Session EXTRASOLAR PLANETS: THE SEARCH FOR A HOME AWAY FROM HOME

Shelby Kay-Fantozzi
American University, Department of Physics, 4400 Massachusetts Ave. NW, Washington, DC. 20016-8058, sk2585a@american.edu

Abstract As of February 26th of this year, astronomers have confirmed the existence of over five hundred planets outside of our solar system. Extrasolar planet detection has become increasingly popular as the search focuses on finding potentially habitable planets similar to Earth. This paper will cover the primary method by which astronomers look for exoplanets: Doppler shift caused by the wobble of a distant star as it compensates for its planets gravitational influence. Information on light, spectroscopy and the Doppler Effect will show the physics behind Doppler Spectroscopy, answering questions such as What does Doppler shift look like? or How do we learn so much about a planet from the light its star emits? Current exoplanet detection missions will be highlighted in order to examine the physics in action, and its relevance. The potential flaws and uncertainties of searching for planets will be explored, as well as the relative advantages of using the Doppler Shift method versus others. Finally, the paper will conclude with experts speculations on the future impact of discovering terrestrial planets orbiting faraway stars. Index Terms astronomy, Doppler Effect, exoplanets, extrasolar planets, extraterrestrial life, light, spectroscopy.

Since that time, as more and more planets have been found, extrasolar planets have become somewhat commonplace. New methods for seeking planets have been introduced and new criteria for the definition of a planet have been suggested. Interest has since honed in on finding planets similar to Earth in mass, temperature, composition and distance from their parent star [5]. These just right planets have earned a nickname from a popular childrens fairytale: since they are neither too hot nor too cold, too big nor too small, they are popularly referred to as Goldilocks planets [6]. The consequences of finding such planets are numerous. Many consider the discovery of Earth-like planets a stepping stone to finding planets that support extraterrestrial life [7]. Understanding the physics behind the search for planets like our own will be beneficial as methods and discoveries progress with new missions and increased popularity.

METHODS OF DETECTION
Of the innumerable stars in the universe, which have planets orbiting them? Of the aforementioned thousands of planets in outer space, which deserve special attention? Astronomers answer these questions through the various methods for finding planets. Each of the methods listed can be further used to determine qualities like mass, composition, or temperature of detected planets [8]. Below are three popular approaches to discovering and observing exoplanets. Direct Imaging Perhaps the least reliable of the three methods to be discussed, direct imaging is the practice of finding extrasolar planets by turning a telescope towards the sky and taking a picture of a planet orbiting a star, as shown in figure 1 [9]. However, the process is not as simple as snapping a photograph. Stars outshine their planets, as the planets emit very little of their own light. To counter stars brightness, telescopes must be fitted with a coronagraph, which blocks out the light of the star itself so the telescope can get better data on what is traveling around the star [10].

INTRODUCTION
As of February 26th of this year, astronomers have confirmed the existence of over five hundred extrasolar planets: planets outside of our solar system [1]. Over one thousand more potential planets, discovered by NASAs Kepler Mission, are waiting to be confirmed [2]. The search for planets outside the solar system has come a long way since the first extrasolar planet was discovered by Michel Mayor and Pierre-Yves Frei in 1995. When these Swiss astronomers began using the Doppler Effect to look for planets affecting their parent stars motion, the very idea of planets outside of our solar system was relatively unpopular. After years of preparation and months of observation with the newest technologies of the time, Frei and Mayor announced their results at a conference: a star in the constellation Pegasus had a planet orbiting it once every 4.2 days [3]. The announcement sparked fierce debate, but their results were confirmed by fellow planet-hunter Geoff Marcy. Marcy, encouraged by the results to reconsider his own data, discovered two more exoplanets. In three months in 1995, the world was introduced to three planets outside the solar system [4]. April 15, 2011

