2.3.

555 TIMER
2.3.1. Introduction One of the most versatile linear ICs is the 555 timer which was first introduced in early 1970 by Signetic Corporation giving the name as SE/NE 555 timer. This IC is a monolithic timing circuit that can produce accurate and highly stable time delays or oscillation. Like other commonly used op-amps, this IC is also very much reliable, easy to use and cheaper in cost. It has a variety of applications including monostable and astable multivibrators, dc-dc converters, digital logic probes, waveform generators, analog frequency meters and tachometers, temperature measurement and control devices, voltage regulators etc. The timer basically operates in one of the two modes either as a monostable (one-shot) multivibrator or as an astable (free-running) multivibrator.The SE 555 is designed for the operating temperature range from 55C to 125 while the NE 555 operates over a temperature range of 0 to 70C. 2.3.2. Pin Diagram

Pin DIP pin configuration of 555timer

2.3.3. Pin description Pin 1: Grounded Terminal: All the voltages are measured with respect to this terminal. Pin 2: Trigger Terminal: This pin is an inverting input to a comparator that is responsible for transition of flip-flop from set to reset. The output of the timer depends on the amplitude of the external trigger pulse applied to this pin.

Pin 3: Output Terminal: Output of the timer is available at this pin. There are two ways in which a load can be connected to the output terminal either between pin 3 and ground pin (pin 1) or between pin 3 and supply pin (pin 8). The load connected between pin 3 and ground supply pin is called the normally on load and that connected between pin 3 and ground pin is called the normally off load. Pin 4: Reset Terminal: To disable or reset the timer a negative pulse is applied to this pin due to which it is referred to as reset terminal. When this pin is not to be used for reset purpose, it should be connected to + VCC to avoid any possibility of false triggering. Pin 5: Control Voltage Terminal: The function of this terminal is to control the threshold and trigger levels. Thus either the external voltage or a pot connected to this pin determines the pulse width of the output waveform. The external voltage applied to this pin can also be used to modulate the output waveform. When this pin is not used, it should be connected to ground through a 0.01 micro Farad to avoid any noise problem. Pin 6: Threshold Terminal: This is the non-inverting input terminal of comparator 1, which compares the voltage applied to the terminal with a reference voltage of 2/3 VCC. The amplitude of voltage applied to this terminal is responsible for the set state of flip-flop. Pin 7: Discharge Terminal: This pin is connected internally to the collector of transistor and mostly a capacitor is connected between this terminal and ground. It is called discharge terminal because when transistor saturates, capacitor discharges through the transistor.When the transistor is cut-off, the capacitor charges at a rate determined by the external resistor and capacitor. Pin 8: Supply Terminal: A supply voltage of + 5 V to + 18 V is applied to this terminal with respect to ground (pin 1).

2.3.4 The important features of the 555 timer are:

It operates from a wide range of power supplies ranging from + 5 Volts to + 18 Volts supply voltage. Sinking or sourcing 200 mA of load current. The external components should be selected properly so that the timing intervals can be made into several minutes. Proper selection of only a few external components allows timing intervals of several minutes along with the frequencies exceeding several hundred kilo hertz. It has a high current output; the output can drive TTL. It has a temperature stability of 50 parts per million (ppm) per degree Celsius change in temperature, or equivalently 0.005 %/ C. The duty cycle of the timer is adjustable with the maximum power dissipation per package is 600 mW and its trigger and reset inputs are logic compatible.

Block diagram of 555 Timer. The block diagram of a 555 timer is shown in the above figure. A 555 timer has two comparators, which are basically 2 op-amps), an R-S flip-flop, two transistors and a resistive network.

Resistive network consists of three equal resistors and acts as a voltage divider. Comparator 1 compares threshold voltage with a reference voltage + 2/3 VCC volts. Comparator 2 compares the trigger voltage with a reference voltage + 1/3 VCC volts.

Output of both the comparators is supplied to the flip-flop. Flip-flop assumes its state according to the output of the two comparators. One of the two transistors is a discharge transistor of which collector is connected to pin 7. This transistor saturates or cuts-off according to the output state of the flip-flop. The saturated transistor provides a discharge path to a capacitor connected externally. Base of another transistor is connected to a reset terminal. A pulse applied to this terminal resets the whole timer irrespective of any input.

