BOOKfm 6

Ministry of High Education
El-Shorouk Academy
High Institute of Engineering
Electrical Power and Machines Department
DESIGN OF ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM FOR RESEDENTIAL AREAS
This thesis is submitted as a partial fulfilment of the requirements for the
Bachelor of Science Degree in Electrical Engineering
Supervised by
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Amged El Wakeel
Prepared by
Abdalla Tallat Tolba. Osama Abd El Mohsen Osman.
Abd El shafi Abdalla Bakr. Maisara Neyazy Abd El Sattar.
Ahmed Maged Ezzat. Mhdi Mohamed Emam.
Ahmed Mamdouh Abd El Mongy. Mohamed Abd El Aziz El Komy.
Ahmed Moatamed Saied. Mohamed Taha Abdalla.
Ahmed Mohamed Abd El Hamed. Mostafa Mohamed Abdo El Soaud.
Ahmed Younis Younis. Wael Mohamed El Hady.
Ahmed Zakaria Shokry. Wael Mohamed Sbak.
Amr Baiomy Saied. Walied Ali Khatab.
Amr Mohsen Gemei. Yaser Ragaey Mohamed.
El Sayed Mohamed Baraka.
Gaber Abd El Latif Gaber.
Hani Abd El Hamed Soliman.
Ibrahim Mohamed Kutp.
Islam Gaber Abd El Wahab.
Islam Mohamed Saeed.
ABSTRACT
In parallel to the increasing in population size, the requirement of new
residential buildings becomes vital particularly in crowded areas. In developing
countries such as Egypt, construction of residential buildings is being carried out
as part of strategic development programs. It is expected that residential buildings
should provide a safety and comfort and maximize the degree of resident
satisfaction within reasonable cost.
Residential buildings can encompass everything from a single apartment
or single-family dwelling unit to an apartment building with two hundred units.
Although residential designs vary greatly, there are considerations that must be
taken into account regardless of the size of the project. Location, materials,
safety, energy and cost are just a few of the things that should be kept in mind
during design stage. A good residence design shall take into consideration the
overall "streetscape" as well as the needs of individual occupants.
From above, it is clear that comprehensive and cohesive design
methodology for residential building including outlets distribution, load
estimation, branch circuit design, cable sizing, and switchboard design is a
difficult and specialised task. Comprehensive design is usually achieved through
a step-by-step procedure and design checks. Although, electrical Egyptian code
does cover residential building design, it does not ban the using of other
national/international codes. This enables us searching in different national codes
in order to achieve proper design.
In this project, constructional features of residential buildings are
explained in detail to explore their effects on indoor and outdoor lighting
schemes, elevator design, cable selection and protection system. Different design
methodologies have been applied throughout the work; however the design by
synthesis is applied for the most of the work including indoor and outdoor design.
Also different codes and regulation have been applied such as NEC, BS, Egyptian
Electrical code and IEE regulations.
III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ALL GRATITUDE IS DUE TO ALLAH
Thanks must go to Allah the creator of this universe who ordered us to study and
explore his creations in order to know him better. However, as we come to understand
more, we find that there is so much more knowledge to absorb and to get to grips with.
We would like to express our deepest gratitude to our supervisor Assoc
Prof. Dr. Amged El-Wakeel for his constant encouragement and invaluable suggestions
throughout this research work. His sacrifice, patience and devotion were a constant
inspiration to us.
Thanks are also due to
Prof. Mohamed Morsy Shanab the chairman of Electrical Power and Machines
Department for his valuable support during the years of our study that led to the
preparation of this work.
All our staff and fellow students in Electrical power Engineering department for
their invaluable discussions on many aspects of the project.
our families for their sincere encouragement and supplications.
All people who contributed to fulfilment of this work.

Project team
Cairo, July, 2010
IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................. III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................. IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................... V
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................... X
LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................... XI
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 1
1.1 General .................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Dwelling or Residential areas design ..................................................................... 1
1.3 Project Objectives .................................................................................................. 2
1.4 Outline ..................................................................................................................... 2
CHAPTER 2 ILLUMINATION SYSTEMS ......................................................................... 4
2.1 Indoor lighting ........................................................................................................ 4
2.1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 4
2.1.2 Basic Definitions ........................................................................................... 4
2.1.3 Types of lamps .............................................................................................. 6
2.1.4 Designing of the lighting scheme ............................................................... 11
2.1.5 method of calculations ................................................................................ 12
2.2 Street lighting: ....................................................................................................... 17
2.2.1 Introduction: ................................................................................................ 17
2.2.2 Arrangement of luminaries ......................................................................... 17
Street lighting arrangements...............................................................................18
Curves 19
2.2.3 Choose of lamps for street lighting ............................................................. 20
2.2.6 Calculation of street lighting: ................................................................... 20
2.2.4 llumination level for street for lighting and mounting height of lamps ..... 21
2.2.5 Methods of streets lighting design .............................................................. 22
2.3 Comparison between good and bad design of outdoor lighting .......................... 22
2.3.1 Bad Lighting design Examples ................................................................... 23
2.3.2 Good Lighting design Examples ............................................................... 24
CHAPTER 3 BRANCH CIRCUIT DESIGN ....................................................................... 26
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 26
3.2 General .................................................................................................................. 26
3.2.1 The definition of branch circuit .................................................................. 27
3.2.2 General purposes of branch circuit: ............................................................ 27
3.2.3 Individual branch circuit: ............................................................................ 27
V
3.2.4 Multi wire branch circuit : .......................................................................... 27
3.2.5 Rating of branch circuit: ............................................................................. 27
3.2.6 The electrical requirements for place have equipment or devices: ............ 28
3.2.7 Ungrounded conductors: ............................................................................. 29
3.3 Lighting branch circuit: ........................................................................................ 30
3.3.1 The electrical applications of different voltages: ...................................... 30
3.3.2 Continuous and non-continuous loads: ..................................................... 31
3.3.3 The ground fault circuit interrupter protection for personnel: .................. 33
3.3.4 Storage or equipment: ................................................................................ 33
3.3.5 Other than dwelling units: ........................................................................... 33
3.3.6 Lighting outlets required: ........................................................................... 33
3.3.7 15-and 20- ampere branch-circuit: ........................................................... 34
3.3.8 30-ampere branch circuits: ........................................................................ 34
3.3.9 Required outlets ........................................................................................ 34
3.3.10 Dwelling unit receptacle outlets: ............................................................ 35
3.3.11 40 and 50 Ampere branch circuit: .......................................................... 35
3.3.12 Branch circuits larger than 50 amperes: ................................................. 35
3.4 Receptacles ............................................................................................................ 35
3.4.1 Single Receptacle on an Individual Branch Circuit: .................................. 35
3.4.2 Total Cord-and-Plug-Connected Load: ...................................................... 35
3.4.3 Receptacle Ratings ...................................................................................... 36
3.4.4 Branch-Circuit Requirements Summary ............................................... 36
3.4.5 Dwelling Unit Receptacle Outlets .............................................................. 37
3.4.6 Spacing ........................................................................................................ 38
3.4.7 Wall Space .................................................................................................. 38
3.4.8 Floor Receptacles ........................................................................................ 38
3.4.9 Bathrooms ................................................................................................... 39
3.4.10 Hallways ................................................................................................... 40
3.4.11 Heating, Air-Conditioning, and Refrigeration Equipment Outlet .......... 40
3.4.12 Receptacle Outlets ................................................................................... 40
3.4.13 Small Appliance Circuit Load ................................................................. 42
3.4.14 Appliance Load Dwelling Unit(s) ...................................................... 42
3.4.15 Heating and Air-Conditioning Load ........................................................ 43
VI
3.5 Motor Branch Circuit Design ............................................................................... 44
3.5.1 Motor Overload protection ......................................................................... 45
3.5.2 Motor Branch-Circuit Short-Circuit and Ground-Fault Protection ........... 46
3.6 Components of low voltage distribution system .................................................. 49
3.6.1 Distribution transformer ............................................................................. 50
3.6.2 Distribution boxe (Pillar) ............................................................................ 50
3.6.3 Building box (coffree) ................................................................................ 51
CHAPTER 4 CABLE SIZING AND PANELBOARDE DESIGN ............................................ 52
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 52
4.2 Under Ground Cables ........................................................................................... 52
4.2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 52
4.2.2 Basic definition ........................................................................................... 53
4.2.3 Main Requirements OF Cable .................................................................... 55
4.2.4 General construction of cables .................................................................... 55
4.2.5 Type and classification of cables ................................................................ 62
4.2.6 Method of laying under ground cables ...................................................... 64
4.2.7 Method of laying under ground cable in special location .......................... 65
4.2.8 Cable Sizing ................................................................................................ 66
4.2.9 Voltage drop calculation: ............................................................................ 69
4.2.10 Calculation of short circuit current .......................................................... 70
4.3 Panelboards and power factor improvement ........................................................ 70
4.3.1 Panel boards ................................................................................................ 70
The selection of circuit breaker is based on: ...................................................... 76
4.3.2 Power Factor Improvement ........................................................................ 76
CHAPTER 5 GROUNDING AND STANDBY SYSTEMS .................................................... 78
5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 78
5.2 The main objectives of the grounding are to: ....................................................... 78
5.3 The qualities of a good grounding system are: .................................................... 78
5.4 System Grounding: ............................................................................................... 78
5.5 IEC nomenclature: ................................................................................................ 79
5.5.1 TN network: ................................................................................................ 80
5.5.2 TN-S: ........................................................................................................... 81
5.5.3 TN-C: .......................................................................................................... 81
5.5.4 TN-C-S grounding system: ......................................................................... 82
VII
5.5.5 TT network: ............................................................................................... 83
5.5.6 IT network: .................................................................................................. 83
5.5.7 Example of The Various Earthing Systems Included In The Same
Installation :: ......................................................................................................... 84
5.6 Earth Conductors: ................................................................................................. 84
5.6.1 Conductor sizing : ....................................................................................... 85
5.7 Earth Electrodes: ................................................................................................... 86
5.7.1 Rod Electrode: ............................................................................................. 87
5.7.2 Plates: .......................................................................................................... 88
5.7.3 Earth Plates (courtesy A N Wallis and Co): ............................................... 88
5.8 Earth Resistivity and Design of Driven Grounding: ............................................ 88
5.8.1 Calculation Procedure: ................................................................................ 88
5.9 Lightning Protection ............................................................................................. 92
5.9.1 Introduction: ................................................................................................ 92
5.9.2 Risk Assessment: ........................................................................................ 93
5.9.3 Components of the Lightning Protection System: ..................................... 94
5.9.4 Air terminations: ......................................................................................... 94
5.9.5 Down leads and bonding conductors: ......................................................... 95
5.9.6 Earth termination: ....................................................................................... 95
5.9.7 Electrical Safety in the Workplace: ............................................................ 95
5.9.8 Ten Golden Rules: ...................................................................................... 95
5.10 Emergency and standby systems ....................................................................... 97
5.10.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 97
5.10.2 Definitions ................................................................................................ 97
5.10.3 Main idea ................................................................................................... 97
5.10.4 Tests and Maintenance .............................................................................. 98
5.10.5 Capacity ..................................................................................................... 99
5.10.6 Generator Set ............................................................................................. 99
5.10.7 Precautions should be made before using emergency and standby
systems 100
CHAPTER 6 HELIOPOLIS SPORTING CLUB HOUSING PROJECT CASE STUDY .............. 103
6.1 General ............................................................................................................... 103
6.2 Models A and B ................................................................................................. 105
VIII
6.2.1 Model A description ................................................................................ 105
6.2.2 Model A, flat type1( 145 m2): .................................................................. 105
6.2.3 Model A, flat type2( 120 m2): ................................................................ 107
6.2.4 Model A, Riser and feeder calculations: .................................................. 108
6.2.5 Elevator calculations ................................................................................. 109
6.2.6 Calculation of the main feeder for model A: ........................................... 110
6.3 Models C and D ................................................................................................. 112
6.3.1 Model C, flat type1( 115 m2): .................................................................. 112
6.3.2 Model C, flat type2( 145 m2): .................................................................. 114
6.3.3 Model C, Riser and feeder calculations: ................................................... 115
6.4 Outdoor lighting ................................................................................................. 118
6.4.1 Lighting Pillars calculations: .................................................................... 118
6.5 Transformer Calculations ................................................................................... 119
6.5.1 Transformer sizing .................................................................................... 119
6.5.2 Short circuit calculation ........................................................................... 128
6.6 Summary ............................................................................................................. 130
CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSIONS ..................................................................................... 131
7.1 General ................................................................................................................ 131
7.2 Conclusions ........................................................................................................ 131
APPENDIX A: LUMINAIRES DATA ........................................................................ 133
APPENDIX B: CABLES DATA ................................................................................. 142
APPENDIX C GROUNDING DATA ........................................................................... 148
IX
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1 Filament Lamp ............................................................................................... 6
Figure 2-2 Fluorescent lamps ............................................................................................ 9
Figure 2-3 OSRAM clear Mercury vapour lamp HQA 80 Watt. ........................... 10
Figure 2-4 OSRAM colour corrected Mercury vapour lamp HQL 80 ........................................ 11
Figure 2-5 Single sided arrangement ................................................................................ 18
Figure 2-6 Staggered arrangement .................................................................................... 18
Figure 2-7 Opposite arrangement ..................................................................................... 19
Figure 2-8 Middle arrangement ....................................................................................... 19
Figure 2-9 Bad street lighting design ................................................................................. 23
Figure 2-10 Bad canopy lighting design ............................................................................. 24
Figure 2-11 Good street lighting design ............................................................................. 24
Figure 2-12 Good canopy lighting design ........................................................................... 25
Figure 3-13 Branch circuit layout ..................................................................................... 27
Figure 3-14 Combination receptacle ................................................................................. 28
Figure 3-15 Combination receptacle and switch ................................................................... 29
Figure 3-16 Multiconductor armoured cable ....................................................................... 29
Figure 3-17 Branch circuit panelboard ............................................................................... 30
Figure 3-18 Street-tunnel lighting .................................................................................... 31
Figure 3-19 Continuous load branch circuit ........................................................................ 32
Figure 3-20 Dwelling unit receptacle outlets ....................................................................... 37
Figure 3-21 Wall space ................................................................................................. 38
Figure 3-22 General load branch circuit ............................................................................. 39
Figure 3-23 Receptacle outlets ........................................................................................ 41
Figure 3-24 Receptacle branch circuit ............................................................................... 42
Figure 3-25 A main distribution center supplying individual branch .......................................... 48
Figure 3-26 A feeder supplying individual branch circuits to each motor. .................................... 48
Figure 3-27 A 20-ampere branch circuit supplying lighting, small motors, and appliances. .............. 49
Figure 3-28 A motor branch circuit showing the essential parts. ............................................... 49
Figure 4-29 Hand hole enclosure ..................................................................................... 55
Figure 4-30 construction of cable ..................................................................................... 56
Figure 4-31 Aluminium cable ......................................................................................... 57
Figure 4-32 Copper cable .................................................................. 57
Figure 4-33 Insulation materials ................................................................ 58
Figure 4-34 Single core cable .......................................................................................... 63
Figure 4-35 Multicore cable ........................................................................................... 63
Figure 4-36 Direct laying method .................................................................................... 65
Figure 4-37 Road crossing ............................................................................................. 65
Figure 4-38 In tunnel .................................................................................................... 66
Figure 4-39 A panelboard with main circuit breaker disconnect, suitable for use as service equipment. . .
72
Figure 4-40 An arrangement of three individual lighting and appliance branch circuit panelboards with
main overcurrent protection remote from the panelboards. ...................................................... 73
Figure 4-41 Circuitry for a 200-ampere (left) and a 150-ampere (right) split-bus panelboard. ........... 73
Figure 5-42 TN system ................................................................................................. 80
Figure 5-43 TN-S system ............................................................................................... 81
. Figure 5-44 TN-C system ............................................................................................. 82
Figure 5-45 TN-C-S system ............................................................................................ 82
Figure 5-46 TT system .................................................................................................. 83
Figure 5-47 IT ........................................................................................................... 84
Figure 6-48 Landscape of the buildings area ..................................................................... 103
Figure 6-49 Picture for the entire buildings ....................................................................... 104
Figure 6-50 single line diagram for x-Floor of model A ....................................................... 106
Figure 6-51 single line diagram of the ground floor in model A ............................................. 108
Figure 6-52 MDB for buildings of model A ...................................................................... 111
Figure 6-53 single line diagram of ground floor of model C .................................................. 113
Figure 6-54 single line diagram of x- floors of model C ....................................................... 115
X
Figure 6-55 MDB of buildings of model C ....................................................................... 118
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1 Main characteristics of incandescent lamp ............................................................... 7
Table 2-2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Fluorescent Lamps ................................................. 9
Table 2-3 VA per square meter [NEC] .............................................................................. 13
Table 2-4 Utilization factor table ..................................................................................... 17
Table 2-5 Arrangement of Luminaires ............................................................................... 17
Table 2-6 Primary initial design ....................................................................................... 21
Table 3-7 Maximum Cord-and-Plug-Connected Load to Receptacle .......................................... 35
Table 3-8 Receptacle Ratings for Various Size Circuits .......................................................... 36
Table 3-9 Summary of Branch-Circuit Requirements ............................................................ 36
Table 3-10 Motor overload protection ............................................................................... 45
Table 3-11 Motor overload relay protection ........................................................................ 45
Table 3-12 Motor thermal protector .................................................................................. 45
Table 3-13 motor branch circuit short-circuit and ground-fault protection ................................... 47
Table 4-14 Comparison between Copper and Aluminium materials ........................................... 56
Table 4-15 the main properties of insulating material ............................................................ 59
Table 4-16 Ambient temperature (A) ................................................................................ 69
Table 5-17 IEC nomenclature ......................................................................................... 79
Table 5-18 IEC nomenclature ......................................................................................... 79
Table 5-19 Three variants of TN systems ........................................................................... 80
Table 5-20 Formulas for Calculation of Resistances to grounding ............................................. 89
Table 5-21 Resistivity of Different Soils ............................................................................ 90
Table 5-22 Effect of Moisture Content on Resistivity of Soil ................................................... 91
Table 5-23 Effect of Temperature on Resistivity of Sandy Loan, 15.2 Percent Moisture ................ 91
Table 6-24 loads in VA of flat 145 m2 , model A ............................................................... 105
Table 6-25 loads in VA of flat 120 m2 , model A ............................................................... 107
Table 6-26 Total VA connected to the feeder of buildings of model A ...................................... 110
Table 6-27 Loads in VA of flat 115 m2 , model C .............................................................. 112
Table 6-28 Loads in VA of flat design 145 m2, model C ...................................................... 114
Table 6-29 total VA connected to the feeder of model C ....................................................... 116
Table 6-30 Actual design of street lighting ....................................................................... 118
Table 6-31 Available Short Circuit Current for Transformers ................................................. 129
Table 6-32 Short circuit calculation for AL cables .............................................................. 129
XI
Table 6-33 Short circuit calculation for CU cables .............................................................. 129
XII
Chapter 1 Introduction
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
General
The distribution of electrical energy on a consumers premises begins at
the supply intake position. The latter can take many forms depending on the type
of premises from the simple single phase arrangement in domestic premises to a
large private substation supplying an industrial complex. Whatever the size of the
installation, however certain basic requirements statutory and otherwise must be
satisfied. The main function of any internal distribution system is to divide and
subdivide the total load at the consumers terminal into small individual loads,
each of which is protected and controlled by suitable rated protective devices and
switches.
1.2 Dwelling or Residential areas design
Dwelling Unit is a single unit, providing complete and independent living
facilities for one or more persons, including permanent provisions for living,
sleeping, cooking and sanitation. Dwelling unit could be One-Family which is a
building that consists solely of one dwelling unit or a Multifamily which is a
building that contains two, three or more dwelling units.
In residential areas planning, careful consideration needs to be given to the
spatial quality of layouts. Roads and buildings must be designed and located to
ensure that the scale of space between buildings is related to the pedestrian, i.e.
on a human scale and not large nor impersonal. In mixed development schemes,
open spaces should be illuminated and related to building height to provide
variety and interest and careful thought given to its intended function.
This project will focus in the electrical distribution system design for
residential areas. This will cover not only the indoor or interior design of the
building but also the outdoor design. The outdoor design includes, the design of
street lighting, outdoor pillars and electrical transformers sizing.
1
1.3 Project Objectives
Generally, the main objective of designing an electrical distribution system for
any application is to achieve the consumer requirements in acceptable
engineering way. The design procedure itself contains the following tasks:
Determining
the correct size of cables.
Choosing the
suitable capacity for switchgear system.
Deducing the
current rating of overcurrent devices.
So, in order to achieve these tasks, there are many considerations must be taken
into account as:
Subdivision
and number of circuits needed.
Nature and
type of electrical loads.
Normal
current of protective devices.
Different cable
derating factors.
Necessary
design checks such as voltage drop and short circuit calculation.
1.4 Outline
The thesis is structured into seven chapters and three appendixes as follows:
Chapter 1: general, objectives, and thesis outline are described.
Chapter 2: presents a detailed design of lighting scheme including indoor
lighting, street lighting, and comparison between good and bad design.
Chapter 3: explains the load estimation and design of lighting branch circuit,
receptacles, and motors branch circuit.
2
Chapter 4: in this chapter cable sizing and panelboard design are detailed for
comprehensive design.
Chapter 5: covers the grounding and standby systems which are required for safe
and reliable operation of any electrical system design.
Chapter 6: discusses the capabilities of the proposed design procedure by
deigning a real case study.
Chapter 7: summarises the work and highlights the main conclusions.
Appendix A: includes the main luminaires data required for lighting calculation.
Appendix B: includes the main cables data required for branch circuit and cable
sizing.
Appendix C: contains main important grounding data.
3
Chapter 2 Illumination Systems
CHAPTER 2 ILLUMINATION SYSTEMS
2.1 Indoor lighting
2.1.1 Introduction
Light is the prime factor in the human life as all activities of human beings Ultimately
depend upon the light.
Light on surfaces on which it falls. Thus the illumination makes the surface look more
or less bright with a certain colour and is this brightness and colour which the eye sees
and interprets as something useful, or pleasant or otherwise. Where there is no natural
light, use of artificial light is made. Artificial lighting produced electrically, on account
of its cleanliness ease of control, reliability, steady output, as well as its low cost. Is
playing an increasingly important part in modern every day life. Light may be
produced by passing electric currents through filaments as in the Incandescent lamps,
through arcs between carbon or metal rods, or through suitable gases as in neon and
other gas tubes. In some forms of lamps the light is due to fluorescence excited by
radiation arising from the passage of electricity through mercury vapour.
2.1.2 Basic Definitions
- Light
It is defined as the radiant energy from a hot body, which produces the visual sensation
upon the human eye.
- Luminous Flux ( ):
It is defined as the total quantity of light energy emitted per second from a luminous
body. It is represented by symbol F and is measured in lumens.
-Illumination ( E )
The number of lumens, falling on the surface per unit area. It is denoted by symbol E
and is measured in lumens per square meter or lux.
E

