Virtue Theory

You should know: Key words: Virtue: A positive characteristic that suggests moral excellence or goodness. Eudaimonia: a contented state of being happy healthy and prosperous. Agent-centred: ethical approaches that are focused on the development of the person rather than on morality of what they are doing. Doctrine of the mean: the desirable middle between two extremes, one of excess and the other of deficiency. The principles of virtue ethics from Aristotle. The agent-centred nature of virtue ethics. The concepts of Eudaimonia and the doctrine of the mean (the Golden mean). The importance of practicing the virtues and the example of virtuous people. The modern approaches to virtue ethics. The critical strengths and weaknesses.

Aristotle:
Agent centred moral theory Neither Deontological nor teleological.

Virtue = a desirable quality. If you develop virtues you can achieve EUDAIMONIA which is human fulfilment. Women and slaves couldnt achieve it only free men. Moral/practical virtues: You can practice these to develop moral character. Aristotle suggests having 12 moral virtues however each society can choice their own virtues to suit their own needs. Developed by practice and habit. 1. Courage 2. Temperance 3. Liberality 4. Magnificence 5. High mindedness/greatness of soul 6. Good temper or gentleness

7. Being in agreeable company 8. Wittiness 9. Modesty 10. Right ambition 11. Just resentment 12. Sincerity Cardinal virtues: Important to follow prudence/courage/justice/temperance. Temperance: e.g. family members who live life in moderation try not to get into debt or to be too thrifty with their money and enjoy life in the fullest way they can. Justice: e.g. a teacher who ensures that students are treated equally and get what they deserve, whether they are rewarded or punished. Courage: e.g. a man who has a phobia of snakes who attends counselling sessions to help him deal with his fear and then confronts his fear by handing a snake. Prudence: e.g. if a man knows that he should be honest, he must know how to apply honesty in balance with other considerations, and this requires practical wisdom or prudence.

Intellectual virtues: Scientific knowledge phronesis practical wisdom you cant practice these virtues but they develop through reflection and practicing the practical virtues. Developed via training and education.

Phronemous: role model Virtuous role models are not perfect: Not expected to be perfect but to challenge us to aspire to greater moral heights and to become the best that we possibly can be. Virtuous role models in popular culture: Characters such as Harry Potter, as well as Mandela etc. are role models to some people. Jesus as a model of virtue: In the bible; Jesus encourages his disciples that they should continue to do the things that he had done and to go on to do even greater things. Some Christians will even devote

their whole lives to becoming more like the example that Jesus gave by entering Holy Orders as a monk or a nun. Jesus life was one that was virtuous; he showed compassion towards those who others rejected, he demonstrated righteous anger in the Temple courts; he showed great wisdom in dealing with the adulterous woman and great patience with his disciples. Most Christians desire to live their lives along the same principles by aiming to mirror Jesus attitude. The teachings of the apostle Paul encourage Christians to model themselves on the characteristics of Jesus and the Holy Spirit. But when the Holy Spirit controls our lives, he will produce this kind of fruit in us: love, joy, peace, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness and self-control. Here there is no conflict with the law Galatians 5: 22-23 Aristotle every action is focused on an aim or outcome. Everything that we do we have an end outcome in our minds. This, he then said, could be seen as the ultimate end of ends, which is the greatest good. Aristotle believed that we did these things for a greater reason; this superior aim is to achieve the supreme good, which is happiness. For Aristotle, happiness or fulfilment was the foal and purpose of life. In this understanding he meant more than just pleasure, he understood it in three different ways: 1. Happiness as a life of enjoyment of pleasure. 2. Happiness as a free member of society. 3. Happiness as a philosopher. Living a life of pleasure wasnt enough; there was a responsibility to live a good life and to show and use qualities that enabled people to live together in society. To reach Eudaimonia practice skills or virtues to achieve happiness and live good lives. For Aristotle the basis of morality is to have a firm foundation of good and positive character traits. Therefore, a person is morally good if they have these positive traits or virtues and do not have negative traits or vices. This understanding of Aristotle formed the basis of his virtue theory of aretaic ethics.

The doctrine of the golden mean: With the virtues you have to try and establish a golden mean. Relative golden mean: 1. Each persons golden mean is different making virtue theory very flexible.

