Evening MBA Program Department of Marketing

Course Code: MKT- 50 Course Title: Business Environment Group Term Paper on Local Knowledge and Human Development in Globalization of Education Submitted To Prof. Dr. ABM Shahidul Islam Course Teacher Department of Marketing Faculty of Business Studies University of Dhaka Submitted By Md. Al- Amin Arafat Aman Aziz Sayed Mohammad Mostakim Hossain ID No. 41221022 ID No.41221030 ID No. 41221006

University of Dhaka Submission Date: July 17, 2012

1.0 Introduction
Rapid globalization is the one of the most salient aspects of the new millennium particularly since the fast development of information technology in the last two decades (Brown, 1999). To different observers, different types of globalization can be identified even though most of the attention is in the areas of economy, technology, and culture (Brown & Lauder, 1996; Waters, 1995). According to Yin Cheong CHENG research (Cheng, 2000, 2001), there should be multiple globalizations, including Technological Globalization, Economic Globalization, Social Globalization, Political Globalization, Cultural Globalization, and Learning Globalization in the new millennium. Inevitably, how education should be responsive to the trends and challenges of globalization has become a major concern in policy making in these years (Ayyar, 1996; Brown & Lauder, 1996; Fowler, 1994; Green, 1999; Henry, Lingard, Rizvi, & Taylor, 1999; Jones, 1999; Little, 1996; McGinn, 1996; Pratt & Poole, 2000; Curriculum Development Council, 1999). In addition, facing the increasing demands for the various developments of individuals and local communities in the new century and for maximizing the support to and effectiveness of education, not only globalization but also localization and individualization are necessary in ongoing educational reforms. Efforts and initiatives for a paradigm shift towards globalization, localization and individualization in education have been gradually evident in some countries in recent years. In the new paradigm of education proposed by Cheng (2000, 2001), all of these processes as a whole can be taken as a Triplization Process (i.e., triple + izations) that should be necessary in re-conceptualizing educational processes and formulating the new pedagogic methods and environment for students lifelong learning and development of contextualized multiple intelligence (CMI) including technological intelligence, political intelligence, social intelligence, economic intelligence, cultural intelligence, and learning intelligence. LITERATURE REVIEW 1.1 Globalization: To different scholars, the definition of globalization may be different. According to Cheng (2000, 2001), it may refer to the transfer, adaptation, and development of values, knowledge, technology, and behavioral norms across countries and societies in different parts of the world. The typical phenomena and characteristics associated with globalization include growth of global networking (e.g. internet, world wide e-communication, and transportation), global transfer and interflow in technological, economic, social, political, cultural, and learning areas, international alliances and competitions, international collaboration and exchange, global village, multi-cultural integration, and use of international standards and benchmarks. From a positive and instrumental perspective, the implications of globalization for education
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should include maximizing the education relevance to global development and pooling up the best intellectual resources, support and initiatives from different parts of the world for learning, teaching and research (Daun, 1997; Holmes, 1999). Some ongoing examples and common evidence of globalization in education are web-based learning; use of the Internet in learning and research; international visit/immersion programs; international exchange programs; international partnership in teaching and learning at the group, class, and individual levels; interactions and sharing through video-conferencing across countries, communities, institutions, and individuals (Holmes, Local Knowledge & Human Development in Globalization of Education YC Cheng 1999; Jung & Rha, 2001; Van Dusen, 1997; Lick, 1999; Klor de Alva, 2000). Many such examples of initiatives can be found in Hong Kong, Europe, Australia and USA. Further, the development of new curriculum content on technological, economic, social, political, cultural, and learning globalization is also important and necessary in new education. 1.2 Localization: In a general sense, localization refers to the transfer, adaptation, and development of related values, knowledge, technology, and behavioral norms from/to the local contexts. Some characteristics and examples of localization are as follows: local networking; adaptation of external technological, economic, social, political, cultural, and learning initiatives to local communities; decentralization to the community or site level; development of indigenous culture; meeting community needs and expectations; local involvement, inter-institutional collaboration, and community support; local relevance and legitimacy; and concern for community-based needs and characteristics and social norms and ethos. The implications of localization to education reform are to maximize the education relevance to local development and bring in community support and resources, local partnership, and collaboration in learning, teaching and research. Some examples for practice of localization include community involvement in education; privatization in education; public-institutional collaboration; assurance of institutional accountability; implementation of institutional autonomy, school-based management and community-based curriculum (Wang, 2000; Altbach, 1999; James, 1994). More and more such examples can be found not only in developed countries like USA, UK and European countries but also in many developing areas in the Asia-Pacific Region (Cheng & Townsend, 2000). The development of new curriculum content related to localization in technological, economic, social, political, cultural, and learning aspects of the society is also receiving growing attention. 1.3 Individualization: It refers to the transfer, adaptation, and development of related external values, knowledge, technology, and behavioral norms to meet the individual needs and characteristics. The importance of individualization to