4
-Luminous Intensity ( I)
The luminous flux from a source, In a specified direction inside a small solid angle.
And measured in lumen per steradian or candela (cd)
I

- Luminance ( L )
It is the intensity per apparent unit area of the surface of the actual light source. And
measured in candela per square meter (cdm
-2
)
I
L
A

-Reflectance (Error! Objects cannot be created from editing field codes.):
The ratio of reflected flux to incident flux (either luminous or radiant)
Luminous Efficacy ( )
It is defined as the ratio of the luminous flux to the power input, And measured in
lumen per watt (
-1
lumen W ).
-Utilization factor (U.F.)
The ratio of the lumens actually received by a particular surface to the total lumens
emitted by a luminous source. This factor is varies widely according to the following
factors:
a-The type of lighting system whether it is direct or indirect.
b-The shape and relative dimension of the room.
c-The wall surface and its colour fit reflectance of light.
-Maintenance factor (M.F.)
During the deterioration of lamp accumulation of dust on the globes and reflectors, the
efficiency of reflection of light from walls due to the insufficient clearing. The
illumination under normal conditions usually less than that when every thing is
perfectly clear the relative between the two cases is the maintenance factor.
5
2.1.3 Types of lamps
(i) Incandescent (GLS)
The Incandescent lamp is the oldest electric light source still in general use. It is also
the most varied as regards types. It can be found in almost any application, especially
where comparatively small light packages are required and where simplicity and
compactness are favored.
Figure 2-1 Filament Lamp
(1) Glass bulb (or envelope).
(2) Low pressure inert gas.
(3) Tungsten filament.
(4) contact wire (goes to foot).
(5) Contact wire (goes to base).
(6) Support wires.
(7) Glass mount/support.
(8) Base contact wire.
(9) Screw threads.
(10) Isolation.
(11) Electrical foot contact
(A) The main characteristics are
- Efficacy
It defines light output per unit of power input (lumens/watt).
6
The following comparison illustrates this point:
Table 2-1 Main characteristics of incandescent lamp
Lamp type
Light
Output
(Lumens)
Efficacy
(lumens/watt)
100W GLS 1350 13.5
100W Double Life 1200 12.0
100W Plus life 1050 10.5
- Incandescent Lamp Advantages
(1) Simple to use - direct connection into socket.
(2) Lowest initial lamp cost.
(3) Immediate starting and re-starting - no warm-up or cool down required.
(4) Excellent optical control - concentrated light source is easiest to direct or focus.
(5) Easiest to dim - simple variable resistor circuitry may be all that is required.
(6) Wide design flexibility - variety of styles, outputs, and colours fill nearly every
need.
(7) Output not affected by operation over a wide range of ambient temperature.
(8) Available in wattage ratings from 10 to 100W.
- Incandescent Lamp Disadvantages
(1) Sensitive to shock and vibration .
(2) High overall operating cost - low efficacy and short life.
(3) Sensitive to voltage variations
(4) Sensitive to thermal shock - high bulb surface temperature requires that the lamp
be protected from moisture. Exceptions are hard glass bulbs and low wattage lamps
(less than l0W). Lowest efficacy - all other lamp types surpass incandescent
performance by a large margin.
(ii) Halogen Lamps
7
A halogen lamp is a special kind of incandescent lamp. The light output is more
consistent than a standard incandescent lamp and the life is longer. Size is smaller
because it is important for the halogen cycle to have a high bulb wall temperature,
which requires quartz or hard glass to be used. Better beam control is possible because
of the small source size. Basic Halogen Lamp Types The common types of halogen
lamps are:
(1) Linear (sometimes called double-ended)
(2) Single-ended
(3) Capsule (single-ended but no outer bulb)
(4) PAR (capsule contained in PAR shape bulb) Used for gardens or stage lighting.
Also known as spot or reflector lamps Lens
(5) Low Voltage Reflector (Precise lamps)
(A) Features Of The Halogen Lamps
(1) Luminous Efficacy :
Luminous efficancy increases with higher tungsten temperature. Using Xenon (larger
atoms) the temperature can be raised to increase the luminous efficacy by 5%-10%
and colour temperature by about 100 degrees Kelvin. Xenon can only be used in low
voltage lamps because the lower ionizing energy of Xenon would lead to an electrical
discharge with higher voltages.
(iii) Fluorescent Lamps
The fluorescent lamp is commonly used. It has hundreds of sizes, wattage, colours,
voltages and specific application designs the typical fluorescent lamp is a hot cathode
type, consisting of a sealed glass tube containing a mixture of inert gas and mercury
vapour. The cathode causes a mercury arc to form inside the tube. This arc produces
ultraviolet (UV) light, which is not visible to the naked eye. The UV light strikes the
phosphors coating that is inside of the tube which will fluoresce producing visible
light. By changing the type of phosphors, the lamp colour, output can be controlled.
The fluorescent lamp requires a ballast in its circuit. Its purpose it limits the current in
the circuit, without the ballast the lamp would draw excessive current, and the fuse or
circuit breaker would open. The lamp also
consists of a starter, which acts as switch.
8
Figure 2-2 Fluorescent lamps
(A) The life of fluorescent lamps
Fluorescent lamps have outstandingly long life. This life however is affected by the
number of times the lamp is turned on and off, since switching tends to wear out the
cathode. An average fluorescent lamp burned continuously will last about 30000hours;
with 3 burning hours per start, it will last about 12000hours.Most users replace lamps
when they reach about 75% of burn out life because the light output has dropped at that
point to about two third.
(B) Power Factor of Fluorescent Lamp
Ordinary incandescent lamps have a power factor of 100%. A fluorescent lamp
connected to a circuit has a power factor of somewhere between 50% and 65% to
improve power factor.
(C) Advantages and Disadvantages of Fluorescent Lamps
Table 2-2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Fluorescent Lamps
Advantages Disadvantages
Low surface brightness Requires a ballast and sometimes a starter
Low heat output Sensitive to ambient temperature
Low bulb wall temperature Ballast may produce audible hum if
not operated by an electronic ballast
Variety of colours Lamp flicker may irritate some
occupants if not operated by an electronic
ballast
Long life (easier maintenance) Colour rendering not as good as
incandescent, but can be very close
9
Reduced shadowing
Efficiency is much higher
(D) Compact Fluorescent
Compact fluorescent lamps resulted from research into energy saving lighting. The
goal was to develop smaller, more efficient light sources with greater lumen output
per watt. One solution was to re-design the fluorescent lamp and its cap. Two basic
designs have emerged:
(1) Biaxial
(2) Square plane
The internal construction and function of all variants is very similar to linear (straight)
fluorescent lamps.
(iv) Discharge Lamps
Gas discharge lamps are used in virtually all areas of modern lighting
As for fluorescent lamps the electrical energy is transformed into radiated energy by
the discharge through a gas/metal vapour, The spectral distribution is dependant on the
chemical and the pressure/temperature of the discharge
(A) Types of Discharge Lamps
(1) Low Pressure Sodium
(2) High Pressure Sodium
(3) High Pressure Mercury
(4) Metal Halide
Figure 2-3 OSRAM clear Mercury vapour lamp HQA 80 Watt.
10
Figure 2-4 OSRAM colour corrected Mercury vapour lamp HQL 80
The choice of colours, size and rating is greater for Metal Halide than any other lamp
type Some Metal Halide lamps use a third electrode for starting, but other, especially
the smaller display lamps, require a high voltage ignition pulse The halides act in a
similar manner to the tungsten halogen cycle. As the temperature increases there is
disassociation of the halide compound releasing the metal into the arc. The halides
prevent the quartz wall getting attacked by the alkali metals.
2.1.4 Designing of the lighting scheme
(i) Some factors should be considered
(1) Illumination level:
This is the most vital factor because a sufficient illumination is the basic means by
where we are able to see our surroundings; it is the task of illumination to give objects
a distributed brightness.
Objects which are seen for longer duration of time require more illumination than
those for casual work. Similarly moving objects require more illumination than those
for stationary object.
(2) Colour of light:
The appearance of the body colour entirely depends upon the colour of the incident
light. In general the composition of the light should be such that the colour appears
natural i.e. its appearance by artificial light is not appreciably different from that by
day light.
(3) Shadows:
11
In lighting installations, formation of long and hard shadow causes fatigue of eyes and
therefore is considered to be a short coming. Complete absence of shadows altogether
again does not necessarily mean an ideal condition of lighting installations.
(4) Mounting Height:
The mounting height will largely be governed by the type of building and type of
lighting scheme employed. In the case of direct lighting, in rooms of large floor area,
the luminaries should be mounted as close to the ceiling as possible. Lowering them
not only will make the illumination less uniform, but will also bring them more into the
field of vision, thus increasing the glare, without causing an appreciable increase in the
coefficient of utilization. In the usual case of small
rooms with high ceilings, there is something to be gained by lowering the luminaries.
(5) Spacing of luminaries:
Correct spacing is of great importance to provide uniform illumination. With
fluorescent luminaries it is good practice to aim at a value of unity for this ratio, and to
set an upper limit of () In this case of tungsten lamps combined with focusing
reflectors, it is good practice to aim at a horizontal spacing between rows
approximately equal to the height of the ceiling above the working plane, and in
no case should the horizontal spacing exceed 1 times this height.
(6) Colour of surroundings walls:The illumination in any room depends upon the light
reflected from the walls and ceiling. White walls and ceiling reflect more light as
compared to colored ones
2.1.5 method of calculations
For lighting distribution calculations, two methods are introduced:
(1) VA method.
(2) Lux method.
(i) the VA method
The procedures:
(1) Determine the area of the room, (A) =width X length.
(2) Identify VA/m
2
according to the room purpose.
(3) Total VA = (VA/m
2
) x area (A).
12
(4) Identify the used luminary type.
(5) Calculate the output VA of one luminary.
(6) Number of luminaries = (total VA) / (VA of one luminary).
(7) Calculate the proposed number of luminaries.
(8) Calculate the new total VA.
(9) Distribute the number of luminaries on the area
Table 2-3 VA per square meter [NEC]
Type of occupancy Unit load
VA per square meter
Banks
Churches
Clubs
Court rooms
Dwelling units
Hospitals
Industrial commercial buildings
Lodge rooms
Office buildings
Restaurants
Schools
Stores
Halls, corridors, stairways
Storage spaces
Bathroom
Cafeteria
Rest room
39
11
22
22
33
22
22
17
39
22
33
33
6
3
32.26
22
32.26
13
(ii) by using lux method
The lumen method is used in calculating the average illuminance
E
on the working
plane in an interior. This is defined as:
E
A

where
is the lighting flux [lumen], and A is the working plane area .A coefficient of
utilisation (UC ) gives the fraction of lamp lumens that reach the workplane, directly
from sources and from inter-reflections. TheUC takes into account the efficiency of
the luminaire and the impact of the luminaire distribution and the room surfaces in its
derivation. Thus the number of lumens produced by the lamps, multiplied by thisUC ,
determines the number that reaches the workplane:
Uc
E=

Since the design objective usually is maintained illuminance, a light loss factor
LLF

must be applied to allow for the estimated depreciation in lamp lumens over time, the
estimated losses from dirt collection on the luminaire surfaces (including lamps), and
other factors that affect luminaire lumen output over time. The
formula thus becomes
UC LLF
E
A

Although design calculations are based on the
LLF
using both non-recoverable and
recoverable factors, it is sometimes necessary to calculate illuminance in a new
lighting installation. In such cases, repeat the calculation using the non-recoverable
losses, since the recoverable losses do not occur at 100 hours, the time at which lamps
are nominally at rated lumens[16].The lamp lumens in the formula are most
14
conveniently taken as the total rated lamp lumens in the luminaires. If the desired
maintained illuminance is known, this equation can be solved for the
total number of luminaires needed:
E A
NOL
LPL LL UC LLF

where
NOL
is the number of Luminaires,
LL
is the lamp lumen and LPL is the
number of lamps per luminaire.
(A) Limitations
The illuminance computed by the lumen method is an average value that is
representative only if the luminaires are spaced to obtain reasonably uniform
illuminance. The calculation of the coefficients of utilisation is based on empty
interiors having surfaces that exhibit perfectly diffuse reflectance. The average
illuminance determined by the lumen method is defined to be the total lumens reaching
the workplane divided by the area of the workplane. The average value
determined this way might vary considerably from that obtained by averaging discrete
values of illuminance at several points [16].
(B) Cavity Ratios
The radiative exchange between the top and the base of a rectangular space is a
function of the proportions of its length, width, and height. Cavity ratio values
approximate this effect by combining these proportions into a single quantity. In the
Zonal-cavity method, the effects of room proportions, luminaire suspension length, and
workplane height upon the coefficient of utilisation are respectively represented by the
room cavity ratio, ceiling cavity ratio, and floor cavity ratio. These ratios are
determined by dividing the room into three cavities, and substituting dimensions (in m
or ft) into the following formula[16, 17]:
5 ( ) h l w
CR
l w
+
15
where CR is the cavity ratio, h is the cavity height, l is the cavity length, and
w
is
the cavity width. The illuminance in rooms of irregular shape can be determined by
calculating the room cavity ratio using the following formula and solving the problem
in the usual
manner:
2.5h CC
CR
CA
where CA is the cavity base area, and CC is the cavity circumference.

(C) Effective Cavity Reflectances
Table 2-10 provides a means of converting the combination of wall and ceiling or wall
and floor reflectances into a single effective ceiling cavity reflectance,
CC
,and a
single effective floor cavity reflectance,
FC
. In lumen method calculations, the

ceiling, wall, and floor reflectances should be initial values. Note that for surface-
mounted and recessed luminaires, the ceiling cavity ratio equals zero and the actual
ceiling reflectance may be used for
CC
. Luminaires coefficient of utilization:

Absorption of light in a luminaire is taken into account in the computation of
coefficient of utilisation (UC ) for that luminaire. Appendix A is a tabulation of
coefficients of utilisation calculated by the Zonal-cavity method for representative
luminaire types. These coefficients are for an effective floor cavity reflectance of 20%,
but any UC obtained from the table may be corrected for a different value of
FC
by
applying the appropriate multiplier from table Since the light loss factor includes the
effect of dirt deposited on wall surfaces, the selection of the proper column of wall
reflectances,
W
, should be based on the initial values expected. The wall reflectance

should also represent the weighted average of the reflectances of the painted areas,
fenestration or daylight controls,
chalkboards, shelves, and so forth in the area to be lighted. The weighting should be
based on the relative areas of each type of surface within the cavity being considered.
In using, it is often necessary to interpolate between room cavity ratios
CR
and
16
effective ceiling cavity reflectances. This is most easily accomplished by interpolating
first between room
CR
to obtain
CU
for effective
ceiling cavity reflectances that straddle the actual
CC
, and then interpolating between

these
CU
values.As a guide line the following utilisation factors can be adopted with
good accuracy for most applications [39]:
Table 2-4 Utilization factor table
Type of illumination Approximate Utilisation factor
Range average
Direct 0.45:0.6 0.53
Manly direct 0.4:0.55 0.48
Uniform 0.35:0.50 0.43
Mainly indirect 0.35:0.45 0.4
Indirect 0.2:0.35 0.28
Indirect (cornice) 0.10:0.20 0.15
2.2 Street lighting:
2.2.1 Introduction:
With the increase of high-speed traffic upon our roads, it has become essential ,in order
to reduce accidents, to provide adequate illumination on all streets ,roads, traffic
junctions, tunnels, bridges etc.
2.2.2 Arrangement of luminaries
The next table shows the most used type of arrangement according to height-to-width
Ratio:
Table 2-5 Arrangement of Luminaires
type of arrangement Ratio (height of luminaries / width of
carriage way)
Single sided 0.85(min. value) 1(recommended value)
Staggered 0.5(min. value) 2/3(recommended value)
17
opposite 1/3(min. value) ( recommended value)
Street lighting arrangements
2.2.3.1 Two way traffic roads
There are four basic types of street lighting arrangements, which can be
summarized in the following points.
Single sided
This type of arrangement, in which all luminaries are located on one side of the
road, is used only when the width of the road is equal to, or less than the mounting
height of the luminaries. This is shown in the next figure.
Figure 2-5 Single sided arrangement
Staggered or zigzag array
This type of arrangement in which the luminaries are located on both sides of the
road in a staggered or zigzag arrangement is used mainly when the width of the road is
between 1 to 1.5 times the mounting heights of the luminaries.
Figure 2-6 Staggered arrangement
18
Opposite double side array
This type of arrangement, with the luminaries located on both sides of the road
opposite to one another, is used mainly when the width of the road is greater than 1.5
times the mounting height of the luminaries.
Figure 2-7 Opposite arrangement
Middle one side array
This type of arrangement, with the luminaries suspended along the axis of the road,
is normally used for narrow roads that have buildings on both sides.
Figure 2-8 Middle arrangement
Curves
Curves of large radius (in the order of 300 m) can be treated as straight roads and the
luminaries can be sited in accordance with one of the schemes outlined above.
The locations of luminaries on curves of smaller radius, however, should be such as
to ensure both adequate road-surface luminance and effective visual guidance. Where
the width of the road is 1.5 m less than the mounting height, the luminaries should be
placed above the outside of the curve in a single sided arrangement.
For wider roads an opposite arrangement should be used since the staggered
arrangement gives visual guidance, and should therefore be avoided.
19
2.2.3 Choose of lamps for street lighting
(i) The selection of luminaries according to its lighting distribution
two way streets
crowded streets and high way
crosses and intersection.
(ii) Type of lamps which are used for street lighting
(A) Low pressure sodium lamp.
-law pressure sodium lamps are the best for:
More sharpness vision.
High speed response.
Less discomfort glare.
Obtain large brightness area at the same value.
Note: the power used in high ways is usually:
-150 W for 12 m width street.
-200 W for 15 m width streets.
(B) High pressure sodium lamps
High pressure sodium lamps are the best for the crowded ways because it can
transmitted the colours.
Note:
The power which is used in crowed ways is:
-150 W/12 m.
-250 or 400 W/15 m.
2.2.6 Calculation of street lighting:
. . F M F U F
E
W L

