Architectures and RF System Design Issues for Integrated Receivers and Transmitters in 3rd Generation Wireless Handsets

Walid Y. Ali-Ahmad Senior Member of Technical Staff Wireless Communications Group Maxim Integrated Products Sunnyvale, CA

10/26/01

Walid Y. Ali-Ahmad

TALK OUTLINE
Introduction: Example of present level of integration in an RF chipset for CDMA cellular radio Receiver Architectures Heterodyne Receiver Image-Reject Receiver Direct-Conversion Receiver Low-IF Receiver Transmitter Architectures IF-Modulation / Up-conversion Transmitter Direct-Modulation Transmitter Offset-PLL Transmitter Summary

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Walid Y. Ali-Ahmad

Example of Present Level of Integration in an RF chipset for CDMA Cellular Radio

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Walid Y. Ali-Ahmad

Heterodyne Receiver
LNA RF SAW BPF Mixer
0 90

DUPLEXER 1st LO

IF SAW BPF

IF AGC

PLL1

2nd LO XREF

PLL2 XREF

Advantages:
Down-conversion to baseband I&Q is done at an Intermediate-Frequency (IF) lower than RF. This results in superior I & Q matching. Its selectivity, which measures the receivers capability to process a desired small channel in the presence of close-in strong interferes, is done partly at IF using a highly selective SAW filter and at baseband I&Q using low-pass baseband filters. The use of the IF SAW filter relaxes the linearity requirements (IIP2, IIP3) of the succeeding IF and baseband stages. DC offsets at baseband I&Q do not limit its sensitivity because they are minimized by the fact that the first LO frequency is not equal to the input RF carrier frequency.

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Heterodyne Receiver (contd)

Design Issues:
The need to use an an off-chip passive BPF for image rejection adds cost and board space requirements. Currently, due to technology limitations, this image-reject BPF and the IF SAW filter can not be integrated on-chip. The trade-off between image rejection and channel selection is key in determining the IF frequency. Low frequency IF SAW filters (40-150MHz) have high Q and provide high adjacent channel selectivity. However, These filters tend to be large. High frequency IF SAW filters (150-400MHz) have a relatively smaller physical size, but provide a lower adjacent channel selectivity. Good frequency planning is essential in order to minimize spurious responses generated in the receivers front-end (Fs = mFRF nFLO1 pFLO2) . The half-IF spurious response at (FRF+ FLO)/2 can be a serious problem in the case of low IF frequency. The front-end mixer after LNA should have a low 2nd-order distortion and a high suppression of the (2FLO2FRF) product.
Half-IF Wanted Signal RF fLO fRF- fIF/2 fRF LO IF IF Wanted Signal

2x2 product

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Walid Y. Ali-Ahmad

Importance of IF Selectivity for Suppression of 3rd-order IM products

PCW_tone
RF Block Block #1 P1 IIM31 IL S IF Filter#1 P2 IIM32 IF Block Block #2

PI IIM3 IIP3

On-Channel Signal (C/I)

Off-Channel Interferers PIIM3 IM3 product

IIP31 G1

IIP32 G2

On-Channel Passband

Typical Two-stages cascaded IIP3 equation, in linear format:: ;g1 is gain of stage 1; il is insertion loss of IF filter
( g il) 1 = 1 + 1 iip3 iip31 iip3 2

Equivalent IIP3 of IF block when including selectivity S (dB) ahead of IF stage:

IIM 3 2 = 3 (Po1 S ) 2 IIP 3 2 = 3 Po1 2 (IIP 3 2 + 3 S) 2 IIP 3 e = IIP 3 2 + 2 3 S; (dBm) 2

Generalized equation for overall IIP3 of a receiver chain with M cascaded stages:
g1 g1 g 2 g1 g 2 L g M 1 1 1 = + + +L+ 3 iip3 iip31 iip3 2 s1 / 2 iip3 3 (s1 s2 )3 / 2 iip3 M (s1 s2 L sM-1 )3 / 2

