Arecop Manual

ARECOP
Trainee Manual
Improved Stove Selection and Dissemination
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ARECOP
This module is an ARECOP publication. Permission to reproduce any part of this module for free or at cost distribution will be granted on written request. The module was compiled and edited by: Michelle Schulein, ARECOP The module was authored by Michelle Schulein with: Lydia Braakman (gender analysis) Prof. P.D. Grover (combustion, heat transfer and heat loss, stove parts) Auke Koopmans (raw materials) Jennifer McAvoy (dissemination) The module was reviewed and received critical comments, corrections, suggestions and additions from: Lydia Braakman Prof. P.D. Grover Auke Koopmans Jennifer McAvoy Asia Regional Cookstove Program Christina Aristanti PO Box 19 Aryanto Soedjarwo Bulaksumur, Yogyakarta Indonesia Emma Wibowo
Tel 62 - 274 - 561247 Fax 62 - 274 - 563423 email anton@yogya.wasantara.net.id
Table of Contents
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Table of contents
Table of Contents
Introduction 1
Why this training?....................................................................................................................................... 2 Why this manual?....................................................................................................................................... 4
Chapter 1: Some Issues--an overview of biomass use in Asia
Biomass...................................................................................................................................................... 6 Cooking....................................................................................................................................................... 8 Smoke from biomass ................................................................................................................................. 9 Gender...................................................................................................................................................... 11 Biomass and improved stoves ................................................................................................................ 12
Chapter 2: Assessment
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Community context .................................................................................................................................. 14 Kitchen...................................................................................................................................................... 24 User .......................................................................................................................................................... 30 Gender analysis ....................................................................................................................................... 31
Chapter 3: Stove design
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Combustion .............................................................................................................................................. 40
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Combustion inputs and outputs ...........................................................................................................40 Factors which influence combustion....................................................................................................41 Stages of combustion ...........................................................................................................................46 Burning of volatiles................................................................................................................................47 Incomplete combustion.........................................................................................................................49 Heat transfer and heat loss...................................................................................................................... 50 Conduction ............................................................................................................................................50 Convection ............................................................................................................................................53 Radiation ...............................................................................................................................................55 Heat loss................................................................................................................................................56 Raw materials........................................................................................................................................... 58 Choosing stove materials .....................................................................................................................58 Soil .........................................................................................................................................................59 Ceramic .................................................................................................................................................64 Brick .......................................................................................................................................................65 Cement ..................................................................................................................................................66 Metal as a stove material......................................................................................................................67 Steel/sheet metal ..................................................................................................................................67 Cast iron ................................................................................................................................................69 Cast aluminum ......................................................................................................................................70 Chimneys...............................................................................................................................................71 Stove parts ............................................................................................................................................... 72 Combustion chamber ...........................................................................................................................72 Fuel entrance ........................................................................................................................................72 Grate......................................................................................................................................................73
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Liners .....................................................................................................................................................73 Tunnels, baffles, gaps...........................................................................................................................74 Potholes.................................................................................................................................................74 Pot supports ..........................................................................................................................................75 Primary air .............................................................................................................................................76 Secondary air ........................................................................................................................................76 Chimney ................................................................................................................................................76
Chapter 4: Stove construction
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Mud stove ................................................................................................................................................. 79 Brick stove ................................................................................................................................................ 83 Metal stove ............................................................................................................................................... 85
Chapter 5: Stove dissemination
88
Local systems of technology dissemination............................................................................................ 89 Local systems and improved stoves ....................................................................................................... 90 Which system is best? ............................................................................................................................. 93 What to do to support the dissemination system?.................................................................................. 94
Chapter 6: Monitoring and evaluation
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Benefits..................................................................................................................................................98 Monitoring............................................................................................................................................102 Indicators .............................................................................................................................................103 Trouble shooting .................................................................................................................................116 Evaluation............................................................................................................................................119
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Chapter 7: Stove selection as a process 120
Why use a process? .............................................................................................................................. 121 Reviewing the process...............................................................................................................................122
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Annexes
Annex 1: Assessment tools 133
Annex 2: Assessment sketches
142
A case study........................................................................................................................................... 143 Assessment sketches ............................................................................................................................ 145
Annex 3: Improved stove designs
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One pothole stoves ................................................................................................................................ 150 Loose residues....................................................................................................................................150 Charcoal ..............................................................................................................................................151 Other biomass.....................................................................................................................................156 Multiple pothole stoves .......................................................................................................................... 163
Annex 4: Pre-training assessment form
174
Annex 5: List of further references and contacts
181
Introduction
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Introduction
Introduction
Introduction
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Introduction
Introduction
Why this training?
Although improved cookstove projects (ICPs) have been implemented in Asia since the 1950s, too many projects over too long a period of time have experienced consistently low adoption rates. This is primarily due to two reasons. One reason is the fact that technical cookstove expertise is still highly centralized. In any Asian country, Nepal and Indonesia are two which stand out, there may be only one technical expert who is recognized as an improved cookstove designer. Related to this problem is another: the improved stoves introduced across one country are often limited to one or two designs. Trainings which have been held in the past have limited themselves to the design and construction of these one or two designs. These designs, although they may be appropriate to the needs, wants and conditions of one target group, will never be appropriate for all possible target groups there are too many variables involved. In answer to this problem the Asia Regional Cookstove Program (ARECOP) based in Yogyakarta, Indonesia and the Food and Agriculture Organization - Regional Wood Energy Development Program (FAO-RWEDP) in Bangkok, Thailand embarked on a collaborative effort to implement Asia regional trainings to decentralize ICP technical skills and programmatic knowledge. This training is different from those before it. It is not designed to transfer particular stove designs or stove building techniques. It invites participants to use a process of selecting a stove and dissemination pattern which does not ignore the multitude of variables which are connected to any stove. These variables include, but are not limited to: fuels commonly used, available stove materials and their characteristics, economic limitations, gender roles, kitchen size and layout, preferred cooking position, cooking habits, foods commonly cooked, traditions, household industries, noncooking functions of stoves, combustion theory, heat transfer and heat loss theory. The training is aimed at improved stove project field workers who are involved in the initial surveys and assessment activities and have the most information to make wise choices in modifying the traditional stove or selecting another improved stove design. The process used cannot be defined as technical or non-technical. It is both, as both must be integrated in the development of an appropriate stove design.
Goal of the Training

1) To raise the acceptability of improved stoves introduced in countries where the training is
held and therefore increase the rate of stove adoption among ICPs.
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Introduction Objectives of the Training
The training aims to transfer skills so that ICP field workers are able:
1) to evaluate stove designs based on combustion and heat transfer concepts, knowledge
of raw materials and technical stove parts.

2) to determine an appropriate modification/improved stove design based on the needs,
wants and conditions of the target group in addition to technical knowledge.

3) to become familiar with stove construction techniques. 4) to determine an appropriate dissemination strategy based on existing technology
dissemination channels and the improved stove design to be disseminated.

5) to incorporate gender analysis into stove design selection and introduction. 6) to monitor the progress of a stove program and trouble shoot where necessary.
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Introduction
Why this manual ?

This manual is one component of the training module exclusively written and targeted to you as a trainee participant and stove project fieldworker. This manual includes information included in the training and the handouts used during the course of the training.
How is the manual organized?

The manual is divided into chapters as listed below:
1) some issues: an overview of biomass use in Asia 2) assessment: community context, the kitchen, user, and gender analysis 3) stove design: combustion, heat transfer and heat loss, raw materials and stove parts 4) stove construction 5) stove dissemination 6) monitoring and evaluation 7) stove selection as a process
In addition there are annexes of assessment tools, samples of assessment information, different improved stove designs, the pre-training assessment form and a list of further references and contacts.
Chapter
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Chapter 1: Some issues
Some issues
An overview of biomass use in Asia
Chapter
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Some issues
An overview of biomass use in Asia
Biomass
In many countries of Asia over 60% of the population is reliant on biomass for daily cooking needs. In some countries, such as Cambodia, over 90% of the population is reliant on biomass. Biomass includes straw, leaves and twigs, agricultural residues, sawdust, peat, wood and charcoal.
Fuel switching
Contrary to popular belief, people do not always move up the fuel ladder. People move up and down the fuel ladder. In times of fuelwood scarcity, people may use agricultural residues, thus sacrificing fertilizer and soil productivity. Since biomass is often considered backward or not modern, once a family can afford it, they often switch to kerosene stoves or alternate between biomass use with kerosene. But they are still dependent on the biomass. And the biomass does not have to be backward, inefficient and dirty; it can be used sustainably, cleanly and efficiently.
SOLAR
ELECTRICITY
GAS
KEROSENE CHARCOAL
WOOD
STRAW
DUNG
Biomass fuel collection and transport
Figure 1: the fuel ladder
In many places collection of biomass or the purchase of biomass places a burden on the poor. Also connected to fuel collection, transport and processing are health problems. Gathering fuel can lead to the following possible health effects: trauma (from falls or accidents), reduced infant/child care, snake bites, allergic reactions and fungus infections. Fuel transport may cause backaches and severe fatigue, in addition to damaging reproductive organs over timeprolapsed uterus is an example of this. While the International Labor Organization (ILO) regards 20 kgs. as the maximum permissible weight to be carried, women often carry biomass loads of up to 35 kgs. over long distances. In situations where fuel is hard to find children often miss school because they must search for fuel.
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Processing fuel, such as cutting it up can also lead to trauma, cuts and abrasions. Charcoal production can lead to smoke poisoning, burns and trauma and cataracts.
Figure 2: In some areas of Asia biomass fuel collection takes a few hours each day.
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Cooking
It is not uncommon for women to spend more than 4 hours each day working in the kitchen (cooking and other activities). The inefficient use of biomass can increase this time. Dependence on biomass for daily cooking often means that in times of scarcity less food is cooked and eaten, food is eaten cold or reheated, or more processed food is eaten. Among other nutritional consequences, women suffer an increased risk of anaemia. Less water boiled has effects on hygiene and personal cleanliness, in addition to gastrointestinal wellness.
Household industry use of biomass

Many small scale industries, such as salt, palm sugar, crackers, sweets and cakes are also reliant on biomass. Since these industries often represent the backbone of rural economy, dependence on biomass influences the income and economy of households as well as the stable and continuous development of the community.
Figure 3: Not only does the collection, transport and processing of biomass mean more work, but also cooking with biomass adds to women's workload.
Figure 4: Biomass use is connected with household income.
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Smoke from biomass

Cooking is possibly the greatest occupational health hazard to women. Indoor air pollution indirectly kills millions of women and children. Smoke from inefficient biomass stoves is a cause of respiratory health problems and respiratory diseases are now the chief cause of death in developing countries. Biomass stoves with emit pollutants, including carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide (CO) is a poisonous gas. It is not Figure 5: The amount of womens exposure to indoor air pollution in a uncommon for CO biomass burning, badly ventilated kitchen is said to equal smoking 100 cigarettes per day. concentrations to be above 100 ppm per hour in a biomass burning kitchen; while the World Health Organization recommended limit per hour is 25 ppm. Mothers often take care of children while they are cooking. This means that babies and children, who are generally more sensitive to smoke, also spend long hours of exposure in the kitchen. Acute respiratory infection (ARI) and diarrhea are now the top two causes of infant mortality. ARI, mainly in the form of pneumonia, is responsible for more than five million infant deaths each year. Studies have shown that the incidence and severity of ARI in infants increases with the amount of time in a biomass burning kitchen. For pregnant women, CO takes longer to leave the body of a fetus and contributes to higher rates of low birthweight and stillborns. Thus, exposure to smoke contributes to higher rates of infant mortality and morbidity. Health impacts of smoke/CO include: acute respiratory infections (ARI) including pneumonia chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases such as chronic bronchitis, emphysema and asthma eye diseases such as conjunctivitis, cataracts and some cases of blindness cor pulmonale or heart failure
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adverse reproductive outcomes lung cancer possible carbon monoxide poisoning lowered immune response increased risk of low birthweight or stillbirth increased morbidity/mortality of infants exposed to smoke Health impacts of exposure to heat include: cataracts burns and scalds
Smoke is not always a bad thing

So it seems simple enough that smoke removal should be a primary goal of an improved stove. However, the reality is not so simple. Smoke is often used to dry crops, to seal thatched roofs, to keep away insects, etc. By ignoring the functions and uses of smoke, we might introduce a stove which cuts down on indoor air pollution but creates another problem.
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Gender
Biomass use has gender specific effects because women are mainly responsible for small scale industry cooking at the household level. Small scale industry represents one of the few opportunities for women to earn cash. women are mainly responsible for cooking daily meals. women and children are mainly responsible for collecting fuel. Because women are largely responsible for fuel and its use they also experience the biggest share of the negative affects of biomass use.
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Biomass and improved stoves

As of yet, many areas of Asia have not been exposed to improved cookstoves. Improved cookstoves represent a way to address some of the negative implications of biomass use. How do they do this?
1) cut down on smoke pollution 2) reduce cooking time 3) reduce the amount of fuel used
However... in areas where ICS have been introduced, these often are not used. Adoption rates are very low. This is often due to the fact that inappropriate designs have been introduced. For example, a stove which reduces the amount of fuel used but requires more time for fuel processing or stove maintenance may not be well accepted because the extra time necessary for fuel processing negates the benefit of less fuel used. Users experience the same, if not a greater, workload.
Figure 6: Inappropriate stove designs cause problems for stove projects.
In many places the need for an improved biomass burning stove is still very urgent. But the need is for an appropriate design, which meets women users needs, desires, and possibilities. How is such a stove designed? By using a process of stove selection.
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Chapter
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Assessment
Community context, kitchen, user, and gender analysis
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Chapter
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Assessment
Community context, kitchen, user, and gender analysis
Community context
Whenever we are thinking of implementing a stove program we must start by assessing the situation. First of all, we cannot assume stoves represent a development priority for all communities and secondly, a stove program is not a one-size-fits-all garment. To be successful stove programs have to be adopted to local conditions. As an obvious example, an excellent improved stove which burns sawdust will not be appropriate for an area where agricultural residues are used as fuels. As a less obvious example, an excellent improved stove which requires wood to be chopped up into small pieces might not be accepted where the traditional stove does not require this extra work. Because stoves are connected to kitchen environment, fuels commonly used, available stove materials and their characteristics, local skills and expertise, local environment, health, economic limitations, gender roles, preferred cooking position, cooking habits, foods commonly cooked, traditions, household industries, and non-cooking functions of stoves we must make note of all these things before we even think of a stove design. Too many times programs start with the design insteadperhaps hoping the community context will change to adjust itself to a new stove design. This is wrong. And if all the information above was not enough we also need to assess local skills and human resources that can be used in program planning, community organization, stove production, stove promotion, training, stove selling, etc. We need to assess other development efforts and community organizations that can be integrated into our program. Finally, we need to know our target group. Why do women and men need an improved stove? What type of promotion will catch their attention? What sort of preconceptions are we dealing with? Who will use the stove? Who will make the decision to purchase the stove? Knowing the target group helps immensely in tailoring stove programsand it helps immensely in our interactions with the community as field workers.
Why assess?
Assessment is not an end unto itself. If we assess but really already know what stove design we will disseminate, most of the benefits of assessment are lost. We need to collect information and then analyze it. How does the information influence our stove design and stove project? It might be easiest to understand this by thinking about the following comparative situations:
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How will a stove program differ between two communities where in one women are involved in making palm sugar for sale, spending five hours in the kitchen each day, while in the other community women only spend two hours a day in the kitchen. How does this influence the stove design? How does this influence the cost of the stove? How does this influence the promotion of the stove?
Some rough ideas
Of course more information than this is necessary to make decisions for a stove design and stove program but here are some rough ideas from analyzing just this bit of information. For a real situation we would need to cross check these ideas against other assessment information. In the palm sugar community stoves will be bigger, with more potholes. Potholes can be different sizes to accommodate the different sized pots used. Perhaps two stoves can be used: one exclusively for palm sugar production and another for household cooking; on the other hand, this may not be necessary. Perhaps a rack can be provided near the stove for kitchen equipments. Would a special holder or a support for the palm juice collection containers be an improvement? The stoves can probably be higher cost because they are used for small-scale industry. The program will be easier to promote because women spend long hours in the kitchen and their work in the kitchen is connected to household income. It might be possible to integrate a stove program with an effort to increase palm sugar quality, expand the market, diversify products, cooperatize palm sugar producers to increase bargaining power, etc.
What about if in two communities there is a high incidence of respiratory infections among women and children but in one smoke is used to dry crops while in the other smoke is not used. What does this mean for stove design? What does this mean for project promotion?
Some rough ideas
In the community where smoke is used to dry crops, introducing a stove with a chimney to evacuate the smoke from the kitchen might not be a good idea. A better idea might be the use of a rack below a chimney hood. That way smoke is still exited from the kitchen but it rises through the drying rack. In both communities smoke and health can be used as promotion material but in the one it is important to emphasize the design that still allows for smoke to dry crops.
In one area women work in the fields all day and enjoy sitting while cooking while in another area women bend over while cooking and complain of back pain. What does this mean for stove design? Project promotion? Stove position?
Some rough ideas
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In the community where women enjoy sitting, design a stove to be used while sitting. Position it on the floor. Make sure its height is appropriate for the stools or chairs used for sitting. Or design a stove which can be adjusted at different heights. In the other community the stove can use a thick foundation layer or be placed on a table so that women are able to stand up straight while cooking. The project can be promoted as increasing comfort and preventing back pain.
In one community women have skills to make their own stoves while in another women buy their stoves in the market. What does this mean for stove design? Stove cost? Stove dissemination?
Some rough ideas
In the community where women have stove building skills the program can take advantage of these to improve the stove design built. Stove cost can be held at a minimal and dissemination take place on a house-to-house level. Stove design can be permanent and large mass if necessary. In the other community stove cost can be at a par with the current stove price and stove dissemination take place using the market. Stove production might be further from the community and stove design must be portable, preferably light weight and durable.
In one place women cut wood into small pieces so that it dries quickly. In another place wood is not cut up at all. What does this mean for stove design?
Some rough ideas
In the community where women chop up wood this means a stove design can take advantage of this with a closed combustion chamber for higher efficiency. In the other community it is probably unwise to introduce a stove with a closed combustion chamber. The stove designed should be designed for the fuel used as it is used.
Take a look at the list below of tidbits of assessment information and the implications these might have on a stove design and stove project.
palm sugar production
multiple potholes promotion for palm sugar production slow cooking

cooking takes two hours a day
low cost
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low maintenance stove
high incidence of ARI among women and children
health promotion integration of program with health program use a chimney/hood, cook outside integration of program with kitchen improvement (more ventilation) well-designed combustion chamber
smoke is used for drying crops
no chimney or a low chimney a hood with drying rack women prefer to sit while cooking stove positioned low
women complain about back pain
stove positioned for standing or sitting cooking position

women make their own stoves from mud
improve mud stoves using local women

women buy stoves at the market
market based dissemination

men and women cut up wood in small pieces so that it dries quickly
take advantage of small pieces of fuel to introduce a higher efficiency stove with a smaller combustion chamber
wood is not cut up for use in the stove
do not introduce a stove with a small fuel entrance or a stove without support in front of the fuel door for long pieces of wood
women spend many hours collected fuel
promote fuel efficiency

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introduce a more efficient stove multiple pothole stove potholes which pots sit down into
women want to cook faster
promote faster cooking introduce a faster cooking stove multiple pothole stove potholes which pots sit down into use pots with lids while cooking
women need a stove that allows them to bake
make a big combustion chamber no grate so that charcoal will accumulate

women prefer a stove easy to operate
quick and easy lighting position in accordance to user preference individual potholes can accommodate different pot sizes use a grate for easier lighting especially with damp fuel no grate for stoves not watched
fuel is quickly and easily collected
do not emphasize fuel efficiency in promotion

women want a safer stove
use insulation position the stove for cooking while standing potholes which pots sit down into closed combustion chamber
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large mass stove
stoves are used for lighting
open combustion chamber lots of holes around the combustion chamber

stoves are used for heating
use metal use a high mass stove

stoves are cheap
use local skills and local resources for stove building no chimney no transportation of product mass production stoves dissemination of stove building skills
little maintenance
no chimney or a low chimney plaster stove liners or ceramic stoves with mud for easy repair no grate
stoves last a very long time
metal or ceramic stove of high quality use heat resistant cement or cement mixed with vermiculite use cast iron or steel plates use high quality bricks simple design
women would like a more sophisticated stove
use high quality material and nice finishing

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This is just a small picture of how assessment information is analyzed and used in selecting a modification or new stove design and planning a project. Of course, sometimes it is not possible to design a stove which fulfills every possible condition within one community. Sometimes a function must be sacrificed. However, if this happens, it is best that provisions are made to relocate the function, otherwise the stoves success is risked.
A list of useful information

Below is a list of information useful to gather when assessing community context. Possible influences on a stove project are also given.
Location
distance from highway, nearest town dissemination pattern

Infrastructure
stove transportation or appropriate stove selling point,
available schools and distance possible promotion site
other development priorities, priority of an improved stove,
source of clean water other development priorities, priority of an improved stove, program integration, water in the kitchen public transportation appropriate stove selling point, dissemination pattern
health facilities/ personnel and distance other development priorities, priority of an improved stove, program integration, possible promotion site markets and distance appropriate stove selling point, dissemination pattern possible means of promotion, other development
communication (radio, television, telephone) priorities, priority of an improved stove
electricity other development priorities, priority of an improved stove, program integration, lighting in the kitchen
Environment
fuel availability
appropriate fuels
land availability other development priorities, priority of an improved stove, clay/mud/sand stove material resource availability water other development priorities, priority of an improved stove, program integration, water in the kitchen local stove materials available (metal, clay, sand, bricks, cement)
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appropriate stove materials
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the cost of materials, the cost of their transport, how are they acquired materials, stove cost
Biomass collection and processing
appropriate stove
who collects; how often; for how long; from what distance; how much; how heavy appropriate fuels, project promotion (i.e. is stove collection really a burden?) who stands to benefit from less fuel collection, whose workload will increase if the stove requires fuel more difficult to obtain who buys; how often; for how long; from what distance; how much; how heavy; who carries it home appropriate fuels, project promotion (i.e. is stove purchasing really a burden?) who stands to benefit from less fuel purchasing, who stands to lose if the stove requires fuel more difficult to buy what type of processing is down and by whom appropriate fuels, project promotion, who stands to gain if less fuel processing is required, who stands to lose if the stove requires more fuel processing
Social conditions
percentage of illiterates; women vs. men integration level of education
project promotion, other development priorities, project
project promotion, other development priorities, project integration dissemination pattern, community groups to work stove designs, need to
community groups; community cooperation with
ethnic groups; differences in kitchens, food, small scale industries introduce more than one design, project promotion religions
stove designs, need to introduce more than one design, project promotion stove designs, need to introduce more than one design, project possible stove makers possible project caders,
culture, beliefs, habits promotion
local skills (metal workers, potters, brick masons, local stove makers) local human resources (village leaders, project caders, teachers, etc.) stove promotion
Health conditions
illnesses most common to women, men and children development priorities, project integration
Economic conditions
stove design, project promotion, other
main source of income of an improved stove
stove design, stove cost, project promotion, willingness to pay, priority
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monthly income stove design, stove cost, project promotion, willingness to pay stove design, stove cost, project
small scale industries (who is involved, for how long each day) promotion, willingness to pay, priority of an improved stove income spent on improved stove
stove design, stove cost, project promotion, willingness to pay, priority of an stove design, stove cost, project promotion,
livestock or fowl (how many per household) willingness to pay