Where:
F: total luminous flux of the lamp.
UF: utilization factor ranges from (0.2:0.6).
MF: maintenance factor (0.8:0.9).
L: space between the poles in meter.
W: width of the road in meter.
E: Average illumination over the working plane. (10 lux for Submain streets and upto
30 lux for main streets).
Notes:
For primary initial design the street loading can be estimated according
to the next table.
20
Table 2-6 Primary initial design
E(Lux) Rout loading with 8 m
road
Rout loading with 12 m
road
High pressure
mercury lamps
High pressure
sodium lamps
High pressure
mercury lamps
High pressure
sodium lamps
26
19
13
6
4
(15:28)KW/K
m
(12:14)KW/K
m
(8:16)KW/Km
(6:10)KW/Km
4 KW/Km
(11:18)KW/K
m
(9:14)KW/Km
(6:10)KW/Km
(24:38)KW/K
m
(18:29)KW/K
m
(12:20)KW/K
m
(9:14)KW/Km
(13:20)KW/K
m
(11:16)KW/K
m
(9:12)KW/Km
2.2.4 llumination level for street for lighting and mounting height of
lamps
Table 2-7 Lux according to type of road , way
Type of road , way lux level
high way , main road and main streets 20 30 lux
Secondary road 15 20 lux
Residential area street ,industrial area street 10 15 lux
Table 2-8 Table of luminous flux of luminaries according to Mounting height of
luminaries
luminous flux of luminaries Mounting hight of luminaires
3000 to 10000 6 to 7 meter
10000 to 20000 7 to 9 meter
More than 20000 more than 9 meter
Example for street lighting
For 300 meter road of width 12 meter , compute the luminaries spacing (L) for average
illumination of E = 30 LUX using 250 watt h.p. sodium lamp of 25000 lumen (take uf
= 0.33 , Mf = 0.9 , pole height 6 meter)
Solution:
25000 0.9 0.33
21
12 30
F MF UF
L
W E

meter
So that, number of luminaires =
300
21
=15 luminaires
21
Note: the best tilt angle ( ) for maximum light utilization ranging from 10:15 degree
2.2.5 Methods of streets lighting design
(i) The factors which effect on the street lighting design
Passi
ng safety.
Safet
y of people.
The
region which pass through the street.
Type
of street.
Numb
ers of crimes , rubbers and security requirement.
(ii) The steps which must be known design street lighting
Street
profile.
The
average lighting of street surface.
The
degree of permanent glare.
The
rate of visible direction which must be find.
The
degree of required the lighting regulation.
2.3 Comparison between good and bad design of outdoor lighting
Below are bad and good examples of outdoor lighting. Lighting with high glare will
have a bright ball of light around the fixture where as lighting that is well shielded, low
22
glare, and with minimal spillage will appear with a smaller or ball of light. First we
will look at some bad lighting examples, then some good.
2.3.1 Bad Lighting design Examples
Figure 2-9 Bad street lighting design
6 Mile by Laurel Park Mall. Notice the large halos around the lamps. These are bright
400 watt HPS fixtures that have very high glare giving a harsh appearance, plus
causing unnecessary stress and distraction to the eye . This problem could be
significantly reduced by using shielded fixtures and/or reduced wattage.
23
Figure 2-10 Bad canopy lighting design
Mobil gas station on NW corner of Merriman and I-96. Notice the bright balls of light
under the canopy, indicating high glare.
2.3.2 Good Lighting design Examples
Figure 2-11 Good street lighting design
Livonia City Hall's parking lot on Farmington and 5 Mile. The area uses non-excessive
flat glass shoe box fixtures rendering good visibility with low glare. Notice how halos
are smaller compared to previous pictures and the parking lot is well lit. (Camera
shows HPS brighter that the blue white Metal Halide fixtures in earlier photos).
24
Figure 2-12 Good canopy lighting design
Sunoco on SW corner of 6 Mile and Farmington. Although the fixtures are not
shielded, they are recessed under the overall canopy, and because they are not overly
bright, the station is well lit and does not have obtrusive glare. Because the fixtures are
not glaring or at excessive levels, attention is not drawn away from the area or activity
because of lighting.
25
Chapter 4 Branch Circuit Design
CHAPTER 3 BRANCH CIRCUIT DESIGN
3.1 Introduction
-A branch circuit is any segment of a wiring system extending beyond the final
automatic over current protective device that is approved for use as branch circuit
protection & designated by the NEC as the branch circuit protective device.
-Branch circuits generally originate in panel boards, but individual branch circuits
to motors commonly originate at individual fused switches or C.B. tapped from
bus ways.
-In an electrical system, the branch circuits are the circuits of lowest capacity and
current rating. They are the circuits to which load devices (light, motors, etc.)
are connected.
-A branch circuit consists of two wires, which carry current at a particular voltage
from protective device to utilization device. Although the branch circuit
represents the last step in the transfer of power from the service or source of
energy to the utilization devices. It is the starting point for modern design
procedures.
-Each & every branch circuit , whether for a power or lighting load in a
commercial, industrial, or residential building , should be sized for its load, with
spare capacity added where possible load growth is indicated .
-The rating of the circuit fuse or C.B. must not be less than 125% of the
continuous current load.
3.2 General
A branch circuit consists of two wires, which carry current at a particular voltage
from protected device to utilization device. Although the branch circuit represents
the last step in the transfer of power from service or source of energy to the
utilization devices, it is the starting point from modern design procedures.
26
3.2.1 The definition of branch circuit
The circuit conductors between the final over current device protecting the circuit
And the outlet (load).
Figure 3-13 Branch circuit layout
3.2.2 General purposes of branch circuit:
Branch circuit that is supplies two or more outlets for lighting and other
equipment.
3.2.3 Individual branch circuit:
Branch circuit that is supplies only one utilization equipment.
3.2.4 Multi wire branch circuit :
It is consists of two or more ungrounded conductors that have voltage between
them and grounded conductor have equal volt between it and each ungrounded
conductor in the circuit and it is connected to neutral and the grounding of the
system
3.2.5 Rating of branch circuit:
The rate of branch circuit can be indicated according to the maximum current of
the circuit. and also the over current protective device will be rated according to
the maximum current of branch circuit.
27
The wiring conductor must be withstand the current pass through it The rate of
branch circuit based to the rate of over current protective device.
For example:
Branch circuit wire with 10 AWG copper has an allowable ampacity of at least 30
ampere, however if branch circuit over current protective device is 20 ampere
circuit breaker of fuse the rating of branch circuit is 20 ampere on the size or
rating of over current protective device. The branch circuit greater than 50
ampere used to supply the non lighting loads for the industrial purposes we can
use the several single receptacles to make easy to relocation for production or
maintenance purposes such as electric welders machine.
3.2.6 The electrical requirements for place have equipment or
devices:
Receptacles, switches, lampholders, dimmers, pilot lamp and home automatic
control the receptacles can be supplied from different nominal voltages which one
half of the receptacles supply by line to neutral voltage and another half supply by
line to line voltage and this type of receptacle called split wired receptacle The
branch circuit which supply the receptacle must have an over current protective
device such as two pole circuit breakers or single pole circuit breakers which
handle Tie.
Figure 3-14 Combination receptacle
28
Figure 3-15 Combination receptacle and switch
3.2.7 Ungrounded conductors:
If multiwire branch circuit supplied from different nominal voltages the under
grounded conductors in multiwire branch circuit shall be identified by separated
colour coding, marking tape ,tagging and shall be permanently posted at each
branch circuit panelboard.
Figure 3-16 Multiconductor armoured cable
29
Figure 3-17 Branch circuit panelboard
3.3 Lighting branch circuit:
3.3.1 The electrical applications of different voltages:
(i) The voltages does not exceeds of 120 volt ot is used as the followings:
- luminaries(lighting fixtures).
- cord and plug connected loads 1440 VA.
the voltage of 120 volt between conductors is used to supply the followings:
-the terminals of lampholders which rated by this limit of voltage the auxiliary
equipments of electric discharge lamps such as ballasts and starting devices.
-cord and plug connected or permanently connected utilization equipment.
(ii) the voltage of 277 volt to ground used to supplies the following:
-electric discharge luminaries.
-the incandescent luminaries which supplied be voltage of 120 volt output from
Step-down autotransformer.
-lampholders which rated by this value of voltage.
-auxiliary equipments of electric discharge lamps.
30
-Cord and plug connected or permanently connected of utilization equipments
The voltage of 600 volt between conductors which used to supply the electric
discharge lamps where the height of must not less than 6.7 meter for high ways
roads and bridges and less than 5.5 meter for tunnels.
Figure 3-18 Street-tunnel lighting
3.3.2 Continuous and non-continuous loads:
The rate of over current protective device must be not less than the rate of non-
continuous loads plus 125% of continuous loads.
For example:
if the continuous load is equal to 16 ampere we can select the over current
protective device according to 125%x16=20 ampere.
And the branch circuit rating can be indicated as 20 ampere.
31
Figure 3-19 Continuous load branch circuit
Another example:
Determine the minimum size over current protective device and the minimum
conductor size for the following circuit:
-25 ampere of continuous load.
-60 degree over current device terminal rating.
-type THWN conductors.
-four current carrying copper conductors in a raceway.
Solution:
-the size of over current protective device =125%x25=31.5 ampere
-we can take 35 ampere as an rating
-
computed load
the conductor ampacity=
percent adjustment factor