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Walid Y. Ali-Ahmad

Importance of RF Selectivity for Suppression of 2rd-order IM products

PI
RF Block Block #1 P1 IIM21 RF Filter#2 IL S P2 IIM22 1st Mixer Block #2

PI IIM2 IIP2

On-Channel Signal (C/I) IIM2 IM2 product On-Channel Passband fRF

Half-IF

IIP21 G1

IIP22 G2

fLO- fIF/2

fLO

Two-stages cascaded IIP2 equation, in linear format: ; g1 is gain of stage 1; il is insertion loss of image-reject filter
1 = iip2 ( g1 il) 1 + iip21 iip2 2

Equivalent IIP2 of mixers block, including selectivity S (dB) ahead of mixer stage:
IIM 22 = 2 (Po1 S ) IIP 2 2 = 2 Po1 (IIP 2 2 + 2 S ) IIP 2e = IIP 2 2 + 2 S; (dBm) 2

Generalized equation for overall IIP2 of a receiver chain with M cascaded stages:
1 = iip2 g1 g1 g 2 1 + + +L+ 2 iip21 iip2 2 s1 iip23 (s1 s2 )2 g1 g 2 L g M 1 iip2M (s1 s 2 L sM-1 )2

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Walid Y. Ali-Ahmad

Image-Reject Receiver
Desired R LPF C
IF

Desired

Mixer I Image

Mixer I Image
IF

cos(LOt) 0
LO

cos(LO1t) 0
LO1

BPF

cos(LO2t) 90 0

RF Input

90 C

sin(LOt)

RF Input

90

sin(LO1t)

sin(LO2t)

Mixer Q LO

IF

Mixer Q LO1 LO2

IF

Hartley Image-Reject Receiver

Weaver Image-Reject Receiver

Advantages:
It facilitates the integration of the heterodyne receivers front-end by eliminating the use of the off-chip RF image-reject filter and accomplishing the image rejection on-chip through phasing. It works nicely in receiver systems which do not suffer from strong out-of-band blockers and do not require interstage filter between front-end LNA and MIXER blocks. It is suitable for receiver systems using a very low IF frequency (e.g. 10.7MHz, 45MHz), since it eliminates the need for a very high Q bandpass RF filter in order to reject the image .

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Walid Y. Ali-Ahmad

Image-Reject Receiver (Contd)

Design Issues:
1 Hartley Architecture: Image rejection is limited by amplitude and quadrature phase mismatches. Amplitude mismatches are minimum when using IF= 1/RC. Phase mismatches are due mainly to errors in the LO quadrature generation circuit. Image Rejection Ratio IRR (dB) = 10LOG([(A/A)2 + 2 ]/4); for (A/A)<<1, <<1rad. For typical matching in integrated circuits, image suppression falls in the range of 30 to 40dB (0.2-0.6dB gain mismatch & 1-5 quadrature phase mismatch). In most RF systems, 60-70dB of image rejection is required. The front-end filter (duplexer) normally makes up for the remaining required image rejection (~30dB). For the RC-CR 90 phase-shift network, (A/A) = (R/R) + (C/C), at RC1. 2 Weaver Architecture: It is also sensitive to mismatches, but it is free from gain imbalances due to the RC-CR phase shift network, thereby achieving greater image rejection despite process and T variations. The Weaver architecture suffers from the secondary image problem because of the use of a second mixing operation. The LPF (or HPF) in between 1st and 2nd mixing stages is used to suppress the secondary image. The problem of secondary image can be eliminated if we choose a Zero IF frequency at the output (FLO1 FLO2 = FRF). To its advantage also, 2nd-order distortion in the signal path can be removed by the bandpass filters following the first mixing operation.
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Image-Reject Receiver (Contd)

A 1.9GHz Wide-Band IF Double Conversion Receiver (J.C. Rudell, et al., UC Berkeley, IEEE JSSC, December 1997):

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Direct-Conversion Receiver
Cext Mixer I BPF2 0 90 AGC Q LPF AGC I

BPF #1

LNA

Mixer Q

LPF PLL1 XREF

In current cellular systems where signals are either frequency- or phase-modulated, direct downconversion must provide quadrature outputs so as to avoid loss of information, since the two sidebands of the RF spectrum contain different phase information.