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Doppler Spectroscopy More informative and dependable than either of the previous methods, Doppler Spectroscopy gives astronomers information on an orbiting bodys mass, orbital period, and chemical compositionconfirming not just that something is orbiting a star, but that that something is indeed a planet [17]. As a planet orbits a star, the star wobbles slightly due to the planets gravitational influence. The wobble causes the stars radial velocity to vary in a regular cycle. Astronomers can observe this change in radial velocity by looking at a stars emission or absorption spectrum. When the star is moving towards Earth, absorption lines in the spectrum are shifted blue. Conversely, when the star is moving away, red shift is observed [18]. A Wobbling Star? The periodic forward-backward motion of a star is the phenomenon that allows astronomers to use Doppler Shift to identify an exoplanet [19]. Though a star exerts gravitational force on the planet orbiting it, the planet, too, is exerting a force on the star. Newtons third law states that every action has an equal and opposite reaction. To expand on that idea, if one object exerts a force on another, the second object exerts an equal and opposing force on the firsteven if the masses of the two objects (as in the case of a planet and a star) are drastically different [20]. As a planet revolves around its star, it pulls on the star as much as the star pulls on the planet. This is what causes the characteristic wobble that is shown by Doppler shiftand the reason scientists can detect an object orbiting a star even if the object cannot be seen [21].

FIGURE 1
THE HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPES PICTURE OF FORMALHAULT B, THE FIRST DIRECT IMAGE OF AN EXTRASOLAR PLANET [11].

To create richly colored representations such as figure 1, several images of the same object are needed. With use of a graphics editing software, each image is assigned a different hueperhaps an infrared image is tinted red, a visible light image is tinted yellow, and an x-ray image is tinted blue. Then all three images are superimposed, giving the viewer an informative (and visually appealing) view of the phenomenon [12]. Transit Method Like direct detection, the transit method relies on visible light to detect a planet. When a planet crosses in front of its parent star, it will block a small portion of the stars light, like a smaller scale version of a solar eclipse as witnessed from Earth. Figure 2 shows if a planet is crossing in front of the star, the stars brightness, or luminosity, will be lower. Data is taken on stars luminosity using a photometer [13].

DETECTION THROUGH DOPPLER SHIFT

In 1842, Christian Doppler proposed what came to be known as the Doppler Effect as an explanation for the shifting colors of binary stars. In the next six years, the Doppler Effect was applied to sound waves by Buys Ballot and independently confirmed with electromagnetic waves by Hippolyte Fizeau [22]. Dopplers idea was that the observed frequency of a wave changes as an object and/or an observer travel away from or towards each other [23]. A waves velocity is determined by the equation where v=wave velocity, f=wave frequency, and =wavelength. The Doppler Effect, the change in perception of f, is calculated as follows:

FIGURE 2
A VISUALIZATION OF THE DIP IN STAR LUMINOSITY THAT OCCURS AS A PLANET PASSES IN FRONT OF THE STAR [14].

)
where f=the perceived frequency of the wave v is the velocity of waves in the medium is the velocity of the receiver is the velocity of the source Is the original frequency of the wave [24].

If that data were graphed with time on the x-axis and the stars luminosity on the y-axis, the indicator that a planet was orbiting the star would be a periodic, or regular and unchanging, dip in luminosity [15]. By measuring the amount of starlight a planet blocks, the size of the planet can be inferred [16]. April 15, 2011

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FIGURE 4
IN THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM, WAVES OF DIFFERENT FREQUENCIES HAVE DIFFERENT NAMES AND PROPERTIES [31].

FIGURE 3
AS A WAVES SOURCE TRAVELS, IT PUSHES AGAINST THE WAVES IT HAS ALREADY FORMED, CHANGING OUR PERCEPTION OF THE WAVES FREQUENCY [25].

Figure 3 shows how an observers perception of a waves frequency changes as the wave source travels through space. In an astronomical application, that would mean that light from stars rotating around each other would appear bluer as the stars approached Earth, and redder as they receded. In Ballots confirmation using sound waves, the sound was higher in pitch as it approached the observer, and lower in pitch as it receded [26]. Light In order to understand the Doppler Effects changes to a stars light, one must accept the concept of light behaving like a wave. Light is emitted from a star at a constant speed, [27]. In 1864, James Clerk Maxwell proved that light moves through space as an electromagnetic wave [28]. To return to the previously defined equation for wave velocity, recall that Since the velocity of an electromagnetic wave through a vacuum is constantly c, the frequency and wavelength are the only factors that vary [29]. As the frequency of an electromagnetic wave changes, so does its wavelength and the type of electromagnetic radiation: as seen in figure 4, very low-frequency, highwavelength waves are radio waves, higher in frequency and lower in wavelength are microwaves, then infrared light, then the visible spectrum, then ultraviolet light, then x-rays, then the highest frequency waves are gamma rays. The figure also shows how visible light occupies a very small space in the middle of the spectrumless than 0.1% of the electromagnetic spectrum. Within the spectrum of visible light, red light has the lowest frequency and violet light has the highest. [30].