Housework
cooking (who, how long each day) stove design, stove cost, project promotion, willingness to pay, who could stand to benefit from shorter cooking hours or a better kitchen environment care for children workloads of men and women, presence of children in kitchens, safety of stove, promotion of stove fuel acquisition and processing, water workloads of men and women, who stands to benefit from less fuel collection and less fuel processing, whose workload will increase if the stove requires fuel more difficult to obtain or more fuel processing shop wash workloads of men and women, who would purchase a stove workloads of men and women
Other work
farming (size of farms, crops, who is involved in which activities) farm labor (salaried or paid in kind) an improved stove
workloads of men and women
workloads of men and women, willingness to pay, priority of workloads of men and women
caring for livestock and fowl (collecting fodder)

Traditional stoves
fuels used
appropriate fuel, stove design possible stove builders stove dissemination, stove selling point
who makes traditional stoves
where are the stoves acquired? ordered? how much do they cost? how long do they last? stove cost
stove cost, stove materials, stove promotion
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As you can see assessment has a purpose. Do not just collect information to collect informationbut use it to make custom tailor a successful stove project.
Where to get all this information

The best source of information is observing and talking to (not interviewing, not surveying) community members. Stay in the community for a few days. Make friends and after they trust you, invite them to talk about their lives. You might also want to see the nearest market, local health clinic, local sites of small-scale industry and metal workers, brick makers, or potters. General information on infrastructure, education level, income, etc. is often available through local government offices.
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Kitchen
Much of the above information can be found in kitchens and by talking to the users of stoves, women in most cases. Traditional knowledge, habits and beliefs, cooking practices, health issues, working environment, the wants, needs and capabilities of the user are examples of information which comes from observing the kitchen and talking to the stove user. It is important for field workers to pay attention to the kitchen environment as this represents the environment of the stove, and many stove project problems can be avoided with a good understanding of it.
Figure 1: The kitchen is the environment of the stove.
The paradox of the kitchen in the household

Most household energy in developing countries is used in the kitchen for cooking and related activities. Biomass use is primarily in the kitchen. The kitchen is the main workplace of the home; it is where daily meals are prepared and small scale industries are often based. It is the engine of the home. The kitchen represents the working and living space of Asias women. The kitchen is also often the heart of the home. Families gather in the kitchen. A healthy, clean and comfortable kitchen is the source of a prosperous, healthy and happy family. Despite all of this, the kitchen is often ignored from design, layout and construction points of view. The result is a dark, crowded, dirty and smoky kitchen.
Problems caused when the kitchen environment is not assessed

Part of the reason that improved cookstove programs have experienced low adoption rates is the fact that the kitchen environment has been ignored - stoves have been introduced in a vacuum. What are some of the problems caused? Inappropriate stove placement If the kitchen environment is not assessed the stove could be placed in a location which disrupts working flow and increases the cooks time and work in the kitchen. Also a metal stove should not be placed close to the walls if they are flammable.
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Inappropriate stove design There are many reasons a stove design may be inappropriate for a certain kitchen and user. Here are some examples: The kitchen wall, roof and floor materials limit the design and possible locations of the stove. A chimney is a safety concern for a thatched hut. A stove might be ill-suited to the style of cooking. For example, introducing a big stove with many potholes where women are used to cooking only one or two dishes at a time might cause a problem of acceptability. A stove design might not fulfill important functions of the traditional stove. For example, a stove with chimney might be blindly introduced where selling crops dried over the stove is one of the main sources of income for a family. Or a small metal stove introduced where a large mass stove had provided warmth on cold nights. A stove design might go against culture and traditions of the user. Inappropriate stove position A stove might be positioned so as to increase ergonomic stress on the user, including backaches, arthritis and related bone diseases. Or the stove position itself might be fine but moving between the cooking position and the positions of other cooking activities, such as food preparation and dishing out, causes ergonomic stress. Stove position might be contrary to the habits and desires of stove users. For example, a field worker could decide that standing is the safest position for cooking, and not realize that women who work all day in the fields often enjoy sitting on a low stool when cooking in the morning and evening. Inappropriate stove promotion
Figure 2: Stove position influences the position of the cook during cooking.
The stove might be promoted and sold according to the needs of the stove project planners or the needs of the field worker rather than the needs of the user. This has been a big problem since the 1970s when stoves projects were promoted as saving energy. While this may be true in some cases, women biomass stove users do not think in terms of saving energy. And even if we frame it in terms of time spent for biomass collection, this does not represent a womens priority in some communities.
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Chapter 2: Assessment Other reasons to focus on the kitchen
Besides making sure that an appropriate stove is introduced, a focus on the kitchen, allows stove projects to broaden their vision and incorporate kitchen improvement activities. Kitchen improvement is an opportunity to address the household problems that ordinary people face daily. A focus on kitchens is also an ideal way to create strong integrated programs. The kitchen unites stove programs with water and sanitation programs, health, hygiene and nutrition programs, garbage and gardening programs, and the construction and building sectors. A focus on the kitchen is necessary for our work not only because it helps ensure an appropriate improved stove, but because of the relation to: women and childrens health, womens workload, living environment, household economy, integrated cookstove programs. Health
Figure 3: Common smoke path in a kitchen. Close to the stove is an area of some protection. For example, common health problems related to smoke can be addressed by improving ventilation/air circulation in a kitchen, besides paying attention to stove design. Refer to page 9-10 to review the health problems caused by smoke.
Accidents such as burns, scalds, electric shocks, falls and cuts are also common health concerns related to the kitchen environment. Fatigue results from poor kitchen layout. Ergonomic stress results in arthritis, related bone diseases and back pain and is not restricted to the poor positioning of the stove, but other furnishings also. These problems can be prevented with better layout and better lighting.
Figure 4: Position of the stove influences ergonomic stress on the user's body.
Finally the kitchen can influence health and hygiene due to the presence of moulds and fungus due to damp; contamination of food through faulty food preparation and handling; insufficient cleanliness of tools and equipment. Workload and drudgery Besides health we can address the drudgery of kitchen work. Almost universally women and children are responsible for collecting fuel and water, acquiring foodstuffs and cooking. Although this is hard work and a big responsibility, it is also almost universally undervalued. Women spend long hours inside the kitchen. These hours can be reduced if we pay attention to the way of cooking and the working flow and ergonomic aspects of kitchen layout in addition to the choice of stove. A lot of human energy is wasted in the kitchen. Although
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we often talk of stoves which save energy, we also need to pay attention to saving human energy. If kitchen work, which represents perhaps the most principle household responsibility, can be lightened, women can make use of the energy for other purposes, such as small scale industry, caring for children, or resting. Working and living space Besides health and drudgery a focus on the kitchen means a focus on living space. Living space conditions can affect attitude and mental health. Household economy Another reason to pay attention to the kitchen is for household economy reasons. A better kitchen has the potential to raise income from small scale industry because energy, in both fuel and human form is saved. If cooking process, hygiene, work flow and ergonomics during the production of palm sugar are improved, the quality of the product can increase and likewise, the market price.
Figure 5: Anyone knows that a clean and neat house is better enjoyed than a dirty and messy one.
Ways of observing a kitchen

There are some tools we can use when observing the kitchen environment to make quick checks of kitchen layout, from the ergonomic (micro movements) and working flow (macro movements) points of view. Working flow Cooking involves a whole set of activities. These include: preparing food, cooking food, dishing out food, eating, washing plates and utensils, drying plates and utensils. These activities require a supply of water, fuel and food. These activities may take place inside the kitchen room or outside at different locations.
Figure 6: Cooking activities. 27
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By tracing a womans steps as she completes the cooking activities we see her working flow. Information contained in the working flow, that is, distances and frequencies of movement can be used to improve the layout of the kitchen. The working flows of women are different of course, but they usually show the importance of the location of water, stove and preparation area. If these are separated by too much distance the result is wasted human energy. By decreasing the distances between cooking activities locations or the supplies of water, fuel and food. Another improvement might be to group the activities which use water together. Improvements to a womans work flow can cut down her workload and prevent fatigue.
Figure 7: A working flow sketch is made by tracing a cooks macro movements during cooking activities. Usually, as above, the three most important locations are the places of food preparation, water and stove.
Ergonomics While working flow represents the macro movements of a cook, ergonomics are micro movements, usually restricted to one place. During cooking these movements include sitting and standing while watching pots, or reaching for spices while cooking. Unideal ergonomics can result in increased muscle stress, arthritis and back pain for the cook. During cooking, the position of the cooks body is always changing. This is important to be aware of because the position of furnishings and equipment that are necessary during cooking activities should be positioned with the cooks ideal body position in mind. If the cooking position is sitting is it possible that the cook can sit for food preparation and dishing out so she experiences less body strain? Likewise for standing.
Figure 8: Perhaps, from the safety point of view, it is best if the cook stands while cooking. This way she can move quickly out of the way if any accidents occur. However, it is most important to respect the habits and desires of the cook. 28
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A quick count of changes in sitting or standing position can be used to check changes in the ergonomic aspects of the kitchen, for example before and after the introduction of an improved stove. A set of systems The kitchen is a subsystem of the house and the stove a subsystem of the kitchen. Besides the stove subsystem there are other subsystems like the water subsystem, the waste and fuel subsystems. By looking at each of these subsystems in detail we can address problems of the kitchen environment not confined to the stove. For example: How does water enter and exit the kitchen? Where is it stored in the kitchen? When is water used in the cooking activities? Kitchen improvement as related to the water subsystem might include the introduction of a water storage vessel, properly located. Or it might mean a better way of exiting waste water from the kitchen, for example introducing a cement washing corner with a drain outside the kitchen. Analysis After we have assessed a kitchen we should know the status of macro and micro movements. The next step is to think of any improvements to working flow and ergonomic aspects. This might include changes in the layout of the kitchen and/or repositioning certain cooking activities, for example, food preparation being moved from on the ground to on a table with the cook in a standing position. At the very least analyzing working flow and ergonomic aspects will ensure that stove placement and position does not add to the cooks workload. When looking at the kitchen environment, ask:
1) Does the existing status of the kitchen fulfill
the users needs and preferences?

2) What potential health implications exist? 3) What kind of changes in the kitchen would
better fulfill needs, preferences and health conditions?
Figure 9: A good kitchen layout will cut down on ergonomic stress and fatigue. It will also help reduce time spent working in the kitchen. 29
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User
Entering a users kitchen and asking the appropriate questions, and observing and interpreting her actions are skills. Listening and watching become very important. It is best not to jump to conclusions but let the user herself guide observers an understanding of her knowledge, perceptions, habits and needs. Techniques such as drawing the working flow, counting micro movements, observing subsystems of the kitchen and tools such as the tables (see page 27-29, 136-139) can be used to assist in the process of observing the kitchen and thinking about the relevant issues. But these tools must be used carefully, so that they do not create distance between the user and observer. The most important tools are good listening and observing skills. You might leave the tables at home, but do not leave your listening and observing skills behind.
Traditional knowledge
Observing and talking with cooks will give insight into the traditional knowledge that exists. It is very likely that women have a lot of knowledge of combustion, cooking, biomass as fuel, etc. In areas where fuelwood is scarce women have probably already developed habits to cut down on their fuelwood consumption. This type of knowledge is important to take advantage of in a stove project. Experience shows that new technology is easier accepted if developed from already existing technology and usage patterns. In addition, a program which pays attention to local knowledge can empower women who have this knowledge by inviting them to innovate and develop improved stove technology.
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Gender analysis
What is gender?
Gender refers to the different roles of women and men. For example, people refer to womens work and mens work. Work is gender specific. But it is not specific to sex because what is regarded as womens work in one place may be mens work in another place.
Sex refers to the biological differences between females and males Gender refers to socially defined differences between women and men
What is gender analysis?

Gender analysis is about knowing who does what. Knowledge is based on experiences. In our work we may think we know how rural people live. Sometimes a person will not see, or understand, the differences between their home areas and the area they work in. For example, it may be that in their home area women are responsible for basket weaving while in the area where they work men are responsible. Gender analysis is a way of avoiding failure based on I think. Gender analysis provides more precise information about patterns in the lives of women and men so that decisions can be based on facts. The point is to understand the roles of women and men in relation to what they do and what resources they have. In order to do gender analysis, a framework with four steps is used. The framework simply provides a set of questions about the links between women, men and stoves to guide our analysis; it is a tool to organize information about these links in such a way that they can be more easily understood and analyzed. The answers to these key questions help to reveal gender roles in an area and how important these roles are for development. The next step is then to develop strategies for how to integrate gender aspects in stove programs.
Why use gender analysis for stove programs?

When the lorena stove was first introduced in Guatemala in the seventies, only men participated during stove building trainings and actual construction. Women were not trained. As a result women were forced to learn how to use their new stove on their own or from their husbands. As a result the project was not as successful, because users were not trained on the proper use of the stove. There was: No Sustainability because men were trained about a stove that they never used.
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No Equity because women, who do use the stove, did not benefit by training. No Effectiveness because the stoves were not used properly. The goal of using gender analysis is to make the chance of success in improved stove programs bigger. And success means that stove programs are sustainable, equitable and effective. In other words, the program is sustainable when the efforts made by the program will be continued by the community after the program is finished. Equitable means that all members of the community, both men and women, have access to benefits and opportunities to participate. The chance of success is bigger when we maximize the participation of women and men in stove programs. Effective means that the effort of the stove program achieves its objectives. Gender Analysis leads to the success of a project by ensuring: Sustainability Equity Effectiveness
Figure 1: Stove programs can fail for many reasons: political, technical and social reasons. But failure due to leaving out gender aspects can be avoided.
The four steps of gender analysis

The gender analysis framework has four steps:
1) community context 2) activity profile 3) resource profile 4) work plan
GENDER ANALYSIS FRAMEWORK
Step 1: what patterns affect development in the area?
Step 2: what activities do women and men carry out?
Step 3: what resources do women and men have to work with?
Step 4: based on the information collected in steps 1, 2 and 3 what can we do to better involve both women and men in stove projects?
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Chapter 2: Assessment Community context profile
The first step is to analyze the community context of the stove project. This means to define the context into which an improved cookstove will be introduced. It also means being aware of how the community defines improved stove designs and projects. Because stove projects are not implemented in a vacuum it is necessary to examine different kinds of context factors. These can be: environmental, such as scarcity of fuelwood or water and climatic conditions social, such as cultural and religious beliefs related to cooking, ethnic diversity in cooking behaviour and taste preferences, or the existence of community groups economic, like the economic activities and sources of livelihood of the local population, whether fuelwood is gathered or bought in the market and the economic condition of the local population political, such as village power structures institutional, such as the lack of a clean water supply, or the condition of the education system It is important to include information that does not seem related to a stove project.
Figure 2: The context profile helps to understand the place where the project will be introduced, and how this influences the project.
ENVIRONMENTAL
SOCIAL
ECONOMIC
INFRASTRUCTURE & POLITICAL
Figure 3: Community context profile. This sort of table is useful as a tool for organizing information about the community context. 33
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Activity profile The second step in the gender analysis framework is to construct an activity profile. The idea is to produce a clear picture of who does what in order to understand the activities carried out by both women and men in a particular area. The activity profile helps to understand the differences of the roles and responsibilities of men and women, including stove-related activities such as fuel gathering and processing.
Figure 4: The activity profile also provides a good overview of the workloads of men and women. This is important to know because the introduction of a stove can increase workloads for one party while decreasing them for another. For example, a stove which requires more time cutting up fuel will increase the workload of men, women or both.
ACTIVITY GENDER TIME
LOCATION
WOMEN
WOMEN & MEN
MEN
Figure 5: The activity profile keeps track of who does what, where and when.
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Resource profile The third step of the gender analysis framework is the resource profile. It is used to answer the questions, who has what and who gains what. Two concepts are basic to the resource profile: the first is the difference between resources and benefits. The second is the difference between used by and controlled by. Resources are what people use to carry out the activities, such as land, trees, capital and technology. Therefore the stove is also a resource, as are inputs such as training and services. Benefits are what people get from using their resources, such as food, energy, income and status. The difference between used by and controlled by is very important. Used by simply refers to the person who is using the resource. Controlled by indicated who has control over the Figure 6: One of the uses of the resource profile is to determine resource. Control means who decides who can use the resource, who will get any benefits of an who will have the benefits and which benefits. Control over improved stove. resources can be in various hands, like the government, the husband, the mother in law, or the village chief. In many cases control over resources is gender based. The resource profile helps us to identify: the distribution of resources of both men and women related to stove programs, such as trees, money, stove dissemination, stove training and stoves the benefits men and women get from the activities and resources such as fuel, income, food the resource needs and constraints of men and women
RESOURCE
BENEFIT
USED BY
CONTROLLED BY
Figure 7: Resources bring benefits. Resources may be used by and controlled by different parties--often gender based. 35
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The following table of possible benefits and disadvantages of a stove program will show some of the benefits claimed by improved stove programs and the situations in which men or women will benefit. Who benefits depends on use and control of resources.
possible benefits less fuel collection men may benefit where women may benefit where
1) women collect fuel and men manage

the labor of women
women collect fuel and women manage their own time
2) men collect fuel

faster cooking healthier and more comfortable kitchen less smoky kitchen better nutrition more choices men choose cookstove technology men manage the labor of women participation in the development process program promotion skills stove building skills more income from small scale industry immediate environment cleaner pots and pans, more convenience more boiled water less money spent on fuel increased productivity where men clean in the kitchen men are involved in the project men manage the labor of women men are in the kitchen men are in the kitchen women manage their own time women are in the kitchen women are in the kitchen both benefit women choose cookstove technology women manage their own time women are involved in the project
men are trained in promotion men are trained in stove building men are involved in small scale industry and handle the cash earned
women are trained in promotion women are trained in stove building women are involved in small scale industry and handle the cash earned
both benefit where women clean in the kitchen
both benefit where fuel is bought and men have control over money where men use an improved cookstove where fuel is bought and women have control over money where women use an improved cookstove
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possible disadvantages more money spent on an improved stove more time spent processing fuel more time spent tending the fire changing cooking habits new cooking pots needed different food flavor less space in the kitchen men work in the kitchen men may lose where men control money men process fuel men cook men cook men control money women may lose where women control money women process fuel women cook women cook women control money both lose women work in the kitchen
Workplan The fourth component of the framework is the workplan. This is where the information from the context, activity and resource profiles is all pulled together to find out if and where women and men should be involved in the activities of stove programs.
PROGRAM ACTIVITIES APPROPRIATE INVOLVEMENT OF MEN & WOMEN OBJECTIVES
Figure 8: The workplan. Does the program meet needs? Does it reach the right people? Does it need changes?
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In sum The gender analysis framework has four steps: the context profile in which we look at the supports and constraints for stove projects the activity and resource profile to see who is doing what, who has what and who controls what; and the work plan when it is decided, what and how we need to change to involve men and women to make the stove project more successful The last step is monitoring and evaluation. This should also be sensitive to gender.
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Chapter
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Stove design
Combustion, heat transfer and heat loss, raw materials and stove parts
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Chapter
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Stove design
Combustion, heat transfer and heat loss, raw materials and stove parts
Combustion
Combustion inputs and outputs
Heat, oxygen and fuel are necessary to light a fire and for combustion to take place. It is not possible to light a candle not at the wick because only the tip of the candle has a small amount of wax which can be melted and further heated to ignition temperature. Any other place on the candle will only result in progressive melting of the wax. The heat provided is used up and not available to heat a larger mass of molten wax above its ignition temperature.
Figure 1: When lighting a candle, oxygen is in the air, the fuel is the wax and the heat is contained in the flame of the matchstick.
Heat, carbon dioxide and ash, which is the non-burnable matter in fuel, are the end products of complete combustion. Complete combustion results in the emittance of colourless gases (not black), the absence of carbon monoxide, and no tendency for the flame to blacken the pot. Incomplete combustion results in more and different gaseous emissions (unburnt volatiles or particles) which are the cause of more pollution and the consequent health problems. Carbon monoxide, which normally becomes carbon dioxide through the process of complete combustion is emitted when combustion is incomplete, as is soot. Carbon monoxide is the cause of serious health ailments, including poisoning. See page 9-10.
So what about stove design?
The combustion chamber of a stove must have entrances for air and fuel. Large pieces of fuel might need to be cut up for easier lighting.
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The amount of smoke, and especially black smoke which blackens pots is a very rough indication of the quality of combustion. Carbon monoxide can also be measured. A stove design must include channels of smoke evacuation. This does not necessarily mean a chimney; smoke can escape with small gaps between the pot and pothole.
Factors which influence combustion

