ANALYZING FRACTURES

Loads and Stresses

No matter how well they are designed and built, and no matter how well they are maintained, machines can break down as a result of component failure. When failure occurs, it is critically important to determine the cause, discuss it with those responsible, and take appropriate action. This process is called applied failure analysis. Components can break down because of excess wear or fracture. Fractures are most likely to occur where loads and stresses are high. In order to understand how and why fractures occur, you must first be able to recognize the different types of forcesor loadsthat can cause fractures. There are five load types-tensile, compression, bending, torsion, and shear.

Tensile Load Tensile loads are forces that try to pull something apart. It is applied by two forces pulling in opposite directions.

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Compression Load Compression loads are just the opposite of tensile loads. They are forces that try to squeeze an object together and make it shorter

Bending Load Bending Loads are forces that try to deflect an object While it is held at one or both ends.

Torsion Load Torsion loads are forces that try to twist an object in Opposite directions.

Shear Load Shear loads are opposite forces that try to push an object In opposite directions at the same line of action.

Lines of Stress
Loads create stresses inside parts. The type of load determines the type of stress that occurs.

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Stress Raisers

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Material Flaws
Material related stress raisers, especially in steel, are inclusions. Inclusions are impurities remaining in the metal after refining is complete. They can be dirt left from the ore, pieces of furnace lining, or slag particles trapped in the steel.

Manufacturing Errors
Manufacturing processes such as casting, rolling, forging, heat treating, and grinding can introduce shrinkage voids and cracks within the metal.

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Rolling/Forging Errors

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Load Rates
The speed with which loading is applied has a great effect on part response and fracture type. There are three basic rates at which loads can be applied: shock load rate, overload rate, and cyclic load rate.

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Conditions That Cause Fracture

Overloading
Parts often fracture because the applied load is greater than the parts can carry. There are two types of fractures that can result from overloads, ductile or brittle fractures and fatigue fractures.

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Abnormal Stress Raisers

One reason parts fail is due to stress raisers. There are both normal and abnormal stress raisers. Normal stress raisers include: material flaws, holes and fillets. Normal stress raisers do no cause fracture because they are taken into account by designers.

Low Material Strength

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IDENTIFYING TYPES OF FRACTURES

It is important to be able to classify fractures in order to determine what caused them. We can identify most fractures by making careful observations of the texture, color, reflexivity, and unique surface features.

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LOCATING FRACTURE INITIATION SITES

Let us see the initiation sites of brittle, ductile and fatigue fractures. It is important to locate fracture initiation sites because they can reveal why fracture started.

Brittle Fracture Initiation Sites

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Ductile Fractures Initiation Sites

The location of a ductile fractures initiation site depends on the type of load that was applied. Most initiation sites for ductile fractures are general areas rather than specific sites. Fortunately, they are not usually needed to find the root cause of failures.

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Fatigue Fracture Initiation Sites

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Determining Why Fracture Occurred

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