When considering a wave of electromagnetic light coming from a star, one can conclude that the Doppler Effect is truly changing an observers perception of the frequency of light from the star. When the orbiting body pulls the star towards our observation point (planet Earth), the source of the electromagnetic wave pushes against the waves it has already emitted, as seen in figure 3. From Earth it would appear that the frequency of the electromagnetic wave had increased. Since an increase in electromagnetic frequency pushes light towards the blue end of the visible spectrum, the stars movement towards Earth is known as blue shift. Conversely, as the planet pulls the star away from Earth, it appears to the observer that the electromagnetic waves emitted by the star have decreased in frequency. Because a decrease in frequency brings light to the red end of the visible spectrum, movement away from Earth is called red shift [32]. What Does Doppler Shift Look Like? Shift in Stellar Spectra Doppler shift does not necessarily translate to a star observably flashing red and blue in the night sky as a planet revolves around it: instead, when astronomers look for Doppler shift, they are not looking at the star itself, but instead the stars absorption spectrum [33]. Spectroscopy is the study of matter through observation of the radiation it emits. Light from a distant object is separated into a prism of colors called a spectrum, as shown in figure 5. An absorption spectrum like the one shown in figure 5 includes black spaces called absorption lines, which represent radiation that the star does not emit. From that band of color and the pattern of the absorption lines, further calculation can reveal the objects chemical composition, temperature, mass, orbital period, and velocity [34].

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Relative Advantages In comparison to other popular methods for planet detection, Doppler shift has a high amount of accuracy and reliability. Thanks to the capabilities of modern spectroscopes and telescopes, extremely small shifts towards the blue or red end of the electromagnetic spectrum can be observed [40]. Stellar spectroscopy can thus detect subtleties impossible to observe through direct imaging, wherein the faint light of a planet is often drowned out by its parent star [41]. In addition, Doppler Shift helps astronomers avoid false positives when objects other than planets darken a stars luminosity [42].

FIGURE 5
TO VIEW A STARS SPECTRUM, THE STARS LIGHT IS SHINED THROUGH A PRISM SO IT CAN BE SEPARATED INTO INDIVIDUAL COLORS [35].

Not every spectrum looks like a wide range of colors with several absorption lines. In fact, emission spectra show just the opposite. When chemists send an electric current through a single element, the resulting spectrum looks drastically differentmostly black with only a few lines of color. Every element creates a unique pattern of emission linesas distinctive as a humans fingerprint [36]. The presence of certain elements in a star can be found by observing the patterns of colored and dark lines in the stars absorption spectrum. The patterned lines of the stellar spectrum are compared to spectra of pure elements observed in a lab. If the pattern of an elements spectrum and the stars spectrum match, then that element is present in the star [37].

WHAT ARE WE LOOKING FOR? TERRESTRIAL PLANETS

Newfound interest in extrasolar planets, and improved methods for finding and confirming them, have opened new discussions on the consequences of our solar system, and perhaps our life-supporting home, no longer being unique. In searching for Earth-like planets beyond our solar system, scientists must establish what it means to be Earth-like. What qualities must a planet have in order to be considered terrestrial? Mass: A planet similar to Earth in mass will not exert too much or too little gravity to allow life to form [43]. Mass can be calculated through a combination of the Doppler Effect, Keplers Laws of planetary motion, and Newtons laws of motion and gravity [44]. Composition: Astronomers search for rocky [as opposed to gaseous] planets with a mantle and molten core, and an atmosphere like our own [45]. Chemical composition of planets can be found using spectroscopy [46].

Further life-supporting qualities include: Temperature: Planets in the aptly named Goldilocks Zonenot too hot, not too coldare considered most likely to encourage the development of life [47]. Their temperatures range between the freezing and boiling point of water. Temperature can be inferred by spectroscopy and observing the planets distance from its parent star [48]. Water: Many biologists believe life on Earth began in the hydrosphere [49]. Thus the search for life in space includes a search for water, which can also be observed using spectroscopy [50]. As evidenced by the listed methods for determining each of these factors, the same techniques used to hunt for exoplanets can be used to reveal which planets are the most likely candidates for supporting extraterrestrial life. Not only does this aid researchers who search for signs of life by specifying where they should be pointing their telescopes, it

FIGURE 6
BLUE SHIFT AND RED SHIFT IN STELLAR SPECTRA [38]: A STARS APPROACH AND WITHDRAWAL CAUSES ABSORPTION LINES TO SHIFT.