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human development and performance is based on the concerns and theories of human motivation and needs ( e.g. Maslow, 1970; Manz, 1986; Manz & Sims, 1990; Alderfer, 1972). Some examples of individualization are the provision of individualized services; emphasis of human potentials; promotion of human initiative and creativity; encouragement of self-actualization; self-managing and self-governing; and concern for special needs. The major implication of individualization in education is to maximize motivation, initiative, and creativity of students and teachers in learning, teaching, and research through such measures as implementing individualized educational programs; designing and using individualized learning targets, methods, and progress schedules; encouraging students to be self learning, self actualizing, and self initiating; meeting individual special needs; and developing students contextualized multiple intelligences. Students, teachers, and education institutions are triplized (i.e. globalized, localized, and individualized ) during the process of triplization. With these concepts of triplization in education, a paradigm shift of education for the new millennium from the traditional site-bounded paradigm to the new triplization paradigm is illustrated by Cheng (2000, 2001). There are contrasting differences between them on the assumptions about the future of the world, the human nature, the developments of individuals and the society, the aims of education, the modes of learning and teaching. For the detail, please refer to Cheng (2000, 2001). Local Knowledge & Human Development in Globalization of Education YC Cheng Even though globalization seems to be unavoidable to many countries and numerous initiatives and efforts have been made to adapt to it with aims at taking the opportunities created from it to develop their societies and people, in recent years there are also increasing international concerns with the dangerous impacts of globalization on indigenous and national developments. Various social movements have been initiated to against the threats of globalization particularly on developing countries. The negative impacts of globalization include various types of economic, political and cultural colonization by advanced countries on those developing and under-developed countries. Inevitably, how to maximize the opportunities and benefits from globalization to support local developments and reduce the threats and negative impacts of globalization will be major concerns in both national and indigenous developments. 1.4 Positive and Negative Impacts of Globalization As mentioned above, globalization is creating numerous opportunities for sharing knowledge, technology, social values, and behavioral norms and promoting developments at different levels including individuals, organizations, communities, and societies across different countries and cultures. In particular, the advantages of globalization may include the following (Cheng, 2000; Brown, 1999; Waters, 1995):
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1. Global sharing of knowledge, skills, and intellectual assets that are necessary to multiple developments at different levels; 2. Mutual support, supplement and benefit to produce synergy for various developments of countries, communities, and individuals; 3. Creating values and enhancing efficiency through the above global sharing and mutual support to serving local needs and growth; 4. Promoting international understanding, collaboration, harmony and acceptance to cultural diversity across countries and regions; and 5. Facilitating multi-way communications and interactions, and encouraging multi-cultural contributions at different levels among countries. But at the same time, it is potentially creating serious negative impacts on the indigenous developments, particularly those developing or underdeveloped countries. This is also the major reason why there have been so many ongoing social movements in different parts of the world to against the trends of globalization particularly in economic and political areas. The potential negative impacts of globalization are various types of political, economic, and cultural colonization and overwhelming influences of advanced countries to developing countries and rapidly increasing gaps between rich areas and poor areas in different parts of the world. In particular, the potential negative impacts include the following: (Table 1) 1. Increasing the technological gaps and digital divides between advanced countries and less developed countries that are hindering equal opportunities for fair global sharing; 2. Creating more legitimate opportunities for a few advanced countries to economically Local Knowledge & Human Development in Globalization of Education YC Cheng and politically colonize other countries globally; 3. Exploiting local resources and destroying indigenous cultures of less advanced countries to benefit a few advanced countries; 4. Increasing inequalities and conflicts between areas and cultures; and 5. Promoting the dominant cultures and values of some advanced areas and accelerating cultural transplant from advanced areas to less developed areas