-the percent adjustment factor is indicated from table at 60 degree
so that:
-the conductor ampacity=
31.5
0.8
=39.06 ampere
from the above we can select the conductor size which permitted to pass through
it 40 ampere at 60 degree.
32
3.3.3 The ground fault circuit interrupter protection for
personnel:
When fault circuit contact with ground the high current pass through the circuit
and this value of current must be reduced by any protection methods.
3.3.4 Storage or equipment:
For attics, underfloor spaces, utility rooms, and basements at least one lighting
outlet containing or controlled by a wall switch shall be installed where these
spaces are used for storage or contain equipment requiring servicing. At least one
point of control shall be at the usual point of entry to these spaces.The lighting
outlet shall be provided at or near the equipment requiring servicing.
3.3.5 Other than dwelling units:
For attics and underfloor spaces containing equipment requiring servicing, such
as heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration equipment, at least one lighting
outlet containing a switch or controlled by a wall switch shall be installed in such
spaces at least one point of controlled shall be at the usual point of entry to these
spaces the lighting outlet shall be provided at or near the equipment requirement
servicing.
3.3.6 Lighting outlets required:
-dwelling units:
in dwelling units, lighting outlets shall be installed in accordance with:
-habitable rooms:
at least one wall switch controlled lighting outlet shall be installed in every
habitable room and bathroom.
-additional locations:
additional lighting outlets shall be installed in accordance with :
(1) at least one wall switch controlled lighting outlet shall be installed in
hallways , stairways ,attached garages, and detached garages with electric power.
(2)for dwelling unit ,attached garages ,and detached garages with electric
power ,at least one wall switch controlled lighting outlet shall le installed to
33
provide illumination on the exterior side of outdoor entrances or exits with grade
level access ,a vehicle door in a garage shall not be considered as an outdoor
entrance or exit.
(3) Where one or more lighting outlets are installed for interior stairways , there
shall be a wall switch at each floor level , and landing level that includes an
entryway , to control the lighting outlets where the stairway between floor levels
has six risers or more.
3.3.7 15-and 20- ampere branch-circuit:
A 15-and 20- ampere branch-circuit shall be permitted to supply lighting units or
other utilization equipment or a combination of both, and shall comply with:
-cord and plug connected equipment not fastened in place:
the rating of any one cord and plug connected utilization equipment not fastened
in place shall not exceed 80 percent of the branch-circuit ampere rating
3.3.8 30-ampere branch circuits:
A 30-ampere branch shall be permitted to supply fixed lighting unites with heavy-
duty lampholders in other than a dwelling unit(s) or utilization equipment on any
occupancy.
A rating of any one cord-and plug-connected utilization equipment shall not
exceed 80 percent of the branch-circuit ampere rating.
3.3.9 Required outlets
-cord pendants:
a cord connector that is supplied by a permanently connected cord pendant shall
be considered a receptacle outlet
-cord connections:
a receptacle outlet shall be installed wherever flexible cords with attachment
plugs are used . Where flexible cords are permitted to be permanently connected,
receptacles shall be permitted to be omitted for such cords.
34
-Appliance outlets:
appliance receptacle outlets installed in a dwelling unit for specific appliance
,such as laundry equipment , shall be installed within 1.8 m of the intended
location of the appliance.
3.3.10 Dwelling unit receptacle outlets:
This section provides requirements for 125 volt ,15 and 20 ampere receptacle
outlets ,receptacle outlets required by this section shall be in addition to any
receptacle that is part of a luminaries (lighting fixture) or appliance , located
within cabinets or cupboards.
3.3.11 40 and 50 Ampere branch circuit:
A 40-50 ampere branch circuit shall be permitted to supply cooking appliances
That are fastened in place in any occupancy. in other than dwelling unites, such
circuits shall be permitted to supply fixed lighting unites with heavy-duty lamp
holders, infrared heating units, or other utilization equipment.
3.3.12 Branch circuits larger than 50 amperes:
Branch circuits larger than 50 amperes shall supply only nonlghting out load
3.4 Receptacles
3.4.1 Single Receptacle on an Individual Branch Circuit:
A single receptacle installed on an individual branch circuit shall have an ampere
rating not less than that of the branch circuit.
3.4.2 Total Cord-and-Plug-Connected Load:
Where connected to a branch circuits supplying two or more receptacles or
outlets, Receptacle shall not supply a total cord and-plug-connected load in
excess of the Maximum.
Table 3-7 Maximum Cord-and-Plug-Connected Load to Receptacle
Circuit rating in (A) Receptacle rating in
(A)
Maximum load in (A)
15 or 20 15 12
20 20 16
30 30 24
35
3.4.3 Receptacle Ratings
Where connected to a branch circuit supplying two or more receptacles or outlets,
receptacle ratings shall conform to the values listed in Table210.21(B)(3), or
where larger than 50 amperes, the receptacle rating shall not be less than the
branch-circuit rating.
Table 3-8 Receptacle Ratings for Various Size Circuits
Circuit rating in (A) Receptacle rating in (A)
15 Not over 15
20 15 or 20
30 30
40 40 or 50
50 50
A single receptacle installed on an individual branch circuit must have an ampere
rating not less than that of the branch circuit. For example, a single receptacle on
a 20-ampere individual branch circuit must be rated at 20 amperes; however, two
or more15-ampere receptacles or duplex receptacles are permitted on a 20-ampere
general purpose branch circuit. This requirement does not apply to specific types
of cord-and plug-connected arc welders.
3.4.4 Branch-Circuit Requirements Summary
Table 3-9 Summary of Branch-Circuit Requirements
36
Note that the conductor size is converted to square mm in the project
design to match the Egyptian market.
3.4.5 Dwelling Unit Receptacle Outlets
This section provides requirements for 125-volt, 15- and 20-ampere receptacle
outlets .Receptacle outlets required by this section shall be in addition to any
receptacle that is part of a luminaries (lighting fixture) or appliance, located
within cabinets or cupboards, or located more than 1.7 m (5 1/ 2 ft) above the
floor.
Figure 3-20 Dwelling unit receptacle outlets
Circuit rating 15 20 30 40
Conductor (min size)
circuit wires
14 12 10 8
Taps 14 14 14 12
Over current protection 15 20 30 40
Outlet devices
Lamp holders Any type Any type Heavy duty Heavy duty
Receptacle rating 15 max. A 15-20 A 30 A 40 or 50 A
Maximum load 15 20 30 40
37
3.4.6 Spacing
Receptacles shall be installed so that no point measured horizontally along the
floor line in any wall space is more than 1.8 m (6 ft) from a receptacle outlet.
3.4.7 Wall Space
As used in this section, a wall space shall include the following:
-Any space 600 mm (2 ft) or more in width (including space measured around
corners) and unbroken along the floor line by doorways, fireplaces, and similar
openings.
-The space occupied by fixed panels in exterior walls, excluding sliding panels.-
The space afforded by fixed room dividers such as freestanding bar-type counters
or railings.
Figure 3-21 Wall space
3.4.8 Floor Receptacles
Receptacle outlets in floors shall not be counted as part of the required number of
receptacle outlets unless located within 450 mm (18 in.) of the wall.
38
3.4.9 Bathrooms
In dwelling units, at least one receptacle outlet shall be installed in bathrooms
within 900 mm (3 ft) of the outside edge of each basin. The receptacle outlet shall
be located on a wall or partition that is adjacent to the basin or basin countertop.
Figure 3-22 General load branch circuit
39
3.4.10 Hallways
In dwelling units, hallways of 3.0 m (10 ft) or more in length shall have at least
one receptacle outlet. As used in this subsection, the hall length shall be
considered the length along the centerline of the hall without passing through a
doorway.
3.4.11 Heating, Air-Conditioning, and Refrigeration Equipment
Outlet
A 125-volt, single-phase, 15- or 20-ampere-rated receptacle outlet shall be
installed at an accessible location for the servicing of heating, air-conditioning,
and refrigeration equipment. The receptacle shall be located on the same level
and within 7.5 m (25 ft) of the heating, air-conditioning, and refrigeration
equipment. The receptacle outlet shall not be connected to the load side of the
equipment disconnecting means.
3.4.12 Receptacle Outlets
Except as covered in 220.14(J) and (K), receptacle outlets shall be calculated at
not less than 180 volt-amperes for each single or for each multiple receptacle on
one yoke. A single piece of equipment consisting of a multiple receptacle
comprised of four or more receptacles shall be calculated at not less than 90 volt-
amperes per receptacle. This provision shall not be applicable to the receptacle
outlets specified in 210.11(C)(1) and (C)(2).As illustrated in Exhibit 220.3, the
load of 180 volt-amperes is applied to single And multiple receptacles mounted
on a single yoke or strap, and a load of 360 volt-amperes is applied to each
receptacle that consists of four receptacles. These are considered receptacle
outlets, in accordance with 220.14(I). The receptacle outlets are not the lighting
outlets installed for general illumination or the small-appliance branch circuits, as
indicated in 220.14(J). The receptacle load for outlets for general illumination in
one- and two-family and multifamily dwellings and in guestrooms of hotels and
motels is included in the general lighting load value assigned by Table 220.12.
The load requirement for the small-appliance branch circuits is 1500 volt-amperes
per circuit, as described in 220.52(A). Note in Exhibit 220.3 that the last outlet of
40
the top circuit consists of two Duplex receptacles on separate straps. That outlet is
calculated at 360 volt-amperes because each duplex receptacle is on one yoke.
The multiple receptacle supplied from the bottom circuit in the exhibit, which
comprises four receptacles, is calculated at 90 volt-amperes per receptacle (4 90
VA = 360 VA). For example, single-strap and multiple receptacle
devices are calculated as follows: Device Computed Load
Duplex receptacle 180 VA
Triplex receptacle 180 VA
Double duplex receptacle 360 VA (180 2)
Quad or four-plex-type receptacle 360 VA (90 4)
Figure 3-23 Receptacle outlets
In Exhibit 220.4, the maximum number of outlets permitted on 15- and 20-
Ampere branch circuits is 10 and 13 outlets, respectively. This restriction does
not apply to outlets connected to general lighting or small-appliance branch
circuits in dwelling units.
41
.
Figure 3-24 Receptacle branch circuit
Exhibit 220.4 Maximum number of outlets permitted on 15- and 20-amper branch
circuits. For circuits supplying loads consisting of motor-operated utilization
equipment that is fastened in place and has a motor larger than 1/ 8hp in
combination with other loads, the total calculated load shall be based on 125
percent of the largest motor load plus the sum of the other loads.
3.4.13 Small Appliance Circuit Load
In each dwelling unit, the load shall be calculated at1500 volt-amperes for each 2-
wire small-appliance branch circuit required by
Where the load is subdivided through two or more feeders, the calculated load for
each shall include not less than 1500 volt-amperes for each 2-wire small
appliance branch circuit. These loads shall be permitted to be included with the
general lighting load and subjected to the demand factors provided in Table
220.42.
3.4.14 Appliance Load Dwelling Unit(s)
It shall be permissible to apply a demand factor of 75 percent to the nameplate
rating load of four or more appliances fastened in place, other than electric
ranges, clothes dryers, space-heating equipment, or air-conditioning equipment,
that are served by the same feeder or service in a one-family, two-family, or
multifamily dwelling. For appliances fastened in place (other than ranges, clothes
dryers, and space-heating and air-conditioning equipment), feeder capacity must
42
be provided for the sum of these loads; for a total load of four or more such
appliances, a demand factor of 75 percent may be applied. See Table 430.248 for
the full-load current, in amperes, for single phase ac motors, in accordance with
220.50.
General Loads:
The general calculated load shall be not less than 100 percent of the
First 10 kVA plus 40 percent of the remainder of the following loads:
-33 volt-amperes/m 2 or 3 volt-amperes/ft 2 for general lighting and general-use
receptacles. The floor area for each floor shall be calculated from the outside
dimensions of the dwelling unit. The calculated floor area shall not include open
porches, garages, or unused or unfinished spaces not adaptable for future use.
-1500 volt-amperes for each 2-wire, 20-ampere small-appliance branch circuit
And each laundry branch circuit specified in 220.52.
3.4.15 Heating and Air-Conditioning Load
The largest of the following six selections (load in kVA) shall be included:
-100 percent of the nameplate rating(s) of the air conditioning and cooling.
-100 percent of the nameplate rating(s) of the heating when a heat pump is used
without any supplemental electric heating.
-100 percent of the nameplate ratings of electric thermal storage and other
Heating systems where the usual load is expected to be continuous at the full
nameplate value. Systems qualifying under this selection shall not be calculated
under any other selection in 220.82(C).
-100 percent of the nameplate rating(s) of the heat pump compressor and 65
percent of the supplemental electric heating for central electric space heating
systems. If the heat pump compressor is prevented from operating at the same
time as the supplementary heat, it does not need to be added to the supplementary
heat for the total central space heating load.
-65 percent of the nameplate rating(s) of electric space heating if less than four
separately controlled units.
43
-40 percent of the nameplate rating(s) of electric space heating if four or more
separately controlled units.
3.5 Motor Branch Circuit Design
Motor branch circuit design includes sizing of motor-circuit feeders and their
over current protection. Most electrical equipment is rated in volt-amperes (VA)
or watt input. Basic to this understanding is the fact that motors traditionally have
been rated in horsepower output. Circuits supplying motors are sized according to
the input to the motor (input equals output plus losses of the motor). The losses
are not the type of information found on the nameplate of a motor. Tables NEC-
430.249 and 430.250 contain accurate industry-wide input ampere ratings for
motors.
However, some motors are available with their output ratings expressed in watts
and kilowatts. (One horsepower equals approximately 746 watts.) It is important
to understand that circuits that supply motors not rated in horsepower still must
be sized according to the input of the motor, rated in amperes. Sizing circuits
based solely on kilowatt output results in seriously undersized conductors and the
improper application of overcurrent devices. Conductors that supply a single
motor used in a continuous duty application shall have an ampacity of not less
than 125 percent of the motor's full-load current rating. This describes the branch-
circuit requirements for single motor installations. Generally, the branch circuit
that serves a continuous-duty motor must be sized at 125 percent of the motor
full-load current or greater. The provision for a conductor with an ampacity of at
least 125 percent of the motor full-load current rating does not constitute a
conductor derating; rather, it is based on the need to provide for a sustained
running current that is greater than the rated full-load current and for protection of
the conductors by the motor overload protective device set above the motor full-
load current rating. Conductors supplying several motors, or a motor(s) and other
load(s), shall have an ampacity not less than 125 percent of the full-load current
44
rating of the highest rated motor plus the sum of the full-load current ratings of all
the other motors in the group plus the ampacity required for the other loads.
3.5.1 Motor Overload protection
Each motor used in a continuous duty application and rated more than 1 hp shall
be protected against overload by one of the following:
(1) Separate Overload Device: A separate overload device that is responsive to
motor current. This device shall be selected to trip or shall be rated at no more
than the following percent of the motor nameplate full-load current rating:
Table 3-10 Motor overload protection
Motors with a marked service factor 1.15 or greater 125%
Motors with a marked temperature rise 40C or less 125%
All other motors 115%
Where the sensing element or setting of the overload relay selected is not
sufficient to start the motor or to carry the load, higher size sensing elements or
incremental settings shall be permitted to be used, provided the trip current of the
overload relay
does not exceed the following percentage of motor nameplate full-load current
rating:
Table 3-11 Motor overload relay protection
Motors with a marked service factor 1.15 or greater 140%
Motors with a marked temperature rise 40C or less 140%
All other motors 130%
(2) Thermal Protector: A thermal protector integral with the motor, approved for
use with the motor it protects on the basis that it will prevent dangerous
overheating of the motor due to overload and failure to start. The ultimate trip
current of a thermally protected motor shall not exceed the following percentage
of motor tabulated NEC full-load current:
Table 3-12 Motor thermal protector
Motor full-load current 9 amperes or less 170%
Motor full-load current from 9.1 to, and including, 20
amperes
156%
Motor full-load current greater than 20 amperes 140%
45
(3) Integral with Motor: A protective device integral with a motor that will
protect the motor against damage due to failure to start shall be permitted if the
motor is part of an approved assembly that does not normally subject the motor to
overloads.
(4) Larger Than 1500 Horsepower: For motors larger than 1500 hp, a protective
device having embedded temperature detectors that cause current to the motor to
be interrupted when the motor attains a temperature rise greater than marked on
the nameplate in an ambient temperature of 40C.
3.5.2 Motor Branch-Circuit Short-Circuit and Ground-Fault
Protection
The NEC requires that the branch circuit protection for the motor circuits must
protect the circuit conductors, the control apparatus, and the motor itself against
overcurrent due to short circuits or grounds.
The first, and clearly necessary, rule is that the branch circuit protective device
for an individual circuit to a motor must be capable of carrying the motor starting
current without opening the circuit. Given this condition, the NEC places
maximum values on the ratting or setting of protective devices. This setting
depends on the type of motor used and the type of its short circuit protection
device as shown in . If such values do not correspond to the standard sizes or
ratings of fuses, nonadjustable circuit breakers, thermal protective devices,or
possible settings of adjustable circuit breakers, a higher size, rating, or possible
setting that does not exceed the next higher standard ampere rating shall be
permitted. Where these values do not permit the motor to start, the device may be
rated as follows:
(1) The rating of a non-time-delay fuse not exceeding 600 amperes or a time-
delay fuse shall be permitted to be increased but shall in no case exceed 400
percent of the full-load current.
(2) The rating of a time-delay (dual-element) fuse shall be permitted to be
increased but shall in no case exceed 225 percent of the full-load current.
(3) The rating of an inverse time circuit breaker shall be permitted to be increased
46
but shall in no case exceed 400 percent for full-load currents of 100 amperes or
less or 300 percent for full-load currents greater than 100 amperes.
(4) The rating of a fuse of 6016000 ampere classification shall be permitted to
be increased but shall in no case exceed 300 percent of the full-load current.
Maximum percentage Rating or Setting of Motor Branch-Circuit Short Circuit
and Ground-Fault Protective- Devices (NEC table 430-52) is as shown in Table
3-13.
Table 3-13 motor branch circuit short-circuit and ground-fault protection
Type of Motor Non-time
delay fuse
Dual
Element
(Time-delay)
Instantaneous
trip breaker
Inverse
time breaker
Single phase all types-
no code letter
300 175 800 250
Squirrel cage - other
than
Design B energy-
efficient
300 175 800 250
Design B energy-
efficient
300 175 1100 250
Synchronous 300 175 800 250
Wound rotor 150 150 800 150
Direct current
(constant voltage)
150 150 250 150
47
Figure 3-25 A main distribution center supplying individual branch
Circuits to each motor (branch-circuit short-circuit and ground-fault
protective devices).
Figure 3-26 A feeder supplying individual branch circuits to each motor.
48
Figure 3-27 A 20-ampere branch circuit supplying lighting, small motors,
and appliances.
Figure 3-28 A motor branch circuit showing the essential parts.
3.6 Components of low voltage distribution system
The main components of the low voltage distribution networks include the
distribution transformers, distribution pillars and building cofrees.
49
3.6.1 Distribution transformer
It is used to step down the voltage from the medium voltage to the distribution
voltage, at normal operation the transformer is loaded with (60%-80%) of its full
load in order that it can withstand to carry loads in case of another transformer
failure.
Distribution transformers are put into either kiosks in the streets or rooms that are
specially designed for them, in the past the transformer was in the same room
with the ring main unit (RMU), but now we make the room of two compartments
one for the transformer and the other for the RMU, in order that we protect the
operator from the actions of the transformer during the pass of inrush current.
The ratings of the distribution transformer are 300 KVA, 500 KVA, 630KVA,
800KVA and 1000 KVA. Usually the 300 KVA rating is not widely used.
3.6.2 Distribution boxe (Pillar)
Distribution box links the distribution transformer with the building box (coffree),
the distribution box should has an incoming from the distribution transformer and
another feeder going to another distribution box so that in case of faults on its
distribution transformer it can be fed from the other distribution box and vice
versa.
At normal operation the pillar should be loaded from 70% to 80% to be able to
withstand loads of the other pillar in case of faults.
The feeders of the pillar are loaded with 70% to 80% of its full load and these
feeders are usually made of aluminium because copper is expensive and subject
to stealing.
The ratings of the distribution box are usually 100 KVA, 150 KVA and 200
KVA.
50
3.6.3 Building box (coffree)
Building box links the distribution box with the riser. The building box is fed
from a pillar that is fed from two different feeders one comes from a transformer
and the other comes from another pillar. The coffree has a supply in case that a
fault occurs at one of two incomings. By this method, many manoeuvrings which
ensure continuity of supply can be done.
The protective device that is connected on the riser may be a three-phase circuit
breaker or three single phase fuses to prevent the failure in supply in case of the
fuse of one phase is burnt , or one three- phase fuse. Riser is made of copper,
because it is inside the building and cannot be stolen easily.
51
Chapter 4 Cable sizing and PB design
CHAPTER 4 CABLE SIZING AND
PANELBOARDE DESIGN
4.1 Introduction
This chapter explains how a suitable size of cable can be selected to meet the load
requirements and achieve acceptable voltage drop. It also covers the basic
requirements of panelboard structure and design.
4.2 Under Ground Cables
4.2.1 Introduction
Electric power can be transmitted or distributed either by overhead system or by
underground system. The underground cables are preferable than overhead in
some cases for due to some advantage as follows:-
-they are less liable to damage through storms or lightning,
-they have low maintenance cost,
-they have less chances of faults,
-they have smaller voltage drop,
-They have better general appearance,
However, there is some advantage also there is some elimination as follows:-
-they have greater installation cost,
-They introduce insulation problems at high voltages compared with the
equivalent overhead system.
-The chief use of underground cables for many years has been for distribution of
electric power in congested urban areas at comparatively low or moderate
voltages. However, recent improvements in the design and manufacture have led
to the development of cables suitable for use at high voltages. This has made it
possible to employ underground cables for transmission of electric power for
52
short or moderate distances.
The type of cable used will depend up on the voltage will applied to it, and
service require. According to the recent improvement in design and manufacture
cables become suitable for high voltage associated with modern transmission
system.
In any installation, the importance of calculating & installing the correct size of
cable for each circuit is paramount. This entails using the correct factors given in
the IEE wiring regulations. Voltage drop in the final circuit must not be over
loaded as this can have a bearing on the conductor size chosen. It is therefore
essential for the designer or installer to ascertain the condition under which cables
are to be installed. The external influences that are going to affect the cables, such
as the ambient temperature that will be encountered along the cable route or
whether the cables will be in contact with thermal insulation. Contact with other
cables along the route must be ignored. Since this can have an effect not only on
the current carrying capacity of the cables to be installed. It is important when
considering voltage drop to remember that some electrical equipment such as the
direct on line start squirrel cage induction motor, can take a six to seven times the
equipment normal running current, when it is started. This means that for a short
period of time, the voltage drop in the cables feeding the equipment may be
higher than 4% permitted by the IEE wiring regulation, an excessive reduction in
voltage, even for short period of time.
4.2.2 Basic definition
Electrical cables:
is defined as '' single conductor insulated through it full length'' or ''two or more
conductor provided with its own insulation and lay up together under one outer
protective covering.
Skin effect:
is occurs at alternating current which the current taken the outer surface of the
conductor as a current pass and this affected on the cross sectional area of the
cable when some cables grouped together.
53
Stranding effect:
is necessary to provide flexibility to cable it have a slandered number as (3, 7,
19, 37) and so on all number accept (3) having a centrally conductor with all the
other around it.
The spiralling of the cable cause the increase in resistance since the length of each
spiralled conductor is greater than the central conductor, and the follow of current
is along various conductors.
Ambient temperature:
It is the temperature of air or other medium where the equipment is to be used.
Current carrying capacity:
It is the maximum current which can be carried by a conductor under specified
condition without its steady state temperature exceeding a specified value.
Over current:
A current exceeding the rated value. For conductor the rated value is the current
carrying capacity.
Short circuit current:
An over current resulting from a fault of negligible impedance between live
conductors having a difference of potential under normal operating condition.
Design current:
The magnitude of the current intended to be carried by a circuit in normal service.
Overload:
where a protection device is being used for overload protection, the regulations
call for the protective device to operate when the current reaches a value of 1.45
times the rating of protective device.
Hand hole Enclosure:
An enclosure identified for use in underground systems, provided with an open or
closed bottom, and sized to allow personnel to reach into, but not enter, for the
purpose of installing, operating, or maintaining equipment or wiring or both as
shown in Figure 4-29.
54
Figure 4-29 Hand hole enclosure
4.2.3 Main Requirements OF Cable
(1) Conductor used in cable should be standard and its cross sectional area should
be selected such that it may carry full load current without overheating and
causing voltage drop.
(2) Insulation material: it should give high degree of safety and reliability at
operation Condition.
(3) We should make a mechanical protection to the cable to withstand the rough
usage in laying it.
(4) Material which used in manufacture of cable should give complete chemical
and Physical stability through it.
4.2.4 General construction of cables
Cables consist of one or more conductors covered with suitable insulation and
surrounded by a protecting cover. Although several types of cables are available,
the type of cable to be used will depend on the working voltage and service
requirements, the following figure shows the general construction of multicore
cables.
55
Figure 4-30 construction of cable
In general cables construction can estimate by the follows:-
(1) Conductor martial
(2) Insulation material
(3) Metallic sheath
(4) Bedding
(5) Armouring
(6) Serving
(1) Conductor material
A cable may have one or more than one conductor (core) depending upon the
type of Service for which it is intended. The conductors are made of tinned
copper or aluminium and are usually stranded in order to provide flexibility to the
cable. Copper has lower Resistivity and thus higher conductivity than aluminium.
This means that copper Conductors have smaller cross sectional area take up less
space than aluminium for the same current capacity, for the flexibility to the
cables we stranded it.
Table 4-14 Comparison between Copper and Aluminium materials
Properties Unit Copper Aluminium
-density
-resistivity
-constant mass
temperature
coefficient
g/cm3
ohm.mm2/km
1/c
8.89
17.241
0.00393
2.703
28.264
0.00403
-conductivity Siemens.m/mm2 58 36
56
-temperature
coefficient at 0 c
-specific heat
per unit weight
C
w/g/c

234.5
0.389
228
0.8870
-Coefficient of
linear expansion
-ultimate tensile
stress
1/c
Kg/mm2
17x10^-6
25.0
42.0
23x10^-6
11.5-15.5

Both solid and stranded aluminium conductors are in present use the formers
being cheaper and easier to joint but less flexible than the latter.
Figure 4-31 and Figure 4-32 show multicore AL and CU cables.
Figure 4-31 Aluminium cable
Figure 4-32 Copper cable
(2) Insulating material
Each core or conductor is provided with a suitable thickness of insulation. The
thickness of the layer depends on the voltage to be withstood by the cable, thus
the insulation must have a very high resistance. The commonly used materials for
insulation will be discussed in this chapter.
Figure 4-33 shows a good insulating material and bad insulating material.
57
Figure 4-33 Insulation materials
(i) Type of insulating materials
-Rubber
-Vulcanized India Rubber (VIR)
-Impregnated Paper
-Polyvinyl chloride
-Polyethylene
-Cross-Linked Polyethylene
-Varnished Cambric
-Gutta_Percha
-Silk and Cotton
-Enamel Insulation
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) :
This insulating material is a synthetic compound . it is obtained from the
polymerization of acetylene and is in the form of white powder . for obtaining
this material as cable insulation it is compounded with certain materials liquids
with high boiling point ,forming a gell and renders the material plastic over the
desired range of temperature . The mechanical properties , i.e. elasticicty and
recovery from stretching are not as good as those of rubber; the insulation
resistance is also lower . PVC, however,is inert to oxygen and almost inert to
many alkalis and acids.Therefore,this type of insulation is preferred over VIR in
58
extreme environmental conditions. Since the mechanical properties of PVC are
not so good therefore,PVC insulated cables are generally used for low and
medium domestic lights and power.
Cross-Linked Polyethylene(XLPE):
Cable produced with cross-linked polyethylene can operate at higher tempertures
than cables produced with other insulating materials. Cross-linking also
significantly improves the physical properties of the polyethylene. For medium
voltage applications cross-linked polyethylene acts well. XLPE insulated cables
may be operated continuously at a conductor temperature of 90C and
intermittently at 130C during emergency conditions. XLPE has good low
temperature properties and shows increased resistance to corona .
(ii) The main properties of insulating material
(1) High dielectric strength.
(2) High insulation resistance.
(3) Good mechanical properties.
(4) Immunity to chemical attacks occur arrange of temperature of about -18 C to
94 C.
(5) Easily to manufacturing and not too costly.
(6) Non-hygroscopic i.e. it should not absorb moisture from air or soil.
(7) Non-inflammable.
(8) Low coefficient of thermal expansion.
(9) Low permittivity.
(10) Capability of withstanding high rupturing voltages.
The major insulating material is showing in the following [table 4-2].
Table 4-15 the main properties of insulating material
Properties UNIT XLPE PVC
-Max. .operate temperature
-Max. .short circuit temperature
C
C
90
250
70
160
59

P
h
y
s
i
c
o
c
h
e
m
i
c
a
l

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
i
e
s
Resistance to:
-Acids
-Alkaline
-Oil
-Heat distortion
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
fair

E
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
a
l

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
i
e
s
Insulation resistance cons Ki:
-at 20 c
-at max rated temperature
dielectric cons:
-at rated temperature
-volume resistivity at 20c
-volume resistivity at max rated
temperature
M.ohm.Km
M.ohm.Km
-
ohm.cm
ohm.cm
-
3.67
2.5
min.10
16
min.10
12
367
0.037
6-8
min.10
12
min.10
11
Max permissible operating temperature C 90 70
Max permissible short circuit temperature C 250 160
Emergency operating temperature C 130 110
Thermal resistivity Km/W 3.5 6
(3) Metallic sheath
In order to protect the cable from moisture, gasses or other damaging liquids
(acids or alkalies) in the soil and atmosphere, metallic sheath of lead or
aluminium is provided over the insulation.
(4) Bedding
Over the metallic sheath is applied a layer of bedding which consist of fibrous
material like jute or Hessian tap. The purpose of bedding is to protect the metallic
sheath against Corrosion.
(5) Armouring
Armouring over the bedding, armouring is provided which consist of one or two
layers of galvanized steel wire or steel tap. Its purpose to protect the cables from
mechanical injury.
60
Types of armouring
-Steel Tape Armouring
A steel tape is provided over the bedding but they are not very flexible, and their
use is limited where bending of the cables cannot be avoided.
-Wire Armouring
It has been found that a single layer of wire armouring provides better mechanical
protection as against two layers of steel tape.
(ii) The following symbol of armouring
a)-for single core cables:
-aluminium tape armouring (ATA)
-aluminium wire armouring (AWA)
b) For multicore cables:
- Double steel tape armouring (DST)
- Steel wires armouring (SWA)
(6) Serving (outer sheath)
Its consist of PVC compound of rated working temperatures up to 70c or PVC
type for working temperature 90c.
Main properties of different types of covering and sheathing material are shown
in the following [table 4-3].
Table 4-3 Main properties of different types of covering and sheathing material
Properties Unit PVC PVC
(st2)
PE
61