2.3.5. Working Principle Refer Block Diagram of 555 timer IC given above: Comparator 1 has a threshold input (pin 6) and a control input (pin 5). In most applications, the control input is not used, so that the control voltage equals +2/3 VCC. Output of this comparator is applied to set (S) input of the flip-flop. Whenever the threshold voltage exceeds the control voltage, comparator 1 will set the flip-flop and its output is high. A high output from the flip-flop saturates the discharge transistor and discharge the capacitor connected externally to pin 7. The complementary signal out of the flip-flop goes to pin 3, the output. The output available at pin 3 is low. These conditions will prevail until comparator 2 triggers the flip-flop. Even if the voltage at the threshold input falls below 2/3 VCC, that is comparator 1 cannot cause the flip-flop to change again. It means that the comparator 1 can only force the flip-flops output high. To change the output of flip-flop to low, the voltage at the trigger input must fall below + 1/3 Vcc. When this occurs, comparator 2 triggers the flip-flop, forcing its output low. The low output from the flip-flop turns the discharge transistor off and forces the power amplifier to output a high. These conditions will continue independent of the voltage on the trigger input. Comparator 2 can only cause the flip-flop to output low. From the above discussion it is concluded that for the having low output from the timer 555, the voltage on the threshold input must exceed the control voltage or + 2/3 VCC. They also turn the discharge transistor on. To force the output from the timer high, the voltage on the trigger input must drop below +1/3 VCC. This also turns the discharge transistor off. A voltage may be applied to the control input to change the levels at which the switching occurs. When not in use, a 0.01 nano Farad capacitor should be connected between pin 5 and ground to prevent noise coupled onto this pin from causing false triggering. Connecting the reset (pin 4) to a logic low will place a high on the output of flip-flop. The discharge transistor will go on and the power amplifier will output a low. This condition will continue until reset is taken high. This allows synchronization or resetting of the circuits operation. When not in use, reset should be tied to +VCC.

2.3.6 Modes of operation The 555 has three operating modes:

Monostable mode: in this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot" pulse generator. Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bounce free switches, touch switches, frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM) and so on. Astable: free running mode: the 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses include LED and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms, pulse

position modulation and so on. The 555 can be used as a simple ADC, converting an analog value to a pulse length. E.g. selecting a thermistor as timing resistor allows the use of the 555 in a temperature sensor: the period of the output pulse is determined by the temperature. The use of a microprocessor based circuit can then convert the pulse period to temperature, linearize it and even provide calibration means. Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin is not connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bounce-free latched switches.

2.4. SENSORS
2.4.1. Introduction to Sensors A sensor is a device that produces a measurable response to a change in a physical condition, such as temperature or thermal conductivity, or to a change in chemical concentration. Sensors are particularly useful for making in-situ measurements such as in industrial process control. Sensors are an important part to any measurement and automation application. The sensor is responsible for converting some type of physical phenomenon into a quantity measurable by a data acquisition (DAQ) system. Choosing a Sensor Factors to consider when choosing a sensor:

Accuracy - The statistical variance about the exact reading. Calibration - Required for most measuring systems since their readings will drift over time. Cost Environmental - Sensors typically have temperature and/or humidity limits. Range - Limits of measurement or the sensor. Repeatability - The variance in a sensor's reading when a single condition is repeatedly measured. Resolution - The smallest increment the sensor can detect.

2.4.2. Sensor Classification Sensor classification schemes range from very simple to the complex. One good way to look at a sensor is to consider all of its properties, such as stimulus, specifications, physical phenomenon and conversion mechanism, material and application field.

For machine tools, sensor's conversion phenomena are mainly physical phenomena such as thermoelectric, photoelectric, photomagnetic, electromagnetic, magnetoelectric, thermoelastic, thermomagnetic, thermooptic, photoelastic, and so on.