Table 1: Potential Positive and Negative Impacts of Globalization Globalization Moderated by Education & Other Local & International Factors
Negative Impacts (Threats) 1. Increasing the technological gaps and digital divides between advanced countries and less developed countries that are hindering equal opportunities for fair global sharing 2. Creating more legitimate opportunities for a few advanced countries to economically and politically colonize other countries globally 3. Exploiting local resources and destroying indigenous cultures of less advanced countries to benefit a few advanced countries 4. Increasing inequalities and conflicts between areas and cultures Positive Impacts (Opportunities) 1. Global sharing of knowledge, skills, and intellectual assets that are necessary to multiple developments at different levels 2. Mutual support, supplement and benefit to produce synergy for various developments of countries, communities, and individuals

3. Creating values and enhancing efficiency through the above global sharing and mutual support to serving local needs and growth 4. Promoting international understanding, collaboration, harmony and acceptance to cultural diversity across countries and regions 5. Promoting the dominant cultures and 5. Facilitating multi-way communications values of some advanced areas and and interactions, and encouraging multiaccelerating cultural transplant from cultural contributions at different levels advanced areas to less developed areas among countries

Clearly, the management and control of the impacts of globalization are related to some complicated macro and international issues that may be far beyond the scope of this paper. But in general, many people believe, education is one of key local factors that can be used to moderate some impacts of globalization from negative to positive and convert threats into opportunities for the development of individuals and local community in the inevitable process of globalization. How to maximize the positive effects but minimize the negative impacts of globalization is a major concern in current educational reform for national and local developments. Specifically, what is the relationship between the local knowledge systems and the global knowledge system in globalization? How can we foster local knowledge and human development for individual and local developments through globalization in education and from the global knowledge system, particularly in those developing countries that are facing the challenges of losing local identity in overwhelming globalization.
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1.5 Local Knowledge: Most knowledge about the developing world and the transition societies is still produced outside the region to which it pertains. The capacity to benefit from knowledge is governed by two basic elements: the ability to acquire and to apply knowledge that already exists, and the ability to produce new knowledge. It is not enough to transfer knowledge, e.g. knowledge embedded in a particular technology, from one country to another. Instead, in order to achieve a sustained development, it is necessary for the knowledge importing society to be able to acquire, to absorb the knowledge, to understand, to interpret it and to adapt it to local needs, and subsequently to produce knowledge endogenously along the same line (Cohen and Levinthal 1990). Knowledge, therefore, has to be imported and adapted to local requirements, i.e. global knowledge has to be localized. For any society and any nation state it will be crucial for further development whether or not this will be achieved (Evers 2003). The debate so far has focused on indigenous knowledge. Our emphasis will be on local knowledge rather than indigenous knowledge. Any knowledge production or use is local at the outset before it is, under certain circumstances to be discussed below, globalised. Indigenous knowledge is bound by language, tradition and values to a particular community (Antweiler 1998; Sillitoe 1998). Local knowledge is shared by a community of practice or is locally available or shared. The respective locality can be a nation state, a society, a university or a meeting. Local knowledge is globalised e.g. when it is posted on the internet, published in a widely available book or international journal. Only a fraction of indigenous or local knowledge is globalised and only a minor part of global knowledge enters local knowledge (Tomforde 2003). Both forms of knowledge are mixed up in the post-modern world (Baruch 2001) and the keen researcher can separate the two only by analytical arm-twisting and preposterous modelling. 1.6 Global Knowledge: There is a widespread consensus today that contemporary Western societies are in one sense or another ruled by knowledge and expertise (Knorr-Cetina 1999). This knowledge is governed, managed, monopolised or shared throughout the industrialised OECD countries, but also increasingly in parts of the developing world. In this paper we look at knowledge that is contained in social science papers accepted for publication in a recognised journal or volume and listed in a major data bank, in this case Sociological Abstracts. As this data bank is widely accessible through the internet, we regard this as global knowledge.