M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
i
e
s
Without ageing : -Tensile strength
-Elongation

Ageing in air oven: -Temperature
-Duration
-Tensile
-variation
-Elongation
at break
-variation
N/mm
2
%
0c
hour
N/mm
2
%
%
%
Min.12.
5
Min.
150
100
168
Max. 10
Max. 20
min.
250
Max. 20
Min.12.
5
Min.
150
100
168
min.12.
5
Max. 25
min.
100
Max. 20
Rain.10
Min.30
0
100
240
man.10
max.20
min.300
max.20

P
h
y
s
i
c
a
l

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
i
e
s
Pressure test -duration
At high temp. -temperature
-variation
high shock -duration
test -temperature

Hour
C
%
hour
oc
4
70
max 50
1
150
6
80
max 50
1
150
-
-
-
-
-

P
h
y
s
i
c
o
-
c
h
e
m
i
c
a
l

p
r
o
p
e
r
t
i
e
s
-flame propagation
-resistance to
- humidity
-chemicals
-hydrocarbons
-ozone
-weathering
No
Good
Good
Good
V.G
Good
No
Good
Good
Good
V.G
Good
Yes
excellen
t
Good
variable
V.G
V.G
4.2.5 Type and classification of cables
Cables may be single core or multi-core cable according to the service it is to do.
Multi-core cables may be three cores, four cores or four cores with reduced
neutral.
62
The underground cables may be classified into two ways according to:
(1)The type of insulation material used in their manufacture.
(2)The voltage for which they are manufactured
The next fig(4-14) show the single core and multicore cables.
Figure 4-34 Single core cable
Figure 4-35 Multicore cable
To classified the cable according to operating voltage as follows:
(1) Low voltage for operating cable up to 1000 volt.
(2) High voltage for operating cable up to 11000 volt.
(3) Super voltage for operating cable up to 33000 volt.
(4) Extra high voltage for operating cable up to 66000 volt.
(5) Extra super voltage for operating cable up to 132000 volt.
The standard rated voltage of a cable is denoted by Uo/U (Um), where
Uo: is the rated voltage between conductor and neutral, i.e., volt between phase
and neutral.
U : is the rated voltage between two conductors, i.e., volt between one phase and
anther one.
63
Um: is the maximum continuously permissible operating voltage of a cable at
time or in any part of network.
The following [table 4-4] shows the rated voltage:
Table 4-4 the rated voltage
Uo/U
(KV)
0.6/1 1.8/3 3.6/6 6/10 8.7/15 12/20 18/30 38/66
Um 1.2 3.6 7.2 12 17.5 24 36 72.5
4.2.6 Method of laying under ground cables
(i) Cable trenches (direct laying)
This method of laying underground cables is simple and cheap and is much
favored in modern practice.
In this method, a trench of about 40cm wide is dug.(for medium voltage cables
they are buried at a distance of 80 cm, for low voltage cables they are buried at a
distance of 60 cm and for street lighting UGC are buried at a distance of 40 cm).
The trench is covered with a layer of fine sand (of about 10 cm thickness) and the
cable is laid over this sand bed. The sand prevents the entry of moisture from the
ground and thus protects the cable from decay. After that it is covered with
another layer of sand of about 10 cm thickness. The trench is then covered with
bricks and other material in order to protect the cable from mechanical injury.
When more than one cable is to be laid in the same trench, a horizontal or vertical
inter-axial spacing of at least 30 cm is provided in order to reduce the effect of
mutual heating and also to ensure that a fault occurring on one cable does not
damage the adjacent cable for the same purpose we put a brick between each two
cables every reasonable distance.
From the advantages of direct cable laying:
-It is a simple and less costly method.
-It gives the best conditions for dissipating the heat generated in the cables.
-It is a clean and safe method as the cable is invisible and free from external
disturbances.
The disadvantage of this method:
64
Is that the extension of load is possible only by a completely new excavation
which may cost as much as the original work.
There is also another two type of laying but this type are preferable.
Figure 4-36 Direct laying method
4.2.7 Method of laying under ground cable in special location
(ii) Road crossing
For laying underground cables under the road, cast iron, galvanized-steel
concrete pipes are employed for carrying them. Steel pipe is preferred as they can
easily installed and having high resistance against mechanical damage. The pipe
should be inclined to reduce the angle of bend as the cables enter and leave the
road crossing.
Figure 4-37 Road crossing
(iii) Railway crossing
The laying underground cables is to be carried out in accordance with the rules
and specification of the railway authorities and for that approval of railway
authorities is essential the pipe should be laid at depth of 1m below formation
level and should extend to minimum distance of 3m from the centre of the outer
most track on either side .
(iv) Water main crossing
While crossing water supply main by a power cable, a minimum clearance of .4
m is to be provided between the two.
65
(v) Communication line crossing
for laying power cable near communication line its desired to provide a minimum
clearance of .6 m between the two horizontally and vertically, so that the
disturbance to communication circuit are avoided .
(VI) In tunnel
The cable normally cleated on walls or laid on earthed racks or brackets. The
cables are run straight so as to avoid sag.
Figure 4-38 In tunnel
(VII) On bridge
in concrete bridge cover ducts in the form of pipe are provided but in the steel
bridge steel pipe are laid on them and the cables are drawn in through them the
pipe should be of a diameter large enough to accommodate required number of
cables.
4.2.8 Cable Sizing
At first the main factor affected on the cables selected can estimated by the
following factors:-
1- Load .
2- Voltage Drop .
3- Installation Condition .
4- Cable Length .
66
5- Short circuit current .
6- Running cost .
7- Mechanical hazard .
Plunging into calculations of cable size is of little value unless the type of cable
and its method of installation are known .This, in turn, will depend on the
installation's environment. At the same time, we would need to know whether the
supply was single or three phases. Basically. There are eight steps to make the
selection of under ground cables cross sectional area as follows:
1- Determine the design current Ib.
2- Select the rating of the protection In.
3- Select the relevant correction factors (CFs).
4- Divide In by the relevant CFs to give tabulated cable current carrying capacity
it.
5- Choose a cable size to suit it.
6- Check the voltage drop.
7- Check for shock risk constraints.
8- Check for thermal constrains.
Design Current:
In many instances the design current Ib is quoted by the manufacturer, but there
are times when it has to be calculated.
Single phase:
( )
B
p watt
I
v
Three phase:
( )
3( )
B
L
p watt
I
v
If an item of equipment has a power factor (PF) and has moving part, efficiency
(eff) will have to be taken into account.
Hence:
67
Single phase:
( ) 100
.
B
p watt
I
v p f

Three phase:
( ) 100
3( ) .
B
L
p watt
I
v p f

(A) Nominal setting of protection
Nominal setting of the Having determined (Ib) we must now select the (Ib)
protection such that (In) ,this protection current depend upon the future
expandability and protect against fault which may occurs.
(B) Correction Factors
The common term in use when considering sizing conductors was derating factor
even though at temperature below 30c an increased rating can result. Now the
term correction factor can be found in use only.
The factors specifically referred to in the regulation are:
C
g:
Grouping, more easily remembered as G
G
a
: ambient temperature, more easily remembered as A
C
t
: thermal insulation, more easily remembered as T
(C) Ambient temperature (A)
The permitted operating temperature of the conductor varies according to the type
of conductor insulation. Additionally, the current carrying capacity are based on
an ambient temperature of 30%, so a higher ambient temperature will reduce the
rate of flow of heat out of conductor, raising the conductor's operating
temperature above the value permitted. This means that the current carrying
capacity of the conductor has to be Reduced to compensate for reduction in the
heat lost from the conductor connection for ambient temperature is carried out
using the following formula:
68
Table 4-16 Ambient temperature (A)
Temp. 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 65 70
PVC
cable
1.02 1 0.97 0.94 0.91 0.88 0.86 0.77 0.63
rubber 1.02 1 0.97 0.94 0.92 0.89 0.85 0.77 0.68
(D) Grouping factor (Cg)
Where conductors are grouped together they interrelate with the heat dissipated
from each other. This raise a conductor's operating temperature to a value that
could exceed the permitted value. To ensure the operating temperature of the
conductor with value not exceed the permitted value, the effective current
carrying capacity of the conductor has to be reduction. This reduction is under
taken by using correction factors. This factor is dependent upon how the
conductors are installed & the number grouped together. The symbol used in the
regulations for this factor C
g
Protection by BS 3036 fuses Cf
There are two type of fuses either high speed fuse or low speed.
In case of high speed fuses we can use a derating factor that equal one
On the other hand the low speed fuses we taking a derating factor that equal 0.725
multiplying with the design current
Total correction factor will be
C.F. =C
F
C
g
C
a

(F) Choice the cross sectional area of the cable
We can choose the suitable cross sectional area of the cable from the standard
cable Tables.
4.2.9 Voltage drop calculation:
(i) Voltage Drop of Cables
Voltage drop is normally important for cables of voltage rating 600/1000V or
below.
The voltage drop within the installation should not exceed a value appropriate to
safe functioning of the associated equipment in normal service.
69
The voltage drop is given in the regulation in the form mV/A/meter, based on the
conductor working at the operational given in the current carrying capacity tables.
Values of voltage drop are tabulated for a current of ampere for one meter run,
i.e. for adistance of 1 meter along the taken by the cables and represent the effect
of the voltage drop in the entire circuit conductor.
And the used law for calculation will be:
1000
B
d
mv I L
v

Where:
Vd : the voltage drop in mille volts
I : rated current in amperes
L : cable length in meters
mv: approximate volt/ampere/meter
The voltage at the terminals of the equipment shall be such that the safe
functioning of the equipment is not impaired. However, these requirements are to
be satisfied if the voltage drop from the origin of the installation to the end of the
final circuit does not exceed 4% of the declared nominal voltage.
i.e. (8.8 V for 220 V supply, & 15.2 V, for 380 V supply)
4.2.10 Calculation of short circuit current
The short circuit current can be calculated by thus relation.
. / Is c Vs Zt
where
Is.c: the short circuit current
Vs: the phase source voltage.
Zt: the value of the total impedance from the source to the short circuit place.
4.3 Panelboards and power factor improvement
4.3.1 Panel boards
(i) General
70
All panelboards shall have a rating not less than the minimum feeder
capacity required for the load calculated in accordance with [Article 220 NEC].
Panelboards shall be durably marked by the manufacturer with the voltage and
the current rating and the number of phases for which they are designed and with
the manufacturer's name or trademark in such a manner so as to be visible after
installation, without disturbing the interior parts wiring.
(ii) Classification of Panelboards
Panelboards shall be classified for the purposes of this article as either lighting
and appliance branch-circuit panelboards or power panelboards, based on their
content. A lighting and appliance branch circuit is a branch circuit that has a
connection to the neutral of the panelboard and that has overcurrent protection of
30 amperes or less in one or more conductors.
(A) Lighting and Appliance Branch-Circuit Panelboard A lighting and appliance
branch-circuit panelboard is one having more than 10 percent of its overcurrent
devices protecting lighting and appliance branch circuits.
(B) Power Panelboard A power panelboard is one having 10 percent or fewer of
its overcurrent devices protecting lighting and appliance branch A power
panelboard is a panelboard that has 10 percent or less of the installed overcurrent
devices supplying lighting and appliance branch circuits. Any panelboard that is
not classified as a lighting and appliance branch-circuit panelboard is a power
panelboard. A typical power panelboard could be located near the service and be
designed to supply facility feeder circuits. The feeders from a power panelboard
supply other utilization equipment or other panelboards that supply either other
branch circuits or other feeders.
(iii) Number of Overcurrent Devices on One Panelboard
Not more than 42 overcurrent devices (other than those provided for in the mains)
of a lighting and appliance branch-circuit panelboard shall be installed in any one
cabinet or cut-out box.
71
A lighting and appliance branch-circuit panelboard shall be provided with
physical means to prevent the installation of more overcurrent devices than that
number for which the panelboard was designed, rated, and approved.
For the purposes of [article 408 NEC], a 2-pole circuit breaker shall be considered
two overcurrent devices; a 3-pole circuit breaker shall be considered three
overcurrent devices.
(iv) Overcurrent Protection
(A) Lighting and Appliance Branch-Circuit Panelboard Individually Protected
Each lighting and appliance branch-circuit panelboard shall be individually
protected on the supply side by not more than two main circuit breakers or two
sets of fuses having a combined rating not greater than that of the panelboard.
Exception No. 1: Individual protection for a lighting and appliance panelboard
shall not be required if the panelboard feeder has overcurrent protection not
greater than the rating of the panelboard.
Figure 4-39 A panelboard with main circuit breaker disconnect, suitable
for use as service equipment.
72
Figure 4-40 An arrangement of three individual lighting and appliance
branch circuit panelboards with main overcurrent protection remote from
the panelboards.
This shows the split-bus circuitry for a 200-ampere (left) and a 150-ampere
(right) panelboard. The left panel has two 100-ampere main breakers installed as
disconnecting means and 200-ampere main lugs. The right is a split-bus panel
with 150-ampere main lugs and six main breaker disconnecting means. The 150-
ampere panelboard is suitable for use as service equipment only if it is not a
lighting and appliance panelboard or if it presently exists in an individual
residential occupancy.
Figure 4-41 Circuitry for a 200-ampere (left) and a 150-ampere (right)
split-bus panelboard.
73
(B) Power Panelboard Protection In addition to the requirements of 408.30, a
power panelboard with supply conductors that include a neutral, and having more
than 10 percent of its overcurrent devices protecting branch circuits rated 30
amperes or less, shall be protected by an overcurrent protective device having a
rating not greater than that of the panelboard. This overcurrent protective device
shall be located within or at any point on the supply side of the panelboard
(C) Snap Switches Rated at 30 Amperes or Less Panelboards equipped with snap
switches rated at 30 amperes or less shall have overcurrent protection of 200
amperes or less.
(D) Supplied Through a Transformer Where a panelboard is supplied through a
transformer, the overcurrent protection required by (A), (B), and (C) shall be
located on the secondary side of the transformer.
Exception: A panelboard supplied by the secondary side of a transformer shall be
considered as protected by the overcurrent protection provided on the primary
side of the transformer where that protection is in accordance with [240.21(C)(1)
NEC].
(E) Delta Breakers A 3-phase disconnect or overcurrent device shall not be
connected to the bus of any panelboard that has less than 3-phase buses. Delta
breakers shall not be installed in panelboards.
(F) Back-Fed Devices Plug-in-type overcurrent protection devices or plug-in type
main lug assemblies that are backfed and used to terminate field-installed
ungrounded supply conductors shall be secured in place by an additional fastener
that requires other than a pull to release the device from the mounting means on
the panel.
(v)Enclosure
Panelboards shall be mounted in cabinets, cut-out boxes, or enclosures designed
for the purpose and shall be dead-front.
Exception: Panelboards other than of the dead-front, externally operable type
shall be permitted where accessible only to qualified persons.
(vi)Grounding of Panelboards
74
Panelboard cabinets and panelboard frames, if of metal, shall be in physical
contact with each other and shall be grounded. Where the panelboard is used with
non-metallic raceway or cable or where separate grounding conductors are
provided, a terminal bar for the grounding conductors shall be secured inside the
cabinet. The terminal bar shall be bonded to the cabinet and panelboard frame, if
of metal; otherwise it shall be connected to the grounding conductor that is run
with the conductors feeding the panelboard.
(vii)Switchboards in Damp or Wet Locations
Switchboards in damp or wet locations shall be installed as following:
Damp, Wet, or Hazardous (Classified) Locations:
Damp and Wet Locations In damp or wet locations, surface-type enclosures
within the scope of this article shall be placed or equipped so as to prevent
moisture or water from entering and accumulating within the cabinet or cut-out
box, and shall be mounted so there is at least 6-mm ( 1/ 4-in.) airspace between
the enclosure and the wall or other supporting surface. Enclosures installed in wet
locations shall be weatherproof. For enclosures in wet locations, raceways or
cables entering above the level of uninsulated live parts shall use fittings listed for
wet locations.
Exception: Non-metallic enclosures shall be permitted to be installed without the
airspace on a concrete, masonry, tile, or similar surface.
The circuit breaker:
Types of circuit breakers used in the process:
(1) Miniature circuit breaker.
(2) Moulded case circuit breaker.
Standard ampere ratings for circuit breakers:
-For miniature circuit breaker:
5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 32, 40, 50, 60, 63, 80.
-For moulded case circuit breaker:
100, 125, 160, 200, 250, 320, 400, 450, 630, 800, 1000, 1200, 1600, 2000, 3000,
4000, 5000, 6000.
75
The selection of circuit breaker is based on:
(1) Provide proper overload protection.
(2) Ensure a suitable voltage rating.
(3) Provide a sufficient interrupting current rating.
(4) Provide short circuit protection.
4.3.2 Power Factor Improvement
(i) Causes of low power factor
(1) Induction motor is the most commonly used AC motor. At full load 3 phase
induction motor operates at PF (0.8) Lagging, while the PF of single phase motor
of (0.6) lagging.
(2) The transformer draws a magnetizing current from the system, this current is
about (0) lagging, other equipment like arc lamps, welding contribute to low PF
in the system.
(ii) Effects of low power factor
(1) To meet the load requirement at low PF, the capacity of power plant,
transmission &distribution equipment, has to be more than that which be
necessary if the load where demanded at unity PF.
(2) For same active power, operation on existing power system at a low PF means
over leading the equipment at times of full load.
(3) For the same active power, a low PF means greater current & higher energy
losses & lower efficiency.
(4) Low PF causes the voltage regulation to be poor.
(iii) Advantage of power factor improvement
In installation of PF improvement device to rise PF results in the following
effects& advantages:
(1) Reduction in circuit current
P
I
VCOS

(2)Increase voltage level at load.
76
(3) Reduction of copper losses due to reduction of current.
(4)Reduction of investment of system facilities per KW in load supplied.
(5) Improvement in PF of generator.
(6) Reduction of KVA loading of generators & circuits (
cos
kw
), this reduction of
KVA may get rid of over loaded condition or release capacity for addition growth
load.
(7) Reduction of KVA demand charge consumers.
(iv )How to improve power factor?
(1) Using static capacitors bank.
(2) Using synchronous condenser.
(3) Using static VAR compensator.
77
Chapter 5 Grounding and standby systems
CHAPTER 5 GROUNDING AND
STANDBY SYSTEMS
5.1 Introduction
This chapter deals with the design of grounding and standby systems which
represent the safety measures at any important electrical application.
For example, earth is made up of materials that are electrically conductive; a fault
current will flow to 'earth' through the live conductor, provided it is earthed. This
is to prevent a potentially live conductor from rising above the safe level all
exposed metal parts of an electrical installation or electrical appliance must be
earthed.
On the other hand standby generator is considered as an effective tool to
overcome service continuity which is important in residential building.
For completeness of design procedure, the lightning protection system is also
included in this chapter.
5.2 The main objectives of the grounding are to:
(1) Provide an alternative path for the fault current to flow so that it will not
endanger the user
(2) Ensure that all exposed conductive parts do not reach a dangerous potential
(3) Maintain the voltage at any part of an electrical system at a known value so as
to prevent over current or excessive voltage on the appliances or equipment.
5.3 The qualities of a good grounding system are:
(1) Must be of low electrical resistance
(2) Must be of good corrosion resistance
(3) Must be able to dissipate high fault current repeatedly
5.4 System Grounding:
In electricity supply systems, an grounding system defines the electrical potential
of the conductors relative to that of the Earth's conductive surface. The choice of
grounding system has implications for the safety and electromagnetic
compatibility of the power supply. Note that regulations for grounding
78
(grounding) systems vary considerably between different countries. A protective
earth (PE) connection ensures that all exposed conductive surfaces are at the same
electrical potential as the surface of the Earth, to avoid the risk of electrical shock
if a person touches a device in which an insulation fault has occurred. It also
ensures that in the case of an insulation fault, a high fault current flows, which
will trigger an overcurrent protection device (fuse, MCB) that disconnects the
power supply. A functional earth connection serves a purpose other than
providing protection against electrical shock. In contrast to a protective earth
connection, a functional earth connection may carry a current during the normal
operation of a device. Functional earth connections may be required by devices
such as surge suppression and electromagnetic-compatibility filters, some types
of antennas and various measurement instruments. Generally the protective earth
is also used as a functional earth, though this requires care in some situations.
5.5 IEC nomenclature:
International standard IEC 60364 distinguishes three families of grounding
arrangements, using the two-letter codes TN, TT, and IT.
The first letter indicates the connection between earth and the power-supply
equipment (generator or transformer):
Table 5-17 IEC nomenclature
T
direct connection of a point with earth (French: terre);
I
No point is connected with earth (isolation), except
perhaps via high impedance.
The second letter indicates the connection between earth and the electrical device
being supplied:
Table 5-18 IEC nomenclature
T direct connection with earth, independent of any other
earth connection in the supply system;
N Connection to earth via the supply network.
79
5.5.1 TN network:
In a TN grounding system, one of the points in the generator or transformer is
connected with earth, usually the star point in a three-phase system. The body of
the electrical device is connected with earth via this earth connection at the
transformer.