Optical Sensors An Optical Sensor generates an output signal indicating the intensity of light by measuring the radiant energy that exists in a very narrow range of frequencies basically called "light", and which ranges in frequency from "Infrared" to "Visible" up to "Ultraviolet" light spectrum. The optical sensor is a passive devices that convert this "light energy" whether visible or in the infrared parts of the spectrum into an electrical signal output. Light sensors are more commonly known as "Photoelectric Devices" or "Photo Sensors" becuse the convert light energy (photons) into electricity (electrons). Photoelectric devices can be grouped into two main categories, those which generate electricity when illuminated, such as Photo-voltaics or Photo-emissives etc, and those which change their electrical properties in some way such as Photo-resistors or Photo-conductors. This leads to the following classification of devices. Photo-emissive Cells - These are photodevices which release free electrons from a light sensitive material such as caesium when struck by a photon of sufficient energy. The amount of energy the photons have depends on the frequency of the light and the higher the frequency, the more energy the photons have converting light energy into electrical energy. Photo-conductive Cells - These photodevices vary their electrical resistance when subjected to light. Photoconductivity results from light hitting a semiconductor material which controls the current flow through it. Thus, more light increase the current for a given applied voltage. The most common photoconductive material is Cadmium Sulphide used in LDR photocells. Photo-voltaic Cells - These photodevices generate an emf in proportion to the radiant light energy received and is similar in effect to photoconductivity. Light energy falls on to two

semiconductor materials sandwiched together creating a voltage of approximately 0.5V. The most common photovoltaic material is Selenium used in solar cells. Photo-junction Devices - These photodevices are mainly true semiconductor devices such as the photodiode or phototransistor which use light to control the flow of electrons and holes across their PN-junction. Photojunction devices are specifically designed for detector application and light penetration with their spectral response tuned to the wavelength of incident light.

The Photoconductive Cell A Photoconductive light sensor does not produce electricity but simply changes its physical properties when subjected to light energy. The most common type of photoconductive device is the Photoresistor which changes its electrical resistance in response to changes in the light intensity. Photoresistors are semiconductor devices that use light energy to control the flow of electrons, and hence the current flowing through them. The commonly used Photoconductive Cell is called the Light Dependent Resistor or LDR. 2.4.3. LDR The internal components of a photoelectric control for a typical American streetlight.The photoresistor is facing rightwards, and controls whether current flows through the heater which opens the main power contacts. At night, the heater cools, closing the power contacts, energizing the street light. The heater/bimetal mechanism provides a built-in time-delay. A photoresistor or LDR is an electronic component whose resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity. It can also be referred to as a light-dependent resistor (LDR), photoconductor, or photocell.

LDR Circuit Symbol

Working A photoresistor is made of a high-resistance semiconductor. It is relatively easy to understand the basics of how an LDR works without delving into complicated explanations. It is first necessary to understand that an electrical current consists of the movement of electrons within a material. Good conductors have a large number of free electrons that can drift in a given direction under the action of a potential difference. Insulators with a high resistance have very few free electrons, and therefore it is hard to make them move and hence a current to flow. An LDR or photoresistor is made any semiconductor (such as Cadmium Sulphide) material with a high resistance. It has a high resistance because there are very few electrons that are free and able to move the vast majority of the electrons are locked into the crystal lattice and unable to move. Therefore in this state there is a high LDR resistance. As light falls on the semiconductor, the light photons are absorbed by the semiconductor lattice and some of their energy is transferred to the electrons. This gives some of them sufficient energy to break free from the crystal lattice so that they can then conduct electricity. This results in a lowering of the resistance of the semiconductor and hence the overall LDR resistance. The resistance of the LDR decreases as the intensity of the light falling on it increases. Incident photons drive electrons from the valency band into the conduction band.

The process is progressive, and as more light shines on the LDR semiconductor, so more electrons are released to conduct electricity and the resistance falls further. A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An intrinsic semiconductor has its own charge carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor, eg. silicon. In intrinsic devices, the only available electrons are in the valence band, and hence the photon must have enough energy to excite the electron across the entire bandgap. Extrinsic devices have impurities added, which have a ground state energy closer to the conduction band since the electrons don't have as far to jump, lower energy photons (i.e. longer wavelengths and lower frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. If a sample of silicon has some of its atoms replaced by phosphorus atoms

(impurities), there will be extra electrons available for conduction. This is an example of an extrinsic semiconductor.