FRAME WORK REVIEW 2.0 Southeast Asian Visions of Localising Global Knowledge Most ASEAN leaders and governments have developed visions of developing a knowledge-based economy and a knowledge society as a way to achieve parity with Western nations. These visions are invariably directed at using global knowledge to achieve economic progress. In 1991 Malaysias Prime Minister proposed in a much-publicised speech that Malaysia should become a fully industrialised country by the year 2020 (Evers and Gerke 1997; Evers 2003). Meanwhile the transition from a newly industrialising to a fully industrialised country has become less attractive. The Wawasan 2020 (Vision 2020), as the Prime Ministers speech is known, had to be up-dated and Malaysia, or at least its government, has made the move towards a knowledge-based society and economy its primary target. In the words of Dr. Mahathir: In our pursuit towards developing the K-economy, knowledge has to replace labour and capital as the key factors of production in our economy. The challenge for Malaysia is to develop this knowledge amongst our citizens so that our success will be due to the contributions of Malaysian talents and knowledge workers (Dr. Mahathir bin Mohamad, Putrajaya 8 March 2001 advertisement in the New Straits Times 13-04-2001). Indonesia has followed suit where it has also become fashionable to pronounce visions and missions as a first step in the national and local planning process. Terwujudnya Masyarakat Telematika Nusantara Berbasis Pengetahuan di Tahun 2020 (Creating a Nusantara Telematic Society by the Year 2020) is the vision statement of the KTIN (Kerangka Teknologi Informasi Nasional), the National Framework for Information Technology. The document is broadbased, extending from support for e-business to good governance and edemocracy. This vision and the appended action plan are directed, however, at information technology (TI) and not at knowledge per se, on which information technology has to be based. Little has been done so far, to put this plan into action. Singapore launched its start into a knowledge society in 1992. By now Singapore has a very well developed knowledge infrastructure in terms of ICT, research institutes and knowledge workforce (Toh, Tang et al. 2002).Considerable research is being conducted by scientists and researchers in Singaporean institutions of higher learning and research centres especially in the areas of biotechnology and the life sciences which the Singapore government is promoting in its bid to stay economically competitive in the knowledge-based economy (Singapore Economic Development Board 1999). Universities, like NUS, NTU and SMU strive for recognition as world class research centres, and institutions like A*Star are set up to carry out cutting-edge applied research. If we look at local knowledge production in terms of the level of patenting
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activities, we will see a 34% increase in the number of patents applied in Singapore between 1999 and 2000 alone (A*Star 2002) and also, as discussed below, a steep increase of papers published by Singaporeans in international journals.. The emphasis on impression management, like changing the names of statutory boards to make them more appealing to an international audience, the invention of visions and missions, the use of culture-bound place names like Cyberjaya indicate that an attempt is made to create an epistemic culture (Knorr-Cetina 1999; Evers 2000), a culture of knowledge production. The creation of a knowledge-based economy is therefore not just ICT driven, but has developed into a social and cultural process as well. Social science research is part of this process. It is significant as it creates knowledge on a particular society and its processes of change and development. 3.0 Local and Global Knowledge on Southeast Asia 3.1 Social Science knowledge: social Science research is part of an epistemic culture. As an illustration on how the epistemic landscape of Southeast Asia is structured we shall present some data on social science research on Southeast Asia as it is carried out under global conditions. We shall then focus on research on the area done by Southeast Asians themselves. Social science knowledge differs from other fields of knowledge in so far as it constructs an image of society and social processes. Up to which extend this image reflects reality or is a social fact of its own has been debated by social scientists since Emil Durkheim. The same is true of the question how far concepts and theories used for the construction of society have an impact on social action and eventually on the structure of future societies. Thinking and writing on one's own society is part of a reflexive modernization which implies the frequent construction, de-construction and reconstruction of images of society. It is essential, how far this process of reflection on social processes and structures happens within a society or elsewhere. Outer-directed reflection creates dependent modernity or cultural dependency or dependent cultural globalisation. Orientalism, as analysed by Edward Said or the Myth of the Lazy Native explained by Syed Hussein Alatas are descriptions of dependent cultural globalisation (Alatas 1977; Said 1978). But how can we analyse, let alone measure the degree of dependent or independent modernity and globalisation? The measurement of knowledge production is beset by many problems especially when knowledge is in its tacit or secret form in this case we will not be able to measure it as it is not published and made accessible to a wider public. In our study we have applied bibliographic measures, i.e. use data stored in selected databanks as a database for our purpose. This entails the intensive search of databases for Social Science (taken as an umbrella of disciplines
