Mechatronic Systems for Machine Tools

R. Neugebauer1 (1), B. Denkena2 (2), K. Wegener3 (2) Fraunhofer-Institute for Machine Tools and Forming Technology IWU, Chemnitz, Germany 2 Institute of Production Engineering and Machine Tools (IFW), Hannover University, Garbsen, Germany 3 Institute of Machine Tools and Manufacturing (IWF), ETH, Zurich, Switzerland
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Abstract This paper reviews current developments in mechatronic systems for metal cutting and forming machine tools. The integration of mechatronic modules to the machine tool and their interaction with manufacturing processes are presented. Sample mechatronic components for precision positioning and compensation of static, dynamic and thermal errors are presented as examples. The effect of modular integration of mechatronic system on the reconfigurability and reliability of the machine tools is discussed along with intervention strategies during machine tool operation. The performance and functionality aspects are discussed through active and passive intervention methods. A special emphasis was placed on active and passive damping of vibrations through piezo, magnetic and electro-hydraulic actuators. The modular integration of mechatronic components to the machine tool structure, electronic unit and CNC software system is presented. The paper concludes with the current research challenges required to expand the application of mechatronics in machine tools and manufacturing systems. Keywords Machine tool, Mechatronic, Adaptronic 1 INTRODUCTION The technological transformation of the information society is associated with considerable changes in the demands on machine tools, requiring new solutions for the inherent conflict in design between precision and productivity [1][2][3]. Future performance requirements of machine tools will be characterised by trends in microsystems technology and nanotechnology. For mechanical manufacturing, this results in constantly growing demands for precision in machine tools (Fig. 1). The scientific and technical challenge does not lie entirely in the capability to produce mechanical structures with ever greater precision, but also mass produced workpieces at reasonable production costs. Globalisation is putting mechanical production in highwage countries under immense economic pressure [2]. One fundamental initiative to find a solution in the area of process development is the shortening of process chains by technology substitution. This must be accomplished by increasing the precision of highly productive procedures, since increasing the productivity of high-precision procedures is mostly limited by the underlying physical principles of those procedures. Consequently, it can be deduced that the contradiction posed by the demands for productive precision in large working areas and flexible, reliable manufacturing requires a universal system architecture for machine tools with the typical properties of mechatronic systems conversion capability (reconfigurability) and self-optimisation (immunity to disturbance) [5]. The concrete demands identified from surveys of customers and manufacturers in this respect [2] are: An increase in availability as a result of prescient maintenance; status and process monitoring; intelligent maintenance; diagnostic functions.

Highly economic manufacturing (life-cycle costs) as a result of function-oriented design; improved performance due to dynamics, flexibility as a result of reconfigurability. These factors are of necessity associated with: A high level of standardisation and modularisation: interfaces, technology modules, independent functional assemblies.

Figure 1: Machining capability over time [4].

Efficient control systems. In recent decades, mechatronics has become established as a developmental method for such systems and today constitutes the key discipline in production technology [6]. The term mechatronics was coined in 1969 by the company Yaskawa Electric Cooperation to signify the extension of the function of mechanical components by means of electronics. As a result of the immense speed of developments in information processing, the aspect of integrating intelligence in technical systems in mechanical engineering is now increasingly at the forefront. Mechatronic systems are essentially characterised by the functionoriented expansion of a mechanical system by the spatial and/or functional integration of sensors and actuators and the use of a control system to guarantee functionality [7]. The benefits of mechatronics go beyond a mere additive effect, as is emphasised by the definition given in [8]:

Annals of the CIRP Vol. 56/2/2007

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doi:10.1016/j.cirp.2007.10.007

[Mechatronics needs]...a synergetic cross-fertilization between the different engineering disciplines involved: mechanical engineering, control engineering, microelectronics and computer science. This is exactly what mechatronics is aiming at; it is a concurrent-engineering view on machine design. The term adaptronics was coined in the 1980s in the USA. Under the umbrella of this term, developments in materials science and engineering were begun which were inspired by bionic construction principles, as in the structure of a human muscle, aimed at producing efficient lightweight structures for air and space travel by means of direct integration of transducer materials acting as sensors and actuators in the construction material itself (Fig. 2). Transducer materials which are used include piezo ceramics, shape memory alloys, magnetostrictive materials or electromagnetically activated fluids and polymers. By connecting composite components acting as sensors and actuators, using appropriately adapted electronic controls, the structural dynamics properties of the basic mechanical structure can directly be influenced. One major application area is vibration control in lightweight structures, extending as far as ASAC - Active Structural Acoustic Control [9]. Today, the initiatives to find solutions featuring distributed integration of these materials in construction materials to form an active composite material by means of complex mechanical and information technology are only just beginning and are currently the subject of intensive research [10]. The use of actuators made from transducer materials in highly integrated mechatronic components, such as precision positioning systems, is technically more advanced and already employed in industrial applications. If such components use integrated sensors for autonomous improvement of higher-level mechanical or mechatronic structures, they are defined in the vocabulary of mechanical engineering as adaptronic [11]. In future, mechatronics will be fundamentally enriched by optical technologies as a new basic system type. Even today, they are established directly in machine tools via the laser beam, as an alternative machine drive and tool for mechanical processing.
Mechanical Systems Passive System Structure Answer Mechatronic Systems Passive System Structure Answer Actuators Sensors Control Adaptronic Systems Passive Structure System Actuators Answer
Sensors

3. Optics as the universal new basic system type. The basic approach of mechatronics is inherently anchored in the development of machine tools. The electronically controlled movement behaviour of a mechanical structure was first implemented in machine tools in 1952 with the first NC control system made at MIT. Since the 1970s, mechatronics has fundamentally changed the functionality and efficiency of machine tools as a result of the increasing integration of NC movement controls and the automation of processes. In order to be able to make optimum use of the modern technical options offered by mechatronics, modified processes [7] and tools [13] are required for a unified design. These are described in detail in Chapter 2. In particular, a change in the design paradigm is needed to prevent the inevitable increase in system complexity due to the increased functionality from mechatronics resulting a priori in a decrease in reliability. Because of the differing scale and bandwidth of machine errors (Fig. 3), it makes sense for the further development of the machine tool mechatronic system to adhere to a hierarchical conceptual framework.
Compensation Methods Mechatronic/ Adaptronic Components Model based with inherent Actuators
300

frequency / [Hz]

natural oscillations of the mechanics elastic deformations by process- and inertial forces drive errors natural oscillations of the machine foundation transfer errors thermal behaviour gravitation

100

Calibration
0

Figure 3: Bandwidth of machine tool errors and options for intervention. In doing so, it is possible to distinguish the following system levels: 1 The machine tool mechatronic system. Component sensors and the lowest possible number of additional sensors capture an image of process and machine that approximates to reality. With the support of models, the intrinsic drives of the machine tool are used by the control system to correct processing errors. The primary application for which this is suitable today involves quasi-static error sources, such as thermally determined displacements or calibration of machines. However, the comprehensive data from the sensors also provide initiatives for increasing the reliability and availability of the machine tool. The increasing importance of solutions of this kind is a consequence of the high speed of development of CNC technology. They are strongly influenced by design and system integration and are detailed in examples in Chapters 2 and 4. 2 The mechatronic components of the machine tool. These include in particular the main and feed drives. Past research work has concentrated on this system level and has already been analysed and published in detail. These components and their integration in terms of information technology define the capability of the actuator and the bandwidth of the solution initiatives in system level 1. Major progress can therefore be expected as a result of optimum system integration (Chapter 4). 3 The integration of additional mechatronic solutions in machine tool components.

Control

Figure 2: Characteristics of mechatronic systems. Optical waveguides permit interference-free communication between sensors, information processes and actuators with high bandwidths. Sensors based on optical principles, including industrial image processing, achieve the very highest information density. At the same time, the speed of data processing by optoelectronics will further increase in the future. The following can therefore be identified as driving the further development of mechatronics technology and hence, as a consequence, the development of machine tools: 1. Information technology based on Moores law [12]. 2. Adaptronics (and the associated manufacturing processes of microsystem technology) for lightweight construction and for increasing the level of integration of the components.

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The aim of intervention in this system level is to improve machine tool malfunctions by means of autonomous components which either act directly as ancillary drives to compensate for dimensional errors near to the source of the interference, or to improve the behaviour of the controlled process of the basic structure of a machine tool component for the higher-level control system. The advantage of this kind of system intervention lies in a design which is optimally adapted to the local problem and the consequent removal of restrictions with regard to the bandwidth of malfunctions to be compensated. As Plug & Play modules, such solutions are interesting for the implementation of reconfigurability. These are the focus of Chapter 3. In relation to the overall function of the machine tool, the above system levels, which are not independent, have both a specific suitability for use and, at the present time, different levels of advancement in application. The optimum effect can therefore only be achieved with thorough system integration concepts (Chapter 4), which take into account both the mechanical involvement and the signal and energy flows, but above all the architecture of the data processing. Examples of optimisation criteria containing fundamental parameters, including economic parameters, are the Plug & Play capability, the energy efficiency and the reliability of the overall solution. 2 SPECIAL DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS 2.1 Engineering Process Mechatronic systems are complex systems whose solution field is interdisciplinary. They show a greater functional density and closer of function than traditional mechanical and electrical systems. In their design, therefore, the functional aspect is clearly at the forefront compared with the purely mechanical/geometrical aspect. The consequence of this is that master procedures tailored to the design of mechatronic systems have been setup for the development process and their application leads to a principally usable product. Nevertheless it has been shown in design research that a generally applicable stringent process cannot exist and that the flow diagrams have more of the character of a guideline (VDI 2206 [7], Kallenberg [14], Gausemeier [15], Albers [16]). The underlying process for designing mechatronic systems and the associated system support is shown using VDI 2206. In principle, the mechatronic system consists (as shown in Fig. 4) of a basic system, of mechanical, electrical or any other physical kind, which controls flow of material, energy or even information. It is connected via sensors and actuators to elements for processing information. With the help of sensors state variables of the system can be sampled; the sensors in this case can also be observers, i.e. sensors represented within the software. From the measured values obtained, data processing determines the effects required influencing the status parameters in the desired manner and actuators are employed to exert an effect on the basic system. A complex mechatronic system can be subdivided into mechatronic modules as shown in Fig. 4. These modules are themselves interconnected via the information processing system. The modularisation facilitates the definition of interfaces and the formation of a product structure, in which the relationships between the modules are less prominent than those within the module. In addition, the

disturbances deviations MECHANICAL SYSTEM forces, torques ACTUATORS

Passive Structure System Answer

actual values

Actuators

Sensors Control

SENSORS

CONTROL

nominal signals

Figure 4: Mechatronic system; mechatronic basic modules. modules are not just arranged on one level but ordered in a hierarchical structure in the sense that several modules are interconnected by means of their functional structure. Examples of hierarchical organisation are monitoring and fault diagnosis functions, the generation of parameters for a series of mechatronic modules and the learning capability of systems. The integration of mechatronic modules has two aspects to consider, spatial integration and functional integration, which are achieved by means of streams of material, energy and information. The product structuring specified by the integration must above all be capable of reflecting the entire product generation process so that, for example, housing-free integrations are possible, the assembly structure is shown, testable sub-systems ready for installation are created, and installation of replacements is facilitated in the event that repairs are required. Product development and production development must therefore be geared closely to one another. The spatial integration of components which belong together in terms of their function enables, by avoiding housings, the functional density to be increased and savings to be made in terms of weight and assembly space, and where applicable the avoidance of plugs and connections enables an increase in reliability, while at the same time guaranteeing the compatibility of the components in terms of the frequently lethal environmental conditions in machine tool construction. The mechatronic initiative results in a dramatically enlarged range of approach and conversely in a dramatic increase in system complexity. Controlling the latter is a pure bottom up initiative, i.e. the integration of separately developed and optimised assemblies is no longer viable. Instead, a prior top-down design is needed, i.e. the design of a gross structure from which, by means of division into functional elements and an increase in the level of detailing, individual elements can be more accurately specified. A transition to bottom-up design is required as a subsequent iterative step towards system optimisation. Mastering the complexity will require, in addition to a change in approach, more intensive data processing support. For shortening development times, virtual prototyping tools are gaining more and more importance. These use simulation to represent system properties in a model capable of being used for experimentation to gain knowledge which is transferable to reality. Simulation moves into a new dimension, since several disciplines are to be covered in a single simulation model.

