College Art Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Art Journal. The expressive aspect of architecture has been fully stressed. But many will be disappointed not to find any section whatever of a Gothic cathedral.
College Art Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Art Journal. The expressive aspect of architecture has been fully stressed. But many will be disappointed not to find any section whatever of a Gothic cathedral.
College Art Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Art Journal. The expressive aspect of architecture has been fully stressed. But many will be disappointed not to find any section whatever of a Gothic cathedral.
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Avl JouvnaI, VoI. 23, No. 1 |Aulunn, 1963), pp. 78-79 FuIIisIed I College Art Association SlaIIe UBL http://www.jstor.org/stable/774651 . Accessed 24/10/2012 0725 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp . JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org. . College Art Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Art Journal. http://www.jstor.org the most logical order. Hence, we have long passed the Parthenon, and the sculpture of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus has been put aside before it is revealed (p. 119) that battles of Lapiths and Centaurs, Greeks and Amazons, are used to symbolize Greek victories over the Persians. The student busily gleaning the visi- ble and invisible characteristics of the Baroque is reminded (p. 411) that he will "be able to analyze for himself the profound difference between Baroque and Mannerism" by contrast- ing El Greco's Burial of Count Orgaz in its chapel in Toledo with Bernini's Cornaro Cha- pel. The alert teacher will recognize his cue. The expressive aspect of architecture has been fully stressed. That form follows fancy is the impression one receives from the sec- tion which impressively delineates the charac- ter of the Gothic. But many will be disap- pointed not to find any section whatever of a Gothic cathedral; the blank area on page 232 seems to be crying for one. Nor is there any diagram of a pointed, groined vault, always so messy on the blackboard. Drastic simplifica- tion can be blamed for the inference that the Parthenon was originally "gleaming white" and presumably still is. Any use of color in Greek architecture remains unsung. Admirable indeed is the policy of referring only to examples which are illustrated, but this can also be a trap. The text almost seems to say that the Gero crucifix in Cologne of "c. 975-1000" was influenced by figure 284, the crucified Christ at Daphni, usually consid- ered close to 1100 and dated "llth century" in the caption. Many teachers may wish for a more noticeable and extensive chronological scaffold, unless they are in the habit of fur- nishing the class with a simple syllabus of un- adorned facts anyway. More serious is the problem of Oriental art for those who feel that it should be meaningfully treated in a survey. Is there a paperback that could be procured to fill in this gap? These problems solved, how- ever, it will be a strong-willed teacher indeed who can resist the temptation to try out this personable and well trained young contestant in the tournament of golden ideas. EDWIN C. RAE University of Illinois George Kubler The Shape of Time: Remarks on the History of Things, xii + 136 pp. New 'Haven: Yale University Press, 1962. $3.75 This provocative essay has a dual aspect. It constitutes a critique of 20th Century art his- torical theory and methodology; and it pro- poses, as an approach to remedying the diffi- culties discovered therein, a new attack on the problem of describing art historical change, of delineating "the shape of time." Professor Ku- bler's studies, especially in the areas of Span- ish architecture and pre- and post-conquest Latin American art, have equipped him to deal knowledgeably with art historical data. In for- mulating this thesis he draws also on archaeo- logical data, and in some measure on the his- tory of science, glottochronology, mathematical concepts and philosophical speculation on the nature of time. That he should have paused in his art historical studies to develop so en- the most logical order. Hence, we have long passed the Parthenon, and the sculpture of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus has been put aside before it is revealed (p. 119) that battles of Lapiths and Centaurs, Greeks and Amazons, are used to symbolize Greek victories over the Persians. The student busily gleaning the visi- ble and invisible characteristics of the Baroque is reminded (p. 411) that he will "be able to analyze for himself the profound difference between Baroque and Mannerism" by contrast- ing El Greco's Burial of Count Orgaz in its chapel in Toledo with Bernini's Cornaro Cha- pel. The alert teacher will recognize his cue. The expressive aspect of architecture has been fully stressed. That form follows fancy is the impression one receives from the sec- tion which impressively delineates the charac- ter of the Gothic. But many will be disap- pointed not to find any section whatever of a Gothic cathedral; the blank area on page 232 seems to be crying for one. Nor is there any diagram of a pointed, groined vault, always so messy on the blackboard. Drastic simplifica- tion can be blamed for the inference that the Parthenon was originally "gleaming white" and presumably still is. Any use of color in Greek architecture remains unsung. Admirable indeed is the policy of referring only to examples which are illustrated, but this can also be a trap. The text almost seems to say that the Gero crucifix in Cologne of "c. 975-1000" was influenced by figure 284, the crucified Christ at Daphni, usually consid- ered close to 1100 and dated "llth century" in the caption. Many teachers may wish for a more noticeable and extensive chronological scaffold, unless they are in the habit of fur- nishing the class with a simple syllabus of un- adorned facts anyway. More serious is the problem of Oriental art for those who feel that it should be