Figure 5-42 TN system
The conductor that connects the exposed metallic parts of the consumer is called
protective earth (PE). The conductor that connects to the star point in a three-
phase system, or that carries the return current in a single-phase system, is called
neutral (N). Three variants of TN systems are distinguished:
Table 5-19 Three variants of TN systems
TN-S PE and N are separate conductors that are connected
Together only near the power source.
TN-C A combined PEN conductor fulfils the functions of
both a PE and an N conductor
TN-C-S Part of the system uses a combined PEN conductor, which
is at some point split up into separate PE and N lines. The
80
combined PEN conductor typically occurs between the
substation and the entry point into the building, whereas
within the building separate PE and N conductors are used.
In the UK, this system is also known as protective multiple
grounding (PME), because of the practice of connecting
the combined neutral-and-earth conductor to real earth at
many locations, to reduce the risk of broken neutrals - with
a similar system in Australia being signed as multiple
earthed neutral (MEN).
5.5.2 TN-S:
Separate protective earth (PE) and neutral (N) conductors from transformer to
consuming device, which are not connected together at
Any point after the building distribution point.
Figure 5-43 TN-S system
5.5.3 TN-C:
Combined PE and N conductor all the way from the transformer to the consuming
device.
81
.Figure 5-44 TN-C system
5.5.4 TN-C-S grounding system:
Combined PEN conductor from transformer to building distribution point, but
separate PE and N conductors in fixed indoor wiring and Flexible power cords.
./.
Figure 5-45 TN-C-S system
It is possible to have both TN-S and TN-C-S supplies from the same transformer.
For example, the sheaths on some underground cables corrode and stop providing
good earth connections, and so homes where "bad earths" are found get converted
to TN-C-S.
82
5.5.5 TT network:
.
Figure 5-46 TT system
In a TT grounding system, the protective earth connection of the consumer is
provided by a local connection to earth, independent of any earth connection at
the generator.
5.5.6 IT network:
In an IT network, the distribution system has no connection to earth at all, or it
has only a high impedance connection. In such systems, an insulation monitoring
device used to monitor the impedance.
83
..
Figure 5-47 IT
5.5.7 Example of The Various Earthing Systems
Included In The Same Installation ::
Figure 5-7 Various Earthing systems
5.6 Earth Conductors:
Having introduced the wide variety of grounding arrangements possible, it is now
necessary to consider the grounding system itself. The most important functions
84
of the earth conductors are explained and some definitions introduced. The
different types of earth electrode available are described and surprisingly the
same types are generally used whether the grounding system is for a house,
factory or generating station..
5.6.1 Conductor sizing :
IEC 60364-5-54 Provides a guide on how to correctly dimension PE conductors:
Note:
This simplified method can only be used if the PE/PEN conductor is of the same
material as the line conductors.
c.s.a = cross sectional area
1. If the PE conductor is a separate cable from that of the phase conductors the
minimum values below must be observed:
2.5 mm2 if the PE conductor is mechanically protected
4 mm2 if the PE conductor is not mechanically protected
2. For mechanical reasons the PEN conductor must have a c.s.a. not less than 10
mm2 in copper and 16 mm2 in aluminium
Note how, in the table above, the PEN conductor (a combined PE and Neutral
conductor) when constructed from aluminium, the cable must be larger than a
copper cable. This is because copper is a much better conductor than aluminium.
e mixtures of these soiltypes in varying proportions. Very often, the soil
composition is in layers or strata, and it is
the resistanceb of the varying strata, especially at sub-soil level and lower where
the moisture content is not subject to drying out, that is important in securing a
good electrical earth.
2. Climate
85
Obviously, arid and good rainfall climates are at opposite extremes for conditions
of soil resistivity.
3. Seasonal Conditions
The effects of heat, moisture, drought and frost can introduce wide variations in
normal soil resistivity. Soil resistivity usually decreases with depth, and an
increase of only a few percent of moisture content in a normally dry soil will
markedly decrease soil resistivity. Conversely, soil temperatures below freezing
greatly increase soil resistivity, requiring earth rods to be driven to even greater
depths. for variations of soil resistivity with moisture content, and for variations
of soil resistivity with temperature.
4.Other Factors
Other soil properties conducive to low resistivity are chemical composition, soil
ionisation, homogeneous grain size and even grain distribution - all of which have
much to do with retention of soil moisture, as well as providing good conditions
for a closely packed soil in good contact with the earth rod.
5.7 Earth Electrodes:
The earth electrode is the component of the grounding system which is in direct
contact with the ground and thus provides a means of releasing or collecting any
earth leakage currents. In earthed systems it will normally be required to carry
quite a large fault current for a short period of time and so will need to have a
cross-sectional area large enough to be able to carry this safely. Electrodes must
have adequate mechanical and electrical properties to continue to meet the
demands on them over a relatively long period of time, during which actual
testing or inspection is difficult. The material should have good electrical
conductivity and should not corrode in a wide range of soil conditions. Materials
used include copper, galvanised steel, stainless steel and cast iron. Copper is
generally the preferred material for reasons described later. Aluminium is
sometimes used for above ground "bonding", but most of the standards forbid its
use as an earth electrode due to the risk of accelerated corrosion. The corrosive
86
product - an oxide layer - is non-conductive, so could reduce the effectiveness of
the grounding. The electrode can take a number of forms. These include vertical
rods, plates and horizontal conductors, the most common of which are described
below.
5.7.1 Rod Electrode:
These are usually of solid copper or copper-clad carbon steel, the letter being
used for the large-diameters rods with extensions facilities. These facilities
comprise: a thread at each end of the rod to enable a coupler to be used for
connection of the next rod; a steel cap to protect the thread from damage when
the rod is being driven in; a steel driving tip; and a clamp for the connection of an
earth tap or conductor
The choice of length and diameter of such a rod will, as previously mentioned,
depend on the soil conditions. For example, a long thick electrode is used for
earth with little moisture retention. Generally, a 1 2 m rod, 16 mm in diameter,
will give a relatively low resistance
Figure 5-8 Rod electrode
87
5.7.2 Plates:
There are several types of plate used for grounding purposes, but the only type
which is generally considered as an electrode would be solid and of substantial
size. Lattice type plates, as illustrated in Figure 4-8 are used for potential grading
and would not be expected to pass significant amounts of fault current. They are
normally made of copper or steel mesh.
Figure 5-9 Grounding Plates
5.7.3 Earth Plates (courtesy A N Wallis and Co):
Plate electrodes are of copper or ribbed cast iron. The cast iron plates normally
are a minimum of 12 mm thick and either 915 mm or 1,220 mm square. Copper
plates are typically 600 mm to 900 mm square and between 1.6 mm and 3 mm
thick;
Where multiple plates are used, they must be some distance apart to prevent any
interaction.
Normally this is a minimum of 2 m, possibly extending to 9 m.
5.8 Earth Resistivity and Design of Driven Grounding:
5.8.1 Calculation Procedure:
(i) Choose First Calculation-Attempt Configuration
Table (5 4) shows some of the various shapes of manufactured earth rods. The
most common is a 3-m (10-ft) cylindrical rod. National Electrical Code (NEC
)
requires a minimum of 2.4-m (8-ft) driven length; a 3-m rod, therefore, is long
enough to meet the Code. As to determine, NEC
requires 1.59-cm (5/8-in)

88
minimum diameter for steel rods and 1.27-m (1/2-in) minimum diameter for
copper or cooper-clad steel rods. Minimum practical diameters for driven
limitations for 3-m rods are:
1.27cm (1/2 in) ------- average soil
1.59 cm (5/8 in) ------- most soils
1.91 cm (3/4 in) ------- very hard soils or more than 3-m driving depth
Formulas for Calculation of Resistances to grounding Approximate
formulas Dimensions must be in centimetres to give resistance in
cm
Source: H.B Wright, AIEE, vol. 55 1936, pp. 1319-1328
Table 5-20 Formulas for Calculation of Resistances to grounding
Hemisphere radius r
2
R
L

. One rod. length L radius r R =
,
_
1
4
ln
2 r
L
L

r
L
L 2
3
ln
2
3
.. Two rods S>L, Spacing S R=

,
_
+ +
,
_
....
5
2
3
1
4
1
4
ln
4
4
4
8
2
S
L
S
L
s r
L
L
.. Two rods S<L, Spacing S R=

,
_
+ + + ....
512 16 2
2
4
ln
4
ln
4
4
4
2
2
L
S
L
S
L
S
S
L
r
L
L
Buried horizontal wire length 2L, depth S/2

R=

,
_
+ + + ....
512 16 2
2
4
ln
4
ln
4
4
4
2
2
L
S
L
S
L
S
S
L
r
L
L
L Right angle turn of wire, length of arm(L),depth S/2

R=

,
_
+ + + ... 0424 . 0
512
1035 . 0 2146 . 0 2373 . 0
2
ln
2
ln
4
4
4
4
L
S
L
S
L
S
S
L
r
L
L

Three-point star, length of arm L, depth s/2
R=

,
_
+ .... 054 . 0
16
238 . 0 209 . 0 071 . 4
2
ln
2
ln
6
4
4
8
3
L
S
L
S
L
S
S
L
r
L
L
+ Four-point star, length of arm L, depth s/2

89
R=

,
_
+ + .... 145 . 0
16
645 . 0 071 . 0 912 . 2
2
ln
2
ln
8
4
4
8
2
L
S
L
S
L
S
S
L
r
L
L
Six-point star, length of arm L, depth s/2

R=

,
_
+ + .... 409 . 0
16
758 . 1 128 . 3 851 . 6
2
ln
2
ln
12
4
4
3
2
L
S
L
S
L
S
S
L
r
L
L
xEight-point star, length of arm L, depth S/2

R=

,
_
+ + .... 17 . 1
16
26 . 3 51 . 5 98 . 10
2
ln
2
ln
16
4
4
3
3
L
S
L
S
L
S
S
L
r
L
L
Ring of wire, diameter of ring D, diameter of wire d, depth S/2

R=
,
_
+
S
D
d
D
D
4
ln
8
ln
2
2
Buried horizontal strip length 2L, section a by b, depth s/2, b < r/8
R=
1
]
1
+ + +
+
+ ....
512 16 2
1
4
ln
) ( 2
4
ln
4
4
4
2
2
2
2
L
S
L
S
L
S
S
L
b a
ab a
r
L
L

Buried horizontal round plate radius r, depth S/2

R=

,
_
+ + .....
40
33
12
7
1
4 8
2
2
2
2
S
r
S
r
S r

Buried round plate radius r, depth S/2
R=

,
_
+ + + + .....
320
99
24
7
1
4 8
4
4
2
2
S
r
S
r
S r

(ii) Determine Resistivity
The following discussion is an example of one type of soil:
Table 4 2 indicates a variation of resistivity for sandy loam of 1020 to 135.000
.cm with an average of 15.800 .cm. To decide to choose, examine the effect
of moisture in Table [4-3] Because 15.800 .cm lies in the 10 to 15 percent
moisture range, our 1.27 m (50 in) per year indicates this will be a conservation
estimate.
Table 5-21 Resistivity of Different Soils
Soil
Ashes, cinders, brine, waste
Resistivity .cm
Minimum Average Maximum
590 2.370 7.000
340 4.060 16.300
90
Clay, shale, gumbo, loam
Same, with varying proportions of sand and
gravel
Gravel, sand, stones with little clay or loam
1.020 15.800 135.000
59000 94.000 458.000
Concrete 2000 3000 5000
Table 5-22 Effect of Moisture Content on Resistivity of Soil
Moisture content,
percent by weight
Resistivity .cm
Top soil Sandy loan
0 < 10
9
< 10
9
2.5 250.000 150.000
5 165.000 43.000
10 53.000 18.500
15 19.000 10.500
20 12.000 6.300
30 6.400 4.200
Table 5-23 Effect of Temperature on Resistivity of Sandy Loan, 15.2 Percent
Moisture
Temperature
Resistivity, .cm
C F
20 68 7.200
10 50 9.900
0 (water) 32 13.800
0 (ice) 32 30.000
- 5 23 79.000
- 15 14 330.000
(A) Computer R for Single Rod:
From Table (5 4) for one earth rod of length L and radius a, we have
4
ln 1
2
L
R
L r
,

91
Where L is 297 cm (9.75 ft), equal to 236 cm (7.75 ft); 2r is 1.59 cm (5/8 in); and
= 15.800 .cm. Substituting values, we calculate R as 64.8 . This is
significantly greater than the value indicated under the "Recommended Earth
Resistance for Solidly Earth Commercial System" of 25 maximum. Our first
design is unsatisfactory: we therefore examine an alternative design.
(B)Computer R for Two Rods, Close Spacing (s<L):
From Table 4 1 we have
2 4
4
4 4
ln ln 2 .........
4 2 2 512
L L s s s
R
L r s L L L
1
_ _ _
+ + +
1
, , ,
]

Where L is 236cm, r = 1.59 cm, s = 100 cm (>L = 239 cm), an arbitrary selection,
and = 15.800 .cm.
We calculate R = 40.1 . Because this resistance still exceeds the recommended
25 , we can consider a further variation.
(C)Computer R for Two Rods, Wide Spacing (s<L):
From Table 4 1 we have
2 4
8 4
4 2
ln 1 1 ........
4 4 3 5
L L L
R
L r s s s

_ 1
_ _ _
+ +
1
, , ,
] ,

We select an arbitrary spacing of s = 400 cm (13 1/8 ft), obtaining R = 35.5
(D)Decide if Tow Rods at 400 cm Are Satisfactory:
Recognizing the wide variability of sandy loam resistivity, one uses judgment in
selecting the value of . If the power system is a small commercial operation with
a low capacity transformer (and fault current will be moderated) or if the soil
tends to be more loam than sand (4060 .cm for sandy loam), then R for tow
widely spaced rods would be 9.12 , which would be satisfactory.
5.9 Lightning Protection
5.9.1 Introduction:
The main purpose of a lightning protection scheme is to shield a building, its
occupants and equipment from the adverse effects associated with a lightning
strike. These effects could otherwise result in fire, structural damage and
92
electrical interference - leading to equipment damage or electric shock. To
perform correctly, the protection scheme must capture the lightning, lead it safely
downwards and then disperse the energy within the ground. The components used
to facilitate this are air terminations, down leads and bonding leads and the earth
termination (or electrode). These are all discussed in more detail in this chapter.
The final component, which has not been covered here, is surge protection
equipment.
5.9.2 Risk Assessment:
The amount of lightning activity is not the same throughout the country; it varies
according to many factors, including geographical location, height etc. The
energy associated with the discharge also varies. It is necessary to consider these
factors and others, in deciding whether a lightning protection scheme is required
and the form it should take.
: BS 6651:1992 Protection of structures against lightning is based on a
probabilistic assessment which takes the following factors into account:
(1) Soil resistivity.
(2) The external dimensions of the structure and any electrically connected
adjacent structures.
(3) The length of overhead cables emanating from the structure.
(4) The flash density in the locality - associated with the thunderstorm days per
year.
(5) The construction type - mainly the height, type of roof, and protection scheme
(if any) in place. In general, the larger it is, the more likely it is to be struck.
(6) Geographic factors - the vertical height above sea level and relation with other
structures, for example how close is it to tall trees.
(7) Ground profile and terrain.
- These factors take into account the collection area made up by the structure and
cables connected to it and the methodology enables the risk of a strike to be
calculated. If the risk is less than 1 in 100,000, then generally no protection is
93
required. However, in order to carry out the formal risk assessment, this needs to
be assessed in relation to the consequences of a direct strike. If the building is
associated with an oil refinery or houses explosives, then a lightning protection
scheme offering the highest possible degree of protection will be required, even if
the risk of a strike is small.
5.9.3 Components of the Lightning Protection System:
The overall design is based on the concept of a rolling sphere, which is applied to
the structure to ensure that all exposed areas are protected by the scheme. The
individual components are as described below. The materials used are generally
high purity copper or aluminium (99%+ pure) of a similar grade to that used for
electrical conductors. The lightning protection system must be designed to
provide a sufficiently low impedance that the lightning energy will follow the
required route. This requires an integrated design and use of materials with
sufficiently low impedance. The various components of the system are each
described in more detail below. As shown in fig [4-9].
Figure 5-10 Lightning Protection
5.9.4 Air terminations:
These consist of vertical rods and/or a lattice of conductors on the roof and top
edges of a structure. The strips of the lattice typically form a mesh of 10 m by 20
m, smaller on high risk buildings. Metal projections, including rods, are
connected to this. BS 6651 requires that all parts of the roof are within 5m of a
conductor of the air termination. This distance is reduced to 2.5 m in high risk
buildings. Copper is again the most widely used material. Rods were traditionally
pointed, but modern designs now normally have a smoothed, but blunt tip. Rods,
94
if used, are positioned near those locations where a strike is most likely - i.e. roof
peaks, building corners etc.
5.9.5 Down leads and bonding conductors:
The down leads are required to be as short and straight as possible, any bends
being gradual rather than right angled. They are typically 10 m to 20 m apart.
They should be of robust construction and securely fixed in order to withstand the
significant mechanical forces which accompany the flow of lightning current. In
addition to formal down leads, metal girders, metal sheeting and reinforcing are
also used. .
5.9.6 Earth termination:
This can consist of a ring of buried copper (referred to in the USA as a
counterpoise) which encircles the structure, and/or vertical earth rods. The
impedance of the termination (i.e. below a down lead) is required to be a
maximum of 10 Ohm. Aluminium is not permitted for use underground. Each
down lead must have its own earth electrode termination and these are normally
looped together to form a ring, with horizontal electrodes being used to
interconnect them and help to reduce the overall impedance. The most common
terminations are driven rods and these are required to be at least 1.5 m long with a
minimum of 9m being used for each system.
5.9.7 Electrical Safety in the Workplace:
Faulty electric wiring and appliances are one of the most common causes of fires
in industrial and commercial premises, accounting for 5,000-6,000 (20%) of the
25,000-30,000 non-residential accidental fires. The extent of this serious problem
could be reduced substantially if a few simple rules regarding electrical
distribution systems are followed:
5.9.8 Ten Golden Rules:
(1)Ensure that there are a sufficient number of well placed socket outlets so that
no permanent extension leads are required.
95
(2)Ensure there are no more than 8 twin sockets on a single ring circuit - this can
be checked by counting circuit breakers/fuses in distribution panels and
comparing this with the number of sockets.
(3)Ensure cables are of sufficient cross-section. Two easy-to-follow rules are:
-Cable / trunking temperature should be not more than lukewarm
-Cables should be at least one-size-up on the safety minimum.
(4)Ensure main distribution cables are secured at regular intervals and that
connections are tight and corrosion-free - this can be done by visual inspection
and periodic testing.
(5)Ensure dual earths are installed - these are secondary cables running in
parallel with the main distribution cables, which help to minimize the hazardous
effects of earth leakage currents.
(6)Ensure accurate up-to-date drawings, wiring schedules and diagrams and test
schedules are kept and are available covering the whole installation.
(7)Ensure wiring systems - distribution panels, cables, busbars - are clearly
labelled to show:
-Their identity as depicted on the drawings
-The presence of hazardous voltages
-The identity of the currents they supply.
(8)Ensure testing and preventative maintenance of the installation is performed at
an appropriate interval and that test results are filed for future use.
(9)Ensure all pluggable equipment is PAT tested on a regular basis, the
periodicity of which is defined by a risk assessment performed by a competent
person. Ensure comprehensive records of testing are kept.
(10) Ensure all plugs are correctly wired by a competent person and properly
fused and, if in doubt, unplug the equipment and seek advice.
96
5.10 Emergency and standby systems
5.10.1Introduction
The provisions of this article apply to the electrical safety of the installation,
operation, And maintenance of emergency systems consisting of circuits and
equipment intended to Supply, distribute, and control electricity for illumination,
power, or both, to required Facilities when the normal electrical supply or system
is interrupted.
Emergency systems are those systems legally required and classed as emergency
by municipal, state, federal, or other codes, or by any governmental agency
having Jurisdiction. These systems are intended to automatically supply
illumination, power, or both, to designated areas and equipment in the event of
failure of the normal supply or in The event of accident to elements of a system
intended to supply, distribute, and control Power and illumination essential for
safety to human life.
5.10.2 Definitions
Emergency systems:
Emergency systems are designed and installed to maintain a specific degree of
illumination or provide power for essential equipment if the normal power supply
fails.
Standby systems:
Standby systems are intended to provide electric power to aid in fire
fighting, rescue operations and control of health hazards.
Optional standby systems:
Optional standby systems are those in which failure can cause physical
discomfort, serious interruption of an industrial process, damage to process
equipment, or disruption of business.
5.10.3Main idea
Emergency systems are generally installed in places where artificial illumination
is required for safe exiting and for panic control in building subject to occupancy
97
by large numbers of Persons as hotels, theatres, sports arena, and health care
facilities.etc. Emergency systems may also provide power for such functions as
ventilation where essential to maintain life , fire detection and alarm systems
,elevators and fire pumps , public safety, communications systems , industrial
processes where current interruption would produce serious life safety or health
hazards , and similar functions .Wiring for emergency systems must be kept
entirely independent of other wiring. When normal power lost emergency system
should provide power in 10 seconds or less. If emergency and standby systems
are involved in sharing an alternate supply or load, emergency system take 1
st
priority.
(i) Standby systems
- Standby systems are intended to provide electric power to aid in fire lighting,
rescue operations and control of health hazards.
-the requirements for standby systems are much the same ad for emergency
systems.
- Wiring for standby systems may occupy the same raceways, cables, boxes, and
cabinets as other general wiring.
- When normal power lost standby system should provide power in 60 seconds or
less.
-if emergency and standby systems are involved in sharing an alternate supply or
load, standby system take 2
nd
priority.
(ii) Optional standby systems
Optional standby systems are those in which failure can cause physical
discomfort, serious interruption of an industrial process, damage to process
equipment, or disruption of business.
5.10.4Tests and Maintenance
(i) Conduct or Witness Test
A test of the complete system upon installation and periodically afterward.
(ii) Tested Periodically
98
Systems shall be tested periodically on a schedule to ensure that the systems are
maintained in proper operating Condition.
(iii) Battery Systems Maintenance
Where battery systems or unit equipments are Involved, including batteries used
for starting, control, or ignition in auxiliary engines, Shall require periodic
maintenance.
(iv) Written Record
A written record shall be kept of such tests and maintenance.
(v) Testing under Load
Means for testing all emergency lighting and power systems during
maximum anticipated load conditions shall be provided.
5.10.5 Capacity
Capacity and Rating: An emergency system shall have adequate capacity and
rating For all loads to be operated simultaneously. The emergency system
equipment shall be Suitable for the maximum available fault current at its
terminals. The emergency system must be designed with adequate capacity and
rating to Safely Carry the entire load connected to the emergency system at one
time. It must be capable of restarting emergency loads, such as motors, that may
have stopped, and it must be Suitable for the available fault current. Using
devices that limit the available fault Current is one method of achieving
suitability.
5.10.6Generator Set
Prime Mover-Driven: For a generator set driven by a prime mover, for
automatically starting the prime mover on failure of the normal service and for
Automatic transfer and operation of all required electrical circuits. A time-delay
feature Permitting a 15-minute setting shall be provided to avoid retransfer in
case of short-time Reestablishment of the normal source. Internal Combustion as
Prime Movers: Where internal combustion engines are used as the prime mover,
an on-site fuel supply shall be provided with an on-premise fuel Supply sufficient
99
for not less than 2 hours' full-demand operation of the system. Where Power is
needed for the operation of the fuel transfer pumps to deliver fuel to a generator.
Figure 5-11 STANDBY/EMERGENCY POWER SYSTEM

