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CHAPTER2 NOTES ETHNICITY AND RACE

TABLE 2.1 MILESTONES IN DESEGREGATING AND RESEGREGATING SCHOOLS

1896The Supreme Court authorizes segregation in Plessey v. Ferguson, finding


Louisianas separate but equal law constitutional.

1940 A federal court requires equal salaries for African American and white
teachers in Alston v. School Board of City of Norfolk

1947 In a precursor to the Brown case, a federal appeals court strikes down
segregated schooling for Mexican American and white students in Westminster School Dist. V. Mendez. The verdict prompts California Governor Earl Warren to repeal a state law calling for segregation of Native American and Asian American students.

1950Barbara Johns, a 16-year-old junior at Robert R. Moton High School in


Farmville, Va., organizes and leads 450 students in an anti-school segregation strike.

1954In a unanimous opinion, the Supreme Court in Brown v. Board of


Education overturns Plessey and declares that separate schools are inherently unequal. The Court rules that the federal government in under the same duty as the states and must desegregate the Washington, D.C., schools in Bolling v. Sharpe.

1955In Brown II, the Supreme Court orders the lower federal courts to require
desegregation with all deliberate speed.

1956Tennessee Governor Frank Clement calls in the National Guard after white
mobs attempt to block the desegregation of a high school. The Virginia legislature calls for massive resistance to school desegregation and pledges to close schools under desegregation orders.

1957More than 1,000 paratroopers from the 101st Airborne Division and a
federalized Arkansas National Guard protect nine African American students integrating Central High School in Little Rock, Ark.

1958The Supreme Court rules that fear of social unrest or violence, whether
real or constructed by those wishing to oppose integration, does not excuse state governments from complying with Brown in Cooper v. Aaron.

1959Officials close public schools in Prince Edward County, Va., rather than
integrate them. Twenty-five thousand young people march in Washington, D.C., in support of integration.

1960In New Orleans, federal marshals shield 6-year-old Rudy Bridges from an
angry crowd as she attempts to enroll in school

1964The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is adopted Title IV of the Act authorizes the
federal government to file school desegregation cases. Title VI of the Act prohibits discrimination in programs and activities, including schools, receiving federal financial assistance. The Supreme Court orders Prince Edward Country, Va., to reopen its schools on a desegregated basis in 1964.

1965In Green v. County School Board of New Kent County the Supreme Court
orders states to dismantle segregated school systems root and branch. The Court identifies five factorsfacilities, staff, faculty, extracurricular activities, and transportationto be used to gauge a school systems compliance with the mandate of Brown.

1969The Supreme Court declares the all deliberate speed standard is no


longer constitutionally permissible and orders the immediate desegregation of Mississippi schools in Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education.

1971The Court approves busing, magnet schools, compensatory education and


other tools as appropriate remedies to overcome the role of residential

segregation in perpetuating racially segregated schools in Swann v. CharlotteMecklenberg Board of Education.

1972The Supreme Court refuses to allow public school systems to avoid


desegregation by creating new, mostly or all-white splinter districts in Wright v. Council of the City of Emporia and United States v. Scotland Neck City Board of Education.

1973The Supreme Court rules that states cannot provide textbooks to racially
segregated private schools to avoid Integration mandates in Norwood v. Harrison. The Supreme Court finds that the Denver school board intentionally segregated Mexican American and African American student from white students from white students in Keyes v. Denver School District No. 1. The Supreme Court rules that education is not a fundamental right and that the Constitution does not require equal education expenditures within a state in San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez.

1974The Supreme Court blocks metropolitan-wide desegregation plans as a


means to desegregate urban schools with high minority populations in Milliken v. Bradley. The Supreme Court rules that the failure to provide instruction to those with limited English proficiency violates Title VIs prohibition of national origin, race, or color discrimination in school districts receiving federal funds in Lau v. Nichols.

1978A fractured Supreme Court declares the affirmative action admissions


program for the University of California Davis Medical School unconstitutional because it set aside a specific number of seats for African American and Latino students. The Court rules that race can be a factor in university admissions, but it cannot be the deciding factor in Regents of the University of California v. Bakke.

1982The Supreme Court rejects tax exemptions for private religious schools
that discriminate in Bob Jones University v. U.S. and Goldboro Christian Schools v. U.S.