Doppler shift occurs when the patterns of the emission spectra of elements and the absorption spectra of stars match, but the line pattern on the stellar spectrum is offset to the left or right, as illustrated in figure 6. If the same star is observed over time and there is a planet orbiting it, its spectrum will show a regular red-blue-red-blue shift pattern as the planet causes it to wobble [39].

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opens the public up to considering the possibility of life outside of planet earthperhaps one of the most intriguing consequences of studying planets orbiting faraway stars. has already created, causing an observer to perceive faster moving waves (if the object is approaching) or slower moving waves (if the object is receding). Light is a wave whose higher frequency shows as blue light (again, when an object approaches) and lower frequency shows as red light (when the object withdraws) [61]. This shift is seen not in visible light, but in an observed stars spectrum as viewed through a spectroscope. Spectroscopy shows us much about a star: simply by observing its radiation, we can calculate other properties of a planet, from chemical composition to temperature [62]. Though Doppler Shift is superior in reliability and accuracy, it is still best used in conjunction with the other methods discussedtheir combination leads to a possibility to glean a wealth of knowledge from a star simply by observing properties of its light.

IN THE NEWS
The California & Carnegie Planet Search funds researchers at Keck Observatory, who were the first to find a Goldilocks exoplanet [51]. A Goldilocks planet is far enough from its star so that its surface temperature is below the boiling point of water, but close enough that the temperature is above waters freezing point [52]. Astronomers observed a 1.6 meter per second change in the stars velocity and using a combination of the Doppler Effect, Keplers laws, and Newtons laws, found that there was a planet, calculated its mass and distance from its parent star [53]. Geoff Marcy, the second scientist and first American to discover planets outside of our solar system [54], has been searching for planets that tug on their parent stars since long before the exoplanet hunt was popular. Marcy strives to answer questions like, how common are habitable Earthlike planets? How far do we have to travel to find the nearest, lukewarm, rocky planet with an atmosphere? And, perhaps in the future, how common is intelligent life in the galaxy? Marcy recently remarked on the changes he has encountered since beginning his work in 1983, stating that Its fundamentally the same. Except Im now dedicated to the Kepler project, which makes life one enormous step easierNow, when I point the telescope, and Im using the Keck telescope in Hawaii, I know theres a planet there because Kepler said so. Marcy hints that perhaps the best method for finding planets is a combination of tools Kepler identifies potential planets, allowing astronomers to look towards likely candidates for terrestrial planets instead of blindly pointing telescopes at the sky. Astronomers can then confirm which of these candidates truly are extrasolar planets and calculate further information on their mass, orbital period, and composition through spectroscopy [55].

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I must thank my kind friends for feigning interest in my constant jabber about exoplanets through lunch and coffee dates. Also, for their encouragement through countless late nights at the librarythey are what college memories are made of. For helping me choose a topic after weeks of indecisionsomething that should have been obvious after so thoroughly enjoying her astronomy classmany thanks to Dr. Jessica Uscinski. Most importantly, for enduring the delays and capriciousness of a fellow right-brained worker, and never failing to provide inspiration, mentorship, and strong coffee, Dr. Teresa Larkin will always have my gratitude and respect.

REFERENCES
[1] Schneider, J. "Interactive Extra-solar Planets Catalog." The Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia. Laboratoire De L'Univers Et De Ses Thories, 1 Feb. 2011. Web. 11 Feb. 2011. http://exoplanet.eu/catalog.php [2] Perlman, Claire. "Kepler Mission Discovers 1,235 Possible New Planets." The Daily Californian. UC Berkley, 4 Feb. 2011. Web. 11 Feb.2011. <http://www.dailycal.org/article/111786/kepler_mission_discovers_1_ 235_possible_new_planet>. [3] Mayor, M., and Frei, P. New Worlds in the Cosmos: the Discovery of Exoplanets. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2003. [4] Choi, Charles Q. "New Technique Will Photograph Earth-Like Planets." Space.com. Tech Media Network, 18 Apr. 2007. Web. 12 Feb. 2011. <http://www.space.com/3708-technique-photograph-Earthplanets.html>. [5] Ref. 3 [6] Townsend, R. "The Search For Extrasolar Planets." Mad Star. University of Wisconsin, 13 Oct. 2009. Web. 11 Feb. 2011. <http://www.astro.wisc.edu/~townsend/static.php?ref=diploma-2>. [7] Boss, Alan. The Crowded Universe: the Search for Living Planets. New York: Basic, 2009. [8] Chaisson, E. Astronomy: a Beginner's Guide to the Universe. 6th ed. Benjamin-Cummings Pub, 2009. pp 127-31. Print. [9] Ref. 4 [10] Ref. 8