Aristotle: Think about what is good for society. For Aristotle he said that whilst the theory is individualistic/agent centred you do not need to consider society. Deficiency Golden Excess

Relative theory things constantly change no two situations are the same. So you will never apply the virtue in exactly the same way.

The concept of Eudaimonia:

Based on Aristotles epistemology four causes. Something is good if it fulfils its purpose Eudaimonia is the greatest good for a human (final purpose). The person who has achieved Eudaimonia will act completely morally, by choice, and will also want to act morally. They will choose the right actions but also want those same actions. Eudaimonia is a state rather than inaction. Philosophers reach this by using reason. Similar to Kants summum bonum. Man is a political and social animal Aristotle. Aristotle doesnt just consider the agent in his virtue theory, but also considered what would be good for society. How can you flourish in a society that doesnt? to further support Aristotle in his concern for society we can look at the virtue of friendship. This shows he wasnt just concerned with the individual alone. The virtue of friendship 3 types to cultivate: 1. Friendship of utility a. Mutually beneficial b. Useful 2. Friendship of pleasure a. Happiness/pleasure 3. Friendship of the good a. Phronemous b. Attracted to qualities. The idea of Eudaimonia encompasses all aspects of happiness including political, emotional and philosophical happiness. It is also important to note that the idea of Eudaimonia isnt just happiness or pleasure as we generally understand it because in some ways the concept is not pleasurable or happy. Eudaimonia also contains an element of justified and deserved happiness that ought to be the goal in life of everyone. In order to achieve it, Eudaimonia must be a deserved happiness, rather than undeserved or ill gotten. It is emphasised by philosophers that Eudaimonia is of intrinsic value and is never a means to another end; therefore it should be desired for its own sake by individuals and by society too. The only way to achieve Eudaimonia is to truly deserve it and to have worked tirelessly to achieve it through the development of the virtuous character traits and avoiding the negative ones.

Habit:
Virtues will only develop naturally in a minority of people. Therefore the doctrine of the mean helps people to work out what is the correct action to carry out. People educated in virtues and mean. Practice help to work out the correct thing to do.

Aristotle says that there are 4 groups of people: 1. 2. 3. 4. Virtuous: Enjoy doing good (Habit). Continent: most of the time are virtuous but have to overcome moral dilemma. Incontinent: face moral conflict but usually choose a vice. Vicious: Do not attempt to be good.

The latter 3 need to be trained in order to become virtuous, everyone can achieve goodness.

Aristotles Model Society:

Philosophers Contemplate Eudaimonia Politicians (serves the community) Honour practice virtues to become habit. Hedonists Pleasure practice virtues to become habit. Philosophers have intellectual virtues and they can exercise prudence which is essential to achieving Eudaimonia. Philosophers are like a captain navigating a ship. Superior and subordinate aims. o Superior aim is Eudaimonia.

Evaluation: Strengths Compatible with religious beliefs (phronemous) Weaknesses Relative and therefore not relatable between individuals. Due to the fact that the golden mean differs. Difficult to apply moral dilemmas because there are no guidelines other than to be virtuous. When does a virtue become a vice?

Focuses on moral development. Doesnt have rules like utilitarianism or Kantian ethics. Virtue theory focus on the individual flourishing society therefore considers minorities unlike absolutist theories. Logical theory focuses on practical reason and the traits that will make society prosper. Encourages people to develop and improve.

Alastair Macintyre Modern virtue theory (similar to Aristotle)

Wrote a book named After virtue 1980s revival of virtue theory Jigsaw analogy we have the pieces of ethics, words like good, bad etc. we have moral theories like Kant and Utilitarianism, but we have lost sight of the direction. We have no telos. We need to recover virtues to get some direction. Undertook a sociological study to find out what was important to different societies. Conclusions; for virtue theory to work, you actually had to operate from within the society itself.

How Macintyre works out whether an action is virtuous: 1. A good within itself is what you are doing actually virtuous? a. Is it social? (if youre the only person that does that action then it cannot be virtuous (friendship and good for society Aristotle)) b. Does it have standards? c. Is it developing? (similar to flourishing Eudaimonia) 2. Life Narrative does the action balance with other elements of your life? 3. Moral traditions look at values/traditions in society and try to find a balance with these.

SEE ALSO: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Elizabeth Anscombe Philippa Foot Richard Taylor Rosalind Hursthous Michael Slote