2.5. TRANSISTOR
The discovery of the first transistor in 1948 by a team of physicists at the Bell Telephone Laboratories sparked an interest in solid-state research that spread rapidly. The transistor, which began as a simple laboratory oddity, was rapidly developed into a semiconductor device of major importance. The transistor demonstrated for the first time in history that amplification in solids was possible. Before the transistor, amplification was achieved only with electron tubes. Transistors now perform numerous electronic tasks with new and improved transistor designs being continually put on the market. In many cases, transistors are more desirable than tubes because they are small, rugged, require no filament power, and operate at low voltages with comparatively high efficiency. The development of a family of transistors has even made possible the miniaturization of electronic circuits. 2.5.1. BC 147 BC transistors are general purpose transistors which could be used for pulse amplitude modulation or any audio applications. BC 147 CODE stands for base collector transistor where the amplifying factor is 147 where B is the junction material, in this case, Silicon.

C is the application. In this case it means low power audio frequency. 147 is just a number with no particular system.

Pin Diagram

Bipolar transistors have five distinct regions of operation, defined by BJT junction biases.

The relationship between

and

The modes of operation can be described in terms of the applied voltages (this description applies to NPN transistors; polarities are reversed for PNP transistors):

Forward-active: base higher than emitter, collector higher than base (in this mode the collector current is proportional to base current by ). Saturation: base higher than emitter, but collector is not higher than base. Cut-Off: base lower than emitter, but collector is higher than base. It means the transistor is not letting conventional current to go through collector to emitter. Reverse-active: base lower than emitter, collector lower than base: reverse conventional current goes through transistor.

In terms of junction biasing: ('reverse biased basecollector junction' means Vbc < 0 for NPN, opposite for PNP)

Active: The baseemitter junction is forward biased and the basecollector junction is reverse biased. Most bipolar transistors are designed to afford the greatest common-emitter current gain, F, in forward-active mode. If this is the case, the collectoremitter current is approximately proportional to the base current, but many times larger, for small base current variations. Saturation: With both junctions forward-biased, a BJT is in saturation mode and facilitates high current conduction from the emitter to the collector (or the other direction in the case of NPN, with negatively charged carriers flowing from emitter to collector). This mode corresponds to a logical "on", or a closed switch.

Cutoff: In cutoff, biasing conditions opposite of saturation (both junctions reverse biased) are present. There is very little current, which corresponds to a logical "off", or an open switch. Avalanche breakdown region

Although these regions are well defined for sufficiently large applied voltage, they overlap somewhat for small (less than a few hundred millivolts) biases. For example, in the typical grounded-emitter configuration of an NPN BJT used as a pulldown switch in digital logic, the "off" state never involves a reverse-biased junction because the base voltage never goes below ground; nevertheless the forward bias is close enough to zero that essentially no current flows, so this end of the forward active region can be regarded as the cutoff region.

2.6. COUNTERS
In digital logic and computing, a counter is a device which stores (and sometimes displays) the number of times a particular event or process has occurred, often in relationship to a clock signal. In electronics, counters can be implemented quite easily using register-type circuits such as the flip-flop, and a wide variety of classifications exist:

Asynchronous (ripple) counter changing state bits are used as clocks to subsequent state flip-flops Synchronous counter all state bits change under control of a single clock Decade counter counts through ten states per stage Up/down counter counts both up and down, under command of a control input Ring counter formed by a shift register with feedback connection in a ring Johnson counter a twisted ring counter Cascaded counter Modulus counter.

Each is useful for different applications. Usually, counter circuits are digital in nature, and count in natural binary. Many types of counter circuits are available as digital building blocks, for example a number of chips in the 4000 series implement different counters. Occasionally there are advantages to using a counting sequence other than the natural binary sequencesuch as the binary coded decimal counter, a linear feedback shift register counter, or a Gray-code counter. Counters are useful for digital clocks and timers, and in oven timers, VCR clocks, etc. Asynchronous (ripple) counter

Asynchronous counter created from two JK flip-flops An asynchronous (ripple) counter is a single JK-type flip-flop, with its J (data) input fed from its own inverted output. This circuit can store one bit, and hence can count from zero to one before it overflows (starts over from 0). This counter will increment once for every clock cycle and takes two clock cycles to overflow, so every cycle it will alternate between a transition from 0 to 1 and a transition from 1 to 0. Notice that this creates a new clock with a 50% duty cycle at exactly half the frequency of the input clock. If this output is then used as the clock signal for a similarly arranged D flip-flop (remembering to invert the output to the input), you will get another 1 bit counter that counts half as fast. Putting them together yields a two-bit counter: Cycle Q1 Q0 (Q1:Q0)dec

