Extinguishing Techniques in Confined Spaces.

Shan Raffel GIFireE Firefighting techniques that are suited to outdoor fires may not be the most effective means of tackling fires in confined spaces or large compartments.

There are basically 3 main extinguishing techniques utilising water. The first two, Direct and Indirect are generally well understood. The Third technique, Gas Cooling (sometimes referred to as 3D Application), is now being employed in many parts of the world. Originating in Sweden and in common use since 1985, it is only in the last 5 years that it has gained international acceptance and understanding. Direct and Indirect Extinguishing Direct extinguishing is the application of water onto the base of the fire and is well suited to outdoor fires. Indirect extinguishing is the application of water to the super heated linings of a compartment that is intact. The objective is to use the linings to convert the water to steam and therefore smother the fire. Gas Cooling or 3D Gas Cooling extinguishing is the application of small quantities of water into the atmosphere of a burning compartment. This technique is distinctly different from indirect extinguishing. The objective of this method is to gain control of the fire compartment WITHOUT producing large quantities of steam. This has a number of effects if applied correctly:

1. The unburnt fuel in the gas layer is cooled to below ignition temperature. 2. The dry steam produced dilutes the compartment atmosphere, thus helping to smother the fire and impede flashover. 3. The powerful cooling effect actually shrinks the volume of the super heated gas layer and raises the neutral plane without disrupting the thermal balance. 4. A fine film of water applied to the linings cools them reducing pyrolysation and radiative feedback, which helps to impede fire spread.

This sequence shows the effect of the application of high pressure water spray into a rollover (which often precedes flashover). Improved Conditions It is essential not to confuse gas cooling with indirect extinguishing. Careful application of gas cooling techniques will help to maintain thermal balance and a high neutral plane. It is actually possible to shrink the gas layer if the water fog is skilfully applied. This maintains visibility and makes conditions more bearable for firefighters and entrapped occupants. This is the first stage. Once the environment is under control it is important to lightly apply water spray to the linings to cool them to below their pyrolysation temperature. Once cooled to below this temperature combustible linings will cease to produce unburnt fuel. Even non combustible linings should be cooled to prevent them acting as a heat sink and re heating the gases. The third stage is to lob water onto the fire base and black down the base of the fire. Once the blackening has occurred the radiant heat is reduced and it is possible to move closer to the burning objects and finally extinguish the fire gradually with judicious water application. Tests carried out in real structures by Swedish Fire Engineer Krister Giselsson, showed that as little as 0.8 litres of water per minute were required to prevent flashover in a dry room in an old wooden building with a 30 cubic metre volume. (High Pressure Sprinklers for active fire control. Giselsson 1990). It is commonly known that water expands at the ratio of 1700:1 when converted to steam at 100 C. What is less commonly understood is that this expansion actually peaks at 3400:1 at a temperature of approximately 530 C. So, how is it possible to shrink the gas layer when water is converted to steam, you may well ask!

Paul Grimwoods book Fog Attack helps to explain how the gas layer can actually be shrunk.

1 kg of air at 530 C occupies a space of 1.77 m AIR & STEAM AT 212 C

3

2.36 m

0.1 l of water = 3 .37 m STEAM

1 Kg of air at a temperature of 530 C occupies a space of 2.36 cu m. 0.1 litre of water introduced (in fog form) will absorb sufficient energy in the process of heating and conversion to steam to drop the temperature of the gas layer to 212 C. At 212 C, the 1 kg of air now occupies a space of 1.37 cu m. The water is now in the form of steam and occupies a space of less than .4 cu m. Therefore, after the application of water, the steam gas mixture now occupies a total volume of less that 1.8 cu m. - less than two thirds of the original volume!

It can be seen that the expansion of the water to steam is less than the contraction of the gases due to cooling. The overall effect is a reduction of the gas volume.

Area of Control The area of control is limited to the reach of the fog stream. In large compartments is may be necessary to work in teams to maintain a safe zone in the line of retreat. An important consideration is termed air control. If the fire compartment has a good supply of air, the fire base will continue to be supplied with air which will feed the fire and resupply smoke that is laden with unburnt fuel. By limiting the air supply (by closing doors and windows) the fire growth will be hindered until the base of the fire is located. If the fire can be located and small volumes of water applied to the base, the thermal balance can be maintained, and the supply of fire gases will be gradually reduced. Tactical Ventilation can assist in the removal of accumulating gases. Positive Pressure Ventilation (PPV) is also a very powerful and useful tool. There is no single technique that will work for all fires. Efficient firefighting is about using the most appropriate tactics and tools in a strategic manner. As a general guide the water must be able to reach the ceiling of the compartment. There is a point where the volume of the compartment is too large for the team to maintain control of enough of the volume to prevent continual re ignition. In these situations, Swedish firefighters often employ their "High Risk Environment" procedure. This involves strategically placing additional hose lines along the path of retreat.

Summary No single firefighting technique will be suitable for every fire. The fire appliance is basically a mobile toolbox. The skillful Team Leader will select the most appropriate firefighting strategy and the team will carry out the tasks with the most suitable tools and techniques. Often this will involve a number of techniques used in a planned and coordinated manner.

The opinions expressed in this paper are my own and do not necessarily reflect those of my employer.

For more information contact Shan Raffel GIFireE at sraffel@uq.net.au

Shan Raffel is a professional firefighter in Brisbane, Australia. He has served as an operational firefighter for over 20 years and a Station Officer for 14 of those years. He has studied realistic compartment fire behaviour training (CFBT) and firefighting tactics in Sweden, UK and Germany. He has pioneered the acceptance of CFBT in Australia, and in 1999 he worked with a Swedish Fire Engineer on the design of compartment fire fighting simulations.