meaningfully treated in a survey. Is there a paperback that could be procured to fill in this gap? These problems solved, how- ever, it will be a strong-willed teacher indeed who can resist the temptation to try out this personable and well trained young contestant in the tournament of golden ideas. EDWIN C. RAE University of Illinois George Kubler The Shape of Time: Remarks on the History of Things, xii + 136 pp. New 'Haven: Yale University Press, 1962. $3.75 This provocative essay has a dual aspect. It constitutes a critique of 20th Century art his- torical theory and methodology; and it pro- poses, as an approach to remedying the diffi- culties discovered therein, a new attack on the problem of describing art historical change, of delineating "the shape of time." Professor Ku- bler's studies, especially in the areas of Span- ish architecture and pre- and post-conquest Latin American art, have equipped him to deal knowledgeably with art historical data. In for- mulating this thesis he draws also on archaeo- logical data, and in some measure on the his- tory of science, glottochronology, mathematical concepts and philosophical speculation on the nature of time. That he should have paused in his art historical studies to develop so en- compassing a theory marks him as a rarity among his colleagues. An acute awareness of the need for hard thinking about the larger implications of our discipline reveals itself in every page of his book and is one of its chief values. Too briefly it may be noted that Professor Kubler is critical of: 1) the separation of the history of art and the history of science and proposes that "a rapprochement between the history of art and the history of science can display the common traits of invention, change and obsolescence that the material works of artists and scientists both share in time"; 2) all cyclical theories of cultural change, espe- cially those using the biological metaphor of life stages because they do not account for the purposeful nature of artistic invention; 3) the biographical and narrative approaches to art history as being unproductive so far as re- vealing the most significant links between artistic productions; 4) the severing of mean- ing and form which has resulted in exclusive attention to the former by iconologists and to morphology and style by the formalists; and concomitantly, and most radically 5) the con- cept of style as a means of classification. "Style is like a rainbow," too illusive, ambiguous, in- clusive and, most importantly, static and there- fore useless once the object is "restored to the flow of time." To summarize Professor Kubler's thesis is nearly impossible since the essay itself is more in the nature of a summary than an exhaus- tive exposition of a very complex set of prop- ositions. Moreover a summary cannot possi- bly convey the elegance and subtlety of his aesthetically very satisfying presentation. Never- theless here are what seem to be its bare bones: Works of art, he says, like tools and inven- tions are (among other things) purposeful sol- utions to problems. Once the problem is iden- tified, the various solutions (the form class) reveal themselves as related to one another in a temporal sequence (formal sequences). Change occurs in linked sequences or series (depending on whether viewed from within or without, respectively) and seems to obey "the rule of series" although interferences from images and meaning may distort the process. Within each sequence, prime objects and vast replica masses will be discovered. Prime ob- jects, described as inventions possessing prime traits comparable to mutant genes, are capable of generating change and result in a vast rep- lica-mass (copies, variants, etc.) which also generate change through minute variations. The propagation of things is carried on through invention and replication in time. Du- ration has different rates, cuts into different lengths, and displays different kinds of shapes. Cultural history has developed no adequate theory of time, but Professor Kubler proposes a distinction between fast and slow happen- ing. (Here he makes valuable observations about types of artistic careers as they interre- late with societal phases: the full range of artistic careers can unfold only under metro- politan conditions "when a wide selection of active sequences is available, resulting in 'fast happening'." At the other extreme slow hap- pening or casual drift occurs in provincial or tribal settings where nonprofessionals and arti- sans engage in routine and repetitive actions.) compassing a theory marks him as a rarity among his colleagues. An acute awareness of the need for hard thinking about the larger implications of our discipline reveals itself in every page of his book and is one of its chief values. Too briefly it may be noted that Professor Kubler is critical of: 1) the separation of the history of art and the history of science and proposes that "a rapprochement between the history of art and the history of science can display the common traits of invention, change and obsolescence that the material works of artists and scientists both share in time"; 2) all cyclical theories of cultural change, espe- cially those using the biological metaphor of life stages because they do not account for the purposeful nature of artistic invention; 3) the biographical and narrative approaches to art history as being unproductive so far as re- vealing the most significant links between artistic productions; 4) the severing of mean- ing and form which has resulted in exclusive attention to the former by iconologists and to morphology and style by the formalists; and concomitantly, and most radically 5) the con- cept of style as a means of classification. "Style is like a rainbow," too illusive, ambiguous, in- clusive and, most importantly, static and there- fore useless once the object is "restored to the flow of time." To summarize Professor Kubler's thesis is nearly impossible since the essay itself is more in the nature of a summary than an exhaus- tive exposition of a very complex set of