There are a number of factors which influence combustion. These include:
1) the type of biomass used 2) the relationship between air and biomass 3) the heat of the flames 4) the way of supplying more biomass 5) the supply of primary and secondary air
Biomass Biomass includes straw, leaves, twigs, agricultural residues, dung, sawdust, peat, wood and charcoal. Almost all biomass is a primary fuel, which means it occurs naturally and does not undergo any processing. Charcoal and biomass briquettes are secondary fuels. All biomass fuels are solids. Liquid and gaseous fuels are easier to light and give cleaner combustion than solids. They have very little or no ash. Solid fuels are more difficult to combust. There are many different types of biomass. Their composition is very similar, only the percentages of certain components varies. All biomass contains moisture, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and ash. Fresh biomass contains more than 50% moisture. When left out in the open it dries and moisture content can fall to about 20%. Straw and loose biomass dry faster than logs of wood due to the larger exposed surface area. Biomass with a lot of moisture will emit more smoke and be harder to ignite because the heat provided is used to evaporate the water content before ignition temperature can be reached. This lowers the temperature of the stove and results in poor combustion. Biomass with a lot of moisture will emit more smoke and be harder to ignite. Therefore drier
Figure 2: Provision for drying space near, or part of, the stove may be necessary in order to dry wet biomass.
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biomass will combustion. result in cleaner
Compounds such as carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, are released during combustion as volatiles, which include soot and carbon monoxide. When these volatiles mix with oxygen, they burn. Therefore it is not really the biomass which burns! More volatiles result in more flame.
Figure 3: Examples of a wood (right) and charcoal (left) stove.
Because wood has more volatiles than charcoal, larger flames Ash is the part of biomass which cannot result. The combustion chamber needs to be taller. be burnt. Biomass which contains more ash, such as loose residues, emit less heat. Ash and unburnt charcoal should be removed after use otherwise they will absorb heat, especially when igniting new biomass and delay the onset of sustained combustion. Furthermore these may block the flow of air in the stove. Ash which is black indicates that carbon has been left unburned. Ash is useful for cleaning cooking utensils as it reacts with fat to form suds. Also, ash can be used as fertilizer. Black ash indicates that carbon has been left unburned.
Stoves must be designed with the type of biomass used in mind. If biomass with high moisture content is used more air flow is needed. A stove will need a larger fuelbox opening, a grate, and/or more air holes. As a rule of thumb, more distance is provided between the fuel and the bottom of the pot for fuels with more volatiles than for those fuels which have less volatiles. A stove should be designed so that ash can be easily removed, especially stoves for biomass fuels with high ash content, such as loose residues. Also, black ash is an indication of lower quality combustion. Types of biomass
Wood
Wood is either soft or hard (if wood pieces of the same shape and size are weighed, the hardwood will be heavier). Hardwood (i.e. acacia) gives more charcoal and burns slowly while softwood (i.e. pines) burns faster and leaves less charcoal. Softwood also produces more soot and tar than hardwoods. Thus, a chimney must be cleaned more often. So, if the choice is available, first light the stove with small pieces of softwood and once the stove is hot and the fire is burning well, hardwood can be added. If no choice is
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available, then the fire is initiated with small and thin pieces of wood and then larger pieces can be added. A wood block cut into sticks will substantially increase the surface area and will result in easier heating and release of volatiles. This means fast burning with good combustion. Wood cut along the fibre will give a better flame because heat is conducted towards its cooler parts. Placing wood vertically is a good way to make starting a fire easier. This way the initial flame can heat other pieces of wood and there are enough empty spaces for air circulation.
If users cut wood into small/short pieces a firebox door could be used to increase efficiency.
Figure 4: This stove can be used for wood or charcoal. The use of the fuel door increases efficiency. But it makes woodfuel preparation more laborious and it hinders observation and tending of the fire.
Briquettes
Briquettes are densified biomass. Solid briquettes decrease surface area and porosity and may be very hard to burn unless they are broken into small pieces or thin disks.
For the same size of stove, briquettes will need more air (because of higher mass) and high temperature because with less porosity the release of volatiles is difficult at lower temperatures.
Charcoal
Charcoal has few volatiles, but emits more carbon monoxide. This situation of fewer volatiles and emitted carbon monoxide results in the blue flames. In general flames are shorter than with other biomass. Charcoal also gives higher stove temperatures.
Since there are few volatiles in charcoal, the space between the charcoal bed and the pot can be as short as possible. This way heat
Figure 5: The cross-section of a grate in a charcoal stove. Charcoal stoves need to have grates.
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transfer can be maximized. A grate made of insulated materials, such as fired clay, should be used. However it is not uncommon for such grates to crack after two to three months of use. Therefore it is best if they are replaceable. An openable air inlet door can be used to control the fire power. If sufficient air is not available above the fuel bed (secondary air) carbon monoxide will escape. In fact, charcoal needs almost twice the amount of air than wood for complete combustion. Charcoal stoves are usually lightweight, portable, have one fire per pot and have no chimney. The walls and bottom of the stove should be insulated.
Loose biomass
Straw or other similar loose biomass can be compacted or tied in bundles for better use. If the are not tied up, the large surface area means faster burning with big flames for a short time. Tied in bundles, burning is more controlled. Loose biomass such as straw and rice husks have high ash content (emit less heat) and low charcoal. The ash can block connection channels.
The accumulation of ash in loose biomass stoves can be taken care of by raising the connecting tunnel above the bottom of the firebox, or alternatively users trained to keep the passageway clear of the ash.
Figure 6: A loose residues stove is prone to ash accumulation. A raised connection tunnel helps the problem.
Wetter fuels
Plant residues and wet fuels require more air to burn.
It is normal to introduce secondary air into the design.
Figure 7: In this stove design primary air is the bottom arrow. The two top arrows represent secondary air.
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Chapter 3: Stove design Cowdung
Cowdung are used as fuel in certain places, but not everywhere. Cowdung cakes are difficult to burn. They cannot be heated easily and hence take a long time to ignite. During this period they smoke extensively. However cowdung retains high heat and burns slowly. Because of this some communities use cowdung for food which requires slow cooking. In cases where it is used it is advisable to make the cakes as thin as possible, as they dry fast and offer more surface area per unit weight (giving quicker ignition and reducing the smoky period). Cowdung can be used for fertilizer and its use as fuel may detract from soil nutrition. Size and shape of biomass Three forms of the same wood (a log, a pile of wood shavings and a pile of sawdust) have different porosity and different exposed surface areas for the same weight.
Figure 8: Different sizes and shapes of The surface area of the log is relatively small and the the same biomass have different porosity is minimal. When heated with a match stick at combustion characteristics. any point, the heat gets dissipated across the surface of the block and covers a large mass. The mass is too large and the match stick cannot heat the wood above its ignition temperature. However, if the block is heated by a big flame for a sufficient amount of time, it will start burning.
The porosity of the sawdust pile is greater than the wood block. The pores are very small, though, and filled with stagnant air. When the pile is heated with a match stick, a small mass of the sawdust on the outer surface gets heated up beyond ignition temperature and there may be a tiny flame. Since the flame is small and confined to the surface, the major part of the heat gets dissipated and only a small amount becomes available to heat the fresh sawdust. Thus, temperatures are low and the sawdust begins to smoulder with heavy smoke. Combustion inside the pile is not possible, because air cannot diffuse into the pile. If such a pile has been smouldering for a time and is disturbed with a stick, you may see a sudden flame. This is because air can suddenly penetrate into the pile. The wood shavings are larger pieces and each piece is thin in size. Thus, they have a large surface area per unit mass. The pile made with these shavings is much larger in size than that of sawdust. The pile also has more porosity with large enough openings for air to move inside freely. When a match is brought close to any part of the wood shavings pile, that part acts as an individual piece, offering large surface area and small mass. The surface area absorbs large amounts of heat. More heat transfer and less mass to be heated up results in faster heating of the material beyond its ignition temperature. Once ignition temperature is reached release of volatiles is easy because of the large surface area. The release of volatiles is quick also because of fast heating rates. The quick release of volatiles gives a large flame, which may last for just a short time because of low mass, but the flame is sufficient to further heat the other adjacent pieces of wood shavings rapidly, resulting in
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larger flames. Air easily penetrates the pile because of the larger openings (greater porosity). Biomass such as straw, broad leaves, and tall grasses fall into the same category as wood shavings.
A wood block cut into sticks will substantially increase the surface area and will result in easier heating and release of volatiles and fast burning with good combustion. Fine, loose biomass such as rice husks behave like the sawdust pile. Therefore, special allowances must be made for the infusion of air into the biomass. This can be accomplished with the use of special grates.
Stages of combustion
Stage 1 The heat provided is used to evaporate the moisture from the biomass (at about 100C). Stage 2 When fuel temperature reaches between 200C and 350C the carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are released in the form of volatiles because of the decomposition of the biomass. Volatiles are released at the lower part of the flame and include fine carbon particles (soot) and carbon monoxide. Stage 3 The volatiles mix with the oxygen of air and ignite at temperatures in excess of about 450C. Soot and carbon monoxide burn to carbon dioxide. Soot burns with a yellow flame, radiating heat and light. Some of this heat is transmitted back to the fuel, releasing more volatiles. More volatiles released results in a larger flame and produces more heat. This process becomes self-sustaining until all the volatiles have been burnt. So, biomass itself does not burn - the volatiles contained in it are what burns. Stage 4 The charcoal, which is what remains after the volatiles have been burned, will burn if there is sufficient air at the fire bed and the temperature is around 800C. Because of the high temperature the carbon in the charcoal gives off more carbon monoxide. However the carbon monoxide will burn to carbon dioxide provided sufficient oxygen is available just above the fuel bed. The blue flame which results with the burning of charcoal is due to the low content of volatiles and the burning of carbon monoxide. The blue flame does not give much light, as the yellow flame does. The charcoal burns even after the volatiles have been used up and ash remains in the stove.
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For charcoal fuel, only stage four of combustion occurs.
The fire requires air both at the firebed (primary air) and above the firebed (secondary air) for volatiles to burn.
Burning of volatiles
Volatiles need heat, oxygen, space and time in order to ignite. If any of these is insufficient, the volatiles will leave the stove without igniting or give a poor flame.
In a biomass stove, if a large amount of charcoal remains after the fire is burnt out, it indicates insufficient oxygen or heat at the fuel bed. In other words, the stove is not well designed or has not been well operated. Heat If the flame temperature is too low more smoke is produced. The smoke includes carbon monoxide and soot.
Figure 9: The importance of heat for complete combustion is seen when placing a cold object in the flame. The temperature of the flame decreases and unburnt soot is deposited on the object due to incomplete combustion. This process is similar to the blackening of a cooking pot when placed over a stove with a poor fire.
If the pot is too close to the flame, the flame temperature will drop and the fire will be more smoky with more carbon monoxide and soot. Increasing the height of the combustion chamber improves the quality of the flame and less carbon monoxide and soot are emitted. Oxygen When designing a stove the amount of air needed and the way of supplying the air are important to think about. An open fire in a windy location looses heat and is inefficient and hard to keep burning, while stoves which do not allow
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Figure 10: A candle provides some clues to the effects of oxygen on combustion. In the outer zone of the flame, where sufficient oxygen is available the released carbon burns almost completely. The next layer is characterized by a deficiency of oxygen. The innermost layer is black and contains carbon and gases. There is no combustion due to a lack of oxygen.
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enough air in the combustion chamber are also inefficient, hard to light and difficult to keep burning.
Adding oxygen or air supply to the fuelbed will increase the fire temperature whereas adding air to the flames will decrease the temperature but increase turbulence.
Figure 11: The role of oxygen in combustion is very important. A candle with too much air goes out just as a candle with not enough air goes out. Likewise for stove design.
Because of the necessity to burn carbon monoxide so it becomes carbon dioxide a charcoal fire needs oxygen both at the fuel bed (primary air) and just above the fuel bed (secondary air). Insufficient secondary air will give off carbon monoxide. A pot to close to the flames not only decreases temperature, but interferes with the mixing of oxygen and flames.
Space and time Volatiles and air should mix thoroughly and under high temperatures for good and sustained combustion. This can be achieved if the air flow through the combustion chamber is slightly turbulent.
Figure 12: Turbulent air flow improves combustion.
Turbulence can be created by forcing air (fanning the fire) or providing baffles or adding secondary air.
Figure 13: One way of increasing turbulence is to add baffles. In these stove designs the baffles are the bumps below the pots. 48
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Chapter 3: Stove design Incomplete combustion
Smoke Lower temperatures result in more smoke. Smoke contains unburnt volatiles, unburnt soot and carbon monoxide, in addition to other particles, some of which are toxic. For example benzo(a)pyrene is carcinogenic. These emissions have serious health consequences, in addition to creating a polluted and uncomfortable working environment for women cooks. See page 9-10 for more information on the health consequences of smoke. Condensation of unburnt particles on the roof, walls and other household items make them dull and black. Many times, the condensate droplets fall down from the roof and contaminate food. Soot Some carbon particles among the released volatiles take the form of soot. If these are not burnt in the upper part of the flame, black smoke results. Pots will be blackened and more work is created for the women who clean the pots. Thus, the blackening of the bottom and sides of a cooking pot is due to incomplete combustion. Blackening of pots usually occurs in the early stages of combustion when the fire is not well lit. Soot deposits in a chimney require more frequent cleaning and increase fire hazards. Soot deposits on walls and ceilings are unhygienic, as they can fall into food being prepared or cooked. Carbon monoxide Some carbon particles among the released volatiles take the form of carbon monoxide. If these are not burnt into carbon dioxide in the upper part of the flame, carbon monoxide will be released. Inefficiency When combustion is not complete, more fuel is used. This means more stress on fuel collectors, primarily women and/or more stress on household economy where fuel is purchased. Because of lower temperatures, more time is needed for cooking.
Figure 14: Black smoke is an indication of unburnt carbon particles.
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Heat transfer and heat loss

Heat transferred from an area of high temperature to an area of lower temperature through a solid is called conduction. Heat transferred through liquids and gases (such as air) is convention. Heat transferred through space is radiation.
Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of heat through solids. Conductivity Conductivity depends on the structure of a material. In general, if the material is porous, like cork or wood, it has a lower conductivity (increased time for heat transfer), than a densely structured material such as glass. Clay, for example, is termed an insulator of heat and steel is termed a conductor of heat. See below for a table of materials and their conductivity.
Material METALS Aluminium alloys Steel alloys NON-METALLIC Clay Cement Water Brick Ash (hardwood) Cotton Charcoal Wood felt Glass wool Air
STOVE WALL
POT
STOVE WALL
FIRE
Figure 1: Conductive heat transfer in a cookstove is limited to: heat loss from the walls of the stove and transfer of heat through the thickness of the cooking pot.
Conductivity (W/mK) 110 - 200 12 - 70
1.28
conductivity stoves store a lot of heat but warm up and down 0.38 - 0.52 slowly. Because of this they are 0.17 - 0.21 good for long cooking periods. 0.059 Metals are better for short cooking periods. 0.05
0.597 0.05 0.04 0.0262
0.8 - 1.4 Figure 2:High mass/ low
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Air has the lowest conductivity and therefore it is a very good insulator. One can use air to prevent heat losses. For example a double metal wall stove sealed with air is good for conservation of Figure 3: For a double walled heat. Rice husk ash mixed metal stove the gap can be with a small amount of clay for filled with air, or a light binding, vermiculite, perlite, insulation material such as diatomite, rockwool, glass vermiculite. wool and other commercial insulators can significantly improve performance of stoves at reasonable cost, especially for small stoves.
Figure 4: In addition to providing insulation, the outside surface of metal stoves should be kept polished or painted with a low emissivity paint (such as aluminium paint) or nickel and chrome plating so as to decrease radiation losses.
Because of heat conductivity, metal cooking pots will transfer more heat. Also because of heat conductivity, metal pots will loose more heat through the sides not exposed to hot gases. However, there still appears to be some fuel savings if metal pots are used. Coating metal pots to protect their shire or allowing a thick layer of soot to build up on the outside increases the conductive resistance to heat transfer and result in slower cooking and higher fuel consumption. Mass The mass of the material also determines how much heat is stored in it. In terms of stove materials, a stove with lower heat conductivity and high mass, such as a big mud stove, can store a lot of heat.
High mass/low conductivity stoves can be used for space heating as heat loss occurs slowly over time. But such stoves also take longer to heat up. A high mass/low conductivity stove can be used for low density loose fuels, as they will keep warm for longer periods of time, thus decreasing the amount of time necessary to heat loose fuels to their ignition temperature (usually longer and more smoky for loose fuels). In order to decrease heat loss through thick clay or concrete walls it is desirable that the density is decreased (less heat is absorbed) for clay stoves by the addition of low density insulators such as grain husk, rice husk and sawdust.
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Rate of conduction The rate of heat transfer to the pot by conduction increases with:
1) increased contact area between the hot gases and the pot 2) increased temperature difference between the hot gases
and the pot

3) increased conductivity of the pot material 4) reduced thickness of the pot Figure 5: This is a high mass stove used for a low density fuel--rice husks. The stove is cement but has been insulated with a clay mixture.
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Chapter 3: Stove design Convection
Convection is the transfer of heat through liquids and gases. In a cookstove convection occurs from the fuel bed to the outside surface of the pot with movements of hot gases and flames. Similarly stove side walls loose heat to the surrounding area by the movement of air around the stove. Rate of convection The rate of convective heat transfer can be increased by:
1) increasing the contact area between the hot gases Figure 6: Increasing convective heat transfer to the pot is the single most important way to increase the heat efficiency of a biomass burning stove.
and pot
2) increasing the temperature difference between the
hot gases and pot

3) increasing the velocity of the hot gases around the Figure 7: By sinking pots into the stove body hot gases are allowed to rise up around the pot so as to have maximum contact with the pot area. Velocity of gases is also increased by the small channels at the side of the pot.
pot
Increasing temperature
The temperature of the hot gases can be done by controlling the amount of outside air that enters the stove, cutting the wood into small pieces so that an air inlet door can be manipulated, insulating the stove walls to avoid heat loss and increase heat capacity of the stove.
Increasing exposed pot area
Increasing the exposed surface to flame for heat transfer implies that as much of the pot area should be exposed to the hot gases as possible. To achieve this we can design a multiple pot stove and the hot gases should be allowed to rise up around the pots so as to have maximum contact with the entire pot area.
Increasing velocity of gases
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The velocity of hot gases around the pot can be increased by reducing the flow area for the gases. This can be done by using baffles which direct the flames from the sides of the stove to the center of the pot. Or designing a pothole which creates small channels on the sides of the pot where hot gases flow.
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Chapter 3: Stove design Radiation
Radiation is heat transferred through space; it needs neither solids, liquids, or moving gases to travel. Below the grate of a cookstove, there is extreme heat even though the hot gases are moving up and away from this area. This effect is due to radiative heat transfer from the fuel bed. Similarly, the radiation from the flames to the fuel keeps the fuel above ignition temperature for good combustion. Emissivity and absorptivity
Figure 8: Radiation is by far the most common way by which heat is transferred in the fire chamber.
Emissivity values are useful to determine which materials will radiate more or less heat. For example, aluminium walls will radiate much less heat than those made from steel sheets. Similarly, absorptivity values are useful to determine which materials will absorb more or less heat. The body of a car standing in the sun will be hotter than the glass window as glass will allow the heat to pass through and not absorb it. Below is a table of emissivity/absorptivity values.
Material METALS Aluminium Aluminium, paint Chrome Iron Nickel Stainless steel Tin PAINTS White Black matte .925 .970 .039 - .13 .2 - .4 .058 .128 - .85 .041 .18 - .87 .08 Emissivity
OTHER Brick, mortar, plaster Concrete Fired clay Refractory brick Sand .93 .94 .91 .29 - .98 .90
Rate of radiation The rate of radiation can be increased by:

1) increasing the temperature of the fuel bed
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2) reducing the distance between the pot and the fuel bed 3) increasing the area of the pot projected perpendicular to the fuel bed
Radiative heat transfer is more important when the fuel is charcoal since burning charcoal tends to radiate heat away from the pot towards the stove bottom.
Increasing fuelbed temperature
The walls and bottom of the stove should be insulated. Also radiation back to the fuel bed is also very important, so polished and clean pots are recommended.
Distance of fuelbed to pot
To increase the radiative heat transfer from the fuel bed to the pot, the pot can be lowered closer to the fire. However, the pot should not be lowered to the extent that it starts interfering with the combustion. In other words, this may quench the flame, thereby emitting excessive soot.
Increasing pot area
The pot size can be increased, relative to the fuel bed.
Heat loss
Heat loss must be minimized in good stove design. Loss of heat from excessive boiling Carefully controlling the fire can reduce energy use. Excessive boiling for cooking is not desirable. During simmering or excessive boiling, the temperature remains the same as does the cooking time. Excessive heat input will only result in loss of heat due to evaporation of water. High fire power is necessary to bring the pot to boil (for heating) and low fire power necessary to allow it to simmer. This means that the stove should be controllable. The cook should control the fire by putting or taking out requisite amounts of wood. Controlling the fire power by adjusting the air supply is not very effective in wood fires when it may produce irritating smoke because volatiles do not mix with enough air to combust completely; it is more effective in charcoal fires when volatiles are few and the combustion of charcoal depends on the air supply. Therefore, a wood fire should be controlled by removing wood from the fire or extinguishing it or initially adding just enough wood so that it turns to charcoal by the time low fire power is needed.
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Another way to do this is to use a tightly fitting lid or a pressure cooker whenever possible. The pressure cooker works by increasing the boiling temperature of water. At the increased temperature, food cooks faster. Energy loss from incomplete combustion The energy losses due to incomplete combustion are relatively small. However, a greater problem of incomplete combustion is the emission of poisonous carbon monoxide, irritating unburnt volatiles and sooty flames. Use a grate. The grate should be frequently cleaned of ashes so that the air flow is not blocked. Make sure the pot is not quenching the flames. Insulate the combustion chamber to raise interior temperature and provide quality combustion. Too much or too little air should be avoided. Air inlet hole sizes should be optimized. Some pieces of charcoal and hot ash should be allowed to stay in the compartment below the grate. This will help in preheating of air entering below the grate (primary air). Provision for controlled secondary air (air close to the flame above the grate) should be provided. This creates the necessary turbulence for efficient combustion of volatiles. Adequate heat capacity is essential for those stoves which are meant to be used with low density fuels like loose biomass. This will not allow the stove to cool down and enable the fresh fuel to get combusted without much smoke.
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Raw materials
Choosing stove materials
When choosing stove materials, a number of questions should be asked. For example:
1) What material is used at present for stoves? Is there a reason for using this material
(user preference, costs, expertise available, etc.)? A cook more familiar with a material will be able to better repair and maintain the stove.
2) Are the raw materials for stove making available everywhere and at any time of the
year?
3) What are the costs of the raw materials (include transport costs, etc.)?
Are there
differences in cost for different qualities of raw materials?

4) Are these stove materials durable or will they need replacement after some time? 5) Safety. Metal stoves are normally very hot and may be dangerous with small children. If
during cooking a lot of stirring is necessary, a heavy stove may be required.

6) Cooking habits. For dishes which require longer cooking
periods a stove with high mass is more appropriate, while for quick cooking tasks, other and more lightweight stoves are better suited.
7) Portability. If cooking is done in different places (indoor
and outdoor) a lightweight stove is required.

8) Climate. If the stove also needs to be used for space Figure 1: Do stoves need to be portable?
heating a high mass stove may be preferred.