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which include Sociology, Geography, Political Science, Anthropology etc.) such as the Social Science Citation Index and Sociological Abstracts, which have been selected because of their good coverage in terms of social science publications, and current as well as back issues of these publications. Published text, their authors, and their institutional affiliations have been adopted as variables in determining the locus of social science knowledge production. Data from these variables have been tabulated over a 30+ year period (1970 2002) which have been analysed in line with the time-series analysis adopted by Stahl, Leap & Wei to obtain the rate and measures of global and local knowledge production (Stahl, Leap et al. 1988). 3.2 Local Knowledge: How much knowledge is produced on Southeast Asian societies and cultures, and which proportion of this knowledge is produced locally? The knowledge on Southeast Asian societies is increasing with every journal article or book written on the area. If we consider only those articles that have been accepted in international journals and have been officially recognised or authorised by inclusion into the Sociological Abstracts, we see a steep rise of work on Southeast Asia world wide during the years 1970 and 2002 (see diagram). Most of social science articles are still written by foreign scholars, affiliated to universities or research institutions around the globe (Dahm 1975), but our data show that an increasing proportion of these internationally recognised articles are written by Southeast Asian nationals or by scholars, attached to Southeast Asian institutions. The output of Southeast Asian social scientists has increased considerably over the past four decades. Based on our preliminary data on social science research by Southeast Asian authors, we see that the number of social science articles written by scholars from Southeast Asian We are not yet able to identify foreign nationals, working at local institutions. It remains an open question how far they will do research from a local point of view. 10 countries has more than tripled when comparing the 1970s with the 1990s. This indicates that the epistemic culture of Southeast Asia is quite strong as far as the social sciences are concerned and appears to be increasingly recognized by the global epistemic community of social scientists. There are, however, considerable differences between countries, both in terms of the knowledge available about them and the contribution of local social scientists to that knowledge.

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METHODS 4.0 A Model of Knowledge Production Before presenting some statistical data on the production of knowledge on Southeast Asian societies we shall model that particular part of the very complex knowledge process that we are going to discuss. The model contains the following elements 1. An educational system, research institutions and research facilities, supported by Government and private grants (knowledge governance) 2. High-level research personnel to carry out social science research projects (human resources development) 3. Access to locally available social science knowledge (local knowledge) 4. Access to globally available social science knowledge (global knowledge) 5. Gatekeepers to evaluate research output, e.g. in the form of peer reviews (authorization) 6. Published research results in local print media (local documents) 7. Published research results in internationally recognized print media (global documents) It should be noted that this model by far does not cover the whole knowledge creation process. It is directed to measure the social science output in the form of documents printed in globally available journals, the globalization of local research and the contribution of a global community of scholars to social science knowledge on ASEAN states. At the moment we are only concerned with knowledge authorized by a community of practice (peer review by knowledge gate keepers) and electronically made available in a widely accessible data bank. In a further study these gate keepers should be identified, their interests revealed and their power over knowledge production or at least the globalization of knowledge made known.

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FINDINGS AND MANAGERIAL IMPLIMENTATION 5.0 What Local Knowledge to be Fostered in Globalization of Education The above discussion has proposed a typology of multiple theories and related applications on how to foster local knowledge and human development in globalization of education. But what local knowledge should be fostered and pursued is still an unanswered question. According to Cheng (1996), there may be five types of local knowledge to be pursued in globalized education, including the economic and technical knowledge, human and social knowledge, political knowledge, cultural knowledge, and educational knowledge for the developments of individuals, school institutions, communities, and the society. 5.1 Technical/Economic Knowledge: In planning education, we need the local knowledge about what schools can contribute to the technical or economic developments and needs at different levels in a local context. We can expect, schools can help students to acquire knowledge and skills necessary to survive and compete in a competitive economy, and provide staff job training and opportunity. Schools are service organizations providing quality service; also they serve as a life place or work place for staff and all those concerned. Also, schools serve the economic or instrumental needs of the local community, supply quality labor forces to the economic system, modify or shape economic behaviors of students, and contribute to the development and stability of the manpower structure of the economy (Cheng, Ng, & Mok, 2002). 5.2 Human/Social Knowledge: We need the local knowledge about the contribution of schools to human developments and social relationships at different levels of the society. Schools can be expected to help students to develop themselves psychologically, socially, and physically, and help them develop their potential as fully as possible. A school is a social entity or social system composed of different human relationships. Also schools serve the social functions of the local community, support social integration of multiple and diverse constituencies of society, facilitate social mobility within the existing class structure, select and allocate competent people to appropriate roles and positions, and contribute to social change and development in the long run (Cheng, 1995). It is possible that schools reproduce the existing social class structure and perpetuate social inequality (Blackledge & Hunt, 1985).