prop- ositions. Moreover a summary cannot possi- bly convey the elegance and subtlety of his aesthetically very satisfying presentation. Never- theless here are what seem to be its bare bones: Works of art, he says, like tools and inven- tions are (among other things) purposeful sol- utions to problems. Once the problem is iden- tified, the various solutions (the form class) reveal themselves as related to one another in a temporal sequence (formal sequences). Change occurs in linked sequences or series (depending on whether viewed from within or without, respectively) and seems to obey "the rule of series" although interferences from images and meaning may distort the process. Within each sequence, prime objects and vast replica masses will be discovered. Prime ob- jects, described as inventions possessing prime traits comparable to mutant genes, are capable of generating change and result in a vast rep- lica-mass (copies, variants, etc.) which also generate change through minute variations. The propagation of things is carried on through invention and replication in time. Du- ration has different rates, cuts into different lengths, and displays different kinds of shapes. Cultural history has developed no adequate theory of time, but Professor Kubler proposes a distinction between fast and slow happen- ing. (Here he makes valuable observations about types of artistic careers as they interre- late with societal phases: the full range of artistic careers can unfold only under metro- politan conditions "when a wide selection of active sequences is available, resulting in 'fast happening'." At the other extreme slow hap- pening or casual drift occurs in provincial or tribal settings where nonprofessionals and arti- sans engage in routine and repetitive actions.) A description of some of the shapes of duration (the morphology of duration) fol- lows. Continuous classes, arrested classes, ex- tended series, wandering series, guided and self-determining sequences are some of the varieties elaborated. A crucial aspect of Professor Kubler's thesis lies in his conception of the coexistence of several formal sequences within one object and, it follows, within a given present. Each may have a different systematic age. (System- atic age, as opposed to absolute age, is de- termined by position early or late in a formal sequence.) A complex form such as a cathedral, for example, will contain traits belonging to different sequences and having different sys- tematic ages. Indeed "every thing is a com- plex having not only traits each with a dif- ferent systematic age, but having also clusters of traits, or aspects, each with its own age, like any other organization of matter, such as a mammal, of which the blood and nerves are of different biological antiquity .... There are obvious attractions in this thesis. To return the object to the flow of time rather than confining it to an arbitrarily static category is, in some sense, every conscientious art historian's concern. To re-conjoin content and form, purpose and product, utility and aesthetic desirability, are essentials to clear thinking about objects of art with which no one should quarrel. The notion of systematic age and the coexistence of traits or trait clus- ters of differing systematic ages within a single object and, in greater complexity, within a given now, is a needed antidote to currently popular "theories" of a unilinear progressivism. The hope always lurking between the lines of Professor Kubler's book is that such a study of change as his will reveal an inherent struc- tural order, some kind of broad patterns of change which will allow a measure of pre- dictability and control. This kind of specula- tion is attractive to the mind which seeks or- der, and it is well tempered in this book by cautions that empirical evidence must be given priority over theoretical abstractions. Indeed, Professor Kubler insists that he bases his spec- ulations on observation of empirical data. There is some ambiguity, however, in this regard. At one point one reads, "Sequence classing stresses the internal coherence of events, all while it shows the sporadic, unpre- dictable and irregular nature of their occur- rence," while elsewhere, "The idea of seriation also presupposes a structural order in the se- quence of inventions which exists independ- ently of other conditions." But "symbolic clusters and visual images interfere with the regular evolution of the formal system." He is attracted by the idea that the regularity of change in languages revealed by the branch of linguistics called glottochronology, is in some degree paralleled in the history of things and suggests that the latter lies somewhere between linguistics and general history as a potential predictive science. As one attempts to envision the implications of the thesis guided by Professor Kubler's il- lustrations of its workings, some difficulities arise which can only be hinted at here. How does one meaningfully identify an artistic prob- lem (and thereby reconstruct a form class) ? Among the totally useless and beautiful things, A description of some of the shapes of duration (the morphology of duration) fol- lows. Continuous classes, arrested classes, ex- tended series, wandering series, guided and self-determining sequences are some of the varieties elaborated. A crucial aspect of Professor Kubler's thesis lies in his conception of the coexistence of several formal sequences within one object and, it follows, within a given present. Each may have a different systematic age. (System- atic age, as opposed to absolute age, is de- termined by position early or late in a formal sequence.) A complex form such as a cathedral, for example, will contain traits belonging to different sequences and having different sys- tematic ages. Indeed "every thing is a com- plex having not only traits each with a dif- ferent systematic age, but having also clusters of traits, or aspects, each with its own age, like any other organization of matter, such as a mammal, of which the blood and nerves are of different biological antiquity .... There are obvious