9) Are stoves made by the users themselves or are they
bought in the market (i.e. made by skilled stove makers)? High mass stoves normally need to be constructed on site (usually by the users).
10) Local technical expertise. Are potters or metal workers
locally available and do they have the skills and time to make (and sell) stoves?
11) Design. Some materials are easier to work into shapes
than others.
Figure 2: Can local technical expertise be used for a stove of a certain material? 58
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12) Cost of fabrication and transport of stoves.
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Chapter 3: Stove design Soil
Soil is made of sand, silt and clay with rock fragments or stones and organic matter. Sand Sand is visible and feels gritty when rubbed between the fingers. It acts to anchor the finer clay particles, and does not shrink when dry. However if there is too much sand the stove will be soft and fragile. It will fall apart. In general the ratio of sand to clay should be 2:1. Silt Silt is not visible and feels smooth and powdery when rubbed between the fingers. Water does not affect its characteristics. Silty soil leaves a talc-like, powdery residue on the hands. It will not stick to your fingers when wet. In general silt is undesirable in a stove. If there is too much silt there is flaking of the surfaces in contact with the flame and hot gases. Clay Clay cannot be seen with the eye. Clay soil feels sticky and greasy when wet. Clay has a plastic quality (stickiness) which is very valuable for a stove. If there is too little clay the stove will crumble. However, too much clay will result in cracking (excessive shrinking) when it is dried or heated. Finding clay Clay comes in many different colors. The most accurate source of information about clay sources are local people, especially potters, well diggers, farmers, etc. Often clay is found in flat, areas. First dig 30 - 50 centimeters deep to get rid of the first soil layer, which usually contains roots and other organic matter. It may be necessary to dig deeper to hit the first layer of clay. Testing clay There are various ways to test a soil for its suitability for stoves.
1) Take a handful of clay and rub it in between the fingers. Soil with a lot of sand will feel
Figure 3: The differing proportions of sand, slit and clay in any soil will influence its suitability as a stove material.
gritty while soil with a lot of clay will feel very smooth and sticky.
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2) Rub the thumb over some moist soil which has just been dug. Does it leave a smooth,
polished surface? If so, this means the soil has a moderate amount of clay (20% or more).
3) Take a small piece of the dry clay and bite it with your teeth. Soils with lots of clay feel
smooth and powdery. If it is dry, it will stick when lightly touched to the tongue. Silty soils will grate between the teeth, but feel much smoother than sand. Sandy soils grate between the teeth and create an unpleasant feeling.
4) Add water to the clay and knead it into a paste (do not add too much water). Mix the
clay with the water till the clay becomes soft enough to leave a clear fingerprint when squeezing the clay but not so soft so that it sticks to the fingers or hands. Try to form a cube with the soil (size about 2x2x2 centimeters). Soils with about 5% or more clay form reasonably cohesive cubes.
5) Roll the soil into a thread with a diameter of about 1
centimeter. If you can without much cracking, the soil probably has 10-15% clay or more.
6) Bend the thread into a ring around a finger. If you can do Figure 4: Does the soil crack or break off?
this without the soil breaking, the soil has over 25% clay.
Figure 5: The ring test. The higher the clay content the firmer the ring. 7) Another test which can be done to check
the amounts of sand, silt and clay in a soil sample is a kind of sedimentation test. Mix a clay sample with three to four times as much water in a jar, shake it well, put the bottle down and let the clay settle by itself for at least an hour or so. Observe how the clay has settled. Normally the sand, which is the heaviest, will settle first and form a layer in the bottom of the bottle. The next layer will be silt, while the clay particles will settle last. The height of the layers will give an indication of the amounts (in percent) of sand, silt and clay in a soil. If the clay layer is more than 50% of the total Figure 6: The sedimentation test. Layers from the bottom up will be sand, silt and clay. height, the soil should not be used unless more sand or other coarse materials like rice husks, sawdust, ground up bricks, fibers, etc. are added to the soil.
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8) Most importantly, the local people will know a lot about the source and quality of clay and
for which it has been used or can be used. Improvements to soil

1) If the clay found is not pure enough it may be necessary to wash the clay. This is done
by digging a hole, i.e. one meter wide by half a meter deep, and filling the hole with the clay and water. Make a second hole close to the first, connected by a channel. The clay in the first hole is mixed with a shovel or hoe. The sand will be separated from the clay. Use the shovel to push the water mixed with clay (top level) to the second hole. Leave this to sit until the clay settles at the bottom and the water at the top is fairly clear. Siphon or bucket this water out.
2) For mud stoves, the mud can be mixed with rice husks or another suitable material/grain
husk. After preparation (breaking down large and coarse particles, adding water, etc. and properly mixing it) this mud mixture should then be left well covered with plastic sheets for some time (preferably at least one week and if possible in the shade). Leaving the mixture this way will help in bacteria growth within the mud which improves the quality of the mud mixture as the moisture can soak into the mud while the bacteria can break down the organic matter in the clay (roots, etc.). Adding other materials to reduce shrinkage such as crushed brick dust and/or fibers such as coconut coir, sisal, grasses, pine needles, etc. will also help in making a stronger stove construction material and will reduce cracking.
3) Add cement to the material or apply to the surface of the stove. 4) Use metal or ceramic reinforcements for critical points, i.e. fire chamber, edges of pot-
holes.
5) Sheet iron, iron plates, reinforced concrete or ceramic materials can be used for the top
of the stove. This will increase durability and stove dimensions can be standardized. However these materials raise the cost of the stove.
6) Ceramic inserts or ceramic liners can be used.
Since the dimensions of the fire chamber, internal tunnels and potholes determine energy efficiency and performance, inserts and liners can help insure that the dimensions stay the same.
7) In order to reduce heat losses and minimize heat
storage in the stove body, low density insulators such as vermiculite, perlite, diatomite, rockwool, glass wool, sawdust, etc. can be used to reduce heat loss into and through the walls of the stove.
Figure 7: This liner can be covered with a clay/mud mixture to make the final stove.
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Advantages cheap materials materials commonly available unsophisticated technology retains heat little danger of burns good for longer cooking times simple exterior repairs Disadvantages low durability without high maintenance not prestigious low strength means massive stoves heat stored in stove walls long time to heat up not appropriate for intermittent use usually must be built on site, repaired on site cost of material and builder transport quality of mud widely varies quality depends on construction; good training and follow-up necessary rarely becomes a self-sustaining business Maintenance Slow drying of the stove during construction will prevent cracks. As the stove dries small cracks can be repaired (closed) by beating the material.
Figure 8: A mud/clay stove can come in many shapes and forms.
Figure 9: Beat small cracks closed as the stove dries.
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Internal or external coatings of cement or mud offer protection from heat, abrasion and rain.
Figure 10: A big advantage to mud/clay stoves is that they are easy to repair.
If a crack forms during use, it can be repaired. Widen the crack a bit with a knife and wet it. Mix a little ash and clay with water, then fill the crack in until it is smooth.
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Chapter 3: Stove design Ceramic
Advantages can be mass produced with standardized dimensions can be quickly made relatively cheap quickly heat up easy to shape local technology; people with the skills
Figure 11: A ceramic stove.
reasonable weight portable (or fixed with a mud plaster) Disadvantages easy to break or crack if not covered in a mud/clay layer must be fired careful design and material control highly dependent on manufacturing for performance; quality control necessary quality of material highly varies large cracks usually mean stove must be replaced bulky for transport; breakage Maintenance Ceramic stoves cannot be repaired. Once broken they must be discarded unless the ceramic stove is encased in a clay/mud layer.
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Chapter 3: Stove design Brick
Advantages durable, strong good for long hours of use per day widely available Disadvantages mainly built by skilled masons usually massive cost of material and mason transport round shapes - such as for the potholes are difficult to make heavy materials
Figure 12: A brick stove is very durable.
built on site Maintenance Brick stoves can be repaired by removing bricks and applying fresh mortar. Improvements Use steel top plates and supports Use exterior cement plaster
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Chapter 3: Stove design Cement
Advantages strong can be cast in almost any shape potentially less costly overall Disadvantages cracking; cracks from heat are difficult to repair and grow with age short lifespan raw materials expensive heavy weak in withstanding tension, brittle not good for high temperatures must be made with clean ingredients following exact proportions and often use expensive moulds Maintenance Difficult to maintain unless a large part is broken away and repaired with new cement. Improvements Use wire reinforcements to help withstand tension. Insulation on the inside of the firebox will reduce stress. Brick dust and basalt aggregate can be used as additives. Insulators such as vermiculite, perlite, diatomite and rice husk increase thermal strength but decrease mechanical strength; they also decrease the weight of the stove. Insulators should be used in a 3:1 ratio with cement. Insulation on the inside with a 3:1 mix of rice-husk ash and clay reduces heat stress on the cement.
Figure 13: A cement stove, although strong, often has problems with cracking.
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Chapter 3: Stove design Metal as a stove material
There are various materials which can be used to produce metal stoves, for example sheet metal, cast iron or cast alloys such as aluminum. Metal stoves in general can be considered as strong and durable, good for space heating as the hot surface will radiate heat into the room, etc. However, if space heating is not required, an insulating layer around the stove can be applied. This will also improve the safety aspects.
Steel/sheet metal
Advantages can use old 1 - 1.5 mm gauge available at low cost from oil drums, wrecked cars, building sites and fabricators can use traditional artisans as producers quick to start, reaches a steady temperature quickly
Figure 14: A steel stove.
relatively easy to construct uniform products one of the best materials from the point of view of toughness, heat resistance and ductility durable easy to transport and store Disadvantages expensive if new quality control necessary some steel will warp under high heat flat surfaces require thick steel 1 - 1.5 mm rusts out after one to three years of high thermal stress thicker steel difficult to work with thin steal results in heat losses only simple shapes are readily fabricated
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in order to seal it is necessary to weld hot surfaces Maintenance Painting the exposed surface of a metal stove with heat resistant paint (aluminium paint) will protect the stove from corrosion. Welds are more prone to corrosion than the base metals. Portable stoves or removable pieces can be repaired or replaced at an artisans workshop Improvements Use thicker steel in areas that receive high thermal or mechanical stress such as grates, pot supports and legs. Corrosion of steel can be inhibited by using a stove enamel or lining the stove with clay.
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Chapter 3: Stove design Cast iron
Advantages the most durable material can be portable easy to start; reaches a steady temperature quickly will not warp good for space heating can be cast in complex shapes existing foundries have skills Disadvantages can crack when heated unevenly high cost, especially when stoves are made in small quantities mould makers needed for new moulds needs to be insulated if space heating is not required thinner cast iron does not have as high a lifetime fairly sophisticated manufacturing facilities required heavy hot surfaces Maintenance Painting the exposed surface of a metal stove will protect the stove from corrosion. Improvements Double walled stoves with the outside wall made thinner. The frame can be made in steel which can be welded and the stove body made of cast iron.
Figure 15: A cast iron stove is the most durable type of stove.
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Chapter 3: Stove design Cast aluminum
Advantages can be used as top plates easier to cast small aluminium foundries provide skills can be portable easy to light; reaches a steady temperature quickly Disadvantages oxidation in the firebox hot surfaces need mould maker high cost melts at 593C high heat conductivity means heat loss manufacturing requires special skill and equipment can crack if dropped Maintenance Painting the exposed surface of a metal stove with heat resistant paint (aluminium paint) will protect the stove from corrosion. Welds are more prone to corrosion than the base metals. Improvements Use caste iron for the grate and firebox lining
Figure 16: A cast aluminum charcoal stove with an ash removal door.
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Chapter 3: Stove design Chimneys
Chimneys can be made from clay pipes, sheet metal, cast iron, masonry, concrete pipes, bamboo, ferromud (chicken wire plastered with clay). Metal chimneys can be made from old tins or used/new metal sheets. Metal chimneys are prone to overheating and can be considered a fire hazard if the chimney touches or is installed close to flammable materials (wood walls from a house, etc.). Brick or clay chimneys are heavy and difficult to secure. They are unsafe for earthquake areas.
Figure 17: The lifespan of metal chimneys can be as little as six months.
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Stove parts
Combustion chamber
Fuel is burned in an enclosed space called a firebox or combustion chamber. Just by enclosing a fire and thus controlling the amount of air fed into it greatly affects the intensity of the heat and the efficiency of the burning process. A firebox too short will quench the fire, causing less perfect combustion, smoke, soot and charcoal build-up. If too high, combustion will be complete but heat transfer will be less effective. The height of the firebox should be approximately half the diameter of the pot. However this will depend also on the fuel used. See page 42 to review the influence of volatiles on flame height. In general flames dont need to be seen around the pot, although in some cultures this is taken as assurance that food is being cooked and assists in tending the fire.
Figure 1: A slightly spherical firebox allows the flames to fully develop in the combustion chamber.
Fuel entrance
The entrance into the firebox should be wide enough to insert and move the fuel, although smoke will escape if the opening is too big. The opening must be related to the type of fuel used and to the accepted method for operating the stove, even if this means efficiency is less. Closed door designs will give the highest efficiency (if air is sufficient) but these may be unacceptable to users, if users do not already chop wood into small pieces. See the figures on page 41 and 43, both closed door designs for woodfuel. Other designs for woodfuel with closed doors are included in the annex of stove designs. (Stoves 8, 22, 23, 41, and 44.)
Figure 2: A combustion chamber which slopes inward to the grate helps keep the grate covered with charcoal.
Figure 3: A 5 - 10 centimeter long entrance arch reduces the chance of smoke coming back out.
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Chapter 3: Stove design Grate
A grate made of metal or another material holds the burning fuel. Besides supporting fuel, the function of the grate is to allow primary air through its openings The primary air is preheated before reaching the fuel. The openings should be as large as possible. However, this lowers the strength of the grate. Open area is necessary for wet or poor quality fuels. Charcoal stoves must use grates. See page 44. Unless made of cast iron or thick steel a grate can break or burn out in a year. Another functional requirement of a good grate is that it should not allow the accumulation of ash on the grate; the ash should automatically fall into an ash pot without shaking the grate. For loose fuels, a special type of grate is necessary. See page 46 for why a special grate must be used. A step grate inclined at a 45 angle is acceptable. Or a piece of perforated iron sheet placed almost vertically for rice husks. See figures on pages 44 and 52.
Figure 4: A step grate inclined at a 45 angle can be used for loose fuels. A grate added to a simple shielded fire is one of the simplest and effective improvements that can be made. Stoves which do not use grates give more charcoal, an indication of incomplete fuel consumption. Grateless stoves tend to emit more smoke unless they are made from high mass, insulatory materials.
However, use of grates is not desirable for stoves requiring long unattended simmering, or if the user wishes to leave hot embers in the ashes to facilitate easy relighting of the stove. Often stoves which need more charcoal for baking do not have grates. Sometimes clay stoves do not use a grate so as to reduce the cost of the stove and the need for special production facilities or equipment. When a grate is not used it is common practice to leave a thick bed of ash on the firebox floor. This is a good insulation for the charcoal and the fire, and makes the stove easier to light and keep going.
Liners
Liners, for potholes and/or connecting channels can be mass produced and therefore quality controlled. As these areas are among the most important for cookstove efficiency, using liners is one way to help insure this efficiency is a real benefit in the field.
Figure 5: A type of clay liner. See figure on page 61 for another clay liner design.
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Chapter 3: Stove design Tunnels, baffles, gaps
Baffles are used to shape the firebox and/or tunnels. They are used to prevent the direct escape of hot gases, to create turbulence and to allow the gases to burn more completely. Baffles also redirect the flow of hot gases around the pot. Baffles placed at the exit of the combustion chamber can redirect flame and gases back to the fuel, thereby accelerating the cooking process. See page 48. Baffles, either flat, round, rectangular, spherical or wedge shaped below the second and third pothole will improve combustion. The baffle should end partway underneath the pot. For a two pothole stove small gaps of 2 - 4 centimeters between the pot and baffle increase heat transfer to the second pot. For more than two pots, the pot-to-baffle gaps must be larger (4-6 centimeters) to allow for adequate gas flow through the stove. See page 48.
Figure 6: A large tunnel that angles steeply upwards to the second pot will promote a good draught and more even heat distribution. The tunnel should be large to allow for a build-up of ash.
Potholes
To maximize the heat transfer area of the pan and at the same time to minimize the heat loss area of the pan and stove, it is desirable to sink the pan inside the stove body. The pan can be sunk as high as possible with respect to the height of the pan. If a chimney is provided, then no gap is necessary between the pothole and the pot. A small channel between the sides of the pot and the stove walls allows hot gases move up and transfer heat to the pot. If the gap is small it will give high gas velocity and better convective heat transfer, but at the same time offer greater resistance to the movement of the gasses. Further, this space can be blocked by soot particles. For chimneyless stoves this gap should be wider. It is important to be aware that these types of potholes generally restrict the variability of pots that can be used.
Figure 7: Different sized baffle gaps. Baffles improve combustion but the gaps between baffles and pots must be adequate to allow hot gases to flow through the stove.
Figure 8: The stove on the right maximizes heat transfer to the pot and minimizes heat loss from the pot. How?
The simplest and cheapest approach is to design the potholes so that the most commonly used large pots have most of their base exposed to the flame. Small pots and tea kettles can be supported on top of steel rings, and the largest, less often used pots can sit on the
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pothole, but will have a relatively small portion of the base exposed. should be spaced so that the two largest pots most commonly used together can fit on the stove without touching.
Figure 11: Design potholes so that the most commonly used pots In multipot stoves, the cooking have most of their base exposed to the flame. pots should be placed in such a manner that they fit closely into the openings. The first pothole should be as large as possible to maximize the heat transfer area. The second pothole does not Figure 9: It is also possible to design potholes for use with different need to be as large because the sized pots. A tapered pot hole can accommodate a wide variety of hot gases will naturally rise pots. Potholes around the pot. Raising the second pot and increasing the exit gaps helps combustion, especially with wet or poor quality fuels. When using a multipot stove, do not keep any hole uncovered during cooking. Cover the other holes with a metal sheet or tile.
If large pots are used frequently to prepare animal feed it may be necessary to design a special stove in addition to the domestic use stove.
Pot supports
Pot supports are inward or upward projecting rods or supports (three or four depending on pan size) over which the bottom of the pot rests. They should be as thin as possible so as not to obstruct the flow of gases but strong enough to withstand the load of the cookpot. These can also be made in a vertical position in clay or fired clay. If the gap between the pot and pothole as created by the pan supports is too small, hot gases will not be able to escape, however if it is too big heat transfer to the pan will be affected. Pot supports are not always used. For example, inward slopping potholes provide enough support.
Figure 10: A stove design without pot supports.
Figure 12: Pot supports. Since these are constantly exposed to the flame, these should be made of heat resistant materials.
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Chapter 3: Stove design Primary air
If a grate is used, undergrate air can enter through a primary air entrance. Primary air injected at an angle will promote swirls for fuel and air mixing. More air holes than required can be provided, with a provision to block some of these.
Secondary air
Air holes for secondary air (above the grate) are carefully sized and positioned. Otherwise the flame can be quenched. These holes are much smaller than the holes meant for primary air and provide air at the back or sides of the firebox. Secondary air is especially necessary for wet and poor quality fuels.
Figure 13: If the stove is to be used for slow burning the primary air entrance should have a door, such as a brick, and it must be designed to allow easy removal of the ash.
Chimney
A chimney stove is rarely more efficient than a chimneyless stove, but chimneys do have a role in removing smoke. However, it should also be remembered that an efficient combustion process greatly reduces the smoke in the kitchen and may meet the demand for a less smoky kitchen. The functions of the chimney are to take smoke away from the cooking area and to provide a suction for letting in sufficient air required for combustion. The suction increases fuel efficiency and helps in temperature control. Two pothole stoves often have chimneys but it is possible not to use one provided the connection tunnels are large and a smoke opening is also large, so that gases can escape. With more than two potholes a chimney becomes necessary to draw out gases. The draft of the chimney is determined by the diameter of the chimney, the length of the chimney and the temperature of hot gases at the bottom of the chimney. A diameter larger than 12 - 15 centimeters is not advisable as cold air can flow down the chimney. Chimneys should normally (depending on the use of smoke in the kitchen) be taller than 2 meters and kept at least 0.75 meters above the roof or any other obstructions. When placing a chimney through a roof (especially one made of thatch) it is advisable to place a metal thimble around the chimney.
Figure 14: Small secondary air holes are better than large holes on pottery stoves, for structural reasons.
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Do use a cap above the chimney so as to improve the draught and protect against rain. A spark guard, a little screen cage, can be used to prevent sparks from flying out onto flammable roofing material. Both cap and spark guard should be removable to facilitate cleaning. The chimney should be cleaned of soot and Figure 15: A chimney cap protects against rain. tar/carbon deposits as these can cause chimney fires. A long-handled brush, or a bundle of sticks and rags attached to a long pole, can be used to clean the chimney every six months. Chimney hood A chimney is costly and does not allow the smoke to be used to dry crops, or seal the roof, or keep away insects. A chimney hood is another option.
Figure 16: Two types of chimney hood.
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Stove construction
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Stove construction
This chapter provides some examples of stoves with guidelines for construction. In this way it is hoped that the process and techniques used during construction of mud, brick and metal stoves will be understood to some degree. The designs here are simple, and can be constructed by users. More complicated metal designs and ceramic designs are best constructed by skilled masons.
Mud stove
Mud stoves are easy to build and use low-cost, local materials. Designs are easy to customize, for example adding more height or more potholes. They are almost always permanent stoves constructed right in the kitchen. However, mud stoves are often not very prestigious and the lifespan and durability of the stoves depends highly on the local soil. See page 62 for more advantages and disadvantages of mud as a stove construction material.
Materials needed
One part sand is needed to act as a filler. One part clay is needed to act as a binder. One part organic material such as sawdust, pieces of straw or rice husks is needed to act as a strengthener. One and a half part ash is needed to act as another binder.
Bricks can be used to strengthen the mouth of the combustion chamber (the fuel entrance) and/or as foundation and/or as a Zinc and clay pipes, in addition to wire, are needed if a chimney and chimney cap are
to be used. If a mud stove of 120 cm length, 60 cm width and 35 cm height is to be constructed, the amounts of the materials are: 0.5 m3 of sand 0.5 m3 of clay
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0.25 m3 of rice husks 3 buckets of ash 6 bricks 5 clay pipe sections for the chimney 0.5 m of zinc for the chimney cap 5 m of wire for the chimney
Equipment needed
hoe cement smoother big knife and/or big spoon for carving shovel zinc scissors pliers
Mixing the materials

Sift the sand and clay. If the clay is wet and difficult to sift it can be soaked in water and worked until it is smooth. This can then be used.
Figure 1: Mix the dry materials first.
If a stronger mix is required it is possible to mix the above with one part brick dust and one part animal fertilizer. Mix the dry materials first. Then add water a little at a time, mixing evenly. Then work the mixture by walking over it for about an hour until it does not stick to the feet. Be sure to turn over the mixture from time to time. It is important not to use too much water.
Making the stove