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5.3 Political Knowledge: The local knowledge about the contribution of schools to the political developments in the local contexts is also necessary in planning educational development in the new century. Schools are expected to help students to develop positive civic attitudes and skills to exercise the rights and responsibilities of citizenship. Schools act as a place for systematically socializing students into a set of political norms, values and beliefs, or for critically discussing and reflecting on the existing political events. Schools play an important role to serve the political needs of the local community and the society, legitimize the authority of the existing government, maintain the stability of political structure, promote awareness and movement of democracy, and facilitate the planned political developments and changes. 5.4 Cultural Knowledge: The educational development needs the local knowledge of the contribution of schools to the cultural transmission and development in the local contexts. Schools are expected to help students to develop their creativity and aesthetic awareness and to be socialized with the successful norms, values, and beliefs of society. Schools act as a place for systematic cultural transmission to and reproduction of the next generation, cultural integration among the multiple and diverse constituencies, and cultural re-vitalization from the outdated poor traditions. Also schools often serve as a cultural unit carrying the explicit norms and expectations of the local community transmit all the important values and artifacts of the society to students, integrate the diverse sub-cultures from different background, and revitalize the strengths of the existing culture. But it is also possible that schools reproduce and perpetuate cultural inequality within the society. 5.5 Education Knowledge: The local knowledge about the contribution of schools to the development and maintenance of education in the local contexts is necessary for school reform in a new era of transformation. Due to the rapid development and change in nearly every aspect of the world, people begin to accept education in itself as an important value or goal (Chapman, 1996). Schools are expected to help students to learn how to learn and help teachers to learn how to teach. Also, facilitating teachers professional development is one of the key education functions. Schools serve as a place for systematic learning, teaching, and disseminating knowledge, and as a center for systematically experimenting and implementing educational changes and developments (Cousins, 1996). Schools provide service for different educational needs of the local community, facilitate developments of education professions and education structures, disseminate knowledge and information to the next generation, and contribute to the formation of a learning society.

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5.6 Interdisciplinary Knowledge: To different academic disciplines, the emphasis on types and levels of local knowledge on education may be different too. For example, local knowledge at the individual level may receive more attention in educational psychology. For sociology of education, local knowledge at the society level, particularly those related to social mobility, equality and class stratification may attract more concern. Obviously, economics of education often focuses on the economic knowledge at different levels. In the field of school management or organizational behavior, local knowledge at the institutional level is inevitably the major topic. Obviously different academic disciplines have different foci when they are used to pursue local knowledge and human development. In order to achieve a comprehensive local knowledge base for understanding education in localization and globalization, an interdisciplinary approach, if not multiple disciplines, should be encouraged to develop knowledge. Particularly it would be very interesting to know how the multiple theories of fostering local knowledge can be applied to understand these five types of knowledge for the developments of individuals, institutions, communities and the society. 6.0 Population and development Linkage between population and development is important to maintain a positive balance between the socioeconomic development and population growth. Rapid and unplanned population growth is likely to create untenable strain on social, economic and natural carrying capacity of the land. According to the Fifth Five Year Plan (FFYP) document the population of Bangladesh was only 42 million in 1950 with density of 290 persons per square kilo metre, in 2010 population is projected to be 218 million - a five fold increase (The Ministry of Planning, 1996). As per the United Nations Population Divisions 1999 document projection during this 100 years population of India will increase 4.5 times, Indonesia 4 times, South Korea 2.6 times and Japan 1.3 times. The density of population in 2050 will be 1515 persons per square kilo metre in Bangladesh, 466 in India, 167 in Indonesia, 527 in South Korea and 290 in Japan (United Nations Population Division, 1999). The percentage of population in the age group 5-14 years in Bangladesh in 1950 was 23.1, in 1990 the percentage was 28.4, in 1995 it was 30.1, and the prospective percentages will be 20.2 in 2010; 15.0 in 2030 and 13.8 in 2050. The number of schoolgoing population of 5-14 years was 9.7 million in 1950, 31.0 million in 1990, 31.0 million in 2000, and the number will be 31.0 million in 2010, 28.35 million in 2030 and 30.0 million in 2050 (The Ministry of Planning, 1996). It should be noted that the absolute number of school-going children in the age group of 514 years after 2000 will remain steady and rather decrease during the next 50 years. The combined old and young dependency ration that is societal