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degree of maturity requirements

degree of maturity product

t io n

verification / validation

Domain-specific design

mechanical engineering electrical engineering information technology

modelling and model analysis

Figure 5: V-model as a process model for the design of mechatronic systems [7]. The V- model envisages a macrocycle, which based on the requirements of the product development provides for the system design which is subsequently transferred to the now parallelised domain design (Fig. 5). This is followed by integration, resulting in a (virtual) prototype and the verification and validation of the system design. This cycle can be repeated several times in order to achieve a greater level of maturity through iteration. The design cycle is flanked by modelling and simulation. For individual parts of the task, a microcycle is adopted from Systems Engineering [17]. In addition, special process building blocks are defined, which can be used as standard processes for individual tasks (Fig. 6). The model has two basic defects: The special function of field observation of products or systems, via service, is not explicitly taken into account; it can undoubtedly be added easily and adapted to the individual case. Log book functions are a requirement for all components to record and store footprints, life cycle history etc.

There is no basis for the parallelisation of the domainspecific design, i.e. the exchange of information during the domain-specific design is not defined. It is assumed that the entire domain-specific design proceeds in concentric layers from basic to detailed. More recent publications address this (cf. Bathelt [18], Gausemeier [19]), by defining an interface medium which contains all the information of the interfaces between the

domain-specific designs and institutionalises them from an organisational point of view, for example, in the form of synchronisation gates with workflows for request and release. While in the case of Bathelt it is, for example, the expanded function structure according to Fig. 6 from which the mechanical product structure, the I/O list and the sequential function chart for the SPS programming, as well as the mechanical function structure and a sensor/actor list are derived, further development is moving in the direction of a uniform development environment for all domains, which at the present time is still unrealistic due to the diversity of the data processing systems available. 2.2 Modelling and Analysis Fig. 7 illustrates the notion of an all-inclusive mechatronic database [20], which completely defines the product at the end of the design process and manages to do so while avoiding redundant data input during the development process. Such a database must be capable of being visualised and evaluated for the design process according to a diverse criteria (behaviour forecasts, circuit diagram, geometry, control software, control structure, etc.), shown in Fig. 7 as perspectives on the data model or as a facade of it. Such perspectives can, exactly like their associated input tools, already be based on evaluations of the database as, for example, the circuit diagram is a graphical display based on the equipment and connection databanks which are part of the database. A structure for system data must be developed so that interrelationships between data can be mapped and a general integration of design and modelling tools achieved, almost like an Esperanto for design and modelling. Initiatives in this area include for example UML, Modelica and State graph [16]. Similarly, it should be possible for any kind of simulation to be supplied by this database, without the need for additional data and data going beyond the necessary design specifications of the product. Altintas et al [21] show the benefits of simulation technology and the use of virtual prototypes. In addition to this, because it is easy to vary the data model, a larger number of development steps can be undertaken in a shorter time, thereby producing a more mature, more progressive product. When building such a model, however, working steps are always required which must be performed outside the product definition, thus reducing the achievable advantage. Furthermore, the shaping of the model at the present time remains dependent on the questions to be answered, i.e. on which forecasts relating to the future product are used. The aim of model-based system design is the comprehensive forecasting and optimisation of behaviour, includMechatronic Model geometric CAD-model control software

s ys

te m

in t e

gra

Figure 6: Standard work flow for system design after Bathelt [18].

s ys tem de s ig n

thermal behavior

dynamic behavior

controller structure

electric circuit plan mechatronic data base

Figure 7: Mechatronic model as an all-inclusive data base.

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be examined in terms of its functionality, because design faults can no more be eradicated in the detailed phases, with the result that the development process has to be started all over again. There is therefore a need for modelling and analysis in the early phases of development as long as the database remains sparse, and for these to be expanded steadily as more detailed knowledge of the system is acquired [24]. Fig. 10 after [25] shows the gross modelling required for thermal analysis, which is performed using the thermobalance method.

front bearings

cooling

rear bearings

Figure 8: MECOMAT model-based design tool [13]. ing all the various domains, and this requires the aforementioned comprehensive database. The benefit of model-based design also lies in the virtual start-up, i.e. the testing of the control software with the relevant controller even before the real system is in existence (cf. Dierssen [22]). The more aspects of the product, which are mapped in the model, the better this is. The concept of a model-based design system is represented by the MECOMAT system [13] in accordance with Fig. 8, which is an integrated software system for the synthesis, analysis and optimisation of a class of machine tools, in which, in addition to the structural elements in accordance with Fig. 9, drives and control elements are stored as parameterised elements and the designer synthesises his design from these. One method of achieving the interdisciplinary definition of machinery function and deducing the PLC code is described by Poernbacher and Zh [23]. In this method, the function groups of the machine are modelled per UML, its behaviour as status machine and time-dependent behaviour are modelled via simple laws of motion. The interaction between the elements is established in a sequence diagram, from which the PLC software can be derived. Even the basic design in the system design phase must

Figure 10: Gross modelling using the thermobalance method [25]. Since mechatronic aids are used for the purpose of influencing the precision of machine tools, a calibration is required which must be decided, as well as evaluated and optimised during the design phase. Model-based design for mechatronic systems therefore has the task of deciding a calibration strategy, and of estimating the qualities of a system improved in this way in order to be able to ensure as a result that the overall system is capable of optimisation. As it is only with difficulty that reliable calibration can be undertaken in a straightforward manner by including axisrelated control points, because of the uncertainties due to operating conditions and errors in positioning, a calibration procedure is required which according to Weikert [26], and Schwenke [27] is based on an error model of the machine (Fig. 11). Its parameters are determined by means of the calibration according to a pre-defined strategy and associated system of measurement, and with its help it is possible to compensate for the kinematics errors of the machine. For a procedure such as this, forecasts are required regarding the uncertainty of calibration and the uncertainty of parameters as a consequence of the calibration strategy, in order to be able to carry out modelbased error budgeting as well as a virtual acceptance test.
(2) (1) (3) (4)

fixed table

fixed moving moving table headstock headstock

cross slide

base with guide

(1)

(A)

(B)

Figure 9: Combination of parameterised variants in the MECOMAT system [13].

Figure 11: Calibration by means of laser interferometer to identify the parameters of a machine model after [27].

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The universal generation and use of the uniform database ultimately facilitates model-based commissioning, in which the real control interacts as programmed hardware in the loop simulation model of the mechatronic remainder of the system, the behaviour of the system being made visible by means of an appropriate visualisation method. Such approaches have been proposed for instance by Dierssen [22] and by Poernbacher and Zh [23] as well as Pritschow and Roeck [28]. In addition to the visualisation of the machine, in [23] real components can be connected via the real PROFIBUS. The design of mechatronic systems is iterative because the challenge is to seek a system that has specific properties. However, all simulation-supported methods initially require a system, the properties of which can then be predicted. For them, the design task is an inverse problem. To solve this, Seo et al. [29] propose a unified approach to the prior topological optimisation with the aid of a Bond graph-based representation of the system and an evolution algorithm, before beginning to implement the design. 2.4 The model as mechatronic component The aim of using a machine model for controlling machinery is to improve the behaviour of the machine by virtue of the fact that the behaviour of the machine is described and can be predicted in the control system itself. This means that actions can be initiated in such a way that undesirable side effects are suppressed. Model-based initiatives are available for Compensation of kinematic errors (calibration model). Processing the signals of additional status sensors. Dynamic compensation. Thermal compensation. Failure prediction by detecting any deviation from normal behaviour. Avoidance of critical states (chatter) by model-based prediction of areas of instability and

tion of acceleration sensors near the tool centre point (TCP) is discussed in [34]. From the acceleration signals an observer for the TCP position is generated from a dynamic model of the machine. The system can be used to master flexible structures and enhances the vibrational deflections by 70 percent in the given system with one axis and two masses. A Kalman filter is introduced to take into account that the model does not come arbitrarily close to the real system. Pritschow et al. [35] use a Ferraris sensor to improve the velocity signal instead of the measuring systems. These are used to observe disturbance, by which means it is possible to halve the sensitivity to disturbance. Zirn et al. [36] propose a controller for the positioning of a single rotational axis, where the cross-talk is taken into consideration via an observer of the mass angle of rotation formed from the mechanical model of the rotational axis. Symens et al. [37] opt for an H -controller for a 2-axis pick-and-place system, which adjusts to the compliance of the system according to the position of the holder. In this case however the mechanical model is not exploited directly, which generates non-linear changes in the control parameters into nominator and denominator of the transfer function, thereby causing poor numeric conditioning; instead the positions of poles and zero settings are changed directly in a linear relationship with the length of the radial arm. Altintas and Erkorkmaz [38] and Hadorn [39] propose a system using a model to achieve optimum-velocity controlled trajectory, in which a parallel-kinematics machine, because of its non-linearity, can achieve significant time savings compared with conventional velocity set point generation. Denkena and Holz [40] and Jaeger et al. [41] (cf. Fig. 12) demonstrate the use of the dynamic machine model for force/momentum set point generation and in addition expand the concept of the set point generation to adapt the assignment of parameters to the dynamic conditions of the controlled system.

Rule-based decision models for reaching stable zones in the vicinity (Altintas [33]). The aim of dynamic compensation is to improve the behaviour of the machine, as a result of the increase in information about the mechanical system which is available in the control system releasing the drive commands, so that the control system can take account of the physical behaviour of the entire system. Undesirable movements of the system are eliminated with the aid of axis regulation. A large proportion of these undesirable movements, above all vibrations of the system, is however deterministic and hence predictable, and could be taken care of upstream of the controller by means of set point generation. The closed loop controller would then only have to suppress the discrepancies between the model and reality and disturbances which could not have been anticipated, e.g. from the process. The published systems can be distinguished with regard to the complexity of the model and hence the physical effects which are taken account of in the set point generation and at the point of engagement, i.e. at the point between the NC code and electrical signal generation at which the evaluation by the physical model comes into play. Other differences relate to the evaluation of additional sensors, the signals from which are processed with the aid of the machine model in such a way that they can connect actuators. In addition to the direct effect of the machine axes, systems are known which involve command actuators, either as redundant and highly dynamic axes or as additional short correction axes. The integra-

Figure 12: Dynamic machine model for force/momentum set point generation [41]. Response to temperature changes is increasingly being seen as a problem for the manufacturer of machinery, and for this reason the thermal characteristics must be taken into consideration and optimised in the design phase. In the design phase, the design rules for optimum temperature sensitivity must be exploited and, where necessary, temperature control systems must be provided, the efficacy of which must be tested using a thermal model of the machine. Published concepts are basically distinguished in respect of the actuators: Temperature sensitivity compensation via the machine axes (cf. [42]).

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Temperature sensitivity compensation via additional axes, such as for example heating and cooling elements (cf. [43]). They are different in relation to sensors: Measurement of temperature (cf. [42][44]). Measurement of thermal expansion (cf. [43][45]). Direct mechanical probing of TCP (normal practice for lathes) [46].