You can continue to add additional flip-flops, always inverting the output to its own input, and using the output from the previous flip-flop as the clock signal. The result is called a ripple counter, which can count to 2n 1 where n is the number of bits (flip-flop stages) in the counter. Ripple counters suffer from unstable outputs as the overflows "Ripple" from stage to stage, but

they do find frequent application as dividers for clock signals, where the instantaneous count is unimportant, but the division ratio overall is (to clarify this, a 1-bit counter is exactly equivalent to a divide by two circuit; the output frequency is exactly half that of the input when fed with a regular train of clock pulses). The use of flip-flop outputs as clocks leads to timing skew between the count data bits, making this ripple technique incompatible with normal synchronous circuit design styles. Synchronous counter

A 4-bit synchronous counter using JK flip-flops A simple way of implementing the logic for each bit of an ascending counter (which is what is depicted in the image to the right) is for each bit to toggle when all of the less significant bits are at a logic high state. For example, bit 1 toggles when bit 0 is logic high; bit 2 toggles when both bit 1 and bit 0 are logic high; bit 3 toggles when bit 2, bit 1 and bit 0 are all high; and so on. Synchronous counters can also be implemented with hardware finite state machines, which are more complex but allow for smoother, more stable transitions. Hardware-based counters are of this type. Decade counter

A circuit diagram of decade counter using JK FlipFlops(74LS112D)

A decade counter is one that counts in decimal digits, rather than binary. A decade counter may have each digit binary encoded (that is, it may count in binary-coded decimal, as the 7490 integrated circuit did) or other binary encodings (such as the bi-quinary encoding of the 7490 integrated circuit). Alternatively, it may have a "fully decoded" or one-hotoutput code in which each output goes high in turn (the 4017 is such a circuit). The latter type of circuit finds applications in multiplexers and demultiplexers, or wherever a scanning type of behavior is useful. Similar counters with different numbers of outputs are also common. The decade counter is also known as a mod-counter when it counts to ten (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9). A Mod Counter that counts to 64 stops at 63 because 0 counts as a valid digit. Up/down counter A counter that can change state in either direction, under the control of an up/down selector input, is known as an up/down counter. When the selector is in the up state, the counter increments its value. When the selector is in the down state, the counter decrements the count. Ring counter A ring counter is a circular shift register which is initiated such that only one of its flip-flops is the state one while others are in their zero states. A ring counter is a Shift Register (a cascade connection of flip-flops) with the output of the last one connected to the input of the first, that is, in a ring. Typically, a pattern consisting of a single bit is circulated so the state repeats every n clock cycles if n flip-flops are used. It can be used as a cycle counter of n states. Johnson counter A Johnson counter (or switchtail ring counter, twisted-ring counter, walking-ring counter, or Moebius counter) is a modified ring counter, where the output from the last stage is inverted and fed back as input to the first stage.The register cycles through a sequence of bit-patterns, whose length is equal to twice the length of the shift register, continuing indefinitely. These counters find specialist applications, including those similar to the decade counter, digital-to-analog conversion, etc. They can be implemented easily using D- or JK-type flip-flops. Asynchronous Decade Counter A decade counter requires resetting to zero when the output count reaches the decimal value of 10, ie. when DCBA = 1010 and to do this we need to feed this condition back to the reset input. A counter with a count sequence from binary "0000" (BCD = "0") through to "1001" (BCD = "9") is generally referred to as a BCD binary-coded-decimal counter because its ten state sequence is that of a BCD code but binary decade counters are more common.