1986For the first time, a federal court finds that once a school district meets
the Green factors, it can be released from its desegregation plan and returned to local control in Riddick v. School Board of the City of Norfolk, Virginia.

1991Emphasizing that court orders are not intended to operate in


perpetuity, the Supreme Court makes it easier for formerly segregated school systems to fulfill their obligations under desegregation decrees in Board of Education of Oklahoma City v. Dowell.

1992In Freeman v. Pitts the Supreme Court further speeds the end of
desegregation cases, ruling that school systems can fulfill their obligations in an incremental fashion.

1995The Supreme Court sets a new goal for desegregation plans in Missouri v.
Jenkins: the return of schools to local control.

1996A federal appeals court prohibits the use of race in college and university
admissions, ending affirmative action in Louisiana, Texas, and Mississippi in Hopwood v. Texas.

2001White parents in Charlotte, N.C., schools successfully seek an end to the


desegregation process, barring the use of race in making student assignments.

2003The Supreme Court upholds diversity as a rationale for affirmative action


programs in higher education admissions, but concludes that point systems are not appropriate in Gratz v. Bollinger and Grutter v. Bollinger. A federal district court case affirms the value of racial diversity and race-conscious student assignment plans in K-12 education in Lynn v. Comfort.

2007The more conservative Supreme Court struck down the use of race in
determining schools for students in Parents Involved in Community Schools Inc. v. Seattle School District and Meredith v. Jefferson County (Ky.) Board of Education.

ETHNIC GROUPS membership based on ones national origin or the national origin of ones ancestors when they immigrated to the United States. INDIGENOUS Population that is native to a country or region. In the United States, American Indians, Hawaiians, and Alaska Natives are the indigenous populations. EMIGRATED CIVIL RIGHTS The rights of personal liberty guaranteed by the 13th and 14th Amendments to the U.S. Constitution and by acts of Congress. NATIVISM Policy favoring assimilated ethnic groups over more recent immigrants. NATIONALISM National identity based on a common language, common culture, and loyalty and devotion to a nation. ASSYLEES Individuals who travel to the United States from another country and ask for asylum or protection from being persecuted in their native country. REFUGEES Persons recognized by the U.S. government as being persecuted or legitimately bearing persecution in their home country because of race, religion, nationality, or membership in a specific social or political group. CULTURAL CAPITALEndowments such as academic competence, language, competence, and wealth that provide an advantage to an individual, family, or group. JIM CROW LAWS Legal restrictions preventing persons of color from sharing public accommodations with whites. TITLE IX Legislation passed by Congress in 1972 to provide females equal access to all aspects of education.

DE JURE SEGREGATION the separation of groups of people that has been mandated by city, state, or federal government policies. DE FACTO SEGREGATION The separation of groups that occurs as people choose to live in different neighborhoods or participate in different clubs and social groups. ETHNIC GROUP Membership based on ones national origin or the national origin of ones ancestors when they immigrated to the United States. ENDOGAMY Marriage within the same ethnic, cultural, or religious group. ETHNIC IDENTITY ETHNOCENTRISMview that ones cultural group is superior to all others. CASTE a distinction imposed at birth to justify the inequitable social distribution of power and privilege on a group. NORDIC RACE Germanic people of northern Europe who are white with a tall stature, long head, light skin and hair, and blue eyes. MISCEGENATION Marriage between persons of different races. ACTING WHITE a label used by some people to describe persons of the same race who take on the behaviors, values, and attitudes of the dominant white culture. STEREOTYPES Exaggerated and usually biased views of a group. RACISM Belief that one race has inherent superiority over all others and thereby has the right to dominate. INTERGROUP RELATIONS HATE GROUPS COLOR BLINDNESS claim that one does not see a persons race and treats everyone equally regardless of race.

ETHNOCENTRIC CURRICULUM AFROCENTRIC CURRICULUM curriculum centered on or derived from African history, culture, and traditions. MULTIETHNIC CURRICULUM a course of studies that reflects accurate and positive information about the history, experiences, contributions, and perspectives of the ethnic groups that comprise the U.S. population ADEQUATE YEARLY PROGRESS (AYP) a minimum level of improvement measurable in terms of student performancethat school districts and schools must achieve within specific time frames specified in the law NO CHILD LEFT BEHIND.

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