Choose the location of the stove. Form the stove using the mixture.
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Let the stove sit in the open air for 2-3 days until it is dried. Make the potholes and connection channels with a big spoon. Use the cooking pots to shape the potholes. Finish the stove by smoothing the mud surface.
Design options
Mud stove designs are almost limitless. Below are four different designs along with the cross-section of a fifth design. Refer to stoves 12, 13, 14, 29, 30 and 36 in the annex of stove designs for even more options.
Design 1: One pothole, no chimney, mud mix with straw. Size: 40 cm diameter, 30 cm height. Design 2: Two potholes, fuel hole at the side, no chimney, mud mix with rice husks. Size: 80 cm length, 40 cm width, 30 cm height.
Design 1: Two potholes, fuel hole at the front, chimney, mud mix with sawdust. Size: 90 cm length, 40 cm width, 30 cm height. 81
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Design 2: Two potholes, fuel hole at front, no chimney, mud mix with rice husks. Size: 80 cm length, 40 cm width, 30 cm height.
Figure 2: The cross-section of a possible mud/clay stove design.
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Brick stove
Like mud stoves, brick stoves are relatively easy to build; however, brick stoves have higher durability. Designs are easy to customize, for example adding more height or more potholes. Brick stoves are almost always permanent stoves constructed right in the kitchen. See page 65 for more advantages and disadvantages of brick as a stove construction material.
Materials needed
A mud mixture, like that used for the mud stove, needs to be made for the mortar to fix bricks together. One part sand is needed to act as a filler. One part clay is needed to act as a binder. One part organic material such as sawdust, pieces of straw or rice husks is needed to act as a strengthener. One and a half part ash is needed to act as another binder.
Bricks are needed for the stove body. Zinc and clay pipes, in addition to wire, are needed if a chimney and chimney cap are to be used.
Equipment needed
hoe cement smoother shovel zinc scissors pliers
Mixing the materials

The mud mixture is prepared in the same way as for a mud stove. The final mixture can be a bit more wet. Sift the sand and clay. If the clay is wet and difficult to sift it can be soaked in water and worked until it is smooth. This can then be used.
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If a stronger mix is required it is possible to mix the above with one part brick dust and one part animal fertilizer. Mix the dry materials first. Then add water a little at a time, mixing evenly. Then work the mixture by walking over it for about an hour until it does not stick to the feet. Be sure to turn over the mixture from time to time.
Making the stove

Brick stove designs require that the potholes and connection chambers are formed as bricks are laid down, as opposed to the mud stove which forms the stove body first and carves out the combustion chamber and channels later. A brick stove design will have a design for each layer of bricks. Choose the location of the stove. Lay down the first layer of bricks, fixing bricks together with the mud mixture. Cover with a layer of mud mixture. Lay down the second layer of bricks, adding mud mixture between the bricks and covering with a layer of mud mixture. Continue until all the layers are complete. The top layers may be the most difficult because of the round potholes. Bricks may need to be broken up in pieces to form the circle. Let the stove sit in the open air for 2-3 days until it is dried. Finish the stove by smoothing and adding a layer of cement or clay.
Design options
Brick stoves come in many different designs. At the right is one design, drawn layer by layer. Refer to stoves 24, 26, 27, 28, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 38, 39, 40 and 41 in the annex of stove designs for even more options.
Figure 3: Brick stove designs must be drawn layer by layer.
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Metal stove
Metal stoves normally need to be constructed by metal workers with appropriate equipment. Metal stoves are usually small and portable, making them especially well-suited to mass dissemination using market channels. However, metal stoves are more difficult to customize. See page 67-70 for more advantages and disadvantages of metal as a stove construction material. Materials, equipment and construction process vary from stove to stove.
Design options
Below is an example of a stove made of zinc for rice husk fuel. See stoves 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23 and 44 for more ideas of metal stove designs. Materials needed 1.5 sheets of zinc 3.6 m of iron rod 2 m of thin wire one clay cylinder Equipment needed zinc scissors shovel hole puncher for metal pliers ruler marker Making the stove
1) Cut the zinc into a half-circle so that it looks like a fan. The diameter should be 95 cm.
Cut out a half circle at the center of the fan circle with a radius of 10 cm. Also cut a 6 cm radius circle from the zinc.
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2) Draw half circles on the fan from 30 cm, 25
cm, 20 cm and 15 cm from the inner edge. Then draw 15 straight lines from the center towards the outer edge of the fan.
3) Make holes where these lines intersect by
using a hole puncher for metal. Also make holes in the small circle as shown.
4) Fold over 2 cm of the straight edge of the
fan. Then attach these edges together to make a cone.

5) Hang the smaller circle 3 cm from the edge
of the cone with wire.

6) Make the support for the stove by cutting
the iron rod into 3 pieces of 20 cm, 3 pieces of 35 cm 3 pieces of 32 cm and 1 piece of 93 cm. Shape the 3 pieces of 20 cm into right angles. Shape the other pieces into the stove support and weld into the shape shown below.
Figure 4: The steps involved in making the metal stove design. Cutting the zinc, punching holes in the zinc. folding over the edges, making a cone, hanging the base.
Figure 5: The three 20 cm iron bars should be made into right angles. The 93 cm bar should be made into a circle and welded. The 35 cm and 32 cm bars should be attached and welded.
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7) To make the center of the stove
use a ceramic cylinder with three supports as shown. Or cut out the zinc, fold it and make a circle as shown. Line the walls with a clay and sand mixture.
8) Put the zinc cone inside the
Figure 7: For the center of the stove a pottery cylinder can be used.
stove support.
9) Using the three pieces of iron rod
shaped into right angles, poke one arm through the holes of the zinc cone and the other tie tightly to the legs of the stove with wire.
10) Put the center cylinder inside,
resting on the iron rods. Use of the stove Pour rice husks inside the cone until it is full. Apply a little oil to the base of the cone and light it. Scrape fuel with a wire if the flame is not big enough. Place the cooking pot on top of the cylinder.
Figure 6: It is also possible to use a cylinder made from the zinc and plastered with a clay mixture.
Figure 8: The cone should be set into the iron bar stove support and the right angled iron bar attached to support the cylinder.
Figure 9: The stove when done.
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Stove dissemination
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Stove dissemination
In many stove projects stove users interested in obtaining an improved stove are dependent on the project in doing so. For example, a woman must wait for a field worker to come out to her village and build her stove and in this way is dependent on the time, funds and human resources of the implementing agency.
Local systems of technology dissemination

A woman interested in getting a stove is in the same position as a woman interested in repairing her roof or buying a kitchen knife in that she must obtain technology.
The term technology is used for skills and equipment.
Figure 1: It is better if a stove user is more independent in obtaining an improved stove and is not dependent on a project.
Imagine a woman who wants to repair her roof. She needs roof repairing technology, that is, skills and equipment to repair her roof. She or another member of the household may have these skills and equipment. Or it may be possible to hire a skilled mason to repair the roof. In these cases the skills and equipment in addition to the natural resources used are local. A woman who needs a kitchen knife can go to the market and purchase one. In this case the skills and equipment in addition to the resources used for making a knife are located outside the community and the finished product is brought to the market. These ways of obtaining technology are already in existence in most every community.
1) Villagers use their own skills and equipment. 2) Villagers hire the skills and equipment of certain skilled individuals in the area. 3) Villagers access skills and equipment, not necessarily located in their area, by use of
market channels. These three technology dissemination types depend on where skills and equipment, required natural resources are located. They also depend on the financial resources of local people. Can local people afford to pay for the services of a local mason or a final product in the market?
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Local systems and improved stoves

If possible a stove project should disseminate stoves based on an existing technology dissemination pattern. Some options include:
1) A stove user builds her own stove. 2) A stove user hires a local worker to build her stove. 3) A stove user buys an improved stove at the market.
Below these options are explored, paying attention to skills and equipment, local resources and financial resources. Some notes on appropriate stove designs are also included in addition to some advantages and disadvantages of each strategy.
User based stove dissemination

This means that users are trained in stove building and already have or are provided with necessary equipment. In addition the raw materials of the stove should be locally available, either collected or bought at the local market. Users do not need any financial resources if they collect their own materials.
Figure 2: A user may be able to build her own stove, or a trained community group may help users build their own stove.
Stove designs and construction are generally simple so that many people can master them. Local resources such as clay/mud, bricks, or metal drums are used. Stoves can be portable or permanent, as they are often constructed right in the users kitchens.
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Advantages low or no cost self-help initiative utilizes local resources builds on existing knowledge in community user can adapt stove to suit personal preferences introduces technology to the community itself which can be further developed and passed on Disadvantages large time investment for field workers to train and monitor quality of stoves dissemination depends on time of user to learn technology, collect materials and build stoves stove building process is slow (house-to-house) difficult to standardize parameters and quality
Local mason based stove dissemination

Local masons have stove building skills and equipment. The raw materials can be collected or bought locally, either by the mason or by the stove user ordering the improved stove, Users need financial resources to pay for the skills of the local mason and possibly for the stove materials.
Stove designs can be more complex and made of more types of materials, including metal and ceramic. Stoves can be portable or permanent.
Advantages relatively low cost can utilize local resources builds on skills of existing skilled workers introduces technology to certain members of local community which can be further developed and passed on users do not have to build stoves themselves income generation for stove builder quality control and standardization is easier because of fewer people involved in building and because stove builders already have some technical skills
Disadvantages dissemination depends on time stove builder can allocate to work (may be seasonal) stove building process may be slow (house-to-house) dissemination outside limited geographical area must be initiated by project
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stove builder can adapt stove to user preferences dissemination within limited geographical area not dependent on project
Market based stove dissemination

Stove building skills and equipment are centralized, perhaps located at some distance from the target community. Raw materials are often located near to the production center, but can be transported there from other areas. Users need financial resources to pay for the final product at the local market.
Complex stove designs can be standardized. Bricks and clay/mud mixes are generally not used as materials for market disseminated stoves. Stoves must be portable.
Figure 3: Clay is a common mass produced stove material.
Advantages users who do not want to make own stove can purchase it standardization of design and parameters quality control easier mass production and transport such that more stoves can be disseminated more quickly over wide areas makes use of existing commercial channels adds to existing skills of artisans adds to the product line of middlemen and retailers ongoing dissemination not dependent on project
Disadvantages price may be out of reach for poorer users cannot adapt to personal user preferences transportation costs stove artisans must be ready to produce at their own risk cannot serve diverse needs
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Which system is best?

When choosing a stove dissemination system be sure to look at the current means of obtaining local stoves. Do users make traditional stoves? Do they buy them? Are there local masons which make the stoves? It is often the case that using the same system of dissemination ensures the sustainability of a project. The user is familiar with the steps involved in acquiring an improved stove and is not dependent on the project.
What information is needed?

Find out the technical skills which exist in a community and who could potentially become stove builders. Ask potential users what they think of the idea of buying stoves at the market vs. building one themselves or having a neighbor build it? What are their reactions towards possible prices of the stove or the stove building service? Are there travelling salesmen working in the area at all? What kind of items are sold? How often do they come to the village? If possible, talk to travelling salesmen in the area.
Find out the distance to the market and what kind of items villagers usually buy at the market, how frequent the trips to the market are and how much money is usually spent. Go to the nearest market to survey existing items on the market, what they are made of and their price, including, but not limited to existing stoves (pots and pans, other kitchen utensils, kerosene stoves, price of kerosene itself). This will help in envisioning the stove in the marketplace and where it fits in in terms of price, materials, etc. This information from the market can be compared with items in the users own home, i.e. some kitchen utensils may be self-made even though corresponding items are available in the market - this could be an indication of local technical skills (indigenous knowledge) being used and can be applied to stoves. It may also indicate the current status of the village in terms of self-sufficiency vs. purchasing ready made goods. Talk to shopkeepers and to middlemen about the potential for a stove business, the potential price of a stove, the break-even point for these entrepreneurs, turnover of their products per week, villages for which the market is the main shopping center, etc. Does this market receive goods from another, larger market center? Where do the goods come from originally? What is the distance of the artisans to the market? Do they transport the goods themselves or are there middlemen who do that? How do goods get from large market centers to smaller market centers? Is there a network of middlemen who cover the
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Figure 4: Metal workers might be available within the target community. Or metal workers outside the community might be used to produce stoves and stoves sold at the market or by travelling salespeople. The producer and seller might be different.
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major and minor shopping areas? In order to gauge the potential for a market-oriented approach, the program should become intimately familiar with existing networks, practices and key people. Thus, information from the users themselves, the village, information on the relationship between the village and the market, existing technology and information from key people in the market should enable you to determine an effective dissemination strategy through a rapid appraisal process.
What to do to support the dissemination system?

Just because a stove project may be using a local dissemination channel that does not mean that the stove project can take a hands-off approach. Field workers and project planners are still necessary to support the system of dissemination. A number of interventions may be needed or helpful. These interventions depend on the system of dissemination chosen and the stove design. If stove users are stove builders then it will be necessary for field workers to train stove building skills. If the market is used to disseminate mass-produced stoves field workers play a very different role. Field workers in this case may be more involved in promotional and information dissemination activities to raise awareness about the benefits of the improved stove. Below are some examples of interventions.
Stove modification training

Stove masons can be trained not only in one design but ways to modify the improved stoves in order to suit various potential users.
Quality control
Once construction or production of stoves begins, it is important to maintain a standard quality for the stoves built such that the stove can function as intended. It will be useful to determine some basic parameters for quality in stove construction, such as the height of the first pothole is the same as the span of a hand, etc. During monitoring for quality control, it will be important to keep track of which quality problems come up frequently and which stove builder has such problems so that they can be effectively overcome.
Figure 5: It is important to check that quality stoves are continuing to be produced.
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Chapter 5: Stove dissemination Moulds
The use of moulds for stove building and for mass production is a useful way of maintaining quality as well as standardizing the stove parameters. For stoves that are built to suit specific needs, the moulds help to maintain the important characteristics of the stove, such as the combustion chamber, while still enabling the user to alter some aspects of the stove to suit her needs, such as pothole size. For mass production by stove artisans, moulds ensure that the stoves being marketed are of uniform size and shape.
Maintenance and repair

The point of any dissemination strategy should not only be that biomass users have access to stoves, but that they adopt the technology permanently. Thus, it is important for users to be able to maintain optimal performance of their stoves and repair them when necessary. An inability to maintain and repair a stove means that users may not consider it to be an appropriate technology to adopt for the long term.
Stove testing
By testing the efficiency of stoves once they are being used, the program will know if some efficiency has been compromised during dissemination or whether the user can improve the stove further to heighten efficiency. As a form of intervention, it may be worthwhile to train stove builders and artisans - if they are interested - in how to test stove efficiency such that they are actively involved in the stove development and post-sales monitoring process.
Cader development
In areas where users themselves will build their stoves, it is likely that groups of people will be involved. This is because the procurement and mixing of raw materials can require a lot of work. In order to heighten the self-reliance of the local community, it will be useful to form a cader that will organize the process. If the aim of dissemination is to transfer skills to the local community, the achievement of this goal will be further heightened if the local community actively manages the dissemination process. This is also true for the other dissemination patterns where information dissemination is important. A local cader can actively spread information among the community.
Facilities and materials

In the early stages of program development, it is important to take advantage of momentum and enthusiasm in the local community. Stove dissemination (if the stoves are made locally and not purchased) may be dependent on the availability of the necessary tools and materials. It may be worthwhile for the program to provide (lend) the necessary tools (cement smoother, etc.) and materials (sand, a wheelbarrow to transport materials, etc.) in order to get the ball rolling. After dissemination is functioning well, the community members will be more confident in the dissemination process to secure their own materials and tools.
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Chapter 5: Stove dissemination Promotion/ information dissemination
While village level person-to-person information dissemination can be very effective, it is important to maintain the spread of accurate information. To do this it will be worthwhile to develop a promotion or advertising campaign to support information dissemination. Posters, flyers, brochures, slides, photographs and film are all very useful communication media. For market-oriented dissemination strategies, a promotion campaign is especially necessary as the project may not be in direct contact with all the communities that the stove market reaches. In such a case, it is important to make use of print and visual media.
Incentives
The use of incentives for stove dissemination is somewhat controversial. Many people believe that stove users will buy stoves based on awareness and felt need and therefore gimmicks and incentives to push the purchase or adoption of the stove are not required. The use of incentives can also cloud the issue such that the program may not be sure if stoves are being accepted due to user awareness or an attractive incentive. Thus incentives should be carefully considered and, if used, should be carefully placed. For example, it may be more effective to provide an incentive to a middleman who transports the most stoves or to a stove builder who builds the most stoves as opposed to providing the incentive to a user who adopts the stove.
Public demonstrations
In areas where improved cookstoves are new and unusual, it may be necessary to physically demonstrate how the stove operates and its benefits (i.e. efficiency, reduced smoke). This can help convince a doubtful consumer before they make a purchase or before they build their own stove.
Alternative locations of promotion, skills transfer and dissemination

An appropriate dissemination strategy identifies the key people involved in technology dissemination and utilization and builds stove dissemination activities from existing channels. This strategy should for the basis of stove dissemination. However, there may be numerous other locations where stoves can be introduced, skills transferred and benefits promoted. For example, introducing ICS through local health clinics can help tie the stove to its related health benefits. Or giving a training on stove building at a local school can help to introduce energy conservation into a regular curriculum.
Small enterprise development and management

For stove builders who provide a service and artisans who mass produce portable stoves, it is important to assist them in developing stove dissemination as a business and form of income generation. It will be useful to assist them in incorporating some simple business skills into building their service or enterprise. For example, simple book-keeping, promotion and advertising, time and production management, cost analysis, etc. will enable them to
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function effectively as a business and perhaps provide a better service or product to consumers.
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Monitoring and evaluation
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Monitoring and evaluation

Benefits
In the past a big problem with stove projects is the fact that they were single-mindedly sold and promoted as energy efficient. This especially took off during the 1970s with the oil crisis. This type of promotion worked well with donors, until the connection between deforestation and household energy use came into questions. However, this type of promotion has never had much success with users because users are interested in their own personal benefits. More lofty goals, such as saving the forests, do not tell a woman stove user how she will benefit. How will her time engaged in cooking activities in the kitchen or collecting fuel be more pleasant and less draining? The benefits are there, field workers must simply learn to see things from the point of view of the user. In many areas fuel collection may not be a problem at all. Fuel may be collected from the yard as needed. In these areas promoting a stove as fuel efficient may have little meaning. What other benefits can an improved stove offer? More comfortable to use, nicer to look at, more prestigious to have, less smoky, faster cooking, etc. Think about more indirect benefits by asking the question so what? For example if a stove cooks faster what type of benefits can be derived?
Less time cooking
Less exposure to heat
Less exposure to smoke
Less burns and scalds
Better health
Less ARI
Less cor pulmonary
Less chronic bronchitis, asthma
Less lung diseases, including cancer
Less stillborns, less low weight newborns
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Less time cooking
More time for...
More Child care
Collecting better quality fuel
Rest
Other activities...
Children's schoolwork
Better combustion
Less fatigue
Income generation
Less smoke
Faster cooking
Less ARI
Less cor pulmonary
Less money spent on fuel
More money for...
Doctor and medicine
Schooling
Household Improvement
Less time spent collecting fuel
More time for...
More Child care
Collecting better quality fuel
Rest
Other activities...
Children's schoolwork
Better combustion
Less fatigue
Income generation
Less smoke
Faster cooking
Less ARI
Less cor pulmonary
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Less fuel collected
Less fuel processed
Less fuel chopped
Less charcoal production
Less cuts and abrasians
Less smoke poisoning
Less burns and accidents
Less cataracts
Less fuel collected
Less fuel carried
Less backaches
Less tiredness/fatigue
Less chance of prolapsed uterus
Better health
More energy for other activities
Less time spent collecting fuel
Less danger of...
trauma from accidents
snake bites
allergic reactions
fungus infections
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Less smoke
Cleaner kitchen environment
Less time cleaning pots and pans
Less soot on walls and ceiling
Less soot falls in food, on furniture
Less smoke
Better health
Less ARI
Less cor pulmonary
Besides these benefits the presence of a stove project in a community might bring other benefits such as: increased income to stove producers increased skills to stove producers participation of the community in the implementation of the project increased participation in community development
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Monitoring
It is good to look at various benefits and brainstorm indirect ones so that we understand all that an improved stove can offer. However, we must also be careful not to promote a stove as offering a benefit it really does not have. For example an improved stove may cut down on smoke but not affect cooking time. Or vice versa. It is important that we do not deceive potential users as this undermines our credibility as field workers, the credibility of the implementing agency and the credibility of improved stoves in general. We can test the stove by experimentally introducing it on a small scale and monitoring. The user will be able to tell what benefits she derives and she will also be able to tell where the improved stove does not measure up. After this initial testing period and stoves are introduced on the project scale it is still necessary to do monitoring to figure out if stoves are continuing to provide benefits or if they need to be modified or simply repaired. Users may need to be retrained in use and maintenance of the stoves.
Monitoring simply means testing if the project is on the right track. Monitoringusually discussed as monitoring and evaluationtherefore starts before the project during the initial testing period. Monitoring and evaluation is often though of as a last step, gathering data for final reports; this is not the case at all. Monitoring begins before the project and should continue after the project.
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Indicators
Monitoring requires that we use indicatorssimple signs which indicate if a stove is providing a certain benefit. We maybe interested if users are satisfied with the stove in a general sense by checking if they are using the stoves. An indicator of stove use is that the stove is warm after local cooking hours. An indicator that the stove saves fuelwood is the amount of fuel collected before and after the introduction of an improved stove. Refer to the list of possible benefits and indicators before. It is not necessary to monitor all possible benefits, as every improved stove cannot be expected to provide them. Just monitor the benefits that represent the users needs which the project is attempting to fulfill. user satisfied with stove
stove is used
stove is warm after local cooking hours stove has ashes, charcoal in the combustion chamber stove is not dusty stove has evidence of use, i.e. food drippings visit home at meal time the presence of other stoves ask user
design is appropriate
stoves are unmodified frequency of use woman cooks had a say in stove design check the consumer demand if stove is marketed producer perception user perception
stove is well maintained
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clean of ash chimney not blocked cracks repaired stove saves fuelwood technical stove tests user perception amount of fuel used before and after amount of fuel collected before and after amount of money spent on fuel before and after amount of time spent collecting or buying fuel before and after frequency of collecting or buying fuel before and after the amount of fuel sold by fuel sellers before and after the introduction of the stove (in areas where users of improved stoves represent a sizeable proportion of the market) stove saves time cooking time before and after time spent in kitchen before and after stove production is smooth measure dimensions of various stoves for conformity check production at production site check the stock of raw materials ask producers check quality of stoves producers check the demand for stoves less smoke emitted measure CO, other emissions before and after
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user perception of sicknesses related to respiration, eyes better health due to less smoke user perception nutrition is better food consumption before and after more boiled water user perception amount of water boiled before and after frequency of water boiling before and after more heated water amount of water heated before and after quicker cooking time spent cooking before and after user perception safer kitchen environment compare macro movements of cook before and after compare micro ergonomic movements of cook before and after user perception the amount of time and/or money spent on kitchen before and after more pleasant kitchen environment cleanliness of walls before and after extra or improved furnishings added more ornaments and decorations added air circulation before and after
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lighting before and after increased stove durability lifetime of stove compared to traditional stove community members participate number of groups formed to help implement the project number of meetings, data gathering exercises, group production activities that take place over a certain period of time attendance at meetings the type of input given; active or passive participation type increased income for stove producers income before and after producer perception demand for stoves increased skill for stove producers changes in product line producer perception new skills applied to production of other items
A note on technical testing