This type of asynchronous counter counts upwards on each leading edge of the input clock signal starting from "0000" until it reaches an output "1010" (decimal 10). Both outputs QB and QD are now equal to logic "1" and the output from the NAND gate changes state from logic "1" to a logic "0" level and whose output is also connected to the CLEAR (CLR) inputs of all the J-K Flip-flops. This signal causes all of the Q outputs to be reset back to binary "0000" on the count of 10. Once QB andQD are both equal to logic "0" the output of the NAND gate returns back to a logic level "1" and the counter restarts again from "0000". We now have a decade or Modulo10 counter. Decade Counter Truth Table Clock Count 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Output bit Pattern Decimal Value QD QC QB QA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 2 0 0 1 1 3 0 1 0 0 4 0 1 0 1 5 0 1 1 0 6 0 1 1 1 7 1 0 0 0 8 1 0 0 1 9 Counter Resets its Outputs back to Zero

Decade Counter Timing Diagram

2.7. SEVEN SEGMENT DISPLAY

2.7.1. Introduction A seven-segment display (SSD), or seven-segment indicator, is a form of electronic display device for displaying decimal numerals that is an alternative to the more complex dot-matrix displays. Seven-segment displays are widely used in digital clocks, electronic meters, and other electronic devices for displaying numerical information. The size of the display panel is 90mm x 121mm and it provides a clear visual output.

Pin Diagram

7-Segment Display Pin Description

The7-segment display has 10 pins. Seven pins correspond to the seven LED segments, one pin corresponds to the decimal point, and two pins select which digit is being activated. Both digits can be activated simultaneously, however they would not be able to display independent digits in such a manner. To achieve multi-digit display, the digits must alternate back and forth at a rate preferably greater than 45 Hz for a complete cycle of display (approximately the flicker fusion frequency for the human eye, allowing it to appear that all displayed digits are on continuously).

The7-segment display has 10 pins and they are designated as follows: Pin 1: Segment "C" Pin 2: Decimal Point Pin 3: Segment "E" Pin 4: Select pin for the second digit Pin 5: Segment "D" Pin 6: Segment "F" Pin 7: Segment "G" Pin 8: Segment "B" Pin 9: Select pin for the first digit Pin 10: Segment "A"

Important Features:

4 digit red alpha-numeric display with serial (1 pin) or SPI interface (3 pins) Display numbers, most letters, and a few special characters Individual control of decimal points, apostrophe, and colon Selectable baud rate (4800 to 57600 bps) Selectable brightness Baud rate and brightness values retained in non-volatile memory Individual segment control for each digit

Concept and visual structure: Typically 7-segment displays consist of seven individual coloured LED's (called the segments), within one single display package. In order to produce the required numbers or HEX characters from 0 to 9 and A to F respectively, on the display the correct combination of LED segments need to be illuminated A standard 7-segment LED display generally has 8 input connections, one for each LED segment and one that acts as a common terminal or connection for all the internal display segments. Some single displays have also have an additional input pin to display a decimal point in their lower right or left hand corner.

7-Segment Display Elements for all Numbers It can be seen that to display any single digit number from 1 to 9 or letter from A to F, we would need 7 separate segment connections plus one additional connection for the LED's "common" connection. Also as the segments are basically a standard light emitting diode, the driving circuit would need to produce up to 20mA of current to illuminate each individual segment and to

display the number 8, all 7 segments would need to be lit resulting a total current of nearly 140mA, (8 x 20mA). Types In electronics there are two important types of 7-segment LED digital display. 1. The Common Cathode Display (CCD) In the common cathode display, all the cathode connections of the LED's are joined together to logic "0" and the individual segments are illuminated by application of a "HIGH", logic "1" signal to the individual Anode terminals.

Common Cathode internal wiring

2. The Common Anode Display (CAD) In the common anode display, all the anode connections of the LED's are joined together to logic "1" and the individual segments are illuminated by connecting the individual Cathode terminals to a "LOW", logic "0" signal.

Common anode internal wiring

ICs IN THE CIRCUIT

3.1. 555 TIMER IN MONOSTABLE MODE

Pin 1 is grounded. Trigger input is applied to pin 2. In quiescent condition of output this input is kept at + VCC. To obtain transition of output from stable state to quasi-stable state, a negativegoing pulse of narrow width (a width smaller than expected pulse width of output waveform) and amplitude of greater than + 2/3 VCC is applied to pin 2. Output is taken from pin 3. Pin 4 is usually connected to + VCC to avoid accidental reset. Pin 5 is grounded through a 0.01 u F capacitor to avoid noise problem. Pin 6 (threshold) is shorted to pin 7. A resistor RA is connected between pins 6 and 8. At pins 7 a discharge capacitor is connected while pin 8 is connected to supply VCC.

