CHAPTER 4 - EARTH WORK

In road, railroad, and airfield construction, the movement of large volume of earth (earth work) is one of most important construction operations. Earthwork computations involve the calculation of volumes or quantities, the determination of final grades, the balancing of cuts and fills, and the planning of most economical haul of material. Field notes and established grades are used to plot the cross sections at regular stations at any plus stations which may have been established at critical points. The line is representing the existing ground surface, and those lines representing the proposed cut or fill, enclose cross-sectioned area. These areas and the measured distance along the centerline are used to compute earthwork volumes. Cross sections The cross section used in earthwork computations is a vertical section, perpendicular to the centerline at full and plus stations, which represents the boundaries of a proposed or existing cut or fill.

Cross-section level taken along and across the centerline. The centerline of the route, defined in terms of rectangular coordinates at 10to 30-m intervals, is then set out in the field. Ground levels are obtained along the centre-line and also at right angles to the line. The levels at right angles to the centre-line depict the ground profile, as shown in Figure below, and if the

design template, depicting the formation level, road width, camber, side slopes, etc., is added, then a cross-section is produced whose area can be obtained.

Cross-section area for cut Cross sectional areas for construction earthwork volumes are usually determined by one of the following methods;

By counting the squares By the geometry of trapezoids and triangles By using planimeter By coordinate method

Area by Coordinates Where the cross-section is complex and the ground profile has been defined by reduced levels at known horizontal distances from the centre-line, the area may be found by coordinates. The horizontal distances may be regarded as Eastings (E) and the elevations (at 90 to the distances) as Northings (N).
A

Let A(XA,YA), B(XB,YB), and C(Xc,Yc), be the coordinates of the of the vertex.

Volumes Earthwork volumes are determined, primarly, by one of three methods:

1. 2. 3. 4.

The end-area method The prismodial formula The contour line method Spot height method

Of-these methods, the end-area method and the prismoidal formula method are more common. 1. End-area methods If two cross sectional areas A1 and A2 are a horizontal distance L apart, the volume contained between them (V) is given by:

i.e. the mean of the two end areas multiplied by the length between them. The equation is correct only when the mid-area is the mean of the two end areas. 2. Volumes by Prismoidal Formula The volumes of a prismoid are expressed by the following formula:

Where

V= the volume in cubic units A1, A2 = the end areas in square units

Am= the area in square units of the section midway between A1 and A2 L= the perpendicular distance in linear units between the end areas. 3. Contours Volumes may be found from contours using either the end-area or prismoidal method. The areas of the sections are the areas encompassed by the contours. The distance between the sections is the contour interval. This method is commonly used for finding the volume of a reservoir, lake or spoil heap. 4. Spot heights This method is generally used for calculating the volumes of excavations for basements or tanks, i.e. any volume where the sides and base are planes, whilst the surface is broken naturally fig. below (a). The plan shows the limits of the excavation with surface levels in metres at A, B, C and D. The sides are vertical to a formation level of 20 m. If the area ABCD was a plane, then the volume of excavation would be: V = plan area ABCD mean height

Spot heights. a) Section, and b) plan Considering AEFG only, instead of taking each grid square separately, one can treat it as a whole.

Mass Haul Diagrams A Mass-haul diagram (MHD) is simply a graph of aggregate volume, the algebraic sum of corrected volumes cut (+) and fill (-) (after bulking and shrinkage), against chainage which helps in planning earthwork. The x axis represents the chainage along the project from the position of zero chainage. The y axis represents the aggregate volume of material up to any chainage from the position of zero chainage. When constructing the mass haul diagram, volumes of cut are considered positive and volumes of fill are considered negative. By the combined use of the MHD plotted directly below the longitudinal section of the survey centreline, one can find: (1) The distances over which cut and fill will balance.

(2) Quantities of materials to be moved and the direction of movement. (3) Areas where earth may have to be borrowed or wasted and the amounts involved. (4) The best policy to adopt to obtain the most economic use of plant. (5) The best use of plant for the distances over which the volumes of cut and fill are to be moved.

Characteristics of the mass haul diagram are:

Upward slope of the curve in the direction of the algebraic summation (1) indicates excavation. Downward slope (2) indicates filling. A maximum earthworks point (3) occurs at the end of an excavation and a minimum point (4) at the end of an embankment. The vertical distance between a maximum point and the next forward minimum point represents the whole volume of an embankment. Similarly, between a minimum and the next forward maximum point, the whole volume of an excavation. Between any two points where the curve cuts the base line the volume of excavation equals that of embankment, since the algebraic sum of the quantities between such points is zero. The points (a) and (c), for example, show, on being projected to A and C, that the earthwork is balanced between A and C, that is the material excavated from AB

would form the embankment up the point C. There is also balance from C to D.

Any horizontal line intersecting the mass curve, similarly shows lengths over which cutting and filling are equalised. Thus xy is a balancing line, the cut from X to B just filling from B to Y, the volume moved being represented by bz. When the mass curve lies above the balancing line, the excavated material must be hauled forward. When below, the direction of haul is backward. Definitions

Haul refers to the volume of material multiplied by the distance moved, expressed in station metres. Station metre (stn m) is 1 m3 of material moved one station (100 m). Thus, 20 m3 moved 1500 m is a haul of 20 1500/100 = 300 stn m. Waste is the material excavated from cuts but not used for embankment fills. Borrow is the material needed for the formation of embankments, secured not from roadway excavation but from elsewhere. It is said to be obtained from a borrow pit.

Limit of economical haul is the maximum haul distance. When this limit is reached it is more economical to waste and borrow material.
Reading Assignment : Effect of curvature on volumes. Chapter 5 : Setting out bridge, building, culverts etc.