MACHINE TOOL

drive A

drive B

sensor A

field bus

machine bus modul bus control 1 interf. modul modul bus control n interf. modul

bus interface

Measurement of power of drives and assemblies. The thermal machine model build up in the control system follows the established data from the sensors and actuators and is distinguished in terms of structure and predictive quality. The basic variants are: Simplified heat conduction equations and thermoelastic equations with a numerical solution. Phenomenological equations, mostly physically motivated [42]. Neural networks [47][48][49].

sens.

sens. e.g. filed bus

Figure 13: Communications structure of a reconfigurable machine after [54]. own internal bus system, connected for instance to a special machine bus system. Reconfiguration by the user will only succeed if the control system itself recognises the configuration and adapts itself to it. For this, an open control system is required, which recognises new modules at start-up and derives measures for adjusting. The control system uses a mechatronic model expanded and adapted by the new modules from which necessary control sequences can be deduced. The parameters are set with the aid of the module parameters stored in the mechatronic modules. These parameters are entered in the configuration list and are interpreted by the control system, which then adapts to them, during start-up. Interfaces and structures for reconfigurable systems are also proposed in [56][57], while in Chen et al. [58] a modularisation strategy is proposed according to features of a family of parts to be manufactured. The necessity of ascertaining the mechanical properties of possible configurations in advance in the case of reconfigurable systems is outlined in [59][60], for which in [59] substructuring via non-linear receptance coupling is used. Thus the circle is closed via [61]. Reconfigurable systems must, in accordance with Fig. 14, construct together with the configuration matrix a mechanical and thermal model controlled by the matrix, which subsequently serves in the control of the overall system to improve its dynamic and thermal behaviour. While approaches considered to date have taken as their starting point a hierarchical connection of the individual mechatronic modules, Rzevski [62] emphasises that with the increasing complexity of the systems, the selfmachine tool modules library WZM-Modul-Bibliothek - Physisch WZM-Modul-Bibliothek (physical / virtual)- Virtuell

Stored look up tables [50]. Solutions for temperature compensation are summarised in a 1995 keynote paper by Weck et al. [51]. The direct displacement measurement of the TCP has the disadvantage that it requires extra time and that it records the deformation status of the machine only at one point from which the deformations of the structure must be extrapolated. 2.4 Allocation of Functionality Section 2.1 dealt with modularisation and partitioning as tools of mechatronic design and to reduce complexity. Another design issue relates to spatial and functional integration. The aim is: 1. To create modules that function autonomously and from the outside have manageable, simple interfaces, and as few of them as possible. This results in the creation of adaptronic solutions, i.e. modules in which sensors and controls, with intelligence between the two, are integrated, including spatial integration. 2. To operate with smallest distance to the causal location, i.e. to measure and to control (cf. Bansevicius and Giniotis [53]), where the final element in each interact chain is subject to the corrective influence of its own dedicated control device). 3. To exploit existing control devices and sensors as far as possible, in order to avoid introducing additional failure scenarios into the system by incorporating additional elements, which gives preference to corrective action via the main axes. 4. Mechatronic systems, depending on information from the process, often require the necessary values to be derived indirectly in order to protect the sensor systems, and thus require complex signal processing and evaluation. Modularisation of machine tools results in autonomously operating units. Defined interfaces make it possible to replace them quickly, and in addition enable speedy installation of these units. Strictly modular design thus permits, firstly, reconfigurable machines and machine systems, and secondly facilitates auto-commissioning and autosurveillance. The need for transformable systems capable of adaptation to changes in the range of tasks requires that the structural and functional limits must be compliant to each other or must be identical (cf. Heisel et al. [54]). Fig. 13 shows a possible communications structure for reconfigurable machines, where the modules have their

hardware Hardware (physical Zusammenbau Physischer assembling)

simulation Simulation Virtueller Zusammenbau (virtual assembling)

Regelung control Parameterdeterminierung

parameter determination Bahninterpreter path interpreter software Software

Figure 14: Structure of a reconfigurable machine system where the model required for dynamic and thermal compensation is created in the control system [61].

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occupation rate increases to such an extent that the performance of the communication system is no longer sufficient. 3 MECHATRONIC SOLUTIONS In this chapter the current limitations on the functionality of machine tool components and their influence on the overall behaviour of the system is shown. Based on this, both general and specific mechatronic initiatives and solutions for the relevant problems faced are indicated. Integration aspects are then discussed in greater detail in Chapter 4. 3.1 Solutions for Cutting Machine Tools 3.1.1 Feed Drives Functionality Characteristics Feed drives are the central elements of machine tools. The functionality of feed drives is in addition heavily dependent on the properties of other machine components, in particular the guide systems and the frames. This necessitates a closely meshed assessment of individual systems. Direct feeds are increasingly being used in highly dynamic machines in particular, but in addition increasing drive bandwidths and fast traverse speeds have been recorded in electromechanical feed drives in recent years. However, the rising dynamic values lead to a more pronounced increase in the thermal load in the feed system, to which e.g. the cooling systems of the screw drives have to be adjusted. Model-based compensation of thermally determined deformations within the sphere of feed mechanics is addressed in publications including [46], where the problems of signal transmission in moving parts is the focus of particular attention. As an alternative to fixed temperature sensors, the use of thermography, which works without motion, is proposed in [46]. Coulomb friction has an essentially limiting influence on positioning accuracy in the feed system. The effects of friction can be minimised by using low-friction or frictionfree drive and guide systems. Examples include hydrostatic [63], magnetostatic [64] and aerostatic [65] screw drive spindle nuts and bearings. The disadvantage of these solutions is that they are usually technically more complex and more expensive in economic terms than roller bearing elements, and passive systems in particular have limited stiffness. In order to achieve a high dynamic feed, it is necessary to have both greatly increased gain of control which is expressed by means including an increased speed gain factor Kv in the position control system and a high level of jerk, which achieves high acceleration and high speeds by the shortest possible route. A high jerk is necessary for good path accuracy, and high gains are also required for good positioning accuracy and/or stability [66]. The control bandwidth is normally limited, both in the case of electromechanical drives and in direct drives, by the lowest natural frequency of the mechanical system [67]. In electromechanical drives, the ratio of characteristic angular frequencies of the mechanical vibration system (massstiffness-damping of the mechanical transfer elements and the slides) to the drive is of decisive importance. High stiffness and damping of the mechanical structure is an essential prerequisite for a high bandwidth of the feed axes. With direct drives, a high bandwidth and high jerk as a basic principle can be achieved due to the absence of mechanical transfer elements. This leads however to increased dynamic excitation of the machine structure.

Mechatronic Solutions Static and quasi-static behaviour: In the case of large machines with heavy axes in particular, positioning accuracy can be limited by friction in the guide system, even though the resolution of the measuring system is adequate. A mechatronic approach which can increase local positioning accuracy is the superposition of inaccurate NC axes with lighter, more accurate NC axes. In order to be able to achieve the required stiffness in the case of low mass axes also, they must normally be much shorter. At the same time, other drive and guide principles are often used, e.g. piezo actuator systems and solid flexures. A decisive factor for absolute (absolute cutting position) accuracy is the configuration of the measuring systems. If the redundant axes have separate length measuring systems, then with measuring systems connected in series it is only possible to achieve a relative (relative to the NC basic axis) improvement in precision. Here the limited control behaviour of the basic axis must be taken into account and switched off, e.g. by clamping. Another approach is to integrate the redundant measuring system in such a way that errors in the basic axis are recorded and can be compensated by the second axis. By this means it is possible to achieve an improvement in precision. Approaches or solutions to increase positioning accuracy using redundant axes are described in applications including a large lathe [68] (see Fig. 15), a milling table [69] and for the Z-axis of a five-axis ultra-precision milling machine [70].
direction of motion tool holder slide piezo actuator sensor output

positioning screw for tolerance compensation frame solid VDI-interface flexure (membrane) energy input

preload

Figure 15: Micro axis for large lathes [68]. If extremely high standards are required in terms of surface finish and dimensional accuracy of workpieces (nmrange, e.g. grinding and diamond turning), conventional drive structures are limited [71]. An alternative approach to the achievement of extreme positioning accuracies is the combination of guide and drive functionality [71][72] [73], e.g. in steppers. Piezo actuators are frequently used as actuators. In order to minimise friction, the actuators are integrated in the mechanical system via solid flexures. In [73], ferro fluids are used for a drive and guide system. Dynamics of feed axes: In the following, mechatronic systems are proposed which further improve the functionality of the optimised feed system in terms of stiffness and damping. Based on the complex associations which limit the bandwidth of feed axes, mechatronic approaches are not limited solely to the feed axis. Initiatives and solutions, relating for instance to frame components or guide systems, are however dealt with in the relevant chapters. The problems of damping between components which are moved in relation to one another are discussed in detail in [74][75]. An adaptive electro-rheological film (ERF) damper is presented. A high level of damping, as required

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for example during processing, can be set by means of a high-viscosity damping fluid. However, since high viscosity damping hinders rapid traversing movements, the damping can be lowered further during the traverse. Active fluids for semi-active damping are presented in [76] and other sources. A semi-active approach based on a controllable eddy-current damper for precision machinery is described in [77]. Solutions for increasing the axial dynamic stiffness of screw drives are presented in [78][79]. Autonomically acting compensating units are described, which are configured between spindle nut and slide. This allows compensation for vibrations in the drive train for which the bandwidth of the feed drive is inadequate. The solution proposed by Neugebauer [78] uses piezo actuators integrated in the compensation unit via solid flexures (Fig. 16). Piezo fibre sensors serve as vibration sensors.
piezo fibre sensor for load detection multilayer stack actuators in differential setup solid flexure

AO original motion SA agile motion SI inertial motion path [m]

time [s]

Z, C

Y, B X, A

power take-off to the carriage

capacitive measuring system for controlling the actuator stroke

drive by the spindle nut

Figure 16: Axial vibration compensation unit [78]. An approach, which in principle can achieve maximum bandwidths on the tool and workpiece respectively, and which is similar to the solutions already described for increasing positioning accuracy, is to use superposed NC axes. It is also based on the combination of drives and kinematics with markedly differing characteristics [80][81]. Superimposing of large axes with low dynamics and short and high-dynamic axes (working in the same direction) results in a hierarchical division of the overall dynamics on several functional levels [82][83] (cf. Fig. 17). The overall dynamics (actual values) are obtained from the individual dynamics working in the same direction; see Fig. 18 (top). The highest possible overall dynamics can usually only be achieved locally. For example, roughing operations are carried out globally by moving the slow axes. Finishing operations take place locally by moving the fast axes in conjunction with positioning movements of the slow axes. Many solutions, in particular those in most Fast Tool Servos (FTS), do not superpose motions, but use the main
disturbances deviations MECHANICAL SYSTEM SENSORS actual values + disturbances deviations MECHANICAL SYSTEM SENSORS

forces, torques

forces, torques

ACTUATORS

ACTUATORS

CONTROL

nominal signals

CONTROL

Figure 17: Principle of superposed axes.