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dependency in Bangladesh was 0.78 in 1950, 1.07 in 1980, 0.69 in 2000, and it is assumed that in 2020 the societal dependency will be 0.54 in 2030 0.49, 2050 0.68 (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 2005; Document available at: www.bbs.gov.bd.). The least dependency ration for Bangladesh may happen in 2030. This happened for Japan in 1970, for South Korea and Sri-Lanka in 2000 and will happen for both India and Indonesia in 2020. The dependency ratio was 1.07, the highest in Bangladesh was in 1980 and then gradually started declining and the lowest will occur in 2030. Even counting from 2000 it will take 30 years to acquire a status of highest proportion of active working population. Heavy investment on education and health services during this period will help to build human capital to spur accelerated economic and social development. The East Asian countries took this opportunity of demographic bonus in their development planning. South Korea increased secondary enrolment from 34 to 84% between 1970 while tripling the expenditure per secondary pupil. 7.0 Workforce deployment The Fifth Five Year Plan (FFYP), 1997-2002, document projected the total employment to increase from about 50 million in 1996-97 to 56.53 million in 2002 in six major sectors: agriculture, industry, power-gas, construction, transport, and trade and services of the economy (The Ministry of Planning, 1996). The overall projected increase of employment was 12.7%. The sector wise percentage increase of employment projected was: agriculture 6, industry 58, power-gas 105, construction 15, transport 17, and trade and services 14. The percentage distribution of workforce in 1996-1997 and projected for 2001-2002 in these six sectors were: agriculture 63 to 59, industry 7.4 to 10.4, power-gas 0.21 to 0.43, construction 2 to 2.11, transport 4.4 to 4.6, and trade and services 23 to 23.4. The actual projected employment of the workforce in 2001-2002 for six sectors will be: agriculture 33.382 million, industry 5.847 million, powergas 0.215 million, construction 1.196 million, transport 2.626 million, and trade and services 13.079 million. The Bangladesh Economic Review 1999, published by the Ministry of Finance (1999), presented on the basis of 1995-96 workforce survey the overall percentage distribution of workforce is: family work 40.1, day labourers 17.8, on the job 12.4 and self-employment and employing others 29.6 (The Ministry of Planning, 1996). The UNDP Human Development Report (1994) presented that the agricultural workforce deployment for Bangladesh is 60% of the total workforce and contribution to the economy from this sector is 30% and that for India is 60 and 29%, while Pakistan is 56 and 26%. The rates of deployed workforce in agriculture and contribution to the economy in Sri-Lanka are respectively 49 and 23%, in Australia 5 and 5% and in Japan 7 and 2% (Food and Agriculture Organization, 1997). It is observed that as the economy moves higher the dependency on agriculture decreases so also the deployment of workforce in agriculture
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decreases. A cross comparison of agriculture workforce productivity among seven least to most developed countries of the world shows that the per capita contribution of Bangladesh agriculture workforce was US$ 226, the lowest among these countries. The per capita contribution of the agriculture workforce in US$ was for Pakistan 404, India 466, Malaysia 4,052, South Korea 5,032, Japan 16,712 and Australia 22,256. The per capita contribution of agriculture workforce of India and Pakistan was about 2 times that of Bangladesh, and for Malaysia 18 times, South Korea 22 times, Japan 74 times and Australia 98 times. The deployment of Bangladesh workforce in the industrial sector (manufacturing and others) was reported as 16% and contribution to the economy 18% and these figures for India was 16 and 29%, Pakistan 20 and 24%, Sri-Lanka 21 and 25%, Japan 34 and 38% and Australia 26 and 28% (The Ministry of Planning, 1996). For all these countries it is observed that as the economy moves higher contribution of industrial sector increases so also the deployment of industrial workforce increases proportionately. Both Bangladesh and India deployed 16% workforce in industrial sector but the contribution of Indian industrial workforce was 11 points percentage higher than Bangladesh workforce in the sector (Pritchett, 1996). There might be a number of reason for the low level productivity of the Bangladesh workforce but the most important one attributed to this was the low level performance competence of the workforce in turn their poor quality of education and training for the job they were occupying. As a result, Bangladesh's industrial goods and services and agriculture products cannot compete even with Indian industrial goods and services and agriculture products. The only reedy to this situation is to improve the performance competence of the Bangladesh employed workforce through appropriate education and training. A sound basic education of the workforce is an essential pre-condition for improvement of their performance competence. Unfortunately, as per UNESCO's Dakar Education Forum 2000 Declaration, there were 880 million illiterates in the world in 2000 of which the share of Bangladesh was about 55 million (UNESCO, 2001). The question of education and training background in turn the performance of the industrial workforce has been briefly examined and presented under the next section of workforce employment pattern. The percentage contribution of agriculture sector for all these countries was less than the percentage of workforce deployed in agriculture. But the percentage contribution of industrial workforce to the economy for all these countries was more than the percentage workforce deployed. This shows that Bangladesh needs to transform gradually in a planned way a large percentage of the employed 33.382 million workforces from agriculture to industrial workforce for rapid economic development. The task is gigantic. The only means for this is the appropriate education and training with global education.