Advantages:
The problems of image frequency and half-IF spurious response are eliminated since FIF = 0. RF BPF after LNA is optional; it is only needed for additional rejection of out-of-band interferers and TX power leakage. The bulky off-chip IF SAW filter is eliminated. All channel selectivity is done at baseband with low-pass filters and baseband amplifiers. One VCO and one PLL are needed for the whole receiver.
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Direct-Conversion Receiver (Contd)

Cext Interferer Leakage BPF2 0 90 AGC Q Mixer I LPF AGC I

BPF #1

LNA

LO Leakage

Mixer Q

LPF

Design Issues:
1 DC offsets:

1st LO

Static offsets are caused by process mismatch and drift of analog circuitry that vary slowly vs. T, aging, and current gain setting. Time-variant offsets are caused mainly by parasitic LO coupling to mixer RF port, LNA input port, and antenna port. LO self-mixing occurs in mixer and it produces a dc component at the mixers I & Q baseband outputs. Time-variant offsets can also be caused by a large interferer which can leak from LNA or mixer input to LO input port and self-mix with itself to produce a dc offset at mixers outputs. The time-variance is due to reflection of LO leakage against moving objects back to receiver and due to receiver movements. Maximum frequency content of time-variant DC offset due to Doppler shift = 2max/; where max: maximum moving object or car speed.
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Direct-Conversion Receiver (Contd)

2 DC offsets Cancellation Techniques: DC offsets can easily saturate the receivers final baseband output stages. Hence, DC offset removal or cancellation is required in direct-conversion receivers: DC blocking or High pass filtering: it is feasible in non-burst mode systems which are receiving continuously (FDD). In order to minimize distortion of signal, the high-pass corner should be < 0.1% of the data rate for random binary Mary data. The baseband signal in the transmitter can be encoded to result in dc-free modulation scheme, such as FSK with m > 1 or wideband Direct-Sequence Spread-Spectrum signals. DC calibration loop: In TDD systems, periodic offset cancellation can be performed during idle times where the DC offset is stored on a capacitor and then subtracted from the received signal during actual reception. Adaptive DSP techniques have been used for DC offset-cancellation in TDD systems.
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Direct-Conversion Receiver (Contd)

Eye Diagram Distortion with HPF: a) No filtering;

b) Fc = 1% of Rb;

c) Fc = 0.1% of Rb

DC offset cancellation in Pager system using HP filtering

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Direct-Conversion Receiver (Contd)

3 LO leakage: LO coupling to the antenna will be radiated out and will create interference in the receive band of other users equipment using the same wireless standard. In order to minimize this problem of LO leakage and re-radiation, it is important to use differential LO and RF inputs to the receiver IC to cancel out common mode signals. In addition, LO leakage is further reduced by fully integrating the RF VCO tank on chip. 4 Flicker Noise: The 1/f noise of devices in the baseband section of a Zero-IF receiver can substantially corrupt the down-converted signal after the mixers I/Q outputs, especially in MOS implementations (1/f corner ~ 200kHz). The effect of flicker noise can be reduced by the use of active mixers with bipolar transistors in switching pairs and by the use of large MOS devices for baseband filters and amplifiers. High pass filtering at baseband, when used as part of the DC offset cancellation, can reduce the integrated 1/f noise at baseband. Integrated total noise at baseband including 1/f noise can be expressed as following:
f 1/ f 2=S f V ln( ) + ( f f )S ; n th 1 / f H c th f c S : Thermal noise power spectral density, f :1/f corner, f : low frequency corner, f : High frequency corner th c H 1/ f

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Direct-Conversion Receiver (Contd)

Interference due to down-converted 1/f noise and DC offset

Mixer Topology that minimizes 1/f noise at its baseband output

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Direct-Conversion Receiver (Contd)