Figure 18: Motion characteristics of superposed axes (top) and agile unit of a modular machine tool [82][102]. axis for positioning only. Based on working principles, FTSs can be categorised mainly according to three types [84]: Piezo FTS [81][85][86][87][88][89][90][91][92] [93][94], Lorentz FTS [90][95][96][97][98][99], and normalstress FTS [84][100][101]. With regard to moving strokes, Lu [84] defines short stroke as less than 100 m, intermediate as between 100 m and 1 mm, and long stroke as above 1 mm. A modular concept with redundant axes for five-axis milling on large machine tools for tool- and die making is presented in [82]. The machines normally designed for the demands of heavy machining need to be limited in terms of their dynamic parameters in order to achieve the required precision, in particular during finishing, because of the long axes lengths and the low natural frequencies. Because of the superposition of motions, a compromise value for the agile axes in terms of their dynamic parameters and required length must be calculated from the characteristics of the slow axes (in particular the path until the maximum speed has been reached). If in addition the simultaneous superposition of several axes is considered, then the use of parallel structures with electromechanical actuators emerges as a rational solution for the agile unit. The agile hexapod unit in Fig. 18 has 5(6) degrees of freedom (DOF) on the TCP. In order to avoid causing the machine to vibrate during highly dynamic use of linear direct drives, a compensation of inertial force was devised in [103] in the form of a compensation slide, travelling on the same guide path as the processing slide but opposite to the direction of feed. Residual parasitic vibrations are compensated by an active tool holder [106]. Another approach is impulse decoupling [66][104][105], in which the half of the motor which is normally attached firmly to the frame is also supported so that it can move in the direction of feed. Mechatronic solutions, which adjust the preloading depending on the loads, have been described in [78][107][108]. Increasing thermal loads are a further aspect of electromechanical drives operated at high speeds. One solution to extend the temperature-dependent operating range of

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high-speed electromechanical feed drives by means of pre-loaded spindles with bearings on both sides is described in [109]. To prevent thermally determined deformations of the lead screw resulting in inadmissible loads on the bearings, the axial fixation of a spindle bearing is equipped with an additional sensor-actuator unit. 3.1.2 Guide Systems Functionality Characteristics In conjunction with drive systems, guideways constitute the interfaces between frame components that move relative to one another. Extreme demands are made on them regarding freedom from constraint (low friction), uniform movement and guidance precision, stiffness and damping characteristics. Damping in guideways plays an essential role in the system damping of the machine. An increase in system damping in roller guide systems can be achieved by the integration of additional damping shoes. The concept of a hydrostatic guide system in the compact guide system format in accordance with DIN 645 was presented at EMO05 by [110], essentially reducing the costs of system integration. Use of larger carrying pockets enabled Aesop [111] and Hardinge [112] to achieve greater loading capability and stability in comparison with previous development initiatives according to DIN 635. Because of the mainly mechanical control of the guideway gaps, (e.g. by means of membrane throttles or ring groove sheaths), hydrostatic guide systems are very resistant to process and disturbing forces. The high cost of production and operation is particularly disadvantageous, as is the fact that it is impossible to intervene in the control system behaviour during operations [113]. Coulomb friction in guide systems is particularly disadvantageous when very high positioning accuracies or very high axis speeds are required. Minimal friction is the advantage of magnetic and aerostatic guide systems [75]. They represent the best approach where there are extreme demands in relation to freedom from constraint and axes dynamics. However, passive systems possess very low stiffness and damping and are inherently unstable. Dynamic instabilities can be minimised by passive optimisation in aerostatic bearings. Mechatronic Solutions Active hydrostatic guide systems: A mechatronic approach to hydrostatic guide systems is presented in [113]. The mechanical control system of the guidance gap is extended by a mechatronic control system. The hydrostatic pressure pocket unit builds on the functional principle of a servo valve. The fundamental distinction here is the nature of the deflection of the valve piston or control piston. The preliminary phase, consisting of a torque motor/impact plate, is replaced by the sensor/actuator unit and the control arm, see Fig. 19. In order to record the vertical position, the dynamic pressure measurement principle is used.
piezo - sensor/ actuator-unit ppump controlQpump piston pressure pocket machine base h control gear dynamic pressure for distance measurement measureprethrottle panel

Electro-/magnetorheological fluids constitute another approach with regard to active level control of hydrostatic guide systems [73][74][114][115][116]. They change properties under the influence of electrical/magnetic fields, in particular their viscosity. Forces are generated via the fluids as a function of the effect of the fields. In addition to level control, drive functions with up to six degrees of freedom can also be realised. Active magnetic guide systems: The great potential of linear direct drives in relation to achievable motion dynamics will only be fully exploited when the friction of traditional guideways does not limit the accuracy and speed of positioning. By integrating non-contact magnetic guide systems in feed axes it is possible to cancel out the feed velocity and acceleration limited by traditional sliding or roller guide systems [117][118][119][120]. However, in order to achieve a high static stiffness they demand highly dynamic control systems. The associated costs do however encompass the possibility of accommodating influences during operations, e.g. by correction of spatial positions. The Z-axis of a milling machine with active magnetic guides [120] as shown in Fig. 20 uses a configuration of eight electromagnets arranged in pairs, each at an angle of 45, see also Chapter 4.2.
Z-SLIDE electromagnetic guiding slide

motor spindle

primary part of linear direct drive

Figure 20: Active Z-slide frame with magnetic bearings (left), view of an electromagnet (right) [120]. Active aerostatic guide systems: There are essentially two methods of realising active aerostatic bearings (AAB) and guide systems: the air-film-thickness feedback method (Fig. 21 a, b) and the bearing pressure feedback method (Fig. 21 c). In the first method, changes in the air film thickness are detected and electric signals are sent to actuators for controlling the flow resistance, thus keeping the gap height constant [121][122][123]. This approach is very accurate; however it is complex and expensive. In the second approach, the change in the pressure on the surface of the bearing controls the opening of the active restrictor. A disadvantage of this approach is that the film thickness on the bearing surface is not measured directly. However this method needs no electrical supply, and hence it is possible to incorporate the active restrictor
sensor x objective mass u air pad (a) air film controller (c) sensor x objective mass u air film pressure control

sensor x objective mass air film (PI) air pad (b) u desired h +
measured controlleramp. (d) - h control amp.

objective (bearing platen)

platen height h

3 piezo act.

air supply capacitive sensor

Figure 19: Adaptronic pressure pocket for hydrostatic guide systems [113].

Figure 21: Types of AAB, in accordance with [124] and [123], and actively compensated aerostatic bearing [125].

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within the aerostatic bearing [123]. In [124], the use of (a) for linear guide systems and (b) for rotary guide systems is proposed. Figure (d) shows a constructional solution for a rotary table with active aerostatic bearings in accordance with principle (b). 3.1.3 Frame Components Functionality Characteristics Frame components are crucial for static and thermal machine stiffness because of their frequently high elastic and thermal effective lengths. (Quasi-) static deformations can be compensated by calibration or model-based solutions (by the existence of corresponding NC axes). Frame components are frequently the cause of the lowest and most dominant natural vibrations. In many cases they significantly restrict the achievable feed bandwidth and hence the performance capability of machine tools. In addition, because of their inertia, they have a decisive determining influence on the performance required from the feed drives. Therefore the primary design target for frame components is to achieve high stiffness and damping with low mass. In addition to optimisation of the topology, there are interesting initiatives in the area of lightweight construction materials for moving parts [127]. Passive measures to increase the damping of frame components include, in addition to targeted choice of materials, the optimisation of joint damping or passive dynamic add-on systems such as absorbers or auxiliary mass dampers. However, the add-on systems have the disadvantage of being tuned to a more or less fixed frequency range, which is detrimental in view of the frequently position-dependent machine characteristics. Mechatronic Solutions Static and quasi-static behaviour: Comprehensive compensation for thermally determined deformations by axes readjustment is only possible in 5-axis machines. In the case of lathes in particular, tilting normally cannot be compensated completely by NC axes. These problems have been addressed in [128][129][130]. Integration of additional actuators and sensors do permit active compensation for tilting of the spindle head. In the compensation of deformations [128][129], an additional drive is integrated in the spindle head in order to compensate for thermally determined tilting around the Y-axis, see Fig. 22. Because of the high time constant of thermally determined deformations, and in order to achieve a high static stiffness, an electromechnical drive is used. As a function
head stock of the lathe X Y Z electromechanical compensation unit solid flexure (left side) mechanical actuator (solid flexure) lead screw with two different lead length gear (i=3.5) temperature sensor on the upper front of head stock solid flexures (right side)

electric motor

Figure 22: Electromechanical unit for compensation of thermally determined tilting of spindle heads [128][129].

of the measured temperature, a trapezoidal thread spindle is driven via a stepper motor and gear unit. Because of the differing spindle leads, the actuator is splayed, changing its length. This results in a compensating tilting movement around the Y-axis. The thermally determined tilt error can be compensated by more than 90%. A unit with three degrees of freedom for compensation of thermally determined tilt error of the spindle head around the X and Z axis, as well as shifts in the Y axis, is presented in [130]. Here, the spindle head is supported on bearings at three points and driven by three piezo actuators. Thermally determined diameter errors on the workpiece can also be lowered by more than 90%. For milling machines, an actively supported table is presented in [131], which is controlled via four piezo actuators. By this means it is possible to compensate tilting deviations around the X-axis and the Y-axis and for shifts in the Z-axis. Approaches involving the strategic use of what is in fact the undesirable thermoelastic behaviour of frame components as actuators to compensate for thermally determined deformations is presented for example in [43][126][132]. The strategic generation of thermally determined deformations by means of thermal actuators (heating/cooling) can equalise undesirable thermally determined deformations. In contrast to widely used passive tempering, e.g. by means of coolant, there is no compensation for the cause of the disturbance. The initiatives can therefore be distinguished from the electromechanical and piezo-electrical actuators described above, in that thermal energy is applied instead of mechanical or electrical energy. This approach has the advantage that it is not usually necessary to introduce additional joints in the frame components. The relatively high inertness is however a disadvantage. Dynamic behaviour and process stability: In active vibration suppression in particular, the issue of placement of additional sensors and actuators and the control strategies used is of crucial importance [133]. In relation to this, investigations have been carried out on portal machine models, by Ehmann and Nordmann [134] amongst others. It is noticeable that there are hardly any initiatives for structural integration of actuators in frame components. Instead, ancillary systems with absolute effects (e.g. mass dampers) are preferred for dynamic problems or the actuators are placed within the flow of force (e.g. between the guide and the frame) [134]). An expansion of the limited fields of application of passive dynamic ancillary systems can be achieved by means of semi-active and active initiatives. In semi-active add-on systems, stiffness and/or damping are adapted to the current behaviour of the machine. An adaptive mass damper with a magnetostrictive actuator is described in [135] and an adaptive friction damper with pneumatic actuators for controlling friction force is described in [136]. Semi-active joint damping [137] achieved by controlling friction force by means of piezo actuators is also a known technique. In the case of major fluctuations in vibration behaviour, active absorbers (active mass dampers) provide an alternative to passive and semi-active damping systems. They introduce into the structure the reaction force of an accelerated inertial mass which is 180 out of phase of the vibration. Electromagnetic actuators are known from Nordmann [138] and industrial solutions [140], while an electro-hydraulic actuator is presented in [139]. Solutions for structurally integrated actuator systems are known from parallel kinematics. Because of the often clearly defined strut loads and the simple strut structures,