SUMMARY
There are three main methods used to search for exoplanetsplanets outside the solar system. On some occasions, powerful telescopes take direct images of planets orbiting stars [56]. In other cases, the small shadow a planet creates as it passes in front of a star once every orbit causes a periodic dip in the stars brightness [57]. The method used to confirm a planet sighted by either of the other methods utilizes Doppler Shift [58]. A planet revolving around a star causes the star to wobble, in accordance with Newtons third law [59]. As the star regularly moves closer to, then farther away from, Earth, its light regularly shifts from red to blue [60]. This shift in the stars light happens because as a waves source moves through space, it pushes against the waves it April 15, 2011

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[11] Kalas, P. Fomalhaut System. Digital image. NASA Images. Web. 12 Feb.2011. <http://www.nasa.gov/images/content/289899main_fomalhaut_actual _HI.jpg>. [12] How to Make a Hubble Galaxy in Two Minutes. Video. NASA Images. Web. 30 March 2011. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p5c1XoL1KFs. [13] Ref. 8 [14] Sulehria, Fahad. Detecting Extrasolar Planets. Digital image. Nova Celestia. 2010. Web. 11 Feb. 2011. <http://novacelestia.com/images/extrasolar_photometric_transit_meth od.html>. [15] Ref. 6 [16] Ref. 8 [17] Ref. 8 [18] Ref. 6 [19] Ref. 6 [20] Hewitt, Paul G. Figure 19.16. Conceptual Physics. 11th ed. Boston: Addison-Wesley, 2010. Print. [21] Ref. 6 [22] Eden, Alec. The Search for Christian Doppler. Vienna: Springer, 1992. Print. [23] Ref. 20 [24] Ref. 20 [25] Ref. 20 [26] Ref. 22 [27] Ref. 20 [28] Ref. 8 [29] Ref. 20 [30] Ref. 20 [31] Ref. 20 [32] Ref. 8 [33] Robinson, K. Spectroscopy: The Key to the Stars. [New York]: Springer, 2007. [34] Ref. 8 [35] Amazing Space. What Does a Spectroscope Do? Digital image. Telescopes from the Ground Up. NASA, 2005. Web. 12 Feb. 2011. <http://amazing-space.stsci.edu/resources/explorations/groundup/ lesson/basics/g23/>. [36] Ref. 8 [37] Ref. 33 [38] Harcourt, Inc. The Doppler Effect. Digital image. Astronomy Supplements. Robert O' Connell. Oct. 2010. Web. 12 Feb. 2011. <http://www.astro.virginia.edu/class/oconnell/astr121/guide10s04.html>. [39] Ref .6 [40] Ref. 6 [41] Ref. 4 [42] Ref. 6 [43] Mix, Lucas J. Life in Space: Astrobiology for Everyone. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 2009. Print. [44] Ref. 8 [45] Ref. 43 [46] Ref. 33 [47] Ref. 8 [48] Ref. 43 [49] Ref. 43 [50] Ref. 33 [51] Keck Observatory. "Keck Observatory Discovers the First Goldilocks Exoplanet." W. M. Keck Observatory. 29 Sept. 2010. Web. 12 Feb. 2011. <http://www.keckobservatory.org/news/keck_observatory_ discovers_the_first_goldilocks_exoplanet/>. [52] Ref. 8 [53] Ref. 51 [54] Grossman, Lisa. "Exclusive: Chat With Exoplanet Guru Geoff Marcy." Wired.com. Cond Nast Digital, 2 Feb. 2011. Web. 20 Feb. 2011. <http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2011/02/geoff-marcy-qa/>.

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