structure
of composite beams consists, usually, of separate layers (plies) reinforced in different directions
by continuous fibers, and stacked on top of each other in a certain pattern (lay-up configuration)

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MAE 244 Electrical Resistance Strain Gages Lab-1 a.10

to form a laminated material. The theory discussed above for homogeneous, isotropic beams will
be used as an approximation to the bending beam theory of composite structures.

Error Analysis of Multimeter Measurements of Strain
Consider the fundamental equation of a single-element strain gage, Eq. (2), that allows the
calculation of strain from the change in resistance of an electrical resistance strain gage, i.e.
1 ∆R
ε=
Sg R

Let the gage factor, Sg, and the relative change in electrical resistance, ∆R/R, be allowed to vary
within preset limits, to account for possible errors in the experimental set-up:

Sg = 2.0 ± .01 ∆R/R = 520 ± 10 µε

The expected variation in the sensitivity of the strain gage is specified by the manufacturer,
whereas the variation in ∆R/R is related, primarily, with the last digit readings of the multimeter.
For example, if the multimeter has five digits (e.g. 120.53 ohm), then the fifth digit is estimated
and the error in resistance measurement could be as high as ±0.01 ohm. Combining the possible
variations in "Sg and ∆R/R", the maximum and minimum boundaries on the associated strain
measurements can be estimated as follows:

530 510
ε max = ε min =
1.99 2.01
or, we can represent the strain data as:
ε = 260 ± 6.33 µε

Material Information – Equivalent Engineering Constants:

Composite Beam: AS4/3501-6 Graphite Epoxy

Lay-up geometry: [0/90/0/0/0/0/90/0/0/0/0]s

Apparent Elastic Modulus: Ex = 16.71 Msi
Poisson's Ratio: νxy = 0.0925

Aluminum Beam: 7075-T6

Elastic Modulus: Ex = 10.4 Msi

Poisson's Ratio: νxy = 0.3

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