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claws for supporting the actuators twisted

twisting-elastic solid flexure

piezo actuators

shortening extension

Figure 23: Unit for compensation of torsional vibrations in parallel kinematics bracing [141]. these provide, in contrast to the often complex frame topologies of serial kinematics, favourable conditions for the integration of additional compensation actuator systems. For struts with torsional load, a structurally integrated unit with piezo actuators is described in [141], see Fig 23. Solutions to compensate for axial strut deformations by means of piezo actuators are described in [142][143]. In finishing procedures such as polishing, even minimal vibration amplitudes are undesirable. For the active dynamic increase in stiffness of a serial polishing machine, a brace with integral piezo actuators is integrated in [79] (cf. Fig. 24). The vibrations are measured via absolute acceleration sensors. The brace is mounted between the tool holder and the guide of the spindle head, hence parallel to the flow of force.
module B for increasing static and dynamic stiffness

module A for increasing dynamic stiffness

Figure 24: Modules for increasing the dynamic and static stiffness [79]. An active connection to a grinding wheel spindle on the spindle head with the same aim of influencing machine compliance was presented in [144]. However, the piezo actuators are in this case configured within the flow of force. Components for active isolation of vibration also result in improvements in terms of the restricted field of application of passive systems, with hydraulic [145] and pneumatic actuators [146] being used amongst others. 3.1.4 Main Drives Functionality Characteristics In order to realise the very high speeds which are possible today and the required precision, direct drives which are stiffer and without backlash are increasingly being used because of the availability of extensively adjustable motors. The high revolutions and accompanying high output requirements place extremely high demands on the static, dynamic and thermal stiffness and the useful life of bearings and spindles. Pre-stressed bearings with ceramic rolling elements guarantee a high static stiffness. Because of the high centrifugal forces and thermal loads, however, the pre-loading changes as a function of the revolution number, with the result that it is always necessary to find a compromise between adequate bearing stiffness and maximum revolution number. This problem

does not as a general principle occur with non-contact magneto bearings and aerostatic bearings. However, due to their passivity, they only have very low stability, although they stabilise themselves in the super-critical revolution range. Except in hydrostatic and hydrodynamic bearings, main spindles are only weakly damped. Since main spindles form a coupled vibration system with the various tools [147], the dynamic behaviour of the main spindle-toolsystem is changeable, which limits the effect of purely passive damping systems. Online solutions therefore exist for spindle speed variation or selection (variation of metal removal parameters), in particular to avoid chatter vibrations [149][148], based on the dynamics of stability lobe pockets or sensor integrated chatter detection [150]. Another popular on-line method for chatter avoidance is the continuous periodic spindle speed modulation technique [148]. Tuning of the natural frequencies of the cutting tool and the spindle and tool holder setup is proposed in [151]. Mechatronic Solutions Static and quasi-static behaviour: The active control of the bearing gap in particular in magnetostatic and aerostatic bearings does however also improve static stiffness actively. Active non-contact bearings are used today in industry. The problems of pre-loading as a function of the speed in high-speed spindles with roller bearings can be significantly improved as a result of autonomous adjustment of the pre-loading by means of integrated actuators [105][128][129][152]. The mechanical conversion is essentially based on the same principle as that described in Chapter 3.1.1 for screw drives. Dynamic behaviour and process stability: A fundamental distinction can be drawn with regard to the active damping of main spindles between two variants of the active bearing. Active bearing support There are currently three types of technically viable actuators for active bearing support available, acting on the basis of different physical principles, i.e. electromagnetic actuators, piezo actuators and hydraulic actuators (piston actuators or active sliding bearings) [153]. Active magnetic bearings can be used for active damping or chatter suppression by means of appropriate control algorithms [110][154][155][156]. They are based on control of the air gap. In addition, an option to expand the technology also exists. It is also possible to a certain extent to use, for example, oscillating movement of the spindle rotor for lapping drilled holes for non-circular processing of drilled holes, for circular milling to compensate for the thermal drift of the machine or the drift of the milling cutter [157]. The disadvantage is the higher engineering cost. Piezo actuators are used primarily because of their high dynamic performance. Technical solutions with the aim of actively improving the chatter tendency of spindle machine tool systems with roller bearings over a wide revolution range, consist of integrating radially operating actuators, evenly distributed across the range, which exert their influence on the spindle shaft via the roller bearing [153] [158]. A solution with two piezo actuators was presented in [160][161]. A similar solution with 4 electrorestrictive piezo actuators is described in [159]. Because of their high dynamic performance, piezo actuators are often used as actuators in the air-film-thickness feedback method in main spindles with aerostatic bear-

fixed

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ings. Motor spindles with active aerostatic bearings are commercially available from sources including [122]. Active sliding bearings with piezo actuators are presented in [162][163]. The work in [163] deals with the development of an adaptive hydrodynamic bearing made of a mobile housing mounted on piezoelectric actuators. The device is placed near one of the two bearings supporting a slender shaft. Hydraulic actuators can generate higher strokes than piezo actuators [164]. With the active milling spindle bearing shown in Fig. 25 it is possible to achieve strokes of 0.5 mm [165][166]. The main view of Fig. 25 shows how the active ring is incorporated in the housing and how three separate pressure chambers are created.
hydrostatically position balances sensor oil sealing oil bearings in O-arrangement CHIRON machine tool

active ring active ring

piezovalve

hydrostatic bearing

preload spindle bearing

Figure 25: Active spindle bearing system with hydraulic actuators and servo valves with piezo pilot controls [166]. Active ancillary bearings The active ancillary bearings are based on the principles of active bearing support. In [167], a milling spindle was examined in which the critical number of revolution per minute can be influenced by an additional adaptive magnetic bearing B between the main bearing (A) and secondary bearing (B). This circumvents the attainment of the first critical rotational speed, resulting in a fundamental expansion of the stable working area. A similar solution for spindles with roller bearings in which the additional adaptive magnetic bearing is placed in front of the main bearing is described in [32]. Automatic balancing systems: For spindles with active magnetic bearings, there exists the possibility of compensating for residual imbalances from the main spindle-toolsystem during processing (in-process balancing). However, automatic mechanical balancing systems also exist [168][169][170]. As a rule they displace individual masses [171] or the centre of gravity of eccentric rings. This latter variant is used by [169]. The level of balancing, which can be controlled during operations, is realised by means of the control synchronised with the revolutions of two axially very closely positioned imbalanced disks on the spindle shaft. The transfer of force takes place via permanent magnets. 3.1.5 Tools and Clamping Devices Functionality Characteristics Tools and tool holders have a decisive influence on the achievable processing precision and metal cutting capacity. Firstly, because of their slender form, tools have very low static bending strength and torsional stiffness. Secondly, in the flow of force between tool and workpiece, other compliances inevitably arise as a result of additional joints. In [174] it was established that the tool - tool holder - main spindle - bearing system can contribute over 50% to the total compliance at the cutting edge. A much higher proportion can be expected in the case of particularly long tools. In addition, the low stiffness of tools also has a limiting effect on process stability (regenerative chatter) and

hence on the achievable metal cutting volumes in a given time. Secondly, however, the additional joints also have a fundamental effect on the overall damping of the toolspindle system. A number of activities have been undertaken to increase the static and dynamic stiffness of tools, in particular those with a large overhang. Passive add-on systems for vibration suppression are usually easy to optimise, since the properties of tools are less susceptible to fluctuations in parameters. A greater need for intervention is apparent in the static behaviour of thin tools. There is a real need for an active correction system for very low frequencies but with reliable and affordable sensing devices [172]. Mechatronic Solutions Static and quasi-static behaviour: The model-based correction of the milling deflection is described in [175] (mathematical process force model) and [176] (overview), [177] and elsewhere. In machines which cannot execute all the correctional movements due to the absence of NC axes, the integration of additional actuators is advantageous. A solution of this kind is presented in [178] (see also Chapter 4.2). Piezo actuators facilitate dynamic positioning of the tool-main spindle system in the micrometer range by a tilting motion around the X and Y axes and by movement in the Z axis (Fig. 26). Movements of around 130 m can be generated.
supporting ring main spindle solid flexure (membrane)

piezo actuator prestressing clamping ring

without compensation

cutter nominal position part

with compensation

Figure 26: Compensation of deflection of the milling head by a mechatronic unit [178]. All these principles are however scarcely suited to compensation for the deflection of thin boring bars. In this area, mechatronic initiatives with additional actuators have great potential. In the solutions already known [179][180][181][181][182], the tool cutting edges can be adjusted to compensate for deflections of the boring bar. The active boring tool shown in the Fig. 27 consists of a rotating boring shaft and a vertical measuring sleeve [182].
inductive energy transmission information transmission with slip rings rotary encoder spindle eddy current distance sensors cutting edge static sleeve with distance sensors piezo actuator cutting edge

solid flexures and strain gauge sensors

Figure 27: Active boring bar to compensate for the deflection of the cutting edges boring processes [182]. An active chuck has been presented in [183], see Fig. 28. The mechatronic chuck equalises eccentricities in the clamped workpiece, arising for example as a result of errors in assembling the chuck itself, or as a result of errors

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elasto-kinematic element 2D (solid flexure) flange piezo actuators and strain gauge sensors

frame components, connected to flange part Measurement system for the gear contour

inductive energy transmission

turning tool frame components, connected to the chuck

Figure 28: Precision positioning system for lathes [183]. in clamping the workpiece. Communications with the electronic elements mounted in the chuck take place via Bluetooth. Tools for polishing optical surfaces such as wafers must realise an even distribution of the polishing pressure. An industrial application [185][186] has presented a segmented active chuck for this purpose. Dynamic behaviour and process stability: As illustrated in [172], the use of clamping systems with good damping properties is an essential approach for increasing process stability. Fluids are often integrated in order to increase damping. These systems are capable of further optimisation if the damping force can be adapted to changing process conditions. A semi-active tuneablestiffness boring bar containing an electrorheological fluid (ERF) is proposed in [187], to suppress chatter in boring. The ERF undergoes a phase change when subjected to an external electrical field and serves as a complex spring behaving non-linearly in the structure. As a result, the global stiffness and energy dissipation properties of the boring bar, under an electric field, change drastically at different amplitudes of vibration. It is found that the amplitude of chatter can be prevented from increasing by using the nonlinear vibration characteristic of the ERF. A similar semi-active damping concept, but with a magnetorheological fluid (MRF) in the tool holder in a boring bar for single lip drilling, is described in [188]. The efficiency of active damping with feedback control on tools or tool holders has been demonstrated in various projects [189][190][191][192][193]. Because of positive developments in terms of price, another picture will now no doubt emerge, confirming the commercial availability of active turning tool holders. In [192], various turning tool holders with embedded piezo actuators are offered, see Fig. 29. According to the manufacturer, these should result, in conjunction with an external controller, in a 15% production improvement, 75% product surface improvement, 10% reduction in costs for tools and work holders and a 90% reduction in noise. A procedure for active damping of vibrations in wheelshaped cutting tools is described in [194]. The forces recutting speed direction excitation introduced by the process

part

boring bar embedded piezo actuator control

Figure 29: Smart cutting system for reduction of harmful tool holder vibrations [192].