attractions in this thesis. To return the object to the flow of time rather than confining it to an arbitrarily static category is, in some sense, every conscientious art historian's concern. To re-conjoin content and form, purpose and product, utility and aesthetic desirability, are essentials to clear thinking about objects of art with which no one should quarrel. The notion of systematic age and the coexistence of traits or trait clus- ters of differing systematic ages within a single object and, in greater complexity, within a given now, is a needed antidote to currently popular "theories" of a unilinear progressivism. The hope always lurking between the lines of Professor Kubler's book is that such a study of change as his will reveal an inherent struc- tural order, some kind of broad patterns of change which will allow a measure of pre- dictability and control. This kind of specula- tion is attractive to the mind which seeks or- der, and it is well tempered in this book by cautions that empirical evidence must be given priority over theoretical abstractions. Indeed, Professor Kubler insists that he bases his spec- ulations on observation of empirical data. There is some ambiguity, however, in this regard. At one point one reads, "Sequence classing stresses the internal coherence of events, all while it shows the sporadic, unpre- dictable and irregular nature of their occur- rence," while elsewhere, "The idea of seriation also presupposes a structural order in the se- quence of inventions which exists independ- ently of other conditions." But "symbolic clusters and visual images interfere with the regular evolution of the formal system." He is attracted by the idea that the regularity of change in languages revealed by the branch of linguistics called glottochronology, is in some degree paralleled in the history of things and suggests that the latter lies somewhere between linguistics and general history as a potential predictive science. As one attempts to envision the implications of the thesis guided by Professor Kubler's il- lustrations of its workings, some difficulities arise which can only be hinted at here. How does one meaningfully identify an artistic prob- lem (and thereby reconstruct a form class) ? Among the totally useless and beautiful things, ART JOURNAL XXIII 1 78 ART JOURNAL XXIII 1 78 need and problem must be interpreted to mean the mode of widening perception. In this event, it would seem almost hopeless to reconstruct a form class except in terms of traits or trait clusters. A form class such as "the portrayal of landscape" which he says was the "one problem" of Lorrain and Cezanne, for ex- ample, is established in terms of image. But if meaning and image constitute interferences in the patterns of change hypothesized, how can he then usefully designate "the portrayal of landscape" as a form class? A further difficulty, of which Professor Kub- ler is fully aware, lies in identifying the prince objects in a series. It is not clear whether his distinguishing criterion for a prime object is prime aesthetic value (he instances the Parthe- non, "prime" because if its many refinements, and Raphael's Vatican frescoes) or the pos- session of some more objective characteristic (the "mutant gene"). And can we reconstruct a sequence in which the key generators of change are prime objects if we cannot find or identify these objects? Must we not then again refer to observable new or repeated traits as they appear in temporal sequence? And if we are reduced to studying traits, or clusters of traits wherever they occur (i.e. in Professor Kubler's terms in prime objects, or, if these are lost to view, then in the replica mass) are we not arriving again at an histor- ical concept very close to that of style in some of its more refined interpretations? And is the study of style necessarily precluded by the study of formal sequences? Professor Kubler is mainly concerned, it seems to me, with the problems of describing change rather than with explaining it. (And any altering of the methods at hand for achiev- ing greater precision or new truths in that pursuit are worth striving for.) However, at many points in this fascinating exposition, he hints at possible answers to the more elusive questions, the why and how of change. Professor Kubler makes proposals rather than putting forth adamant claims. It seems almost certain that his book will evoke fruitful thinking along productively new lines. PRISCILLA COLT Dayton, Ohio Paul S. Wingert Primitive Art: Its Traditions and Style, xxii + 421 pp., 126 ill., 2 maps New York: Oxford University Press, 1962. $7.50 The name of Paul Wingert has long been associated with the serious study of the art of primitive peoples. In fact within the discipline of art history, he could rightly be considered as one of America's major pioneers in this area of the visual arts. Such earlier works of his as American Indian Art, A Study of the Northwest Coast (1949) and Arts of the South Pacific Islands (1953) have come to be considered as classics in this all too neglected field. In the present work he has sought to present a broad treatment of the primitive art of Afri- ca, Oceania, and North America. He has di- vided his text into three major parts: in the first section, "Art in the Life of Primitive Peo- ples," he delves into such problems as "The need and problem must be interpreted to mean the mode of widening perception. In this event, it would seem almost hopeless to reconstruct a form class except in terms of traits or trait clusters. A form class such as "the portrayal of landscape" which he says was the "one problem" of Lorrain and Cezanne, for ex- ample, is established in terms of image. But if meaning and image constitute interferences in the patterns of change hypothesized, how can he then usefully designate "the portrayal of landscape" as a form class? A further difficulty, of which Professor Kub- ler is fully aware, lies in identifying the prince objects in a series. It is not clear whether his distinguishing criterion for a prime object is prime aesthetic value (he