5 I/Q mismatch: Assuming that the received signal can be written as vin(t)= I(t)sin(Ct)+Q(t)cos(Ct), and the amplitude and quadrature phase imbalances in the I/Q down-converter are and , respectively, we can write the baseband I/Q outputs, after demodulation, as: vBB,I (t)= I(t).(1+/2).cos(/2) Q(t).(1+/2).sin(/2); vBB,Q (t)= I(t).(1/2).sin(/2) + Q(t).(1/2).cos(/2); As we see from equations above, Gain error appears as a non-unity scale factor in the amplitude, while phase imbalance results in cross-talk between demodulated I and Q waveforms degrading the SNR (I & Q data streams are usually uncorrelated). In practice, < 1dB and < 5 for SNR degradation less than 1dB (for QPSK signals). The full on-chip integration of the Zero-IF receiver and the minimization of devices mismatch reduce drastically the amplitude and quadrature phase imbalances in the I/Q down-converter. 6 Channel Filtering: Baseband channel low pass filters in a Zero-IF receiver need to have a high dynamic range: Receiver sensitivity cant be compromised. Close-in interferes should be rejected without causing in-band distortion. External capacitors at mixers I&Q outputs can be used to provide additional selectivity to blocking and out-of-band signals (pole @ 1/RCext)

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Direct-Conversion Receiver (Contd)

Interferers Wanted Signal f2 f1 fRF LO

0 f1-f2

RF

LNA

Feedthrough

IM2 Wanted Interferer Signal IF

0

7 Even-Order Distortion: Assume vRF(t) = A1cos(1t)+A2cos(2t), the LNA output will contain an IM term at frequency f1f2, resulting from 2nd order non-linearity in the LNA. This IM2 product at LNA output will leak to mixers output because of finite feedthrough from RF input to IF output (3040dBc). Special attention to the mixers design is required since IM2 product can also be generated in the mixers RF port by two tones interferes after being amplified in LNA. The 2nd order non-linearity in the LNA and in the mixer will also demodulate any AM component on the received signal due to fading during propagation or Nyquist filtering. Based on input two-tone interferers level and the resultant low-frequency IM2 level at baseband output, a receivers 2nd order intercept point (IP2) can be derived. Using differential LNA output and differential mixers input will suppress the generated commonmode 2nd-order IM products. As a result, receivers IIP2 can be improved.

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Low-IF Receiver
Cext Mixer I BPF2 0 90 AGC I

BPF #1

LNA

Complex Polyphase Filter AGC Q

Mixer Q

PLL1

XREF

Advantages:
The received signal is down converted to a low-IF frequency, which is normally one to two times the signal BW. It has the same advantage of Zero-IF receiver in terms of the integration of channel filters. It is less susceptible to 1/f noise. It is less susceptible to DC offsets since the bulk of signal energy is not centered around DC. DC offsets cancellation scheme can be simplified. Very low frequency IM2 products can be easily blocked.

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Low-IF Receiver (contd)

Design Issues:
The A/D converters at baseband output require to have a higher sampling rate than in the case of a Zero-IF receiver. Image suppression is an issue; Very good amplitude and phase matching between I & Q baseband channels is required to obtain > 35dB image suppression. Careful choice of the IF can place the image signal in the adjacent channel. In order to discriminate between these two signals, it is essential to process I & Q outputs as a complex pair. Complex Polyphase filters is essential to obtain the necessary reject in the adjacent channel 2nd -Order Distortion can still result in in-band channel intereference.

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IF-Modulation / Up-Conversion Transmitter

Mixer I I cos(IFt) 90 0 IF RF PA

sin(IFt) Q Mixer Q LO1 Tank LO2 Tank DUPLEXER

Baseband I&Q signals undergo quadrature modulation at an intermediate IF frequency (IF). The following IF filter (BPF1) rejects the harmonics of the IF signal. The IF modulated signal is then up-converted to (FIF FLO2). The unwanted sideband imposes tough rejection requirements on BPF2, typically 50-60dB, in order to meet transmitters spurious emissions levels imposed by standards. This topology does not allow full transmitters integration because of use of off-chip passive devices such BPF2 and BPF1. On-chip I and Q matching is superior since modulation is done at IF and not at RF. This will lead to better EVMs and lower cross-talk between I & Q channels. IF filtering reduces transmitted noise in RX band. Wide power control dynamic range because control it is distributed between RF and IF sections.
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Direct-Modulation Transmitter
Mixer I I cos(LOt) 90 0 PA carrier Feedthrough I cos(LOt) 90 0 PA carrier Feedthrough Mixer I