quired are introduced into the structure via piezo actuators, where the force transfer to the rotating cutting wheel in phase opposition to the wheel is accomplished via ball bearings. A similar paper on this topic is presented by Pape and Carlson [195]. The reduction in vibrations in circular saw blades, is investigated in [196] via the principle of multi-modal vibration absorbers by means of integrated piezoceramic components in conjunction with passive or semi-active electrical networks. The aim of most of the systems described above is to improve the dynamic behaviour of tools. In addition, there are also initiatives to integrate mechatronics in the tool or in the tool holder for the purpose of improving the behaviour of the machine. Since tools and clamping systems represent the ends of the force flow of the machine in the direction of the process, they are especially suitable locations in which to integrate sensors and actuators to determine and compensate for working space errors. Vibration suppression for turning operations using integral force feedback strategy is implemented in a smart tool holder in [197]. It is equipped with a standard VDI-3425 interface to fit into the turret of a CNC-lathe. Similar solutions have been presented in [30] (piezo actuators) and [198] (magnetostrictive actuator). In [30], an optical sensor records the relative displacement between workpiece and turning tool holder. In [106], an active tool is described for lathes. Use of a highly dynamic infeed of the tool cutting edge, using piezo actuators, reduces the disturbing effects on the cutting depth caused by the mechanical vibrations (measurement of machining force) and at the same time records and compensates for the radial deviation of the spindle via 3 capacitive sensors. The solution presented in [199] decouples the glass cutting wheel from portal vibrations. Like the tool, the workpiece can also be isolated from machine vibrations. The effect on the workpiece of an additional support (active steady rest) with piezo actuators and capacitive position sensors is presented in [31] in relation to lathes. In [200], a system is presented in which several process and state variables, including waviness on the workpiece/tool in process, are detected. Vibration assisted machining: Significant reductions of cutting and friction forces can be realised by introducing an additional motion into the cutting zone. Positive results (reduction of cutting and friction forces as well as temperature in the cutting zone, tool wear and surface roughness) were recorded for a broad frequency range 20 Hz 40 kHz [172]. The superposition of vibrations on the process has been investigated in many machining procedures. Grinding and lapping in particular have scope for significant industrial application. In order to generate the necessary vibrations, the bandwidth for the existing machine drives (NC axes) would only be sufficient for very low frequencies (up to approx. 100 Hz, depending on the size of the machine). In addition, this excitation variant is dubious from an energyrelated viewpoint because of the large masses to be moved. The consequence of this is that an additional actuator system is required to generate vibrations. For the aforementioned reasons, this is integrated as closely as possible to the process. For optimum transfer of the excitation energy to the tool cutting edges, a corresponding natural frequency of the system capable of vibration, usually the tool is excited, in particular in the higher frequency range. In addition to longitudinal natural frequencies to generate axial movements of the cutting edge [201] (approx. 20 kHz). Bending

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natural frequencies [202] (approx. 20 kHz) are excited in order to generate elliptical vibrations of the cutting edges. 3.2 Solutions for Forming Machine Tools 3.2.1 Main Drives Functionality Characteristics An optimisation of the kinematic behaviour of path-bound presses can be achieved, e.g. by means of unequal translation of the drives. The disadvantage of this is, however, that it is not possible to respond to changing requirements in terms of the process technology. In the tryout field, in particular, and in smaller batch sizes, controlled hydraulic main drives are now used to emulate the kinematic behaviour of path-bound presses [203]. They are characterised by variable press forces and changeable ram strokes and forming speeds. In addition to classic path-bound mechanical or forcebound drives, research activities are focusing on alternative drive principles such as direct linear drives for microforming [204], innovative machine structures [205][206] and the magnetic forming of sheet metals [207][208]. These aspects will not however be included in the following analysis. Mechatronic Solutions Path-bound presses have a high energetic efficiency and high stiffness. Through the use of a controllable second drive superposed on the main movement, it is possible to suspend the path-bound property of the ram motion of the flywheel for a limited time, which makes it possible to improve adaptation to process requirements [209]. By this means, for example, the impact speed can be reduced while the number of strokes remains unchanged, resulting in an improvement in the dynamic behaviour at the beginning of the forming process. Alternatively, it permits the kinematics of the press drive to be changed in such a way that the process cycle is shortened at the same (limited) impact speed. The principle of a solution with a servo motor and planetary gearing is shown in the Fig. 30.
main drive additional drive epicyclic gear with flywheel

Mechatronic Solutions It is of significant interest that try-out presses can create the forming behaviour of concrete production machines. For this various investigations were carried out in which additional hydraulic cylinders, needed for the emulation of the forming behaviour, were integrated in the machine bed (see Fig. 31). Systems were mainly used for this to reduce the stiffness by eliminating stiffness structure elements such as walls, ribs, etc. In connection with deflection- or force measurement systems, this system offers an alternative to real mechatronic systems.
upper die lower die die carrier compensation cylinders

press bed

Figure 31: Hydraulic cylinders in the press bed for compliance adjustment [211]. For press brakes, which are directed towards manufacturing of net shape sheet parts, compensation of frame deflections is necessary and has been developed into a very sophisticated and highly integrated mechatronic system (see Chapter 4). The deflection results in a typical boat shape of the part [212] (Fig. 32). Besides the varying angle over the length, the bending line becomes curved, depending on the deflection partition of the lower and of the upper beam. Therefore deflection compensation of only one of the two beams necessarily leaves the two faults uncorrected.
90 90 > 90 90 90

90

upper traverse and punch lower traverse and die short stroke cylinders Compensation of Bending Compensation of Tilting

epicyclic gear train with flywheel

Figure 32: Dynamic crowning of lower beam, after [212][213]. The compensation of the deflection of the lower beam is done by crowning, pre-deflection of the lower beam with either wedge systems or short stroke hydraulic cylinders, which lift the tool carrying frame against some supporting frame, see Fig. 32. Today crowning is done automatically. The pressures in the two cylinders during closed loop controlled synchronous movement of both sides of the beam are measured. From those measurements, the deflections of the die and the lower and upper beams are calculated using a mechanical model of the lower and upper beam, and the required crowning is deduced from this so that the two beams become parallel in the vicinity of the operating die (Fig. 32). Crowning shall be synchronous with the loading to avoid marks and internal stresses. This still does not compensate for the variation of the bending angle, which also needs a pre-deflection of the upper beam, which could be achieved in a manner similar to the crowning of the lower beam. In free bend-

Figure 30: Second drive with planetary gearing [210]. 3.2.2 Frame Components Functionality Characteristics Forming machines and their frames need above all to be able to cope with large process forces. These introduce large deflections of the frame, which in a large car body panel press may range up to several mm. While the lengthening of the uprights, the deflection of the drive system and crown are easily compensated during setup by the ram adjustment, the deflection of the table introduces faults in the workpiece and needs to be compensated in the dies.

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ing, the bending angle is determined by the position of the upper punch relative to the lower die. Therefore the deflection of the frame as well as thermal expansion needs to be controlled. As the final bending angle is largely influenced by spring-back, the functionality of press deflection compensation on the machine side, and the springback compensation on the materials side are integrated. Two main systems can be distinguished by the measurement inputs: direct measurement of the bending angle or indirect measurement of the punch position and the bending force. For the direct measurement the closed loop control may adjust the bending angle iteratively. To speed up production, in [216] a process model is introduced for bending, which enables the machine to find the correct bending angle to within an absolute uncertainty of 1 within two steps. The sensors range from sensors that detect the bending angle with different kinds of probes from the punch side [212][214][215] as well as from the die side (LVD, Gasparini) [216] or optically [217]. In the die area, the main disadvantage is that the sensors need to be exchanged, or adjusted for every new part, besides which it is in an unsafe area due to material handling. This decision is perhaps the main aspect in the allocation of mechatronic functionality in forming machines. The indirect measurement, introduced by Stelson [218] and Reissner and Meier [219] avoids extra sensors in the die area, but measures at a distance from the process and thus results in disturbed signals. 3.2.3 Dies Functionality Characteristics The material flow required for the production of sheet metal components is decisively influenced in conventional metal forming by the tuning of the force regime of punch and blank holder and by the design of the drawing gap between punch and matrix. Optimum in-feed of the sheet metal material into the matrix is a prerequisite for the production of good components and the avoidance of cracks or folds. Using special machine tool technology measures, it is possible to expand the limits of forming technology, but above all to ensure the viability of forming processes, especially when processing high-strength and ultra-high-strength sheet metal materials. Mechatronic Solutions Intelligent drawing technology Multipoint drawing technology: In addition to further development of conventional drawing technology, entailing the challenge of mastering system parameters, innovative solutions are being used to control the complex processes involved in controlling the flow of materials, especially with regard to complex component geometries [220][221]. There will be additional pressure associated with this in the context of materials which are difficult to form. Multi-point drawing devices in which there is a direct transfer of force from the cushion cylinder to the blank holder can be used to control the flow of materials during deep drawing, see Fig. 33. Where there is corresponding flexibility of the blank holder, it is possible to regulate the pressure locally and to optimise the in-feed behaviour of the sheet metal. The consequence is a significant increase of the process window, leading to more robust manufacturing procedures. Responses to changes in the process parameters are only possible provided there is integration of a process control system. The drawing in of the sheet metal into the flange area is used as a process control variable, while

ram

blank holder pins cushion cylinder table box

storage unit

cylinder block

distributionsafety block power unit

Figure 33: Multi-point deep drawing cushion [222]. the local hold-down force facilitated by multi-point technology is used as the manipulated variable. Various sensing elements and strategies (including laser triangulation measurement) are used to measure the in-feeding of the sheet metal (material flow), see Fig. 34. The basis for control is a master curve (sheet metal in-feed curve), which is recorded by the laser-sensor during production of a drawn component, regarded as optimal in terms of shape and dimensional accuracy. This master curve of the sheet metal in-feed serves as the target value in the control circuit. The data recording of the master curve takes place after optimisation of factors such as the blank, the lubrication regime and the hold-down force. The effects of using process control on a real component are a significant reduction in the rate of defective components, stabilisation of the process and improvement of the workpiece quality.
Radial lengthening L

crack

optical sensor die

LCracks

failure-free part

LFailure-free LWrinkles
Drawing depth

wrinkles

Monitoring of the material flow

die sensor blank elastic blank Fbh6 holder stick
sensor position blank Fbh8 Fbh2 Fbh1 Fbh6
Punch

process computer with fuzzy-controller press table Fbh1

Fbh5

Fbh3 sticks cylinders

punch

bottom of drawing cushion

Controlling

IFUM

(partial blank holder forces Fbhi)

Figure 34: Measurement of flow of materials [221]. Tool-integrated solutions: One initiative designed to adapt the hold-down force to the process at critical points, despite pressing without multi-point cushions, is the integration of actuators in the deep-drawing tool. For this purpose, the blank holder (or the tool) is designed to have local flexural elasticity. Piezo actuators were used for the tool shown in the Fig. 35. Intelligent drawing technology integrated parallel holding: When using transfer tools, the eccentric location of the drawing stage leads to tilting of the cushion plate, as a result of which undefined clamping bolt forces are introduced into the hold-down device with consequent wear and tear of the guide- and clamping bolt plate. The drawing cushion presented in [224] has a special cushion control system with integral parallel controls especially for

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controlled (bendingelastic) ranges

4 piezo actuators

Figure 35: Deep-drawing tool with local flexural elasticity and integrated piezo actuators [223]. the above application in order to be able to dispense with external equipment (push rods, balance pins), see Fig. 36. The 7-point cushion can compensate for a tilting movement introduced by the process due to the mechanical construction and the architecture of the cushion control system.
eccentric load without tilting compensation ram high pin force low pin force die carrier tilting moment
Kippmoment

with tilting compensation ram equal pin force

A direct effect on the drawing punch is only applicable in dual-function hydraulic machines. In single-action presses, the option thus exists to excite the drawing punch via an additional plate. When the punch vibrates, the additional plate and punch are both subjected to an oscillating lifting motion (sinusoidal movement) which is realised independently of the external force (drawing force). In the case of direct excitation via existing drives, the achievable frequencies are limited by inertia. For the tools of a 500 tonne press, punch vibrations of 20 Hz and blank holder vibrations of 50 Hz are achieved. Superposition of ultrasonic waves on massive forming processes also facilitates a reduction in friction and an improvement in surface quality [226]. In [227] it is shown that the complex effect of ultrasonics on friction in forming processes can be theoretically described. From various investigations [228][229], it can be concluded that when the direction of vibration is in the direction of the friction force, the friction is primarily affected by the ultrasonic vibrations. If the drawing direction is perpendicular to the direction of vibration and the matrix is positioned in the maximum tension direction, then it is primarily the element of drawing force required for the forming that is affected by the ultrasonic vibration. Fig. 37 shows ultrasonic-superposed tube drawing [230]. The mandrel is excited to vibrate axially.
mandrel vibration ultrasonic-generator /2-sonotrode

parallel-holding cylinders

equal cushion forces

tilting moment low cushion high cushion forces forces

Kippmoment

die FZ gripper transformator

Figure 36: Principle of integrated parallel holding [224]. Parallel holding of the ram: Eccentric loads cause the ram to tilt, especially in the case of less stiff hydraulic presses but also in the case of mechanical presses. For this reason, passive and active parallel holding systems are used. Parallel ram holding can also be used in tryout machines for emulating the compliance behaviour of the production presses. This requires pre-defined, strokedependent skewing of the ram. There are various solutions with regard to the design of the parallel ram holding system, distinguished by their construction and precision parameters: Parallel ram holding by the main press cylinder. Parallel ram holding by means of four separate cylinders which introduce a force between the table and the ram [222].