instances the Parthe- non, "prime" because if its many refinements, and Raphael's Vatican frescoes) or the pos- session of some more objective characteristic (the "mutant gene"). And can we reconstruct a sequence in which the key generators of change are prime objects if we cannot find or identify these objects? Must we not then again refer to observable new or repeated traits as they appear in temporal sequence? And if we are reduced to studying traits, or clusters of traits wherever they occur (i.e. in Professor Kubler's terms in prime objects, or, if these are lost to view, then in the replica mass) are we not arriving again at an histor- ical concept very close to that of style in some of its more refined interpretations? And is the study of style necessarily precluded by the study of formal sequences? Professor Kubler is mainly concerned, it seems to me, with the problems of describing change rather than with explaining it. (And any altering of the methods at hand for achiev- ing greater precision or new truths in that pursuit are worth striving for.) However, at many points in this fascinating exposition, he hints at possible answers to the more elusive questions, the why and how of change. Professor Kubler makes proposals rather than putting forth adamant claims. It seems almost certain that his book will evoke fruitful thinking along productively new lines. PRISCILLA COLT Dayton, Ohio Paul S. Wingert Primitive Art: Its Traditions and Style, xxii + 421 pp., 126 ill., 2 maps New York: Oxford University Press, 1962. $7.50 The name of Paul Wingert has long been associated with the serious study of the art of primitive peoples. In fact within the discipline of art history, he could rightly be considered as one of America's major pioneers in this area of the visual arts. Such earlier works of his as American Indian Art, A Study of the Northwest Coast (1949) and Arts of the South Pacific Islands (1953) have come to be considered as classics in this all too neglected field. In the present work he has sought to present a broad treatment of the primitive art of Afri- ca, Oceania, and North America. He has di- vided his text into three major parts: in the first section, "Art in the Life of Primitive Peo- ples," he delves into such problems as "The need and problem must be interpreted to mean the mode of widening perception. In this event, it would seem almost hopeless to reconstruct a form class except in terms of traits or trait clusters. A form class such as "the portrayal of landscape" which he says was the "one problem" of Lorrain and Cezanne, for ex- ample, is established in terms of image. But if meaning and image constitute interferences in the patterns of change hypothesized, how can he then usefully designate "the portrayal of landscape" as a form class? A further difficulty, of which Professor Kub- ler is fully aware, lies in identifying the prince objects in a series. It is not clear whether his distinguishing criterion for a prime object is prime aesthetic value (he instances the Parthe- non, "prime" because if its many refinements, and Raphael's Vatican frescoes) or the pos- session of some more objective characteristic (the "mutant gene"). And can we reconstruct a sequence in which the key generators of change are prime objects if we cannot find or identify these objects? Must we not then again refer to observable new or repeated traits as they appear in temporal sequence? And if we are reduced to studying traits, or clusters of traits wherever they occur (i.e. in Professor Kubler's terms in prime objects, or, if these are lost to view, then in the replica mass) are we not arriving again at an histor- ical concept very close to that of style in some of its more refined interpretations? And is the study of style necessarily precluded by the study of formal sequences? Professor Kubler is mainly concerned, it seems to me, with the problems of describing change rather than with explaining it. (And any altering of the methods at hand for achiev- ing greater precision or new truths in that pursuit are worth striving for.) However, at many points in this fascinating exposition, he hints at possible answers to the more elusive questions, the why and how of change. Professor Kubler makes proposals rather than putting forth adamant claims. It seems almost certain that his book will evoke fruitful thinking along productively new lines. PRISCILLA COLT Dayton, Ohio Paul S. Wingert Primitive Art: Its Traditions and Style, xxii + 421 pp., 126 ill., 2 maps New York: Oxford University Press, 1962. $7.50 The name of Paul Wingert has long been associated with the serious study of the art of primitive peoples. In fact within the discipline of art history, he could rightly be considered as one of America's major pioneers in this area of the visual arts. Such earlier works of his as American Indian Art, A Study of the Northwest Coast (1949) and Arts of the South Pacific Islands (1953) have come to be considered as classics in this all too neglected field. In the present work he has sought to present a broad treatment of the primitive art of Afri- ca, Oceania, and North America. He has di- vided his text into three major parts: in the first section, "Art in the Life of Primitive Peo- ples," he delves into such problems as "The Artist; His Patron and Public," "The Need for Art," "Motivations," "Functions," and "Meaning." Under the title of "Artistic Tra- ditions and Styles" he then considers the art of Africa, Oceania and the American Indians. In the "Conclusion" he discusses a number of general factors relating to primitive art and our contemporary understanding and appraisal of it. One of the first problems which Wingert at- tempts to solve is that of an adequate defini- tion of the "Primitive Art." His solution, and probably the only logical one which may be arrived at, is simply to define the term in a rather personal manner: that is, as a product of those ". .. cultures existent largely in those parts of the world brought to light during the Age of Discovery and the subsequent expora- tion." (p. 8) There is a degree of logic in