sin(LOt) Q Mixer Q Tank LO

sin(LOt) Q /2 2xLO Mixer Q Tank

In direct-conversion transmitters, the baseband signal is directly modulated unto the RF carrier. The output carrier frequency is equal to the LO frequency at mixers inputs. This topology is attractive for full transmitters integration since it does not use an intermediate IF stage with upconversion and interstage IF filter. Its main disadvantage is the corruption through injection pulling of the VCO spectrum by the high level PA output. Isolation required is normally > 60dB. The isolation can be highly improved by offsetting the LO frequency by using 2xLO off-chip and dividing by 2 on-chip or by adding or subtracting another oscillator. The power control dynamic range is limited by the carrier feedthrough. A fully integrated differential transmitter architecture will minimize carrier feedthrough because of higher of common mode rejection (differential LO inputs and modulator output).

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Direct-Modulation Transmitter (contd)

Mixer I I(t) OI AI cos(LOt) 90 OQ Q(t) AQ Mixer Q LO Tank 0 PA carrier Feedthrough Measured Vector Error Vector Desired Vector

sin(LOt + e)

O I & OQ are DC offsets at baseband I & Q inputs, respectively; AI & AQ are amplitude errors of I & Q paths, respectively. e is modulator quadrature phase error; I(t) and Q(t) are input baseband signals. 1 - The Error Vector magnitude (EVM) and phase (EVP) components can be calculated as following : EVM(t) = (( AI 1) I (t ) + O I AI + (Q (t ) + OQ ) AQ sin( e )) 2 + ( AQ cos( e ) 1)Q (t ) + OQ AQ cos( e )) 2 EVP(t) = tan 1 AQ cos( e ) 1)Q (t ) + OQ AQ cos( e )

[(

) (( AI 1) I (t ) + OI AI + (Q(t ) + OQ ) AQ sin( e ) )]

2 - The carrier and sideband suppression can be calculated as following : (assuming single tone modulating signal m ; I(t) = cos (m t); Q(t) = sin (m t))
2 A A 2 O I2 + 2 Q O I OQ sin (e ) + Q OQ Carrier Suppression (dB) = 10 LOG AI AI 2 1 2 AQ cos( ) + AQ Sideband Suppression (dB) = 10 LOG e AI AI 2 1 1 + 2 AQ cos( ) + AQ e AI AI 4

2 1 + 2 AQ cos( ) + AQ e AI AI

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Direct-Modulation Transmitter (contd)

Modulation error or EVM in Transmitters

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Offset-PLL Transmitter
Mixer I I cos(IFt) 90 0 LPF IF PD LPF PLL Tank PA TX VCO Tank Offset MXR LO2

sin(IFt) Q Mixer Q LO1 Tank

LPF MXR

Baseband I&Q signals undergo quadrature modulation at an intermediate IF frequency (IF). Instead of upconverting the IF signal, the phase modulation in the IF signal is transferred faithfully to the TX VCO via the offset PLL topology, with condition that the loop BW of PLL is chosen properly. This phase translation scheme to RF is only valid for constant envelop modulation signals such in GSM (GMSK). The PLL LPF helps tremendously at suppressing the out-of-band noise generated by the modulator and, hence, meeting the stringent GSM requirements for the thermal noise in the receive band. This eliminates the need for the off-chip bulky Duplexer. This topology is quite attractive for low-cost high performance integrated transmitters using constant-envelop modulation. However, enough isolation is required between the TX VCO and the PA in order to suppress VCO pulling by PA output noise.
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SUMMARY
Need for Fully Integrated VCOs. Need for Mixers with low level of 2nd-order Distortion (High IIP2). DC offset cancellation schemes have to be implemented without distorting signal. High Dynamic Range Baseband filters are key for direct-conversion receivers. Variable Gain PAs improve power control dynamic range in Direct-Modulation Transmitters. Low Noise Direct-Modulation Transmitters and Direct-Conversion Receivers enable low-cost radios for 3G applications.

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