piezoelectric transducer machine bed

Source: after Buckley, Freeman

moveable slide

Figure 37: Ultrasonic-superposed tube drawing [230]. 4. SYSTEM INTEGRATION This chapter examines the system integration of mechatronic components in an existing machine tool. The system boundary between the mechatronic component and the machine itself is often smooth and not always welldefined. In Fig. 38, the three domains of mechatronics (mechanics, electronics, information technology), are shown in each circle. The physical integration describes the electrical and the mechanical domain and the functional integration is shown with the information integration domain. Regarding Fig. 38 from the bottom up, the lowest layer represents the design phase. In this layer the integration of the mechatronic component and the machine will be illustrated, divided by the domains. This phase was considered in Chapter 2. Above the design layer the model layer illustrates the interaction of the component in the information technical domain. The model layer discusses the integration of the component in its functional integration in the information technical domain. The real level constitutes the physical integration of the component in the machine. Finally the real and the design level represent an illustration of physical integration of one mechatronic component during the developing (design level) and during the application phase (real level). The inner ring on each individual level represents the component and the outer ring symbolises the machine. The whole circle therefore represents the system. Interactions between the domains are indicated by arrows. For example

Parallel ram holding by means of four separate cylinders between the head and the ram [225]. The most accurate results are obtained, depending on stiffness, by the variant with four separate cylinders between the table and the ram. Vibration superposition in the forming process: The process window in sheet metal forming is limited by the use of new, higher strength materials and the growing demands in relation to quality. One option for extending the forming limits of the materials by technological means is the superposition of vibrating process forces during forming. Strategic intervention in the tribological system can achieve both improved material flow by reducing friction and exert a positive influence on the structure of the material [226]. In addition, reduced forming forces are required when realising the vibration-superposed forming process. The quantity of lubricant can be significantly reduced.

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sors, actuators or microcontrollers. The energy supply to mechatronic components is expensive in modular integrated systems for the reasons already outlined. Consequently, non-contact solutions are often used in this field. These can be inductive, optical or even decentralised energy generating systems [177][195][231][232]. The information technology integration relates essentially to data transfer and data processing. Today data transfer primarily involves digital data. Because of the various demands and market situations, a large number of possible bus structures and general data transmission channels became accepted. Fig. 39 shows communication channels in production via field buses.

Figure 39: Communications in production [234]. Figure 38: System integration of components in a machine system. there is an interaction between the electrical domain to the mechanical domain in the form of an actuator system. Conversely, mechanical actions are transformed into electric current via sensors. Electrical signals are transformed via digital analogue converters into digital signal flows for the control system in the information domain. The system integration in Fig. 38 is shown by the red integration arrows between the inner ring of the component and the outer ring of the machine. In principle, integration forms can be realised in a physical way on the real or design level, or in the functional integration on the level of models. When controlling the component or the machines, it is possible by modelling the complete system to achieve an increase in quality control of the individual systems. 4.1 Options for System Integration There are various options for integrating components in an overall system. The following are of particular importance: Mechanical energy exchange via coupling. Energy exchange via electronic coupling. In highly integrated mechatronic components, the aspects of data exchange and energy transfer were kept in mind during the construction process and therefore were taken into account in terms of the configuration. Mechanical components were adapted to accommodate demands such as the passage of cables. In contrast, the connection of modular systems, integrated as modifications to existing systems, is far more complex. In many cases data transfer and energy transfer via cables is only possible under very limited conditions; therefore non-contact types of transfer are getting ever more widespread. The most important solutions are set out with the relevant characteristic data in Table 1. Rational data processing and reliable data evaluation offer great potential for future innovation. One of the challenges is the intelligent evaluation of data from a number of mechatronic components and the rejection of irrelevant data. Thanks to a growing number of modular components, there is an increase in interfaces for machine tool control, undeniably leading to an increase in the volume of data which has to be processed by the control system. The control systems in common use are: Stored program control systems. Numerical control systems. By increasingly computing power there is an option to perform more complex tasks, as well as to consider more complex selection procedures for making decisions to accomplish tasks. Complex calculations can be performed with an NC control system such as any kind of Digital Signal Processing Units (DSP). In the field of control, model based control concepts become more and more interesting, not only for robotics but also for machine tools. Using independent controllers for each axis like the single actuator control for serial industry robots [253][254], has been a well known and established procedure for several decades. Such concepts reach ac-

Information exchange via regulating and control components. There are basically two options for mechanical integration of components. Firstly, the design of a modular component which is capable of flexible integration in various machines. Secondly, the integrated component is adapted specifically for the individual machine and usually cannot be transferred to other machines. From the perspective of electrical integration, the energy supply to the component is of great interest. Here, standard plugs and voltages are necessary to connect sen-

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Table 1: Characteristics of wireless connections.

Name ZigBee Range Approx. 100 m Transmitter power 110 mW Bandwidth 20-250 kbit/s Frequency 2.46 GHz Fallback 868 MHz 2 Mbps a: 5,15-5,75 GHz, 19 ch.; b: 2,4-2,4835 GHz, 13 ch. in Europe; h: 2,4-2,4385 GHz, 13 ch. in Europe Infrared 850-900 nm 2,4022,480 GHz

WLAN (IEEE 802.11Family)

100-300 m in the open, 80 m in buildings

30 mW (802.11a) Max. 1000 mW (restricted)

IEEE 802.11 IEEE 802.11 a: 54 Mbps b: 11 Mbps g: 54 Mbps h: 54 Mbps n: 600 Mbps

IrDA

1m

40-500 mW/Sr 100 mW 2.5 mW 1 mW

IrDA 1.0: 9,6 115 kBits/s IrDA 1.1: up to 16 MBit/s Up to 1.2: 723,2 kbit/s 2.0: 2,1 Mbit/s 3.0: 480 Mbit/s 1 Mbit/s

Bluetooth Class 1: 100 m Class 2: 10 m IEEE Class 3: 1 m 802.15.1 (in the open) Wibree (new dev. 2007) HIPERLAN UMTS 10 m

2,4 GHz range

30 m 5 km

0,2 1 W

23 Mbit/s 155 Mbit/s FDD mode (transmission in diff. frequency ranges): 384 kBit/s for Downlink; TDD mode (transmission at diff. times: 10 ms, transmission time): 1920 kBit/s

5 GHz range 1900-2170 MHz

Preferably Antenna from ca. 20 W 50 m to >20km Handy 0,125-0,25W

ceptable positioning accuracies for pick and place operations as well for slow processing tasks. On the other hand the progression of the dynamic performance of todays available actuators requires more sophisticated control concepts to maintain the accuracies achieved to date, for operations with improved dynamic performance. Thus, model based control concepts consider the individual characteristics of the drives and actuators by modelling the systems behaviour as well as modelling the dynamics of the complete system. Such controllers have been well known for several years, although only the increasing calculating capacities of modern computers allow their implementation today [233]. The development of intelligent machine tool components is being planned in the German collaborative research centre (SFB) 653. The vision is a feeling component which possesses different network sensory capabilities as well as an inherent information storage device and independently initiated communications. As a result it is capable of autonomously recognising an extremely wide variety of process status and their effects on the properties of the workpiece, as well as the behaviour of the tool, and if necessary of initiating appropriate correcting measures [231][234]. In the field of identification of objects and positions, artificial intelligence has been the source of many methods which have been investigated and applied. Initially, parameters are extracted from pictures, followed by a classification of the pictures, i.e. an interpretation of the content of the pictures. This can be achieved with the aid of resources such as neural networks. All three measures of effectiveness of simulation systems, i.e. operating time, storage requirements and applicability, can be fundamentally improved by the use of AI (artificial intelligence) techniques [235]. The foundations, common features and applications of AI methods are being researched in SFB 531 Design and management of complex technical processes and systems with methods of computational intelligence. In addition, AI methods and their significance for production technology are described by Pritschow and Kissling [236]. By means of AI and more complex data processing systems, the workpiece could be integrated in the way mechatronic components are considered. By means of sensors on the workpiece, data from the production process are fed into the control system of the machine. In ad-

dition, data from quality control for example can be stored in the workpiece. In this way, a workpiece represents a mechatronic component integrated within the machine for a limited period of time. On the IT level, efforts are being made to accomplish data transfer during processing. On the electrical level, verification is required regarding the way in which the workpiece is supplied with energy by the machine. This can be achieved using a wireless method. In future, the complete life cycle of the product can be monitored, for example using Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology. The systems become more complex it beams more important to investigate systemfailures and their consequences. 4.2 Design for Reliability of Mechatronic Systems A frequent task and application of mechatronic concepts is the improvement of functionality of originally monodisciplinary, mostly mechanical systems. This is accomplished via additional sensors, actuators, in order to achieve the transition from one domain to the other, i.e. in each case using additional functional elements. Assuming that each functional element has its own failure probability, the reliability of a system would suffer as a result without any additional measures. On the other hand, mechatronic components often serve to secure the functionality of the mono-disciplinary basic system, and therefore also serve to widen the status parameter range in which the system delivers good results. The reliability of a system is a quality characteristic and requires the same care as the realisation of functionality itself [237]. Contrary to general opinion, that a hierarchically structured system is as poor as the weakest level [238], the situation is much worse. For serial systems in which the function is accomplished through interaction of all the components, the overall system is always more unreliable than the worst component. Hence it is the system complexity that is addressed directly in terms of the uncertainty of the systems capability to meet the required functional standards [239]. In order to improve reliability, therefore, the measures specified in [239] for reducing system complexity are an effective pattern for action. In line with the importance ascribed to it, dependability must be secured during the design phase (Design for Dependability) [237]. Even in very early phases of the design process, it is necessary to work towards the dependability of the overall system. In [237][238], procedures are described by means of which it is possible to make dependability-oriented decisions at the beginning of the system design process, despite data which is still very uncertain. In [237][240] it is shown how design for dependability is incorporated in the work plan in accordance with VDI 2206 and how the epistemic uncertainty, as a measure for the reliability of the data, converges with the specified reliability as the data becomes more concrete. The basic causes of undesirable events are drawn up with the aid of the fault-tree analysis. The link between reliability characteristics and a fault tree is given in [241]. In [242] it is shown how a reliability analysis is built up using status models. Systems for which the safety aspect is critical must be fail-safe, i.e. they must be able to suffer certain disturbances without losing their safety function. In addition to this, the failure orientation of components is critical [244] (fail safe, fail silent). The fail silent principle must be realised for mechatronic systems in particular, which serve to improve characteristics, i.e. the defective component is identified by means of an error message without disturbing continued operations. Paired with redundancy, there-