so restricting the term, although one is hard put to explain why the whole area of Paleolithic and Neolithic art should be thought of as some- thing quite distinct. While there are certain differences between Paleolithic and later Neo- lithic art and that which Wingert wishes to encompass within his definition, these art forms still share more similar than dissimilar fea- tures. In his rebellion against many writings of the late 19th and early 20th centuries the author has gone overboard in denouncing those who have given too much attention to the ". .. theoreti- cal origin and relationships of various primi- tive arts." (p. 72-73) Thus he tends to see in primitive art unique qualities which in truth lie at the basis of all art. The art produced by primitive people is neither more nor less". . . characteristic and expressive of all the es- sential features" (p. 71-72) of its society than the arts brought forth today or in 15th century Italy. Nor could it be proved that primitive art is any more involved in the "Economic, social and/or political needs of the community. . ." (p. 17) than is the case in any other historic period. The motivation, functions and meaning of art may appear to be more hidden and more subtle in the 20th century, but in fact the same basic human drives seem to be present regard- less of the character and complexity of the society. When the author describes the patron- age of the primitive artist as coming from . the elders, chiefs, priests, or leaders who directed or controlled the fundamental aspects of life-religion, social relationships, economic practices, and political and judicial controls" (p. 18), he could just as well be discussing the patronage of Egyptian, Baroque or even contemporary art. This reviewer would also question the great importance which the author places on sculp- ture, to the almost entire exclusion of other art forms. A good index of this is the plates, 116 out of 126 of which are sculpture, and the lack of any architectural examples whatsoever. Sculp- ture may be more "significant" than other art forms in the area of Oceania, but the complete exclusion of the rock drawings of Africa, or of those of the New World, is open to severe question. In fact it would be difficult to show that sculpture was at all the major art form of the North American Indians; pottery, weaving and even rock drawings were probably a more conscious mode of visual expression than sculp- ture. Artist; His Patron and Public," "The Need for Art," "Motivations," "Functions," and "Meaning." Under the title of "Artistic Tra- ditions and Styles" he then considers the art of Africa, Oceania and the American Indians. In the "Conclusion" he discusses a number of general factors relating to primitive art and our contemporary understanding and appraisal of it. One of the first problems which Wingert at- tempts to solve is that of an adequate defini- tion of the "Primitive Art." His solution, and probably the only logical one which may be arrived at, is simply to define the term in a rather personal manner: that is, as a product of those ". .. cultures existent largely in those parts of the world brought to light during the Age of Discovery and the subsequent expora- tion." (p. 8) There is a degree of logic in so restricting the term, although one is hard put to explain why the whole area of Paleolithic and Neolithic art should be thought of as some- thing quite distinct. While there are certain differences between Paleolithic and later Neo- lithic art and that which Wingert wishes to encompass within his definition, these art forms still share more similar than dissimilar fea- tures. In his rebellion against many writings of the late 19th and early 20th centuries the author has gone overboard in denouncing those who have given too much attention to the ". .. theoreti- cal origin and relationships of various primi- tive arts." (p. 72-73) Thus he tends to see in primitive art unique qualities which in truth lie at the basis of all art. The art produced by primitive people is neither more nor less". . . characteristic and expressive of all the es- sential features" (p. 71-72) of its society than the arts brought forth today or in 15th century Italy. Nor could it be proved that primitive art is any more involved in the "Economic, social and/or political needs of the community. . ." (p. 17) than is the case in any other historic period. The motivation, functions and meaning of art may appear to be more hidden and more subtle in the 20th century, but in fact the same basic human drives seem to be present regard- less of the character and complexity of the society. When the author describes the patron- age of the primitive artist as coming from . the elders, chiefs, priests, or leaders who directed or controlled the fundamental aspects of life-religion, social relationships, economic practices, and political and judicial controls" (p. 18), he could just as well be discussing the patronage of Egyptian, Baroque or even contemporary art. This reviewer would also question the great importance which the author places on sculp- ture, to the almost entire exclusion of other art forms. A good index of this is the plates, 116 out of 126 of which are sculpture, and the lack of any architectural examples whatsoever. Sculp- ture may be more "significant" than other art forms in the area of Oceania, but the complete exclusion of the rock drawings of Africa, or of those of the New World, is open to severe question. In fact it would be difficult to show that sculpture was at all the major art form of the North American Indians; pottery, weaving and even rock drawings were probably a more conscious mode of visual expression than sculp- ture. Artist; His Patron and Public," "The Need for Art," "Motivations," "Functions," and "Meaning." Under the title of "Artistic Tra- ditions and Styles" he then considers the art of Africa, Oceania and the American Indians. In the "Conclusion" he discusses a number of general factors relating to primitive art and our contemporary understanding and appraisal of it. One of the first problems which