Technical tests are one type of indicator for stove efficiency and emissions levels. These are often performed in laboratories during stove design development, but they can also be performed in the field. These tests are not simple and they require special equipment. It is important not to give undue focus to these tests because they represent just one indicator for one possible benefit. Decide first if fuel savings is a real need for the target group. Then decide if it is possible to use other indicators such as user perception, which is actually more important than the perception of the testing equipment. The testing methods for four of these tests are included below. The kitchen performance, controlled cooking and water boiling tests have been standardized and thus, stoves throughout the world can be compared on efficiency.
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Kitchen performance test
Characteristics
The implementation of the kitchen performance test is best if it is used for individual case studies in households where stoves will be introduced. It needs to be done two times:
1) before a stove programme or project is started (to record traditional stoves) 2) after the adoption of an improved stove
The kitchen performance test is a wood consumption field test. It is more realistic and specific than the controlled cooking test. The wood consumption per person and day is assessed in households. Using individual families, household cooks prepare their usual meals on the traditional and/or improved stoves. These tests also show the impact of a new stove on the overall use of energy by the household. Observations of the real cooking habits of individuals allow reflections of potential differences between the real fuel savings and fuel savings as predicted by the waterboiling test in the laboratory. The test must be done over a period of seven days.
Objectives
1) To compare the wood consumption of tradition and improved stoves 2) To understand the impact of the use of improved stoves on fuel consumption 3) To understand the impact of the use of improved stoves on fuel savings 4) To demonstrate the fuel saving potential of a new stove in the household 5) To understand, illustrate and correct operational practices of stove users
Actors
women/cooks of households trained investigators
Equipment
balance for measuring fuelwood forms for recording data and calculations
Advantages
Shows the wood consumption and the real fuel saving potential of new stoves under field conditions
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Chapter 6: Monitoring and evaluation Disadvantages
Tests cannot be compared like the water boiling test because the individual fuel saving rate depends on parameters like the number of household members which eat together, correct use of a new stove, multiple use of stoves, etc. Kitchen performance test form
Basic data Town/ village: Name of the household: Name of evaluator: No. of test: District: Time of passage: Date of beginning of survey: Survey day of survey 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 first fuel rested /////kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg added kg kg kg kg kg kg kg second fuel rested /////kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg added kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg comments/ observations (i.e. number of eaters, food cooked per day, meals per day)
Calculations first fuel Total fuel added Fuel left last day Total fuel consumed during survey Duration of survey days kg persons kg kg kg kg kg kg second fuel kg kg kg
Total consumption per day per household Number of persons eating meals together in this household Consumption per day per person
Comments of evaluator (i.e. duration of cooking, operational habits, etc.):
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Controlled cooking test
Characteristics
The controlled cooking test, also known as the standard meal test, was developed to reflect efficiencies achieved when cooking. In the controlled cooking test, a regular meal of the local area is cooked to simulate actual cooking procedures carried out by local households. Cooking efficiencies derived from these tests should correspond more closely to actual household efficiencies. That means, the technical efficiency of the stove is tested in relation to its cooking function. Given the many variables in the controlled cooking test that could affect the results, these tests require careful measurements of ingredients and documentation of pot sizes, pot types, fuel and sequencing of procedures by the cook. The test results can only be compared where these variables are the same.
Objectives
1) To measure the specific wood consumption of traditional and improved stoves
during the preparation of a local meal

2) To compare the specific wood consumption of different stoves while preparing the
same local meal with the same quantities of food, ingredients and fuel
3) To identify deviations in the specific wood consumption 4) To identify influences that effect deviations in specific wood consumption (i.e.
techniques, handling)
Actors
trained project staff
Equipment
a balance for measuring fuel, food and water a chronometer or watch measuring the time from the beginning to the end of cooking a thermometer a hygrometer form for recording data and calculations
Advantages
Reflects technical capability and efficiency to serve local cooking functions (cooking, baking, heating, etc.)
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Reflects cooking habits and real field conditions; the controlled cooking test gives more information than the waterboiling test
Disadvantages
The analysis of efficiency is limited. Unlike the water boiling test, tests are not comparable world-wide because the efficiencies depend not only on technical parameters (stove models, pot sizes, etc.) but also on the specific heat capacity of food and local cooking habits. Controlled cooking test form
Test No.: Locality: Date: Height: m Pressure: Wind: Operator: Temperature: C Relative Humidity (RH): % Moisture content of wood (dry wood basis): x =
Type of pot Outer diameter of pot Height of pot Weight of pot Capacity of pot Type of stove Inner diameter Wall thickness Weight of stove Type of grate Type of wood Weight of wood No. of pieces Diameter and length Use small wood sticks to start the fuel burning = starting fuel mm x A1 = mm kg kg mm mm kg l mm mm
Sketch of stove, grate and pot (dimensions)
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Food temperature (start): Time until boiling T1 = Tb = C min sec Water temperature (boiling): T2 = = sec C
Weight of empty pot with lid and thermometer Weight of pot with 2/3 capacity of food, lid and thermometer at start Weight of pot with 2/3 capacity of food, lid and thermometer at boiling point Food prepared/cooked
M1 = M1 = M2 =
kg kg kg kg
M3 = M2 - M1 =
Weight of wood at start Rest of wood at boiling point
B1 = B2 =
kg kg Remaining charcoal at boiling point: C2 = kg
Dry wood consumption
WC = ((A1 + B1 - B2) x (100% - x%)) - 1.5 x C2 =
kg
Specific Standard Consumption: SSC = WC x 100/M3 (T2 - T1) =
kg dry wood/kg food prepared
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Waterboiling test
Characteristics
The waterboiling test measures efficiencies during the high power phase when water is brought to the boiling point. This is the most common efficiency test and the results are used to compare stoves throughout the world. If a stoves efficiency is noted, this is the efficiency as a result of the waterboiling test. Compared to the controlled cooking and kitchen performance tests this test is easier and requires less time. It is most commonly used in designing or modifying stoves in the laboratory. Changes in one design can be quickly compared by this test. The waterboiling test results should provide reliable data for comparisons as long as the producers are not varied and are well documented. Consistency, in seemingly minor matters, such as the use of a lid, the type of pots and fire maintenance are important for results.
Objectives
1) To compare the efficiency of traditional and improved stoves under similar
laboratory conditions
2) To measure the wood consumption of a stove that is needed to boil water 3) To analyze the influence of different parameters of the stove-pot-system on wood
consumption
4) To measure the stoves quality of heat transfer
Actors
trained project staff/technicians
Equipment
a balance for measuring fuelwood and mass of water, accurate to 1 gram. a thermometer which can read up to 105 C a chronometer or watch for measuring the time from the starting to the boiling point a hygrometer a form for recording data and calculations
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Chapter 6: Monitoring and evaluation Advantage
Theoretically, the overall efficiency in percentage of different stove models can easily be compared because of the quasi standardization of the testing procedures and calculation
Disadvantage
Cooking is only simulated by boiling water The real situation of cooking a traditional meal is not considered Cooking habits (i.e. a long simmering phase for beans which consumes a lot of wood) are not considered.
Procedure
1) Measure the moisture of the fuel. 2) Draw sketches of the stove with measurements. 3) Write down the temperature, humidity, wind and pressure, and/or a description of
the weather.
4) Write down the pot measurements and weight. 5) Fill the pot 2/3 full of water and weigh the water and pot. 6) Ready the fuel to be used and weigh it. 7) Measure the temperature of the water in the pot. When measuring temperature
keep the thermometer off the bottom of the pot.

8) Make sure the timer is ready. Place the pot on the stove. Clean the stove of ash. 9) Light the stove. Record the time the fuel starts to burn. 10) Add fuel to create large flames. 11) Keep the thermometer in the water and record the time and temperature at boiling. 12) Take out the fuel from the stove, put out the flame. 13) Separate the charcoal from the edge of wood by knocking the wood. 14) Weigh the wood and then weight the charcoal. 15) Weigh the pot with water.
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Waterboiling test form
Test No.: Locality: Pressure: Moisture content of wood (dry wood basis): Date: Height: m Wind: x= Operator: Temperature: C Relative Humidity (RH): %
Type of pot Outer diameter of pot Height of pot Weight of pot Capacity of pot Type of stove Inner diameter Wall thickness Weight of stove Type of grate Type of wood Weight of wood No. of pieces Diameter and length Use small wood sticks to start the fuel burning = starting fuel mm x A1 = mm kg kg mm mm kg l mm mm
Sketch of stove, grate and pot (dimensions)
Water temperature (start): Time until boiling
T1 = Tb = min
C sec
Water temperature (boiling): T2 = = sec
Weight of empty pot with lid and thermometer Weight of pot with 2/3 capacity of water, lid and thermometer at start Weight of pot with 2/3 capacity of water, lid and thermometer at boiling point Boiling water produced
M1 = M1 = M2 =
kg kg kg kg
M3 = M2 - M1 =
Weight of wood at start: Rest of wood at boiling point: Dry wood consumption: Power: Efficiency:
B1 = B2 =
kg kg Remaining charcoal at boiling point: kg C2 = kg
WC = ((A1 + B1 - B2) x (100% - x%)) - 1.5 x C2 = Ph = WC x 19000/tb (sec) = KW %
E = (4.2 x 100 x100<%>/19000) x (WC x 100/M3 (T2 - T1)) =
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Carbon monoxide emissions test
Characteristics
The test measures carbon monoxide emissions. It is best done before and after an improved cookstove is introduced. A small vial is used to measure carbon monoxide concentrations over the course of one hour. A number of tests should be done at different hours of the day. At each testing a few vials should be placed around the kitchen, and one vial attached to the cook to measure the impact on the cook.
Objectives
1) To compare the carbon monoxide emissions levels of the traditional and improved
stove
Actors
women/cooks of households trained investigators
Equipment
vial for carbon monoxide emissions measuring notebook and pen
Advantages
Shows any real improvement in indoor air pollution with the introduction of a new stove - under field conditions
Disadvantages
Vials may be hard to obtain
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Trouble shooting
Monitoring and evaluation, similar to assessment, is not an end unto itself. It is never useful if the information is simply collected. That is not the point. The information must be analyzed. In assessment the information is used to determine aspects of stove design and stove dissemination. It is used to create an appropriate stove project. In monitoring and evaluation information should be analyzed to determine trouble shooting interventions. It is one thing to understand where problems exist; it is another thing to try to solve these problems. The following is a list of monitoring information. Complaints, perhaps, of the user. There are more of course. But this is a sampling and some ideas for trouble shooting. If the stoves are not used, for example, it may be necessary to retrain on stove use and maintenance or design a more appropriate stove or modify the stove. Choosing a trouble shooting intervention is where some detective work may be necessary. Stoves are not used retrain on stove use and maintenance design a more appropriate stove with help from users modify stove with help from users Stove production is producing low quality stoves retrain stove producers introduce, reintroduce or modify quality control mechanisms/techniques Stove is smoky/too much soot check potholes design check connection channels and chimney clean stove and chimney too little draught - increase chimney height, decrease baffles fuel load too large - decrease fuel load improve kitchen ventilation Smoke comes out front of stove
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too little draught - increase tunnel size, increase baffle gap, increase chimney height Smoke comes out front of stove when windy wind comes down chimney - change chimney position too little draught - increase chimney, decrease baffles More time spent processing firewood modify stove design check if time saved from collecting or money saved from buying fuelwood is worth the time spent processing firewood according to users User is uncomfortable using the stove because of its position put the stove in another place reposition stove redesign stove Stove is incorrectly used and maintained retrain on stove use and maintenance redesign stove to incorporate usage pattern Mud stove is cracking push fresh mud in crack, replaster, allow to dry rebuild stove if serious enough check into mud quality and condition of other stoves; locate a new source of mud if necessary Slow cooking the firebox too tall - reduce firebox height by raising the floor too little draught - increase tunnel size, increase gap between baffle and pot, increase chimney height too much draught and flames are not directed at pot - reduce baffle gap, decrease tunnel size, decrease chimney height
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clogged chimney or tunnel - clean out chimney, chimney cap and tunnel fuel - check dryness of fuel, increase fuel load Difficult to ignite cold or wet stove - light fire with as much paper and kindling as possible blocked tunnel or chimney - clean stove wet fuel - use drier wood to start, adding wet wood only when stove is well alight Burns too much fuel too quickly/high fuel consumption too much draught - reduce baffle gap, decrease tunnel size, decrease door area, decrease chimney height too little draught - increase height of baffle, increase chimney height, increase door area pot size wrong - check pots with stove design combustion chamber too large or too small - check combustion chamber shape and size against design Not enough heat to second pot baffle gap too big so flames do not heat pot - decrease baffle gap tunnel is too small - enlarge tunnel baffle gap is too small - increase baffle gap slightly baffle angle is wrong - change angle of baffle Too much heat goes to second pot too much draught - reduce baffle gap, decrease tunnel size, decrease chimney height Difficult to burn wet fuel too little draught - increase chimney height, decrease baffles, clean stove Too much heat to pots too much draught - increase baffles, decrease chimney height
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Evaluation
Evaluation is different from monitoring in that it is more formal and done periodically during the project. There may be a mid-term and final evaluation of a project.
Evaluation answers the question: Has the project reached its objectives?
We need to decide if the objectives of the project have been fulfilled. If not, why not? And what more can be done. Objectives are determined by project planners. They should be realistic, measurable and relevant. Realistic in that the objectives can be accomplished according to limitations of time, money and human resources on both the part of the community and the implementing agency. Measurable in that there are indicators which will help us prove that the objectives have been accomplished. Objectives that are too general are often not measurable. Relevant in that the objective is responding to a need of the community that can be addressed by the use of improved cookstoves. Do not make an objective to introduce 500 ICS. This has no relevance to community needs and is a project activitynot an objective. An objective might be to decrease the amount of smoke produced by stoves in 500 kitchens or that ten women potters gain stove building skills. All objectives should reflect target group priorities. Do cooks want less smoke in the kitchen? Do women potters want stove building skills? Always keep monitoring and evaluation user focused. Many projects fail from the beginning simply because they have failed to understand the needs and wants of the people they are trying to serve.
Figure 1: The point of monitoring and evaluation is to answer the question: are users satisfied?
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Chapter 7: Stove selection as a process
Stove selection as a process
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Stove selection as a process

Why use a process?
It is no secret that many stove projects have failed. In other words, they have introduced stoves that in some way have not satisfied the users needs, conditions and desires. How could stove projects skipped over the target group? What went wrong? One of the biggest reasons for failure is the fact that before a target group is even identified, stove project planners and field workers already know the stove design they want to introduce. The stove design, yes, in most cases can claim improved performance in the laboratory. But in the field? And do all the variables surrounding stoves in the community line up with that stove design? And have users made input to the design? And are users satisfied with the result? Does the improved stove design represent aspirations of the users or aspirations of the designer? Important questions which cannot be honestly answered if a stove design is determined before the target group is. The title of this manual is Improved Stove Selection and Dissemination. The intent is that you, as improved stove field workers, will have insight into first selecting or modifying an improved stove or traditional stove design to meet the users needs, conditions and desires and then determine a dissemination strategy that likewise meets users needs, conditions and desires. The module has not attempted to hide the fact that this is not an easy jobit takes time and thought and cannot be done all at once. It is a process. What does this process really mean? It means that in order to select an appropriate stove design you need to take certain steps. You must one-by-one look at the different variables connected to the stove and determine aspects of stove design, i.e. appropriate fuel, appropriate size, etc. from the users point of view. And this is importantdo not decide for users where they could use some changes. After you have determined enough aspects of the stove design you will need to look at the stove design as a whole and evaluate itbefore ever introducing it. Surely it will supersede the existing stoves on some things and just as surely it will not on others. Where the stove supersedes the existing stove should match with users complaints and where the stove does not measure up (i.e. drying of crops sacrificed for a less smoky kitchen) should match with functions or aspects of the stove users are willing to sacrifice. If these match, this does not guarantee the project will be a success, but simply that the project has not handicapped itself by the very stove design. The process is not limited to stove design. It must also take into consideration the most appropriate way to get the stove to users. This will depend on existing means of technology dissemination and the very design of the stove. A stove design may be appropriate, but can it get to the user without being entirely dependent on the money, time and human resources of the implementing agency?
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The final stage of the process is creating a workplan for the stove project to ensure that a stove is appropriately designed and appropriately disseminated.
Reviewing the process

At this point it is probably wise to review the stages involved in the process. If you attended a national training using this manual, you will have gone through the process twice in order to determine two stove designs alreadythe first for the case study area and the second for your own working area. What steps did you follow? What information did you have to consider?
STOVE SELECTION STAGE 4
WORKPLAN
putting it all together workplan
COMMUNITY CONTEXT
community context profile activity profile possible raw materials for ICS approximate cost of ICS possible fuels for ICS functions of ICS number of ICS integration of program promotion of ICS men and womens role in an ICP
DISSEMINATION
resource profile existing technology dissemination patterns how an ICP affects men and women dissemination strategy
KITCHEN, USER AND TRADITIONAL STOVE

kitchen, user and stove tables technical evaluation of current stove position of ICS design of ICS kitchen improvement
Community context
It is necessary to have a very general picture of the community where the stoves will be introduced at the first stage. This requires going to the target community and observing and asking questions. Some information might be available at government statistic centers. Although some of this information may seem unrelated to a stove design and stove project it helps us determine, first, if indeed a stove program is a need and priority of this community and then determine a number of aspects of the project. Refer to pages 20-23 for a more detailed catalogue of how this information influences a stove project. The type of information needed includes:
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Infrastructure and political distance from highway, nearest town available schools and distance source of clean water public transportation health facilities/ personnel and distance markets and distance communication (radio, television, telephone) electricity other development projects Environment or physical fuel availability and acquisition land availability water raw materials availability and acquisition Social level of education community groups; community cooperation ethnic groups; differences in kitchens, food, small scale industries religions culture, beliefs, habits local skills (metal workers, potters, brick masons, local stove makers) local human resources (village leaders, project caders, teachers, etc.) illnesses most common to women, men and children livelihoods
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Economic main source of income monthly income small scale industries (who is involved, for how long each day) Besides this you will have no doubt kept your eyes open to the stoves used. Refer to page 134 in the annex of assessment tools for a the community context profile which may help you in collecting and organizing this information. Activities You should also begin taking note of which activities are traditionally mens responsibilities and which are womens responsibilities. At the most obvious level you need to find out who uses the stove. But beyond that you need to look at other reproductive work (caring for children, collecting water, washing clothes, etc.) and non-reproductive work (farming, livestock raising, selling in the market, small scale industries). Where are these things done and when, for how long. This will give you some idea at who can be optimally involved in different activities of the project. And how you should promote the project to men and women. It will also make sure you are aware how the stove design and stove project might increase work for one gender and not the other. Finally you will do a better job of monitoring the project if you know what questions you should ask men and women about the stove and project. For example, men might not complain that the stove needs smaller pieces of wood if they are not processing the wood. Refer to page 135 in the annex of assessment tools for an activity profile that will help you with this task. Do not forget to consider who: collects sand or clay for construction collects sand or clay for existing stoves cooks daily meals cooks for household industry processes fuel cleans pots and pans collects fuel buys fuel dries crops
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heats water makes stoves buys stoves works as a cader, promoter or group leader for a development project sells in the market place goes to the market to shop works outside the house for wages After assessing the community context you have a lot of information to work with. Use some of it to answer questions about stove design and project, and thereby complete stove selection stage 1.
Stove selection stage 1
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
How many stoves do people usually use in one kitchen? Should there be more than one improved stove introduced? What are the stoves functions? Should these functions be the same for an improved stove? What are the stoves made of? What materials are possible for an improved stove (list as many as possible)? What are the costs of the current stoves? What should the cost be of an improved stove? What are the fuels used for the current stoves? What fuels are possible for an improved stove (list as many as possible)? What are any traditions, cultural influences or habits of the villagers connected to the stove or kitchen which may influence an improved stove or program? What are the most pressing reasons that stove users would need/want an improved stove? What organizations/groups/development projects in the village can an improved stove program cooperate with?
Finally, using information on the activities of men and women, think about: 1. 2. 3. Who can collect stove materials? Who might be able to build stoves? Who can install stoves?
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4. 5. 6. 7. Who can sell stoves? Who can promote stoves? Who can function as a trainer? Who might be able to function as a program cader?
Kitchen, user and traditional stove