5.10.7 Precautions should be made before using
emergency and standby systems
(1)The professional is responsible for designing a system in accordance with
applicable portions Of the NFPA Codes, IEEE Standards, EPA Emission
Standards and NEMA Standards.
(2)All Products shall be UL listed for the application. Design in accordance with
NFPA 110.
(3) The professional is responsible for assessing the needs to comply with code
plus Ascertaining the Universitys requirements for additional loads that should
be placed on The standby/emergency system.
(4) The source of standby/emergency power shall be generators. Fuel shall be
diesel oil.
100
(5) Sizing of the standby/emergency system shall be in accordance with code. In
addition to Meeting the minimum system requirements, the systems shall include
capacity for future Planned additions plus thirty (30) percent spare capacity. The
professional is Responsible for verifying that an oversized generator does not
create maintenance Problems with regard to load testing.
(6) The standby/emergency system shall be designed to accommodate the type
loads placed On the system (i.e., motors, UPS, HID lighting, etc.).
(7) Any noise issues shall be closely coordinated with the University. Systems
shall be designed To accommodate the project requirements. Generators shall
have critical grade silencers. Outdoor generator enclosures, if required, shall be
sound attenuated.
(8) The generator shall be located indoors and meet the location requirements
outlined under Section 16300 for main power distribution equipment.
(9) Fuel storage and fuel residential building shall have spill containment and be
provided with spill Absorption kit.
(10) Provide separate UL 1008 listed transfer switches or circuit breakers for
emergency life safety, Legally required standby and optional standby loads.
(11) Provide common trouble alarm, run status of generator and fuel tank low
level alarm to the BAS.
(12) as a minimum, storm water sump pumps, sewage ejector pumps, and the
building automation And security systems shall be connected to the generator
supply in addition to emergency life Safety and legally required building loads.
(13) A duplex receptacle colour-coded red and connected To the generator supply
shall be provided in the electrical service entrance room, the main Telephone
room, the generator room, and the elevator machine room.
(14) Field testing of the generator shall include a full load test for a minimum 4-
hour period with Temporary resistive load banks and installation acceptance tests
as required by NFPA 110Including cold start and load acceptance tests.
Provisions for periodic maintenance testing of The generator under building load
(minimum 30% of nameplate rating.
101

102
Chapter 6 Case studies
CHAPTER 6 HELIOPOLIS SPORTING
CLUB HOUSING PROJECT CASE STUDY
6.1 General
To demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed analysis and design procedure,
buildings of different models will be discussed as our case study there are 4
models quite similar to each others , models (A , B , C , D) , model A contains 16
dwelling units , 2 dwelling units in model A are of area 120 m2 and the rest are of
area 145 m2 , model B is two models of A touching side to side while model C
contains 8 dwelling units, 2 of them are of area 115 m2 and the rest are of area
145 m2 , and finally model D is two models of C touching side to side .
Figure 6-48 Landscape of the buildings area
103
Figure 6-49 Picture for the entire buildings
104
6.2 Models A and B
6.2.1 Model A description
Model A is a about 580 m
2
the ground floor have 4 flats 2 of them are 120 m
2
and the others are 145 m
2
and the rest of the floors are of 145 m
2
.
There are 19 buildings of model A surrounded by green areas also commercial
and residential buildings. Model B is two models of A touching side by side and
will be treated similarly.
6.2.2 Model A, flat type1( 145 m
2
):
Load table
Type of load Gross load )VA( Net load (VA)
Lights and G.P.S 145 33 4785
Small appliances 2 circuits 2 1500 3000
Laundry 1500
Subtotal 4785 +3000+1500 9285 3000 + 0.35(92853000) 5200
A.C
1
(3.5 hp)
A.C
2
(2.5hp)
A.C
3
(1.5 hp)
A.C
4
(2.5 hp)
4620
3300
1980
3300
13200
4620
3300
1980
3300
13200
Water heater 1500 1500
Total 23985 19900

Table 6-24 loads in VA of flat 145 m
2
, model A

Design current :
19900
30.15
3 220
B
I A
Spare & Design current:

1.2 30.15 36.18
B Exp
I A
+

Protective device current
105
1.25 36.18 45.227
n
I A
A circuit breaker of rate 50 A is recommended to be
installed .
Current for cable sizing
.
50
68.97
. 0.725
C B
Z
I
I A
C F

The corresponding cable size is 16 mm2 pvc copper cable found in BS Code,
Table 4D4A The flat panelboard of this flat type is as shown in next figure.
Figure 6-50 single line diagram for x-Floor of model A
106
6.2.3 Model A, flat type2( 120 m2):
load table
Type of load Gross load (VA) Net load (VA)
Lights and G.P.S 33120 3960
Laundry 1500
Subtotal 3960 + 3000 +1500 8460 3000 + 0.35(8460 3000) 4911
A.C
1
(2.5 hp)
A.C
2
(1.5 hp)
A.C
3
(1.5 hp)
A.C
4
(2.5 hp)
3300
1980
1980
3300
10560
3300
1980
1980
3300
10560
Total 20520 16971
Table 6-25 loads in VA of flat 120 m
2
, model A
Design current
16971
25.71
3 220
B
I A
Spare & Design current

1.2 25.71 30.86
B Exp
I A
+

Protection current
1.25 30.86 38.57
n
I A
A Circuit breaker of rating 40 A is selected.
107
.
40
55.17
. 0.725
C B
Z
I
I A
C F

The corresponding cable size is 10 mm2 pvc copper cable found in BS Code,
Table 4D4A .
2(1X3)mm2 3(1X4)mm2 3(1X4)mm2 3(1X6)mm2
4(1X10)+10 mm2
Figure 6-51 single line diagram of the ground floor in model A
6.2.4 Model A, Riser and feeder calculations:
Two Risers of the same cross section area are selected to feed the building units:
From NEC Table 220.84, for 8 units on each riser, the DF will be 43% , and
hence the total VA of each riser can be computed as:
[ ]
Total VA D.F% . No of units Gross load
2 2
0.43 145 1 120 Total VA Gross load of m Gross load of m 1 7 +
]
[ ]
VA 0.43 23985 20520 81018.45VA 7 +
Riser design current
B
Total VA 81018.45
I 122.755
3 220 3
A
220
108
Protection current

1.25 153.44
n
I A 122.755
A circuit breaker of 160 A rating is selected to be installed for each riser.
Current for feeder sizing
.
160
220.7
. 0.725
C B
Z
I
I A
C F

Corresponding cross sectional area of feeder will be 95 mm2 found in BS Code,
Table 4D4A .
Voltage drop check
/ /
.
1000
B
mv A m I L
V D

From BS Code , Table 4D4B

(0.43 5)
. 0.264( )
1000
V D V
122.755

Total VA of model A building:
[ ]
Total VA of model building D.F% . No of units Gross load
From NEC 2005, Table 220.84, and for 16 units, the DF will be 39%, so the total
VA of the building can be computed as:
2 2
Total VA of Building model A
0.39 145 120 Gross load of m Gross load of m
1 14 +2
]
[ ]
Total VA of building model A 0.39 146964 VA (1423985) + (220520)
6.2.5 Elevator calculations
For a 6-passenger elevator, 1m/s lifting speed and 450kg net mass load, the
elevator motor power can be computed as:
elev
P
m v g
elev
450 1 9.8
P 6.3
0.7
KW

109
The full load elevator motor current is estimated as:
ELEV
I 2 6.3 12.6A

And the controller current can be taken as:
controller
I 10A
The total elevator current can be estimated as:
12.6 10 22.6
e
I A +

Total VA of elevator 22.6 660 14916VA
The total VA of building model A is:
Model A
Dwelling unit load 146964 VA
Elevator load 14916 VA
Stair and entrance load
(A=86m
2
)
2838 VA
Total VA 164.718 KVA
Table 6-26 Total VA connected to the feeder of buildings of model A

6.2.6 Calculation of the main feeder for model A:
Design current
total VA 164718
3 3 220
b
I 249.57
220
Protective device current :
n
1.25 311.97 A I 2 4 9 . 5 7
Circuit breaker of 320 A rate recommended to be installed for the main feeder .
Current for main feeder sizing :
.
320
441.38
. 0.725
C B
Z
I
I A
C F

From BS Code , Table 4D4A
Corresponding cross sectional area of main feeder will be 240 mm2 pvc
armoured-copper cable .
Voltage drop check
/ /
.
1000
B
mv A m I L
V D

Note: max. cable length for models A is 165m on p4/5

( ) . 8.65 v
1000
V D
0 . 2 1 2 49 . 5 7 1 6 5

110
4
X
(
1
X
7
0
+
3
5
)
m
m
2
4
X
(
1
X
7
0
+
3
5
)
m
m
2
3X(1X150+70)+70mm2
4
X
(
1
X
2
5
+
1
6
)
m
m
2
Figure 6-52 MDB for buildings of model A
111
6.3 Models C and D
Model C is a about 580 m
2
the ground floor have 4 flats 2 of them are 120m
2
and the others are 145 m
2
and the rest of the floors are of 145m
2
.
There are 19 buildings of model C surrounded by green areas also commercial
and residential buildings. Model D is two models of C touching side by side and
will be treated similarly.
6.3.1 Model C, flat type1( 115 m
2
):
Load table
Table 6-27 Loads in VA of flat 115 m
2
, model C

Design current
Lights and G.P.S 33 115 3795
Small appliances 2 circuits 21500 3000
Laundry 1500
Subtotal 3795 3000 1500 8295 + + 3000 0.35 + (82953000) 4855
A.C (2.5 hp)
A.C2 (1.5 hp)
A.C3 (1.5 hp)
A.C4 (2.5 hp)
3300
1980
1980
3300
_______
10560
3300
1980
1980
3300
________
10560
Total 20355 16915
112
total volt ampere of the flat 16915
25.63
3 3 220
b
I A
220
I 1.2 25.63 30.75 A
B Exp +


n
I 1.25 30.75 38.44 A
Circuit breaker of rating 40 A is recommended to be installed .

.
40 40
55.17
. . 0.725
C B
Z
I
I A
C F C F

From BS Code , table 4D4A
The corresponding cross sectional area for this value will be 10 mm
2

pvc
copper cable .
Figure 6-53 single line diagram of ground floor of model C
113
6.3.2 Model C, flat type2( 145 m
2
):
Load table
Lights and G.P.S
2
33 145 4785 m
Laundry 1500
Subtotal 3000 1500 9285 4785+ + 3000 0.35 + (92853000) 5200
A.C1 (3.5 hp)
A.C2 (2.5 hp)
A.C3 (1.5 hp)
A.C4 (2.5 hp)
4620
2640
1980
3300
_____
12540
4620
2640
1980
3300
______
12540
Total 23325 19240
Table 6-28 Loads in VA of flat design 145 m
2
, model C
Design current
total volt ampere of the flat 19240
29.15
3 3 220
b
I A
220
I 1.2 29.15 34.98A
B Exp +

114
n
I 1.25 34.98 43.73 A
From NEC 2005, 240.6 (a)
Circuit breaker of rate 50 A recommended to be installed .
Current for cable sizing :
.
50 50
68.97
. . 0.725
C B
Z
I
I A
C F C F

From BS Code, table 4D4A
The corresponding cross sectional area for this value will be 16 mm
2
pvc
Copper cable.
Figure 6-54 single line diagram of x- floors of model C
6.3.3 Model C, Riser and feeder calculations:
Two Risers of same cross section area feed the building
Calculation of each one is:
From NEC 2005 , 220.84
We have 4 units on each riser , DF will be 45%
[ ] Total VA D.F% . No of units Gross load
2 2
0.45 3 145 1 115 Total VA Gross load of m Gross load of m 1 +
]
115
[ ]
Total VA 0.45 3 23325 20355 40648.5 VA +
Riser design current
total VA 40648.5
I
3 3 220
b
A 61.59
220
n
I 1.25 77 A 6 1 . 5 9
From NEC 2005, 240.6 (a), the circuit breaker of 100 A ratig is selected to
be installed for the feeder.
.
100 100
137.93
. . 0.725
C B
Z
I
I A
C F C F

Corresponding cross sectional area of feeder will be 50 mm2 found in BS Code ,
table 4D4A .
Voltage drop check
b
I Cable length
. ( )
1000
riser
mv m
V D v
/ /

( ) . 0.249 v
1000
V D
0 .8 1 6 1 .5 9 5

[ ]
Total VA of all dwelling units in model C D.F% . No of units Gross load
From NEC Table 220.84
We have 8 units , DF will be 43%
2 2
mod
0.43 6 145 2 115
Total VAof el C
Gross load of m Gross load of m
1 +
]
[ ]
Total VA of model C 0.43 77684VA (623325) + (220355)
Model C
Dwelling unit load 77684 VA
Elevator load 14916 VA
Stair and entrance load (A=64m
2
) 2112 VA
Total VA 94.712 KVA
Table 6-29 total VA connected to the feeder of model C
116
Calculation of the main feeder (service entrance) required for the
building in model C
Design current
Total VA 94712
I
3 3 220
b
143.5
220
Protective device current :
n
1.25 179.38 A I 1 4 3 . 5
From NEC 2005, 240.6 (a), a circuit breaker of 200 A rating is selected to be
installed for the main feeder .
.
200
275.86
. 0.725
C B
Z
I
I A
C F

From BS Code , Table 4D4A, the corresponding cross sectional area of main
feeder will be 120 mm2 pvc armoured-copper cable .
Voltage check no.1
b
I Cable length
. ( )
1000
riser
mv m
V D v
/ /
Note: max. cable length for models C is 190m on pillar P3/10

( ) . 9.54 v
1000
V D
0 .3 5 1 4 3. 5 1 9 0

V.D% not suitable so larger C.S.A will be 150 mm2 pvc armoured-copper cable
.
Voltage check no.2
( ) . 7.91 v
1000
V D
0. 29 14 3 . 5 1 90

117
Figure 6-55 MDB of buildings of model C
6.4 Outdoor lighting
The residential area has the following streets shown in the next table :
70m Length of Entrance 1800m Length of street
16m Width of Entrance 13m Width of street
9m Height of Pole 9m Height of Pole
150 W, HPS Luminaire type 150 W, HPS Luminaire type
Table 6-30 Actual design of street lighting
Analysis of street pole spacing (L)
The spacing between poles can be computed as :
. . F M F U F
L
W E