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8.0 Conclusions In facing up the challenges of globalization, there is a great demand for paradigm shift from the traditional paradigm of site-bounded education towards the new paradigm of triplization including globalization, localization and individualization in education with the support of information technology and various types of local and global networking. This above discussion has further expanded this new paradigm with focus on fostering local knowledge for the developments of individuals and the local community through integration of localization and globalization in education. Given the increasing international concerns with both the positive and negative impacts of globalization on indigenous and national developments, how to manage the realities and practices of globalization and localization in education for maximizing the benefits and minimizing the disadvantages for the developments of individuals and local community inevitably becomes a key concern in educational development particularly in the developing countries. Each country or local community may have its unique social, economic and cultural contexts and therefore, its tendency to using one theory or a combination of theories from the typology in globalizing education may be different from the other. The relationship between localization and globalization in education is dynamic and interactive. Localized globalization in education can create more values for local developments if local creativity and adaptation can be induced in the process of operational change and cultural change. There may be four scenarios of localization and globalization in education, including totally isolated, totally globalized, totally localized and both highly localized and globalized. All these four scenarios represent the efforts pursuing different sets of social and organizational values in education. From a perspective of longterm local and global developments, the scenario with emphasis on integration of both localization and globalization should be a preferable choice. There are five types of local knowledge to be pursued in globalized education, including the economic and technical knowledge, human and social knowledge, political knowledge, cultural knowledge, and educational knowledge for the developments of individuals, school institutions, communities, and the society. How the multiple theories can be used to foster these types of local knowledge is still a blank area for further research in coming years.

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References Cited A*Star (2002). National Survey of R&D in Singapore 2001. Singapore, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*Star). Baruch, Y. (2001). "Global or North American? A Geographical Based Comparative Analysis of Publications in Top Management Journals." International Journal of Cross Cultural Management 1(1): 109-126. Brown, P., & Lauder, H. (1996). Education, globalization and economic development. Journal of Education Policy, 11(1), 1-25. Cheng, Y.C.(1995). Function and effectiveness of education. 3rd ed. Hong Kong: Wide Angle Press. Cheng, Y.C. (1996). School effectiveness and school-based management: A mechanism for development. London: Falmer Press. Cheng, Y.C. (2000). A CMI-Triplization Paradigm for Reforming Education in the New Millennium. International Journal of Educational Management. 14(4), 156-174. Cheng, Y.C. (2001). A New Paradigm of Education: Globalization, Localization, Individualization & Contextualized Multiple Intelligence. Invited keynote speech presented at the Conference on Impact of Globalization on Education organized by The National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration in 18-20 December, 2001, New Delhi, India. Alam GM (2008a). The Role of Technical and Vocational Education in National Development of Bangladesh. Asia Pacific J. Coop. Edu. 9(1): 25-44. Alam GM, Khalifa MTB, Shahjamal MM (2009-in press). Return from education system in Bangladesh: an investigation on comparative flashback scenario. Afr. J. Bus. Manage. 3 (10). Alam GM, Shahjamal MM (2008).The Role of Technological Transformation in Education at Network Age for Human Resource Development. eJ. Edu. Policy. Fall 2008 Issue. doi: https://www4.nau.edu/cee/jep/journals.aspx? id=182. Bangladesh Bureau of Educational Information and Statistics, (2007).
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Contents: 1.0 Introduction...................................................................................01 1.1 Globalization.................................................................................. 1.2 Localization.................................................................................... 1.3 Individualization............................................................................. 1.4 Positive and Negative Impacts of Globalization............................

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