Initially, when the output at pin 3 is low i.e. the circuit is in a stable state, the transistor is on and capacitor- C is shorted to ground. When a negative pulse is applied to pin 2, the trigger input falls below +1/3 VCC, the output of comparator goes high which resets the flip-flop and consequently the transistor turns off and the output at pin 3 goes high. This is the transition of the output from stable to quasi-stable state, as shown in figure. As the discharge transistor is cutoff, the capacitor C begins charging toward +VCC through resistance RA with a time constant equal to RAC. When the increasing capacitor voltage becomes slightly greater than +2/3 VCC, the output of comparator 1 goes high, which sets the flip-flop. The transistor goes to saturation, thereby discharging the capacitor C and the output of the timer goes low, as illustrated in figure.

Monostable Multivibrator Design Using 555 timer IC The capacitor C has to charge through resistance RA. The larger the time constant RAC, the longer it takes for the capacitor voltage to reach +2/3VCC. In other words, the RC time constant controls the width of the output pulse. The time during which the timer output remains high is given as tp = 1.0986 RAC where RA is in ohms and C is in farads. The above relation is derived as below. Voltage across the capacitor at any instant during charging period is given as vc = VCC (1- e-t/RAC) Substituting vc = 2/3 VCC in above equation we get the time taken by the capacitor to charge from 0 to +2/3VCC. So +2/3VCC. = VCC. (1 e-t/RAC) or t RAC loge 3 = 1.0986 RAC So pulse width, tP = 1.0986 RAC s 1.1 RAC The pulse width of the circuit may range from micro-seconds to many seconds. This circuit is widely used in industry for many different timing applications.

3.2. IC 74c926

3.3. BC 147 AS A SWITCH

BJT used as an electronic switch, in grounded-emitter configuration. Transistors are commonly used as electronic switches, both for high-power applications such as switched-mode power supplies and for low-power applications such as logic gates. In a grounded-emitter transistor circuit, such as the light-switch circuit shown, as the base voltage rises, the emitter and collector currents rise exponentially. The collector voltage drops because of the collector load resistance (in this example, the resistance of the light bulb). If the collector voltage were zero, the collector current would be limited only by the light bulb resistance and the supply voltage. The transistor is then said to be saturated - it will have a very small voltage from collector to emitter. Providing sufficient base drive current is a key problem in the use of bipolar transistors as switches. The transistor provides current gain, allowing a relatively large current in the collector to be switched by a much smaller current into the base terminal. The ratio of these currents varies depending on the type of transistor, and even for a particular type, varies depending on the collector current. In the example light-switch circuit shown, the resistor is chosen to provide enough base current to ensure the transistor will be saturated. In any switching circuit, values of input voltage would be chosen such that the output is either completely off, or completely on. The transistor is acting as a switch, and this type of operation is common in digital circuits where only "on" and "off" values are relevant.

4. WORKING
The circuit has one sensor fitted (at the waist-level) on the entry door. It consists of a light beam propagated on the LDR circuit. The circuit uses just one ic ie MM74c926 instead of a score of ics used for counting and controlling the displays. The ic 555 is set in monostable mode and helps avoiding fake counts. The LDR usually keeps pin 2 of the ic at logic 1 and output remains low. When the light from the bulb is interrupted by a person or object, it gives a 500ms pulse which clocks the counter, which counts the pulses. The count is displayed by means of seven segment displays. The BC147 transistors are used for switching and resistors are provided to limit the current. The circuit is provided with a reset switch. The circuit can count up to 9999 entering or leaving persons or counts or t h e n u m b e r o f o b j e c t s p a s s i n g o n conveyor belt (in an industry) etc. The counting capability of the circuit can be increased to ten million (10, 00,000) or even greater. The complete circuit is based on CMOS multiplexing LSI (Large Scale Integration) chip. Hence, it offers reliability at a relatively low cost.

FLOW CHART:
Showing the working principle of project:

On 5Vsupply

YES

In the presence of light

NO

Resistance of LDR is low

Resistance of LDR is high

555 timer generates clock pulses

Counter IC 74c926 counts the no of clock pulses

Displays the no in 7 segment display

STOP