The second stage in the process is looking in more detail at the kitchen, user and traditional stove. While completing the first stage might only require a couple visits to the community, walking around and asking questions, this second stage is going to require getting to know stove users much better and spending time in their kitchens. The first stage produced a general picture of the communitythis stage will start adding details. The differences amongst stove users will begin to emerge. What information is needed? Kitchen functions To collect more information on kitchens you will need to focus on just one kitchen at a time. Collecting information on kitchen functions will help you decide if kitchen improvement is a necessary component of the stove project. Do certain functions need to be moved out of the kitchen, or rearranged within the kitchen, for better health or working flow? Do kitchen furnishings and their positions need to be rethought for better ergonomics? Do lighting and ventilation, or water and waste removal need to be improved? Knowing the kitchen functions will also help you determine the number of stoves needed in any kitchen, their placement and position, and whether the stove design should include a chimney or hood. Refer to page 136 in the assessment tools annex for a table which might be useful in collecting the information. Below is a list of the functions to pay attention to: sleeping domestic animals animal food preparation small scale food or drink processing industry laundry hygiene, bathing other household tasks
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storage drying crops social center preparing food cooking dishing food out eating washing up drying dishes supplies/stored food fuel storage water storage residues and waste Kitchen climate and construction Still focusing on just one kitchen, take a look at the climate and construction. Consider: ventilation natural light building materials of the floor, walls, roofing free space in the kitchen site of kitchen This information will help you determine the placement and position of the stove, the need for a chimney or hood, the size of the stove and whether it needs to be a fixed or portable stove design. Refer to page 137 in the annex of assessment tools for a table. User Focusing on a kitchen, should mean also focusing on a user. Find out what health problems she suffers from, any cultural beliefs about the stove or kitchen, her complaints about the stove and/or kitchen work, how many hours she spends in the kitchen and the
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number of household members she cooks for. This information is invaluable in determining appropriate stove design, project promotion and project integration. An assessment tool is provided on page 138. Traditional stove in the kitchen Of course you should also note aspects of the current stove(s) within the kitchen of focus. Consider: the location of stoves (i.e. inside vs. outside) the placement of stoves the cooks cooking, preparation and serving position portable vs. fixed chimney, hood or none raw material cost of stove maintenance of stove cooking practices fuel and fuel processing pots used functions of the stove (i.e. drying, heating, lighting, social center, etc.) Often the best improved stove designs are based in the traditional stove designs, which have evolved over time to suit the largest number of user needs. Refer to page 139 in the assessment tools annex for a detailed table of these aspects and their influences on the improved stove design. You know a lot about the existing stove now. What it is made of, how much it costs, what fuels it uses, its functions, its position, its portability or permanence, the existence of a chimney or hood, the number of potholes, etc. It is probably doing very well at fulfilling a lot of the social variables connected to stove use. The stove is not necessarily technically poor. You need to evaluate the stove using combustion and heat transfer and heat loss principles, in addition to the material used. If possible, view the production or construction process. This is easy to do in areas where mud stoves are made by users. This will also give you insight on the stove building skills that exist in the community or close to the community. It also might give you ideas on how the stove can be improved, that is modified, in its design or in the construction process.
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During this stage it is imperative that you discuss with users about possible designs of an improved stove. The design decided upon should be produced by a joint effort. Ask about different design options and get their reactions. Hold a meeting to show different designs and discuss them. After evaluating the stove from the technical point of view, and discussing different design options with community members you and stove users are ready to complete stove selection stage 2. Do not do this stage on your own.
To process the information about kitchen and user answer the same questions in stove selection stage 1, but for the kitchen of focus. This will help you see the variance amongst kitchens. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. How many stoves are there? Should there be more than one improved stove introduced? What are the stoves functions? Should these functions be the same for an improved stove? What are the stoves made of? What are the costs of the current stoves? What should the cost be of an improved stove? What are the fuels used for the current stoves? What are any traditions, cultural influences or habits of this user connected to the stove or kitchen which may influence an improved stove or program? What are the most pressing reasons that this user would need/want an improved stove?
In addition answer the following questions: 1. 2. What are the current positions for food preparation, cooking and dishing out? Do you have any ideas for kitchen improvement based on this kitchen?
Evaluate the current stove from the point of view of production, combustion, heat transfer and heat loss and raw materials. Draw the design of the current stove. Draw the design of the improved/modified stove.
Dissemination
Now that there is a possible stove design, you need to start thinking of disseminationhow to get this stove design to the target users. Stove design is very closely related to dissemination. For example, a permanent stove cannot be disseminated by market channels. And a portable ceramic stove cannot be made by users.
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At this point you need to find out how the existing stove is disseminated and how other examples of technology are disseminated. Local stove building skills or potential stove building skills as well as access to the market should be explored. Besides this you need to record available resources for the project and their benefits as well as who uses and who controls these resources. An obvious example are the raw materials necessary for stoves. These might be sold for money Another example might be wages as a resource; the benefits being food, schooling, medicine and clothes. Women might use the wages while men control them or vice versa. A stove is also a resource and brings food as a benefit. A woman might use the stove but she might not control it. This helps us in knowing who the stove needs to be sold to and how the stove project can be promoted to men and women. In general use and control of resources combined with information from the activity profile also lets us know how we can involve men and women in our stove project, who might benefit by a stove and stove project and who might experience any disadvantages. This helps with our monitoring of the project. For this you can use the resource profile tool, in the assessment tool annex, page 140, to collect and organize information. Be sure to look at the resources of: trees land stove materials stove trainings wages from working outside the home wages from any small scale industry within the home (especially those dependent on the stove)
Determine a dissemination strategy and answer the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What dissemination strategy will be used? What will be the price of the stove? Where will the stove be promoted and how? What sort of trainings, interventions are necessary? Who will collect the raw materials for the improved stove?
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6. 7. 8. Who will build the improved stove? Who will sell/promote the improved stove? Who will be involved as a program cader?
Based on the activity and resource profile determine who will receive possible benefits from the stove project. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Who will collect less fuel? Who will gain skills as a cader, stove producer, etc.? Who will cook for shorter periods of time? Who will enjoy a healthier and more convenient kitchen environment? Who will be exposed to less smoke? Who will have more choices of stove types? Who will enjoy a better quality product from household industry? Who will spend less time cleaning pots? Who will spend less money on fuel?
Also determine who will experience possible disadvantages:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Who will spend more money on an improved stove? Who will spend more time processing fuel? Who will spend more time lighting the stove or tending the fire? Who will have to change cooking habits? Who will have to replace any missing functions of the new stove? Who might have to buy new pots or pans? Who will experience a change in the taste of food? Who will experience any negative ergonomic and working flow effects from less than optimal placement and/or position of the stove?
6. 7. 8.
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Chapter 7: Stove selection as a process Workplan
The final stage in this process is the creation of a workplan. What will our project look like? What steps are necessary for implementation? To ensure that a stove is appropriately designed and disseminated what needs to occur? An example of a blank workplan is provided on page 141 in the assessment tools annex.
Remember: assessment stove testing stove modification training stove builders stove production stove promotion training users on use and maintenance stove selling trouble shooting monitoring and evaluation
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Annex
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Annex 1: Assessment tools
Assessment tools
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Annex
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Influences on a stove program (i.e. program promotion, stove materials, stove design, stove fuels, stove cost, program integration, number of stoves, functions of stoves) specific information
(i.e. local resources, available stove materials, these materials acquisition, available fuels, ENVIRONMENTAL fuel acquisition) (i.e. local stove building skills, other skills, culture, beliefs, traditions, number of stoves, stove functions) (i.e. small scale industry, economic limitations)
SOCIAL
ECONOMIC
(i.e. availability of clean water, education, other development projects)
INFRASTRUCTURE & POLITICAL
Community context profile

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i.e. five hours a day seasonal weekly
ACTIVITY GENDER
i.e. land preparation fuel collection child care
TIME
i.e. field home town
LOCATION
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WOMEN
WOMEN & MEN
MEN
i.e. collecting sand or clay for construction, collecting sand or clay for stoves, cooking daily meals, cooking for household industry, processing fuel, cleaning pots and pans, collecting fuel, buying fuel, drying crops, heating water, making stoves, buying stoves, working as a cader, promoter or group leader for a development project, selling in the market place, shopping in the market place.
Activity profile
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Factors General Functions Parameters Sleeping Domestic animals Animal food preparation Small scale food or drink processing industry Laundry Hygiene, bathing Other household tasks Storage Drying crops Social center Other.... Culinary Activity Chain Preparing food Cooking Dishing up Eating Washing up Drying dishes Supplies/stored food Fuel storage Water storage Residues and waste yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no no move certain functions out of the kitchen stove placement and position stove design of chimney or hood number of stoves furnishings (racks, cupboards, tables, shelves, storage vessels, chairs) and their position in the kitchen water and waste removal Influences on an improved cookstove program (kitchen improvement)
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Kitchen functions table

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Category Technical and Architectural Design
Parameters Ventilation
Setting/Options cross vertical yes yes no no
Influences on an improved cookstove program chimney or hood, stove placement and position the addition of windows, vents or doors
Notes
Natural Light Building Materials
provided for floor... walls... roofing...
yes
no
the addition of windows, vents or doors placement and position of stove (i.e. certain wall materials will not allow the placement of the stove against the wall), chimney or hood and their design (i.e. depends on roofing material)
Free space in kitchen Site of kitchen
a little
a lot
size of stove fixed or portable stove
changes seasonally stays the same
Kitchen climate and construction table
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Type of Information Health problems Specific Information Influences on an improved cookstove program use a chimney or hood more healthy/hygienic stove placement, position, use promotion of program move functions out of kitchen integration of program Cultural beliefs stove placement and position, use, promotion of program Notes
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Complaints of user
promotion of program, stove design, stove position, placement, kitchen improvement, integration
Number of hours spent cooking
stove design
Number of household members
stove design
User table
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Category I. Placement Information inside outside protected from wind, rain and sun yes no enough surrounding space yes no stable yes no sitting standing bending squatting sitting standing bending squatting sitting standing bending squatting portable fixed chimney, hood yes no number of potholes... ceramics brick clay mud metal other... cost of stove needs regular maintenance little maintenance one dish many dishes wood agri-residues dung charcoal coal kerosene small pieces large pieces used one kind many kinds one size many sizes shape of bottom flat round drying heating lighting cooking human food animal food social center other.... Influences on an improved stove stove placement, use a stove shelter stove design, stove materials, stove placement and position, use a stove shelter stove placement and position stove placement and position stove design, stove position, stove placement stove position and placement OR the position and placement for preparation stove position and placement OR the position and placement for serving stove design, stove materials stove design, chimney or hood, stove placement and position stove design, number of potholes stove materials (also mud stoves may be unacceptable to the user in areas where it is not used) stove cost, stove materials, stove design stove design, stove material (willingness of users to maintain stove, need to train users in maintenance) stove design, number of potholes fuel for stove, stove design (necessary secondary air, firebox door) stove design (shape of firebox) stove design, number of potholes, size of potholes, shape of potholes, pothole liners, placement of potholes number of stoves needed, stove design, stove placement and position, stove materials, chimney or hood and their design, functions of the stove
Location
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Placement Cooking Position Preparation Position Serving Position II. Selection Type
Material Cost Maintenance Meals Fuel Fuel Processing Pots
III. Functions
Functions
Current stove table

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i.e. food fuel skills i.e. husband first wife forest department state
i.e. men women children
RESOURCE
i.e. land trees training
BENEFIT
USED BY
CONTROLLED BY
. . . . . . . . .
Be sure to include: trees, land, stove materials, stove, trainings, wages from work outside the home and wages from small scale industry in the home (especially if a stove is used) as resources.
Resource profile
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PROGRAM ACTIVITIES
APPROPRIATE INVOLVEMENT OF MEN & WOMEN
OBJECTIVES
. . . . . . . . .
i.e. women are trained on stove use
i.e. optimal stove use
i.e. stove promotion
Consider: assessment, stove testing, stove modification, stove building, stove production, stove promotion, training users on operation and maintenance, stove selling, trouble shooting and monitoring and evaluation.
Workplan
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Annex
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Assessment sketches
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Annex
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Assessment sketches
A case study
Bedugul Village, Lombok Island, Indonesia
The village of Bedugul is located about 10 kilometers from the provincial capital city of Mataram on Lombok Island. It is less than 5 kilometers from Swete - the largest market on Lombok island. The village has 130 households; all of the population is of Sasak ethnicity and Islamic in religion. Houses are made of bamboo or bricks with thatched roofs. Floors are dirt or cement. As with many volcano islands, Lombok has a wet and dry side. Bedugul is on the wet side, and this part of Lombok is known for its abundance of water. Rivers, streams, irrigation canals, wells and springs abound. The rainy season is five months of the year. Due to this favorable condition and the rich black soil, it would be possible to harvest three rice crops each year; however, the government regulates farming activities so that each year there are two rice crops and one dry crop. The dry crops most commonly grown are chile peppers, corn, tabacco, soybeans, cassava, and beans. Over 75% of the working population are involved in farming activities. A majority of families have a small amount of land, about one-fourth of a hectare, and usually owned by men. Many men and women work as farm labor or tenants for those who own bigger plots of land. Although this work can be termed seasonal, because there are three crops a year, there is not a lot of off-season time. Men commonly take care of ploughing, buying seeds, building fences, and fertilizing. Women are responsible for harvesting dry crops and weeding. Both men and women are involved in planting, harvesting rice and processing the harvested crops. These roles are slightly flexible, as is the case when an older man harvests dry crops or a woman prepares land for planting. From these activities labor is paid a daily wage or 1/11 of the crop they harvested. Tenants are paid with 1/3 of the rice harvest and all of the dry crop harvest. Wages or money from selling surplus rice or dry crops are used to buy food and snacks, pay for schooling, medicine, household needs and clothing. In general, daily household expenses are decided upon by women. Livestock and fowl are also important assets in this community, including cows, goats, chickens and ducks, which are raised at homes. Men care for (collect fodder) and decide on the purchase and sale of livestock, but the benefits accrue to the entire family. Women and men care for fowl. Livestock and fowl provide fertilizer, cash income and food. A few men and women run small shops. Collecting sand from the nearby riverbed is an available source of wages for men and women. A few men are wood workers or find jobs as labor outside of the village.
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Women are responsible for drawing water, most often from a well, and collecting biomass fuel. The biomass comes in the form of coconut leaves, dead soybean, tabacco, beans or chile plants and dead wood, twigs and leaves gathered from the fields or yards. Depending on the time of year biomass might be collected as often as every 2 days or after 2 weeks (after the tabacco, chile or soybean harvests for example). There is also a person who sells fuelwood in Bedugul (Rp. 1500 for one bundle), but not many woman buy. There does not seem to be a scarcity of biomass fuel and collecting fuelwood takes from 1 - 2 hours for one bundle carried on the head. Problems arise during the rainy season, when most biomass fuel is wet. At these times, some women turn to kerosene stoves while most dry wood as best they can on racks above the stove. Women here like to use biomass if they need to cook quickly. They also enjoy the taste. Cooking meals, which is most commonly done twice a day for two hours each time, and chopping fuelwood are primarily performed by women. Other daily chores, such as washing clothes at the well or river and caring for children are also the work of women. There is a government primary school within walking distance and most children do attend, although they may not finish all six years. Horse carts provide transportation from the village to a main road where minibuses are available. Transportation means the villagers are more mobile, have access to markets and education and are not isolated. Health provisions include a local healer trained by the government and a local government health clinic about one kilometer from the village. Common health conditions include diarrhea and vomiting, fevers, colds and coughs. Radios and televisions are common in households and these provide knowledge and entertainment. A water and sanitation project is currently being implemented in Bedugul. Kitchens in general Kitchens are often small side rooms, with no windows and hardly any ventilation. Walls are black. Another common kitchen is actually a temporary shelter set up against the wall of homes, made from gunny sacks or bamboo. This second type of kitchen is actually better in terms of more ventilation and lighting. If a new, more modern home is built, it will often not have a kitchen, but the kitchen will remain in the old dwelling. Women of Bedugul most often cook rice and a vegetable side dish. Tempe is quite common also. Women often cook for between four and eight people. The kitchen is also a place for storage of food stuffs (often hung from above). A rack above the stove takes advantage of the smoke to dry fuel, fish paste, salt, red chiles, corn, etc. Most stoves in use in Bedugul are made by older women. The small stoves usually have two holes with the fuel opening in between the holes, but there are also one hole and three hole models. The stoves can be made of mud or of bricks, also locally available, layered with mud. Stoves like this can also be ordered for around Rp. 1500. They last for a long time, as repairs are easily made. Women cook in a crouching position or sitting on a stool. Ceramic cookstoves have been introduced to some families through a community member that works for an NGO in Mataram. The women complain that it is more difficult to control heat to one or the other hole, the stove burns rice very quickly and ash builds up in the
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combustion chamber. But they like the fact that it can be taken to the fields or moved around.
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Assessment sketches
Palm sugar
In this area kitchens are permanent and spacious. They can be separate from the main house. This amount of area makes ventilation less of a problem; there are rarely any windows in the kitchens and this makes the kitchen gloomy. Walls are made of plastered bricks or bamboo; the roofs are tiled. The majority of households are engaged in palm sugar production. Women, who are responsible for cooking the palm sugar and meals for the family, spend over four hours in the kitchen each day. They complain about the untidiness of the kitchen, the cobwebs, the dirt floor and hot eyes. Besides cooking the kitchen functions as a place to sleep if it gets cold, a roosting place for the chickens at night, a place for storage, and a social center. Women and children sometimes eat in the kitchen. The stove which is used to cook palm sugar and meals, in addition to boiling water twice a day has as many as seven potholes. If women are only cooking a meal, they will often use a one-pothole ceramic stove or a kerosene stove, or both. Meals generally consist of rice with one or two side dishes for around 6 - 8 family members. Men and women make their own stoves or pay someone to build one for them at a modest price. The stoves have a very long lifetime as they can be repaired easily by replacing bricks with fresh mortar. The stove design does not include a chimney or hood; smoke does not appear to have a function in the kitchen. Women cook in a slightly bent over position; they prepare food on a low bamboo table or on the floor, crouching or sitting on a low stool.
Figure 1: The stove is made of bricks and sometimes plastered with mud. The bricks are available locally.
The biomass fuel used is gathered from yards and fields. It is often dead cassava or corn stalks, or other agricultural residues. The stove design, set on the ground, enables long sticks and stalks to be used without cutting them beforehand. The fuel is stored by the stove, which also serves to dry it before use.
Sawdust and rice husks

In this area kitchens are in general small rooms of the main house. They are not well ventilated and have little natural lighting. Electricity provides some lighting. Houses have dirt floors and unbaked brick walls with roofs made of wood and tiles. Besides cooking this kitchen functions for drying laundry and storage.
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This area is known for its wood workers. Almost every household has a male who works as a wood worker, either on his own or for a larger cooperation not far from the village. Farm labor is another source of income for both men and women. Because of this situation the fuel in use is sawdust and rice husks. Stoves made of tin cans (25 cm x 25 cm) can be bought at the local market (where women shop usually once or twice a week) for Rp. 600. A circular hole 10 cm in diameter is cut near the bottom of the tin. When using the stove two coke bottles or sticks of wood are placed inside the cooker to form an L shape. The first is placed on the floor through the vent hole near the bottom. The other is placed in the center of the tin so that it stands on the stick/bottle lying on the bottom. Then the space around the bottles is filled with sawdust. The two sticks/bottles are carefully removed, leaving a tunnel through the fuel from the air vent to the top. Iron or steel rods or straps are placed across the top of the container to support the cooking vessel.
Figure 2: The stove in use.
The stove producers live in another area, about one hour from the market. frequently bring their stoves in to sell at the market.
But they
The lifetime of the stove is very short; it quickly corrodes. Every six months a new one is purchased. Women cook with the stove placed on a small table (this also takes care of the safety problem of the very hot stove and small children in the kitchen), but this arrangement is not so stable, partly due to the flimsy construction of the table and partly due to the stove design and the size of pots used. Serving is done from the standing position. Because of the smallness of the table women prepare food (vegetables, etc.) in a squatting position on the floor. Since most women are engages in farm labor, cooking is done by older women or daughters and brought to the man and woman of the house for a nine oclock meal. Meals usually consist of rice and one side dish. Families are small. Leftovers are eaten again in the early evening. Farm labor gets a small lunch/snack provided by the owners of the land at around two in the afternoon. So cooking only takes place for 1-2 hours in the morning. For this reason both women and men are not willing to spend very much on a stove; the kitchen is not given very much importance as a room in the house.
No stoves face east

Kitchens in this area are non-permanent. During the dry season women cook outside and during the rainy season they move under the roof of the house on the porch. For this reason, ventilation and natural lighting are not problems. Houses are made of unbaked bricks. Men are generally responsible for the construction of houses, but women are involved in the production of the unbaked bricks. The women are very knowledgeable about the local mud/clay which exists and its characteristics.
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The women are embarrassed that they do not have real kitchens. Families which do have a little more money often invest in building a more permanent kitchen, but ironically this creates problems of ventilation and lighting, because of the amount of smoke emitted by the traditional stove. This smoke is very useful during the dry season when it is used to dry crops such as corn and chiles in addition to wet biomass. During this time of the year women cut the biomass, mainly wood, into small pieces so that it will dry quickly on the bamboo racks under which the stove is placed. The stove in use is a small ceramic stove produced by local potters with local clay. The women buy the stoves direct from the potters for Rp. 500 - 2000 depending on the number of potholes and size of the stove. These prices are affordable to the population, which is mainly involved in fishing and animal husbandry activities. Farming on small plots of land is another source of Figure 3: There are one pothole, two income. In general stoves are used in a crouching or pothole and three pothole stoves sitting position, food preparation and dishing out also available. occurs in this same position. The pottery stoves often crack and must be replaced. In general their lifetime is from 2 - 6 months. The stoves are used for cooking meals and for cooking food for pigs, which are raised by many of the households. The pots using for cooking the animal feed are much bigger than the pots used for cooking meals, but one stove can serve both purposes. The pots for cooking meals are a little small for the design and the pots for cooking pig food are a little big. The women never place the stoves facing East. Women spend about 3-4 hours in the kitchen. They cook meals 2-3 times a day for families which consist of about 6 persons. They generally cook 3 dishes, including rice.
Frequent flooding
This area is located in a valley which is frequently flooded by a swollen river during rainy season. During dry season women and men are engaged in farming activities, sometimes as farm labor. During the wet season men often fish because of flooded fields. The kitchen is located within the house and has a dirt floor. Walls are semi-permanent, bamboo or zinc. Roofs are made of baked tiles, grass or zinc. Kitchens are generally at the back of the house and are used to cook, for chicken roosting and a pen for goats, for storage and for drying clothes. The stove is generally placed on the floor of the kitchen. When there are floods the stove is placed on top of the bed. The stove is a one pothole ceramic stove with a price of Rp. 1500 - 2500. This small stove does not actually provide much heat during the cold rainy season. Another problem that women here face is the difficulty in using fuel, wood, twigs and coconut leaves, during the rainy season. The smoke from the stove is used to dry wood and crops. Women spend 3-4 hours in the kitchen. During the dry season
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Figure 4: The stove is sold by travelling salespersons.
. . . . . . . . .
they cook 2-3 times per day for their families, which generally consist of 6 persons. Meals include meat or tempe, vegetables and rice. During the rainy season, women cook only once a day to save fuel and foodstuffs. During the dry season, almost all adults work in the fields. While in the fields they cook for the midday meal. Farm labor is fed by the owner of the fields. This area can be reached by four-wheeled vehicles during the dry season. The soil of this area contains a lot of clay and is often cracked during the dry season. Ceramic goods are not produced here; however there is a brick industry which operates during the dry season.
Houses on stilts
The houses in this area are raised on stilts. In the back corner of the house is the kitchen. There are also some houses which use separate kitchens constructed on the ground with wood or bamboo walls. The kitchens in general have good ventilation as the upper parts of the wall are made of wood planks or bamboo strips. Natural lighting enters freely. Stoves in the houses are placed on top of a foundation raised to the level of a table. The stoves in separated kitchens are often placed on the ground. For cooking animal feed, another threestone stove is placed near the animal pens.
Figure 5: Stoves are either three-stone or steel rods.
The smoke from the stove is used to dry crops such as corn and also to dry fuel wood. Besides this the stove functions as a space heater. To cook one meal, 2-3 stoves are used. Three to five hours each day are spent cooking for families of 5-6 people and also for animal feed. There are often big cultural ceremonies here where a lot of food must be cooked on big three-stone fires or across steel bars. Biomass is collected from yards and the fields and forest. Wood can also be bought. For cooking animal feed big pieces of wood are used, while household cooking uses wood, branches and bamboo of smaller pieces. Lots of bamboo can be found here. This area is hilly and distances between houses is far. Most people are involved in farming and gardening. Land is often very far from houses and it is not uncommon that people sleep and eat in the fields.
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A number of families were potters in the past, making ceramic pots and pans. However, for the last ten years, production has stopped as aluminum and metal pots and pans have slowly replaced ceramic ones. But there is still knowledge on good sources of clay here.
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Improved stove designs
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Improved stove designs

One pothole stoves
Loose residues
Stove 1: Made of mild steel and pottery. For sawdust, agri-residue powder, paddy husks, leaves, straw and small twigs.
Stove 2: Made of sheet metal, clay, rice-husk ash and bamboo rods. For rice husks.
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Annex 3: Improved stove designs Charcoal
Stove 3: Made of scrap sheet metal; painted. For charcoal. Stove 4: Made of scrap metal, mild steel and galvanized steel. For charcoal.
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Stove 5: Made of clay, sheet metal and a cement-vermiculite mixture. For charcoal.
Stove 6: Made of clay, metal, cast iron potholders and vermiculite. For charcoal and sawdust briquettes.
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Stove 7: Made of scrap aluminum and wire. For charcoal.
Stove 8: Made of scrap sheet metal. For wood and charcoal.
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Stove 9: Made of clay and straw. For wood, charcoal, briquettes and corncobs.
Stove 10: Made of drums, black sheet and sheet metal. For wood and charcoal.
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Stove 11: Made of scrap sheet metal. For wood and charcoal
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Annex 3: Improved stove designs Other biomass
Stove 13: Made of mud, stones and mixed clay. Stove 12: Made of mud. For wood and agri-residues. For wood.
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Stove 15: Made of clay. For wood and weeds.
Stove 14: Made of sand and clay. For wood.
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Stove 16: Made of pottery, clay and bricks. For wood and dung.
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Stove 18: Made of metal and vermiculite. For small pieces of wood, waste and briquettes.
Stove 17: Made of fine clay. For wood.
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Stove 19: Made of scrap sheet metal. For wood. Stove 20: Made of sheet metal. For wood and peat.
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Stove 21: Made of sheet metal, drums and black sheet. For wood. 161
Stove 22: Made from sheet metal and aluminum for the lining of the combustion chamber. For wood, dung and agri-residues.
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Stove 23: Made of scrap metal and new sheet metal. For wood, dung and brush.
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Multiple pothole stoves
Stove 25: Made of clay, sheet metal and RCC pipe.
For wood, twigs, branches and cowdung.