Wingert at- tempts to solve is that of an adequate defini- tion of the "Primitive Art." His solution, and probably the only logical one which may be arrived at, is simply to define the term in a rather personal manner: that is, as a product of those ". .. cultures existent largely in those parts of the world brought to light during the Age of Discovery and the subsequent expora- tion." (p. 8) There is a degree of logic in so restricting the term, although one is hard put to explain why the whole area of Paleolithic and Neolithic art should be thought of as some- thing quite distinct. While there are certain differences between Paleolithic and later Neo- lithic art and that which Wingert wishes to encompass within his definition, these art forms still share more similar than dissimilar fea- tures. In his rebellion against many writings of the late 19th and early 20th centuries the author has gone overboard in denouncing those who have given too much attention to the ". .. theoreti- cal origin and relationships of various primi- tive arts." (p. 72-73) Thus he tends to see in primitive art unique qualities which in truth lie at the basis of all art. The art produced by primitive people is neither more nor less". . . characteristic and expressive of all the es- sential features" (p. 71-72) of its society than the arts brought forth today or in 15th century Italy. Nor could it be proved that primitive art is any more involved in the "Economic, social and/or political needs of the community. . ." (p. 17) than is the case in any other historic period. The motivation, functions and meaning of art may appear to be more hidden and more subtle in the 20th century, but in fact the same basic human drives seem to be present regard- less of the character and complexity of the society. When the author describes the patron- age of the primitive artist as coming from . the elders, chiefs, priests, or leaders who directed or controlled the fundamental aspects of life-religion, social relationships, economic practices, and political and judicial controls" (p. 18), he could just as well be discussing the patronage of Egyptian, Baroque or even contemporary art. This reviewer would also question the great importance which the author places on sculp- ture, to the almost entire exclusion of other art forms. A good index of this is the plates, 116 out of 126 of which are sculpture, and the lack of any architectural examples whatsoever. Sculp- ture may be more "significant" than other art forms in the area of Oceania, but the complete exclusion of the rock drawings of Africa, or of those of the New World, is open to severe question. In fact it would be difficult to show that sculpture was at all the major art form of the North American Indians; pottery, weaving and even rock drawings were probably a more conscious mode of visual expression than sculp- ture. Throughout the text, almost as a reoccurring leitemotiv, Wingert raises the question of form versus content, and he firmly attaches himself to those who insist that the "significance" of a work of art can only be comprehended when one understands its associated elements. The social, religious, and political information which may be extracted from a work of art is tremendous in scope and depth, but these ele- ments are marginal to the purely aesthetic. It is the aesthetic form which establishes an ob- ject as a work of art; and it is this feature which should be of major concern, if not the total concern, of the art historian. DAVID GEBHARD University of California, Santa Barbara James Walter Graham The Palaces of Crete, xiv + 69 pp., 153 ill. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1962. $7.50 Cretan palaces have been much like the weather; everyone talked about them but no- body did anything about them. Despite the fact that they, more than any other feature, epit- omized the first European civilization and in- dicate the power and wealth of its rulers, no thorough architectural study of them was made before Graham undertook one during the last decade. Six articles published in the American Journal of Archaeology between 1956 and 1961 presented various special aspects of his work, which are again published here in less technical form and as part of a comprehensive account of Minoan architecture. A brief consid- eration of the geography and history of Crete, as well as of the nature of its inhabitants in Minoan times, forms the background to the architectural account. The latter begins with a description of the three major palaces-Knos- sos, Phaistos and Mallia-and then of minor palaces, such as at Gournia and Hagia Triadha, villas and houses. Based on this descriptive material are the special studies of various elements, beginning with the central court of the palace, which was the "organizing nucleus of the plan." Graham argues convincingly that the bull games were held in the court. An examination of the res- idential quarters follows, and it is gratifying to see that Graham does not use the term "megaron" for the characteristic large hall. The so-called "lustral chambers" are shown to have served largely as bathrooms, though Gra- ham admits the possibility of occasional use for lustral purposes. Toilet rooms have been identified in all the palaces and in several houses as well. Turning to a consideration of the public apartments, large reception halls are shown to have been in the upper floor, usually approached by a grand staircase. The banquet hall was also in the upper storey, with the kitchen nearby in the floor below. This ground floor was given over largely to storerooms and workrooms, the former usually under the great halls of the state apartments. But the ground floor also contained cult rooms, usually the "Pillar Crypt" and associated rooms, and guest suites. Getting down to details, the next chapters consider the materials and construction of Minoan buildings, the use of windows and doors and the systems of lighting and ventila- Throughout the text, almost as a reoccurring leitemotiv, Wingert raises the question of form versus content, and he firmly attaches himself to those who insist that the "significance" of a work of art can only be comprehended when one understands its associated elements. The social, religious, and political information which may be extracted from a work of art is tremendous in scope and depth, but these ele- ments are marginal to the purely aesthetic. It is the aesthetic form which establishes an ob- ject as a work of art; and it is this feature which should be of major concern, if not the total concern, of the art historian. DAVID GEBHARD University of California, Santa Barbara James Walter Graham The Palaces of Crete, xiv + 69 pp., 153 ill. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1962. $7.50 Cretan palaces have been much like the weather; everyone talked about them but no- body did anything about them. Despite the fact that they, more than any other feature, epit- omized the first European civilization and in- dicate the power and wealth of its rulers, no thorough architectural study of them was made before Graham undertook one during the last decade. Six articles published in the American Journal of Archaeology between 1956 and 1961 presented various special aspects of his work, which are again published here in less technical form and as part of a comprehensive account of Minoan architecture. A brief consid- eration of the geography and history of Crete, as well as of the nature of its inhabitants in Minoan times, forms the background to the architectural account. The latter begins with a description of the three major palaces-Knos- sos, Phaistos and Mallia-and then of minor palaces, such as at Gournia and Hagia Triadha, villas and houses. Based on this descriptive material are the special studies of various elements, beginning with the central court of the palace, which was the "organizing nucleus of the plan." Graham argues convincingly that the bull games were held in the court. An examination of the res- idential quarters follows, and it is gratifying to see that Graham does not use the term "megaron" for the characteristic large hall. The so-called "lustral chambers" are shown to have served largely as bathrooms, though Gra- ham admits the possibility of occasional use for lustral purposes. Toilet rooms have been identified in all the palaces and in several houses as well. Turning to a consideration of the public apartments, large reception halls are shown to have been in the upper floor, usually approached by a grand staircase. The banquet hall was also in the upper storey, with the kitchen nearby in the floor below. This ground floor was given over largely to storerooms and workrooms, the former usually under the great halls of the state apartments. But the ground floor also contained cult rooms, usually the "Pillar Crypt" and associated rooms, and guest suites. Getting down to details, the next chapters consider the materials and construction of Minoan buildings, the use of windows and doors and the systems of lighting and ventila- Throughout the text, almost as a reoccurring leitemotiv, Wingert raises the question of form versus content, and he firmly attaches himself to those who insist that the "significance" of a work of art can only be comprehended when one understands its associated elements. The social, religious, and political information which may be extracted from a work of art is tremendous in scope and depth, but these ele- ments are marginal to the purely aesthetic. It is the aesthetic form which establishes an ob- ject as a work of art; and it is this feature which should be of major concern, if not the total concern, of the art historian. DAVID GEBHARD University of California, Santa Barbara James Walter Graham The Palaces of Crete, xiv + 69 pp., 153 ill. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1962. $7.50 Cretan palaces have been much like the weather; everyone talked about them but no- body did anything about them. Despite the fact that they, more than any other feature, epit- omized the first European civilization and in- dicate the power and wealth of its rulers, no thorough architectural study of them was made before Graham undertook one during the last decade. Six articles published in the American Journal of Archaeology between 1956 and 1961 presented various special aspects of his work, which are again published here in less technical form and as part of a comprehensive account of Minoan architecture. A brief consid- eration of the geography and history of Crete, as well as of the nature of its inhabitants in Minoan times, forms the background to the architectural account. The latter begins with a description of the three major palaces-Knos- sos, Phaistos and Mallia-and then of minor palaces, such as at Gournia and Hagia Triadha, villas and houses. Based on this descriptive material are the special studies of various elements, beginning with the central court of the palace, which was the "organizing nucleus of the plan." Graham argues convincingly that the bull games were held in the court. An examination of the res- idential quarters follows, and it is gratifying to see that Graham does not use the term "megaron" for the characteristic large hall. The so-called "lustral chambers" are shown to have served largely as bathrooms, though Gra- ham admits the possibility of occasional use for lustral purposes. Toilet rooms have been identified in all the palaces and in several houses as well. Turning to a consideration of the public apartments, large reception halls are shown to have been in the upper floor, usually approached by a grand staircase. The banquet hall was also in the upper storey, with the kitchen nearby in the floor below. This ground floor was given over largely to storerooms and workrooms, the former usually under the great halls of the state apartments. But the ground floor also contained cult rooms, usually the "Pillar Crypt" and associated rooms, and guest suites. Getting down to details, the next chapters consider the materials and construction of Minoan buildings, the use of windows and doors and the systems of lighting and ventila- 79 Book Reviews 79 Book Reviews 79 Book Reviews