(150 100)
37.5
13 8.7
L m
0.850.37

The required number of luminaries

800
48
37.5

Luminaries. For the Entrance, the
pole spacing is taken also as 37.5m which leads to 2 poles
6.4.1 Lighting Pillars calculations:
Four pillars are used for street lighting as shown in the AutoCAD drawings. The
pillar analysis including pillar load and voltage drop is as shown in the next table:
Lighting pillar: LP-LY1
118
CT..no. LAMP NO. Load in Cable mv/amp./m V.d Cable C. S.
WATTAGE POLE K.V.A. amp. length (mm
2
)
1 150 10 3.375 5.11 451 3.9 5.24 416(Al)
2 150 9 3.0375 4.6022 353 3.9 3.3025 416(Al)
3 150 11 3.7125 5.625 466 3.9 3.7645 416(Al)
4
3 21 25 3.5437 5.369 953 3.9 10.1425 416(Al)
5 3 21 14 1.9845 3.007 432 3.9 3.1546 416(Al)
6 3 21 22 3.1185 4.725 723 3.9 7.53 416(Al)
SUM 18.7717 28.4382 25 2.5 1.77 425(Al)
2
)
1 150 14 4.725 7.16 544 3.9 9.27 416(Al)
2 150 11 3.7125 5.625 460 3.9 5.45 416(Al)
3 150 12 4.05 6.136 566 3.9 9.064 416(Al)
4 3 21 25 3.5437 5.369 937 3.9 10.0497 416(Al)
5 3 21 21 2.9767 4.5102 782 3.9 8.16 416(Al)
6 3 21 10 1.4175 2.1477 517 3.9 2.5796 416(Al)
SUM 20.4254 30.9479 25 2.5 1.9342 425(Al)
2
)
1 150 9 3.0375 4.6022 375 3.9 3.693 416(Al)
2 150 12 4.05 6.1363 515 3.9 6.94 416(Al)
3 150 8 2.7 4.09 398 3.9 3.9558 416(Al)
4 3 21 25 3.5437 5.3693 750 3.9 8.1143 416(Al)
5 3 21 9 1.2757 1.933 470 3.9 2.51 416(Al)
6 3 21 11 1.5592 2.3625 531 3.9 3.0037 416(Al)
SUM 16.1661 24.4933 25 2.5 1.5308 425(Al)
2
)
1 150 8 2.7 4.09 319 3.9 2.6957 416(Al)
2 150 9 3.0375 4.6022 384 3.9 3.858 416(Al)
3 150 11 3.7125 5.625 528 3.9 11.59 416(Al)
4 3 21 10 1.4175 2.1477 359
3.9
1.6147 416(Al)
5 3 21 15 2.1262 3.2215 665
3.9
4.3018 416(Al)
6 3 21 11 1.5592 2.3625 514 3.9 2.9657 416(Al)
SUM 14.552 22.0489 25 2.5 1.378 425(Al)
6.5 Transformer Calculations
6.5.1 Transformer sizing
For this project twenty transformers have been used to feed all loads
including residential and commercial buildings. In estimating a load for
commercial building a power density of 10kVA for each 100square meter has
been adopted. The transformer rating selection is based on 0.8 utilization factor.
Usually the next standard size is selected for safety.
119
`Transformer no. 1
Pillar no. Cofree no. Model Cofree load (KVA)
P1/1
K1/1/1 A 164.718
P2/1
K1/2/1 A 164.718
P3/1
K1/3/1 A 164.718
P4/1
K1/4/1 C 94.712
K2/4/1 C 94.712
Total Transformer load 626.55
No. of dwelling units in Model A 3 16 = 48 units
No. of dwelling units in Model C 2 8= 16 units
From NEC 2005 Table 220.84 :
For 48 units, the DF is 26 % , and For 16 units the DF is 39 %, so the total load of
transformer can be computed as:
0.26
Total load of pillars of models A (3 164. 718) 329.4
0.39

KVA
0.39
Total load of pillars of models C (2 94.7 12) 171.8 KVA
0.43

329.4 171.8
Total load of transformer no.1 626.55
0.8
+

A transformer of 800 KVA rating is selected.
Transformer no. 2
Pillar no. Cofree no. Model Cofree load KVA)
P1/2 K1/1/2 A 164.718
P2/2 K1/2/2 C 94.712
P3/2 K1/3/2 C 94.712
K2/3/2 C 94.712
P4/2 K1/4/2 A 164.718
For 32 units DF = 31 % , For 24 units DF = 35 %
0.31
Total loads of pillars of models A (2 164.718) 261.86
0.39

0.35
Total loads of pillars of models C (3 94. 712) 231.27KVA
0.43

261.86 231.27
0.8
+

Transformer no. 3 - 800KVA
Pillar no. Cofree
no.
Model Cofree load (KVA)
120
P1/3 K1/1/3 C 94.712
K2/1/3 C 94.712
P2/3 K1/1/3 A 164.718
P3/3 K1/1/3 C 94.712
K2/1/3 C 94.712
P4/3 K1/6/3 A 164.718
For 32 units DF = 31 %
0.31
0.39

KVA
0.31
Total loads of pillars of models C (4 94. 712) 273.12
0.43

KVA
261.86 273.12
0.8
+

KVA
Transformer no. 4
P1/4 K1/1/4 A 164.718
P2/4 K1/2/4 A 164.718
P3/4 K1/3/4 A 164.718
P4/4 K1/4/4 A 164.718
For 64 units DF = 23%
0.23
0.39

KVA
388.57
0.8

KVA
Although A transformer of 500 KVA rating can be selected, we will select an 800
kVA rating for safety and unified view of transformers.
Transformer no. 5
P1/5 K1/1/5 A 164.718
121
P2/5 K1/2/5 A 164.718
P3/5 K1/3/5 A 164.718
P4/5 K1/4/5 A 164.718
0.23
0.39

KVA
388.57
0.8

KVA
Although A transformer of 500 KVA rating can be selected, we will select an 800
kVA rating for safety and unified view of transformers.
Transformer no. 6
P1/6 K1/1/6 A 164.718
P2/6 K1/2/6 A 164.718
P3/6 K1/3/6 A 164.718
P4/6 K1/4/6 A 164.718
0.23
0.39

KVA
388.57
0.8

KVA
As in previous case a transformer of 800 KVA is selected.
Transformer no. 7
P1/7 K1/1/7 A 164.718
P2/7 K1/2/7 C 94.712
K2/2/7 C 94.712
P3/7 K1/3/7 A 164.718
P4/7 K1/4/7 A 164.718
122
0.26
0.39

KVA
0.39
0.43

329.4 171.8
0.8
+

KVA
A transformer of 800 KVA rating is selected .
Transformer no. 8
P1/8 K1/1/8 A 164.718
P2/8 K1/2/8 C 94.712
K2/2/8 C 94.712
P3/8 K1/3/8 A 164.718
P4/8 K1/4/8 C 94.712
K2/4/8 C 94.712
For 32 units DF = 31 %
0.31
Total loads of pillars of models A (2 164.718) 261.86 KVA
0.39

0.31
Total loads of pillars of models C (4 94. 712) 273.12 KVA
0.43

261.86 273.12
0.8
+

Transformer no. 9
P1/9 K1/1/9 A 164.718
P2/9 K1/2/9 A 164.718
P3/9 K1/3/9 A 164.718
P4/9 K1/4/9 C 94.712
K2/4/9 C 94.712
123
0.26
Total loads of pillars of models A (3 164 .718) 329.4KVA
0.39

0.39
0.43

329.4 171.8
0.8
+

KVA
Then a transformer of 800 KVA is chosen.
Transformer no. 10
P1/10 K1/1/10 A 164.718
P2/10 K1/2/10 A 164.718
P3/10 K1/3/10 C 94.712
P4/10 K1/4/10 C 94.712
K2/4/10 C 94.712
0.31
Total loads of pillars of models A (2 164 .718) 261.86KVA
0.39

0.35
0.43

261.86 231.27
0.8
+

KVA
Transformer no. 11
P1/11 K1/1/11 A 164.718
P2/11 K1/2/11 C 94.712
K2/2/11 C 94.712
P3/11 K1/3/11 A 164.718
P4/11 K1/4/11 A 164.718
0.26
Total loads of pillars of models A (3 164.718) 329.4KVA
0.39

124
0.39
0.43

329.4 171.8
0.8
KVA
+

A transformer of 800 KVA is chosen.
Transformer no. 12
P1/12 K1/1/12 A 164.718
P2/12 K1/2/12 A 164.718
P3/12 K1/3/12 A 164.718
P4/12 K1/4/12 A 164.718
0.23
0.39
KVA

388.57
0.8
KVA

The select transformer rating is 800 KVA .
Transformer no. 13
P1/13 K1/1/13 A 164.718
P2/13 K1/2/13 A 164.718
P3/13 K1/3/13 A 164.718
P4/13 K1/4/13 A 164.718
0.23
0.39

388.57
0.8

Transformer no. 14
125
P1/14 K1/1/14 A 164.718
P2/14 K1/2/14 A 164.718
P3/14 K1/3/14 A 164.718
P4/14 K1/414 A 164.718
0.23
0.39

KVA
388.57
0.8

KVA
A transformer of 800 KVA rating is chosen.
Transformer no. 15
P1/15 K1/1/15 A 164.718
P2/15 K1/2/15 A 164.718
P3/15 K1/3/15 A 164.718
P4/15 K1/4/15 A 164.718
0.23
0.39

KVA
388.57
0.8

KVA
The transformer rating selected is 800 KVA.
Transformer no. 16
P1/16 K1/1/16 A 164.718
P2/16 K1/2/16 A 164.718
P3/16 K1/3/16 A 164.718
P4/16 K1/4/16 A 164.718
126
0.23
0.39

388.57
0.8

The selected transformer is of 800 KVA rating .
Transformer no. 17
P1/17 K1/1/17 A 164.718
P2/17 K1/2/17 A 164.718
P3/17 K1/3/17 A 164.718
EMDB 200
0.23
0.39

KVA
388.57 200
0.8
+

KVA
The transformer selected is 800 KVA rating.
Transformer no. 18
P1/18 K1/1/18 A 164.718
P2/18 K1/2/18 A 164.718
P3/18 K1/3/18 Residential
building
79.2
P4/18 K1/4/18 Residential
building
79.2
0.31
Total loads of pillars of models A (2 164.718) (2 79.2) 420.35
0.39
+
KA
420.35
0.8

KVA
Transformer no. 19
Commercial 480
127
Total Transformer load 600
Transformer no. 20
Commercial 480
Total Transformer load 600
480
Total load of transformer no.19 and 20 = =600
0.8
KVA
For similarity and load growth reasons, the commercial load transformers are
taken as 800 KVA each.
6.5.2 Short circuit calculation
To perform the Short Circuit calculations the main required data are:
- Transformer size (KVA)
- Transformer short circuit impedance %
- Transformer Secondary voltage
- Length of cable run
- Cable size and type (CU/AL).
Based on a transformer rating of 800kVA, which has a short circuit impedance of
4.5%, and a resistance and inductive reactance of 2.55 milliohm and 8.63
milliohm respectively, the short circuit current on its terminals can be estimated
as:
SC
2 2
1.05 1.05
I
3 [ ]
3
L L
sc
SC SC
V V
Z
R X

+
or
( )
SC
1000
I
3 1.05 [ ]
L sc
KVA
Z V pu

From above the short circuit current at the transformer terminals
neglecting the upper stream system is:
SC
2 2
1.05 380
I 25.6
3 2.55 8.63
KA

+
or
SC
1000 800
400 0.045
I 25.6
3
KA
128
This low value of short-circuit current guarantees that all used main circuit
breakers (35 kA) on all pillars and panel boards are safe. And by utilising the
cascading property of new circuit breakers we can insure that all circuit breakers
are safe.
Table 6-31 Available Short Circuit Current for Transformers
Transformer kVA Impedance (%)
Approximate Secondary
Available Short Circuit Current
(kA (
500 4.0 18.0
630 4.0 22.7
800 4.5 25.6
1000 5.0 29.0
1250 5.0 32.8
1600 6.0 38.5
2000 7.0 41.25
Also from Schneider Electrical Installation Guide, 2008, the following two tables
can be used to determine the short circuit current based on the cable size, type and
its length.
Table 6-32 Short circuit calculation for AL cables
Table 6-33 Short circuit calculation for CU cables
129
6.6 Summary
A comprehensive design procedure was developed for design and analysis of
residential areas electrical system. This comprehensive design procedure has the
following features:
It presents a systematic routine for the complete residential building
electrical design. This includes outlet distribution, load estimation,
branch circuit design, total power estimation, cable sizing, and
protective device selection.
Street lighting, pillar and transformer sizing systems are also
included in the design procedure.
User-friendly design process with easy to understand input and
output data.
An attractive electrical analysis including: Load estimation, voltage
drop and short circuit calculation is considered as design checks.
130
CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSIONS
7.1 General
The main objective of this research was to design, andanalyse an electrical
distribution system for residential areas. The design of residential buildings, like
all other applications, requires a comprehensive design process. Comprehensive
design usually means achieving consumer and required performance at minimum
cost at the same time. Unfortunately these objectives are normally in conflict and
hence an optimal design can be defined as the best compromise design.
From above, it is clear that comprehensive and cohesive design methodology is a
difficult task necessitated using different national codes and regulations to cover
all design details of the electrical system in proper way for the Egyptian market.
7.2 Conclusions
From the results presented in this thesis, the main conclusions are detailed in the
following points:
A comprehensive design procedure was developed for design and
analysis of residential building electrical system.
The design procedure presents a systematic routine for the complete
electrical design. This includes load estimation, branch circuit design, total
power estimation, cable sizing, and protective device selection.
For completeness of the proposed procedure, street lighting, pillar
and transformer sizing are also included in the design procedure.
An attractive electrical analysis including: voltage drop and short
circuit design is considered as good design checks.
Different codes and regulation have been applied in a proper way to
fulfil the design procedure.
132
References
REFERENCES
[1] Philips, Lighting Manual, Fifth ed: Philips Lighting B.V., 1993.
[2] IES, Illuminating Engineering Society Lighting Handbook, Fifth ed, 1975.
[3] I. L. D. P. Committee, "Zonal-cavity method of calculating and using
coefficients of utilization.," Illumination Engineering, IES, vol. 59, pp. 309-328,
1964.
[4] IESNA, The IESNA Lighting handbook Reference and Application: Publications
Department, IESNA, 2000.
[5] P. E. Robert B. Hickey, Electrical construction Databook: McGraw-Hill, 2002.
[6] M. W. Earley, J. S. Sargent, J. V. Sheehan, and J. M. Caloggero, National
Electrical Code Handbook, Tenth ed: National Fire Protection Association, Inc.,
2005.
[7] I. National Fire Protection Association, NFPA 70 National Electrical Code 2005
Edition, 2005.
[8] J. F. McPartland, B. J. McPartland, S. P. McPartland, and J. E. Pullizzi,
McGrawhill's Handbook of Electrical Construction Calculations: McGRAW-
HILL, INC., 1993.
[9] IEE, 16th EDITION IEE REGULATIONS (EXPLAINED & ILLUSTRATED):
Institution of Electrical Engineers, 2001.
[10] C. D. POOLE, Electrical Distribution in Buildings. LONDON: BLACKWELL
SCINTIFIC, 1993.
[11] Egyptian Code-Electrical Wiring and Installation, Fourth ed, 1994.
[12] G. G. Seip, Electrical Installation Handbok, Part2, 2ed: Siemens
AKtiengesellschaft, John Wiley & Sons, 1987.
[13] D. C. Pritchard, Lighting: LONGMAN London and New York, 1985.
[14] Electro-cable Egypt company catalogue, "Technical Data Section," 2006.
[15] Schneider Electrical Installation Guide, 2008
Appendix A Luminaires Data
APPENDIX A: LUMINAIRES DATA
133
Appendix A Luminaires Data 134
Appendix C Cables Data
APPENDIX B: CABLES DATA
1- Correction for ambient temperatures
NOTE: This table applies where the associated overcurrent protective device is
intended to provide short-circuit protection only. Except where the device is a semi-
enclosed fuse to BS 3036 the table also applies where the device is intended to provide
overload protection.
Table B- Correction factors for ambient temperature
a
C
where protection is
against short circuit
Notes
1. Correction factors for flexible cords and for 85 C and 180 C rubber-insulated
flexible cables are given in the relevant table of current-carrying capacity.
2. This table also applies when determining the current-carrying capacity of a
cable.
3. * These factors are applicable only to ratings in columns 2 to 5 of Table 4D1A.
142
Table B- Correction factors for ambient temperature where the overload
protective device is a semi-enclosed fuse BS3036
NOTES:
Correction factors for flexible cords and for 85 C and 180 C rubber-
insulated flexible cables are given in the relevant table of current-
carrying capacity.
143
2- Correction for groups
Table B- Correction factors for groups more than one circuit of single core cable,
or more than multi-core cable
Spaced by a clearance between adjacent surfaces of at least one
cable diameter. Where the horizontal clearances between adjacent
cables exceeds 2 the largest cable diameter no correction factor need
be applied.
** When cables having differing conductor operating temperatures are
grouped together, the current rating shall be based upon the lowest
operating temperature of any cable in the group.
- Correction factor not tabulated.
# Not applicable to mineral insulated cables.
Table B- Correction factors for mineral insulated cable on perforated tray
Spaced by a clearance between adjacent surfaces of at least one
cable diameter.
Separated by a clearance between adjacent surfaces of at least two
cable diameters.
- Correction factor not tabulated.
144
NOTES to Tables B-3 and B-4
1. The factors in the table are applicable to groups of cables all of one
size. The value of current derived from application of the appropriate
factors is the maximum current to be carried by any of the cables in
the group.
2. If, due to known operating conditions, a cable is expected to carry
not more than 30 % of its grouped rating, it may be ignored for the
purpose of obtaining the rating factor for the rest of the group.
3. When cables having differing conductor operating temperatures are
grouped together, the current rating shall be based on the lowest
4. Where the horizontal clearances between adjacent cables exceeds
2 cable diameter, no correction factor need be applied.
Table B- Correction factors for cables installed in enclosed trenches
145
* When cables having different conductor operating temperatures are
grouped together the current rating shall be based on the lowest
The approximate formula is C g = (n)
-3
where n is number of circuits
or cables
3- Correction for thermal insulation
IEC provides formulae for calculating ratings. In the absence of such a
calculation factor C g of 0.5 can be applied to the clipped direct
ratings. Cable rating tables will normally make allowance for common
installation methods, see method 4 enclosed in conduit in a thermally
insulated wall.
Table B- Correction factor for cables surrounded by thermal insulation
146
The cross sectional area of cables is selected according to catalogue of electro-cable
Egypt co.
Table B- 7 600/1000 volt-PVC insulation-70
C
Cross
sectional
Area
Max resistance Current carrying capacity
Unarmoured
Current carrying
capacity
Unarmoured
Voltage
drop
At 50 HZ
d.c
at
20
c
A.C
At
70
c
Ground
at 35
c
Air at
40
c
Ground
at 35
c
Air at
40
c
Direc
t
Laid
In
Duct
Free In
pips
Direct
laid
Free
COS
0.8
No.
mm
2
/km /km AMP AMP AM
P
AM
P
AMP AMP V/A/Km
4
10 1.83 2.18 68 55 55 48 68 55 3.591

4
16 1.15 1.38 78 65 66 54 78 66 2.305

4
25 0.727 0.87 100 83 87 70 100 88 1.488

4
35 0.524 0.627 125 101 106 84 124 109 1.096

4
50 0.387 0.464 149 121 130 102 147 133 0.835

4
70 0.268 0.323 183 148 163 126 180 167 0.606

4
95 0.193 0.232 219 178 201 154 215 204 0.460

4
120 0.153 0.185 249 203 233 177 245 235 0.383
4
150 0.124 0.151 280 229 268 202 273 268 0.330
4
185 0.0991 0.1215 315 259 308 230 306 305 0.282
4
240 0.0754 0.0941 364 301 364 269 349 355 0.237
4
300 0.0601 0.0767 409 339 417 306 387 401 0.209
4
400 0.047 0.0619 465 386 485 352 428 454 0.181
147
Appendix C Grounding Data
APPENDIX C GROUNDING DATA
Earth Rods:

148
Appendix C Grounding Data

149

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Ministry of High Education

where CA is the cavity base area, and CC is the cavity circumference.

. In lumen method calculations, the

. Luminaires coefficient of utilization:

, should be based on the initial values expected. The wall reflectance

, and then interpolating between

requires 1.59-cm (5/8-in)

.. Two rods S>L, Spacing S R=

.. Two rods S<L, Spacing S R=

Buried horizontal wire length 2L, depth S/2

L Right angle turn of wire, length of arm(L),depth S/2

+ Four-point star, length of arm L, depth s/2

Six-point star, length of arm L, depth s/2

xEight-point star, length of arm L, depth S/2

Ring of wire, diameter of ring D, diameter of wire d, depth S/2

Buried horizontal round plate radius r, depth S/2

Spare & Design current:

Spare & Design current

From BS Code , Table 4D4B

Note: max. cable length for models A is 165m on p4/5

From BS Code , Table 4D4B

Note: max. cable length for models C is 190m on pillar P3/10

The required number of luminaries

10 1.83 2.18 68 55 55 48 68 55 3.591

16 1.15 1.38 78 65 66 54 78 66 2.305

25 0.727 0.87 100 83 87 70 100 88 1.488

35 0.524 0.627 125 101 106 84 124 109 1.096

50 0.387 0.464 149 121 130 102 147 133 0.835

70 0.268 0.323 183 148 163 126 180 167 0.606

95 0.193 0.232 219 178 201 154 215 204 0.460

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