Stove 24: Made of soil cement blocks, bricks, mud, morter, metal sheet firebox, sheet metal, grate, asbestos pipe chimney and cowl. For wood, dung cakes and agri-residues.
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Stove 27: Made of bricks, mud, some cement and metal for grate. Stove 26: Made of brick, cement, asbestos pipe, metal damper, clay or ceramic liner and cast iron grate. For wood, agri-residues and dung cakes. For straw and small twigs.
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Stove 29: Made of clay and rice husks. For wood.
Stove 28: Made of sand, clay, ragi husks, bricks, ceramic liner and CI grate. For wood, dung cakes, straw and agri-residues.
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Stove 30: Made of iron tripod, clay, iron bars, rice husks, etc. For wood and agri-residues.
Stove 31: Made of wood, stones and earth for base, bricks, clay, iron, riverbed sand, cement, concrete pipes for chimney and iron damper. For wood, briquettes and vegetable waste.
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Stove 32: Made of bricks, clayey soil, horse dung and iron. For wood, corncobs and agri-residues.
Stove 33: Made of bricks and metal grate, hotplate, damper and chimney. For wood.
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Stove 35: Made of brick or adobe, cement, syrup, honey mixture, cement pipes, flat galvanized sheet metal and cement blocks. For wood. Stove 34: Made of iron plate, metal door, sheet metal chimney and adobe and bricks. For wood.
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Stove 36: Made of mud, sand, stone, flat sheet and stove-pipe. For wood.
Stove 37: Made of tiles, lime, sand, clay, wood, iron bars and cast iron plate. For wood.
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Stove 38: Made of a concrete slab and adobe base. For wood, carob and sapote (marmalade tree).
Stove 39: Made of mud, sand, straw, clay and adobe. For wood.
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Stove 40: Made of unfired mud bricks, mud, broken glass, horse manure, cylinders of cement, pumice stone and various types of sand and galvanized sheet metal plates and chimeny. For wood.
Stove 41: Made of bricks, mud bricks, lime, cement, molasses, metal chimney, thick hob plates, oven, doors, grate, small plates, pieces of sheet metal, angle-measures, square of tiles. For wood.
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Stove 43: Made of pottery. For wood.
Stove 42: Made of pottery, stones and mud. For wood and biomass residues.
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Stove 44: Made of cast iron. For wood.
Stove 45: Made of pottery. For split wood, twigs and sticks and residues such as coconut shells and husks
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Pre-training assessment form
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Before a stove project begins field workers are normally engaged in assessment activities where data about the project area is collected. For this training, some assessment of your stove project working area or a potential working area is required. This data will be used for various activities during the training and to decide on appropriate stove design for your working area during the last day of the training.
1) Working area
province: village: what is the distance from nearest city? what is the distance from nearest village? what is the distance from nearest paved road?
2) Social-economic conditions
where does the principle income come from: farming other__________ what is the approximate monthly income? what type of seasonal work is available? what is the approximate education level of men and women? from the list below indicate activities which are responsibilities of men, women and/or children: collects raw materials, such as sand and clay, for construction
175
industry
trade
labor
. . . . . . . . .
collects raw materials for stoves, if made in the area cooks daily meals cooks for any household industries cuts up or prepares fuel for use cleans pots and pans collects fuel buys fuel dries crops or fuel (with use of smoke from the stove) heats water makes stoves buys stoves works as a cader, promoter, or group leader for a development projects sells in the market place goes to the market to shop
what community groups exist and what are their activities? what local industries exist? what local skills exist? potters project caders other__________
3) Development activities
metal workers teachers
brick makers health workers
describe current local development projects (government or private): describe development self-initiatives of the community:
4) Health conditions
list the top four health problems of women:

176
. . . . . . . . .
list the top four health problems of men: list the top four health problems of children:
5) Kitchen and cooking
describe the condition of kitchens in the area permanent roof material: floor material: wall material: area of kitchen room: state of ventilation: state of lighting: check which functions of the kitchen apply to local kitchens: sleeping domestic animals animal food preparation small scale food or drink processing industry other industry _____________________ laundry hygiene, bathing other household tasks_______________ storage drying crops social center preparing food cooking
177
semi-permanent
non-permanent
. . . . . . . . .
dishing out food eating washing dishes drying dishes storage of food storage of fuel storage of water storage of residues and waste who works in the kitchen? how long each day do they spend in the kitchen? what is the cooking position? standing bending squatting sitting
how many meals are cooked each day? how long does it take to cook each meal? what types of pans and pots are used for cooking? what materials are these made from? what is the average number of people that eat each meal? what is the staple food? what foods are most often cooked? if animal feed is cooked locally, how many times and how long each day does this take?
6) Stoves
describe and draw each biomass stove used in local kitchens (be sure to include stoves used for household industry): raw materials of stove: is there a chimney or a smoke evacuation hood? is the stove placed on the floor or on some sort of foundation (i.e. table)? where in the kitchen is the stove usually placed (i.e. middle, corner, etc.)?
178
. . . . . . . . .
are there any beliefs or traditions connected to the stoves and kitchen (i.e. stove must face north)? what are the functions of the stoves: drying crops or fuel cooking animal feed heating social center lighting cooking
other _________________
do any of the stoves require special temperature levels (i.e. a household industry stove which needs especially high temperatures)? how are the stoves acquired? who makes the stoves? how much do the stoves cost? how long do the stoves last? does the smoke produced in the kitchen have a use: drying crops or fuel sealing a thatched roof
7) Improved stove
keeping away insects other_______________
describe and draw any improved stove that has been introduced: raw materials of stove: is there a chimney or a smoke evacuation hood? what are the functions of the stoves: drying crops or fuel cooking animal feed heating social center lighting cooking
other _________________
how are the stoves acquired? who makes the stoves? how much do the stoves cost? how long do the stoves last? has this stove been widely accepted in the area? why or why not?
8) Fuel
what types of biomass are used as fuel (wood, waste, sawdust, coconut shells, etc.)?
179
. . . . . . . . .
how is fuel acquired (i.e. collected, bought)? if bought (answer for household cooking and household industry, if applicable): how much is bought each week? how far away? how many times? how long does this take each time? how much money is spent each week? does this represent a burden? if collected (answer for household cooking and household industry, if applicable): how much is collected each week? how far away? how many times? how long does this take each time? does this represent a burden? is fuel cut up or processed in any other way before it is used?
9) Raw materials
what raw materials exist? clay bricks metal straw, rice husks or saw dust cement sand other________________
what raw materials are difficult to acquire and why? clay bricks
10) User
straw, rice husks or saw dust metal cement
sand other________________
what does the stove user see as her biggest problems linked to kitchen work and what type of improved stove would be most helpful (i.e. cuts down on smoke, speeds kitchen work, higher temperatures, metal rather than mud, etc.)?
180
Annex
. . . . . . . . .
List of further references and contacts

Achmadi, Umar F. et al. Indoor Air Pollution from Biomass Fuel. Working Papers from a WHO Consultation, June 1991. WHO, Geneva 1992. Allen, Hugh. The Kenya Ceramic JikoA Manual for Stovemakers. Technology International, Washington D.C. 1991. Appropriate
Andersson, Maria. Hidden FiresImproveing Kitchens and Stoves together with Users. Report from a project in El Limon, Nicaragua. Lund Centre for Habitat Studies (LCHS), Lund (Sweden) 1992. Asia Regional Cookstove Program (ARECOP). Proceedings of the Indonesian Training for the Up-Grading of Improved Cookstove Project Technical Skills and Programmatic Knowledge, Mataram, Lombok, Indonesia, 27 November-5 December 1996. ARECOP 1997. Asia Regional Cookstove Program (ARECOP). Proceedings of the Asia Regional Kitchen Improvement Workshop and Training, Dhulikhel, Nepal, 6-16 May 1996. ARECOP 1996. Asia Regional Cookstove Program (ARECOP); ITDG; HSE-Greenfields. Clay for Stoves Proceedings of the Second International Seminar Held at Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 1923 April 1993. HSE-Greenfields, Chiangmai (Thailand) 1993. Ashley, Caroline. How Many Benefits can a Stove Cook Up? More than Most Planners Expect! IT Discussion Paper. ITDG, London 1993. Ashley, Caroline & Young, Peter. Stoves for Sale: Practical hints for commercial dissemination of improved stoves. Intermediate Technology Development Group, London (UK) 1994. Baldwin, Samual F. Biomass Stoves: Engineering Design, Development, and Dissemination. Volunteers in Technical Assistance (VITA), Arlington (USA) 1987. Belonio, Alexis T. Conical Grate Rice Hull Stove: A Technical Manual. Department of Agricultural Engineering, College of Agriculture, Central Philippine University, Iloilo City (Philippines) 1994. Boiling Point Issue No. 34. Smoke Removal. ITDG, Rugby (UK) September 1994.
181
. . . . . . . . .
Boiling Point Issue No. 27. Women, Woodfuel, Work, and Welfare. ITDG, Rugby (UK) 1992. Boiling Point Special Edition. Special Edition on Smoke Pollution. ITDG, Rugby (UK) April 1991. Boiling Point Issue No. 23. Measures of Success. ITDG, Rugby (UK) December 1990. Boiling Point Issue No. 13. Safer and Less Smoky Stoves. ITDG, Rugby (UK) August 1987. Braakman, Lydia. Health Aspects of Woodfuel Use in Gender Issues in Wood Energy. Working Paper. FAO 1996. Caceres, Roberto et al; Centro Mesoamercano de Estudios sobre Technologoia Apropriada (CEMAT); FWD. Stoves for People. Proceedings of the Second International Workshop on Stoves Dissemination. Intermediate Technology Publications, London 1989. Campbell, John R. Urban Households Perceptions and Energy Use: Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Lund Centre for Habitat Studies, Lund (Sweden) 1992. Clarke, Robin (Ed.). Wood-Stove Dissemination: Proceedings of the Conference held at Wolfheze, The Netherlands. Intermediate Technology Publications, London 1985. Crewe, Emma. The Silent Tradition of Developing the Cooks in The Anthropology of Development, forthcoming. Crewe, Emma. Gender and Household Energy: ARECOP Listening to the Cooks. Paper for Consultation, June 1995. Crewe, Emma. Indoor Air Pollution, Household Health, and Appropriate Technology: Women and the Indoor Environment in Sri Lanka in Down to Earth: Community Perspectives on Health, Development and the Environment. Kumarian Press, Connecticut (USA) 1995. Crewe Emma. Invisible Household Energy in Boiling Point Issue No. 32. ITDG, Rubgy (UK) January 1994. Crewe, Emma. Social and Economic Aspects of Stove Promotion and Use. Working Paper for WHO Consultation, June 1991. Crewe Emma. Measuring the Successes and Setbacks in Boiling Point Issue No. 23. ITDG, Rubgy (UK) December 1990. Crewe, Emma. Monitoring and Evaluation of Stove Programmes in Boiling Point, ITDG, Rugby (UK)
182
. . . . . . . . .
De Lepleire, G. et al. A Woodstove Compendium. Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven (Netherlands) 1981. Evans, Ianto & Wharton, Donald. Cookstove. 1978. The Lorena Mudstove: A Wood-Conserving
FAO-Regional Wood Energy Development Programme in Asia. Report of the Regional Expert Consultation on Gender and Wood Energy in Asia, Chiang Mai, Thailand, 28-30 June 1995. FAO-RWEDP, Bangkok, July 1995. FAO-Forests, Trees and People Programme. Gender Analysis and Forestry. FAO, Rome 1995. FAO-Regional Wood Energy Development Programme in Asia; Ministry of NonConventional Energy Sources; Indian Institute of Technology. Indian Improved Cookstoves: A Compendium. FAO, Bangkok 1993. FAO-Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation: Handbook for Training Field Workers. FAO-RAPA, Bangkok 1988. FAO. Monitoring and Evaluation of Participatory Forestry Projects. FAO, Rome 1985. Foley, G.; Moos, P. & Timberlake, L. Stoves and Trees: How Much Wood Would a Woodstove Save, if a Woodstove could Save Wood. Earthscan, Washington, DC 1984. Gaspe, Anura; Messer, Peter & Young, Peter. Clay Testing: A Manual on the Clay/NonClay Ratio Measurement Technique. ITDG, London 1994. GTZ/Household Energy Programme (GTZ/HEP); Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG); Foundation for Woodstove Dissemination (FWD). Measuring Successes and Setbacks: How to Monitor and Evalute Household Energy Projects. GTZ/HEP, Eschborn 1996. GTZ/Household Energy Program (GTZ/HEP). Blockbusters or Shelf Warmers? Approaches for the Successful Dissemination of Improved Household Technologies. GTZ/HEP, Eschborn 1995. Institute of Fuel Research & Development (BCSIR). Improved Stove. BCSIR, Dhaka (Bangladesh) Integrated Development Association (IDEA). Commercialization of Woodstoves. Proceedings Paper. International Workshop, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 2-7 December 1992. IDEA, Kandy (Sri Lanka) 1993. Jones, Tim. Practical Tips for Potters Making Improved Stoves. Hofman Systems Engineering, Schiedam (Nehterlands) 1993.
183
. . . . . . . . .
Joseph, S.; Prasad, Krishna K.; Zaan, H.B. van der (Editors); FWD; African Centre for Technologies Studies (ACTS). Bringing Stoves to the People. An Assessment of Impact. FWD, Nairobi 1990. Joseph, S.D., Shanahan Y.M. & Stewart W. The Stove Project Manual: Planning and Implementation. Intermediate Technology Publications, London 1985. Karekezi, Stephen. Tracking Stove ProgramsSurveys as a Monitoring and Evaluation Tool. Working Paper No. 5.0. FWD, Nairobi 1989. Kimani, Muiruri J. How to Make & Use the Kenya Ceramic Jiko (KCJ). KENGO, Nairobi 1991. Krist-Spit, E.E. & Heeden, D.J. van der. From Design to Cooking: Some Studies on Cookstoves. The Woodburning Stove Group, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven (The Netherlands) 1985. Nathan, Dave. Discussions on Gender and Wood Energy. In Wood Energy News, Vol. 10, No. 2, June 1995. Norsker, Henrik. (Germany) 1990. Clay Materialsfor the Self-Reliant Potter. GTZ-GATE, Eschborn
Nystrom, Maria. FOCUS Kitchen Design. Lund Centre for Habitat Studies (LCHS), Lund (Sweden) 1994. Nystrom, Maria. Energy and Environmentthe Twin-House Tests in Boiling Point Issue No. 32. ITDG, Rugby (UK) January 1994. Nystrom, Maria. Kitchen and Stove. The Selection of Technology and Design. Lund Centre for Habitat Studies (LCHS), Lund (Sweden) 1988. Oosterveen, Harry. Development in Gender? In Wood Energy News, Vol. 10, No. 2, June 1995 Pandey, M.R. et al. Indoor Air Pollution in Developing Countries and Acute Respiratory Infection in Children in Boiling Point Issue No. 18. ITDG, Rugby (UK) April 1989. Pandey, M.R. Chronic Bronchitis and Cor Pulmonale in Nepal. Mrigendra Medial Trust, Kathmandu, Nepal 1988. Petersham, Miska. Understanding Clay Recognition and Processing. Volunteers in Technical Assistance (VITA), Mt. Rainier (USA) 1984. Prasad, Krishna K. &Verhaart, Peter. Sciences, India 1983. Wood Heat for Cooking. Indian Academy of
184
. . . . . . . . .
Ramakrishna, Jamuna. Improved Stoves, Time, Fuel: Implications for the Nutrition and Health of Women and Children in Boiling Point, ITDG, Rugby (UK) Sarin, Madhu. Nada Chulha: A Handbook. Voluntary Health Association of India, New Delhi 1984. Sharma, S.K. Improved Solid Biomass Burning Cookstoves: A Development Manual. FAO, Bangkok 1993. Sims, Jacqueline. Food, cooking and kitchen improvements: the role of behaviour and beliefs. Paper presented at the Asia Regional Kitchen Improvement Workshop & Training, Dhulikhel, Nepal, 6-16 May 1996. WHO Sims, Jacqueline (Ed.). Women, Health & Environment. An Anthology. WHO, Geneva 1994. Singharatana, Prapasri et al. Handbook for the Construction of an Improved Stove for Palm Sugar Processing. Department of Natural Resources, Prince of Songkhla University, Hat Yai (Thailand) Skutsch, Margaret. Why Gender in Wood Energy Development? In Wood Energy News, Vol. 10, No. 2, June 1995. Smith, K.R. Biofuels, air pollution and health: a global review. Plenum Press, New York 1987. Stewart, Bill et al. Improved Wood, Waste and Charcoal Burning Stoves. Intermediate Technology Publication, London 1987. Tata Energy Documentation and Information Centre. Energy Research Institute, Bombay 1985. Cookstove Technology. Tata
Volunteers in Technical Assistance (VITA); ITDG. Wood Conserving Cookstoves: A Design Guide. Volunteers in Technical Assistance (VITA), Mt Rainier (USA) 1980. WHO. Indoor Air Pollution from Biomass Fuel. Report of a WHO Consultation, June 1991. WHO, Geneva 1992. Xiangjun, Yao et al. Chinese Fuel Saving Stoves: A Compendium. FAO, Bangkok 1993. Yayasan Dian Desa (YDD). Identifying Strategies for Self Sustaining Dissemination of SAE Pottery Stove: A Survey Report of Yayasan Dian Desa Stove Program. YDD, Yogyakarta (Indonesia) 1988. Yayasan Dian Desa (YDD). Informasi Teknis & Pengembangan Program Tungku SAE. YDD, Yogyakarta (Indonesia) Young, Pete. Clay for Cooking StovesSeminar Report. ITDG, Rugby (UK) 1992
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ARECOP

Chapter 1: Some Issues--an overview of biomass use in Asia

Chapter 3: Stove design

Chapter 4: Stove construction

Chapter 5: Stove dissemination

Chapter 6: Monitoring and evaluation

Annex 2: Assessment sketches

Annex 3: Improved stove designs

Annex 4: Pre-training assessment form

Annex 5: List of further references and contacts

Goal of the Training

of raw materials and technical stove parts.

wants and conditions of the target group in addition to technical knowledge.

dissemination channels and the improved stove design to be disseminated.

Why this manual ?

How is the manual organized?

Biomass fuel collection and transport

Figure 1: the fuel ladder

Household industry use of biomass

Figure 4: Biomass use is connected with household income.

Smoke from biomass

Smoke is not always a bad thing

Biomass and improved stoves

Figure 6: Inappropriate stove designs cause problems for stove projects.

Some rough ideas

Some rough ideas

Some rough ideas

Some rough ideas

Some rough ideas

multiple potholes promotion for palm sugar production slow cooking

stove positioned for standing or sitting cooking position

improve mud stoves using local women

market based dissemination

promote fuel efficiency

make a big combustion chamber no grate so that charcoal will accumulate

do not emphasize fuel efficiency in promotion

open combustion chamber lots of holes around the combustion chamber

use metal use a high mass stove

use high quality material and nice finishing

A list of useful information

distance from highway, nearest town dissemination pattern

stove transportation or appropriate stove selling point,

available schools and distance possible promotion site

other development priorities, priority of an improved stove,

communication (radio, television, telephone) priorities, priority of an improved stove

appropriate stove materials

percentage of illiterates; women vs. men integration level of education

project promotion, other development priorities, project

community groups; community cooperation with

culture, beliefs, habits promotion

stove design, project promotion, other

main source of income of an improved stove

stove design, stove cost, project promotion, willingness to pay, priority

livestock or fowl (how many per household) willingness to pay

workloads of men and women

caring for livestock and fowl (collecting fodder)

who makes traditional stoves

stove cost, stove materials, stove promotion

Where to get all this information

The paradox of the kitchen in the household

Problems caused when the kitchen environment is not assessed

Ways of observing a kitchen

Figure 6: Cooking activities. 27

the users needs and preferences?