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fore, a viable safety concept emerges. In [245] it is pointed out how redundancy and modularisation of the system can significantly increase reliability. Basic safetyrelated standards include IEC 61508, IEC 62061, ISO 13849 and also in terms of availability in general VDI 4004, IEC 61070. 4.3 Variations / Concepts of Systems integration This section contains an analysis of system components considered from the point of view of integration in the machine. The introduction of chapter 4 describes, via Fig. 38, the integration of one component in detail. Figure 40 classifies different components by their types of integration, such as modular and integrated characteristics with respect to different aspects, for example physical integration and functional integration. In physical integration, defined or even standardised mechanical, electrical and information technology interfaces support the Plug & Play principle. This initiative is particularly interesting from the point of view of the increasing reconfigurability of machine tools. A further reduction in the complexity of integration can be achieved by means of independent energy supply and decentralised computing units. The functional integration takes account of the task of the mechatronic component as well as the degree of information exchange with the higher-level system. Functionally autonomous components do not need to have resources in the higher-level system in order to fulfil their task. They therefore possess a functionally independent sensor system, their own control algorithms and an independent actuator system. If the dependency on resources of the higher-level system increases, the degree of cooperation rises. An example of co-operating components is the NC motion separation in redundant axes. However, it should also be emphasised that most solutions are hybrid forms of the aforementioned integration aspect. In contradiction to pure software integration are solutions with their own hardware which contain at least one ambient temperature sensor and frequently a measuring system, and which undertake corrections by means of additional actuators. A system like this can be constructed in modules, but is typically a highly integrated special solution for the respective particular application, as outlined in section 2.3. Independent or modular solutions are mostly very local in their effect or are limited to a single axis direction. The close integration with the machine is linked to the fact that the temperature response is evoked throughout the structure. The actuators using existing drives represent an ex-

tremely favourable solution in terms of cost and only compensation in axes directions not realised on the machine require their own actuators. Modular autonomous components: In [196] an autonomous vibration-damped circular saw blade with integrated piezo actuators is presented (Fig. 41). The piezoceramic elements integrated in structural conformity are connected to passive or semi-active electrical networks supplied via a generator on the rotating shaft. Energy supply, actuators, sensors and electrical networks are thus completely independent from the rest of the machine tool. The standardised tool holder serves as the mechanical interface.

Figure 41: Adaptive circular saw blade [196]. A vibration suppression concept for boring processes is presented by [188]. It involves a semi-active damped tool holder with magneto-rheological fluids. The concept is modular and can be integrated via standardised tool holder. Other initiatives for integration of actuators especially for damping of chatter on main spindle tool systems are presented in [159][161]. The adaptronic spindle unit presented in [178] is a further example of a modular and autonomous mechatronic component. In principle, the concept already functions autonomously and independently of the machine controls. Three piezo actuators (Fig. 42) permit positioning of the tool in three spatial directions and thereby enable active compensation of milling head displacement and vibrations. Figure 42B shows the surface measured with a laser profilometer of a workpiece made with the adaptronic milling spindle. This has involved displacements of the milling head of 50 m and 220 m. It shows that precision adjustments in the m range are possible with a high degree of repeatability.

functional integration

highly integrated special solution

physical integration

modularity plug and play

Figure 40: Aspects of system integration 1: Saw blade [196], 2: AdSpin [40][178], 3: Mechatronic Chuck [184], 4: Model based compensation [213], 5: HDM [106], 6: Dynapod [82], 7: Axis [248], 8: High Speed Machine [120].

Figure 42: Adaptronic spindle unit for milling machines [178].

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A mechatronic chuck is an example of a mechanically modular integrated component with wireless energy and data transmission [184]. The communication between a control computer and the mechatronic chuck is implemented via Bluetooth. Radio transmission enables interference-free transmission of actuating signals, even during processing. The most favourable options for communications between the control computer of the mechatronic component and the machine tool control system are connections via LAN or WLAN. Modular co-operating components: In the following analysis, modular components are presented which demonstrate an increased degree of cooperation with the higher-level system. These basically include modular axes systems and technology modules. An axis module is presented in [246]. It possesses defined mechanical, electrical and information technology interfaces. However, functionally it must cooperate closely with the basic system, because as an NC axis it forms part of the basic system, see Fig. 43. By the use of decentralised periphery and integration of the inverter in the module, the electrical supply cables are reduced to a bus system and two energy supply cables. The individual axis modules are connected via the bus system using information technology when the processing system is configured. A procedure for creating mechatronic modules is shown in [248].

sO
calculation: inertial component with limited dynamics

sA sI
+ _
s I = f ( sO sI , sO )

result: agile component with limited stroke

s A = sO s I

+ +
A general description of reactive partitioning of dynamism

sO

Figure 44: Reactive partitioning of dynamics [83][247]. ter-slave connection, the sluggish element is always trying to catch up with the movement of the dynamic element and increasingly takes over the total movement

s O (t ) and total velocity without infringing the restrictions

in terms of dynamics for this axis, see Fig. 44. By this means, the paths of the more agile components are again restricted and are independent of the total range of movement. Highly integrated autonomous components: Highly integrated systems are primarily characterised by decreasing flexibility with regard to mechanical and energyrelated interfaces. In order to realise their function, however, they are not in principle reliant on the higher-level system from the information technology perspective. In [143] an adaptronic component for vibration control of a machine tool with scissor-like parallel kinematics has been developed. Sensors and actuators are included in the active strut and all functions of the device are completely autonomous. Different local and model-based control algorithms, developed with a flexible multibody system model, can be implemented on a digital signal processor (DSP) platform to investigate their effect on the dynamics of the machine tool. Highly integrated co-operating components: These basically include all fundamental functions of the main system which are characterised by minimal interface definition (minimal flexibility). An important example is provided by NC axes, which must of necessity communicate with the other axes in order to be able to realise dependent movement. Solutions for feed systems which go further than this basic function include active inertial force equalisation and jerk impulse decoupling. Firmly integrated in the system, they need data on the movement of the NC axis. In the high-speed lathe with active inertial force compensation (see also Chapter 3.1), an open control system has been used [42]. The control system is distinguished by higher dynamics and improved contour description compared with current control systems. The system is based on the Fire-Wire-Bus. This open bus system offers the option of synchronised transmission of data from I/O components and optical systems as well as the data required for the control system. Position-related data are transmitted by the control system as cubic splines of variable duration, which can only be transmitted in the position control circuit of the servo in digital form at a frequency of 4000 Hz. At the same time, the position signals from other mechatronic components can be evaluated. Modular integration of an active tool holder is possible. In order to realise a dependent movement, however, an exchange of information with the main system is required. A highly integrated active magnet guide system is described in [120]. Its primary function, to guide, is autonomous in nature. However, a more detailed examination is required of the secondary functions, which demand increased co-operation with the basic system. The complete mechanical integration of magnetic guidance in the flow of force of the machine already offers extensive op-

Figure 43: Functional integration by harmonisation of structural and functional system limits [246]. Similarly co-operative in nature, is the agile hexapod module of a machine tool with redundant axes described in Chapter 3.1.1 [82]. It can be exchanged for other processing platforms. This permits further adaptation to the process requirements. From an information technology point of view the modules are integrated via SERCOS Interface in the andronic 2000 control system. The partitioning of movement takes place at interpolator speed in such a way that for a particular point in time a corresponding partitioning for two moving components is possible, based purely on the past axis movement [83][247] (Fig. 44). It is advantageous here to comply simultaneously with all the restrictions on the axis involved with respect to range of movement, axis velocity, axis acceleration and axis torque [83]. The starting point is a slow drive structure

s S (t )

with

significantly more inertial behaviour, but which guarantees the required range of movement, together with an agile drive structure s A (t ) with a significantly restricted range of movement which guarantees the required movement dynamics. According to the principle of a mas-

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portunities for influencing the behaviour of the overall system. In the context of first explorations, as shown in [120], clear increases in accuracy have already been achieved. The positioning error is given out at 333 Hz and read in at the controller speed of 5 kHz. In the milling process, for instance, the increases in precision achieved by this structure permit a reduction in errors of circularity of up to 44%. In order to investigate the positioning accuracy, test workpieces were milled on the machine and their geometry then was examined with a coordinate measurement machine (Fig. 45). Further options are offered by the use of integrated sensor systems for process monitoring. Because of the friction-free design of the component, the motor current from the drive control system for the Z-axis can be used for diagnostic purposes. In conjunction with the force components of the remaining five degrees of freedom, in the guidance control systems, a process force analysis with high precision is possible. These data can again be used to influence the control system, for example in stopping the machine.
1 Without Compensation 2 With Compensation Deviation on Roundness 1 2 1 2 16,8 m 9,3 m 3,63 m 1,74 m

the cylinders, while Lutters et al. [217] prefer the measurement in the lower beam by piezo dowels, which are calibrated. The material data in the process model need to be identified and ideally stored within a database of the machine control system (Fig. 46). Mentink et al. [249] favour the use of bending-dedicated parameters from bending tests rather than general material-related data. YANG et al. [250][251] use neural networks for self- learning systems and fuzzy modified models to describe the influences of different parameters on the force-stroke curves. Mentink et al. [249] also discuss the self-adaptation of the process to in-process measurements of the force stroke curve. The second solution presented is devoted to the integration of multi-point drawing technology (cf. Fig. 47). The 16 independent drawing cushion axes of a multi-point cushion presented in [222] can be used as passive pressure axis for a drawing cushion function, or as opposing axis for holes or punchings. The openness of NC controls (OEM-NCK interface) enables the introduction of independent cushion-type control structures which include and use existing NC functionalities.
NCU-Link to cushion main drive 16 x position measurement system (absolut)
16 x nominal (10V)

D = 25 mm 10 m

32 x pressure sensor

Mean Circular Deviation

y x ae ap
E/R NCU HLA HLA HLA HLA HLA HLA HLA HLA

16 x cylinder Sinumerik 840 D SPS pressure- and power control pressure 16 point die cushion PCMCIA card

Process ae= 50 m ap= 2 mm fz = 0,1 mm vf = 8 m/min vc = 1005 m/min n = 40.000 rpm Material Al 7449

VISU PC WINCC

safety control

Figure 45: Measuring the circularity of a milled test workpiece [120]. In addition to the components described for cutting machine tools, the aspects of integration with reference to two solutions for forming machines (see also Chapter 3) are described below. Both solutions are highly integrated into the basic system. The first solution examined expands on the designs for compensation on press brakes [213]. In the system of Beyeler [213], all force measurements are accomplished by precision pressure measurements in

Figure 47: Structure of the control of multi-point cushions [128][222]. 4.4 Conclusion and Outlook of System Integration In the preceding sections, components and their integration within systems have been examined. The mechanical integration of components is at an advanced stage in respect of optimisation and improvements. Electrical integration could be promoted by means of standards which are applicable at industry level rather than at corporate level.

pressure

programmed sheet thickness punch travel new sheet thickness

Figure 46: In-process measurement of the sheet thickness as an input parameter in the process model by sampling the pressure-load-free pre-stroke [213].

The domain of information technology has special potential in terms of future integration. The trends which can be observed in production, such as for example the shortening of the product life cycle, decreases in batch sizes and an increase in the number of product variants, run counter to the life and the costintensive nature of capital goods [2]. As a result future production locations will need to be more flexible, both in terms of the working steps and the spatial installation, which must be accomplished at the lowest possible cost. This will require modular components which are flexible from a mechanical and electrical point of view and in terms of information technology. In order to be able to evaluate the vast amounts of data generated in a rational manner, software structures will be required which are capable of making an intelligent choice from a large volume of information and of taking

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the appropriate action as a result. AI (artificial intelligence) is one of the possible initiatives in this area. Pioneering modular systems have already been developed in robotics. Highly integrated products for mechatronic systems include for example the Powercube module [252]. These third-generation modular components constitute individual axis. Development of the first generation of these components was carried out in the Lissy project [253]. The axes can be combined with one another by simple manual intervention. The modules are supplied with power and data by means of a special plug connection. The software supplied with the product enables the geometric elements to be assembled and subsequently controlled in a computer. The modules are fitted with encoders and force measurement devices. The development of similar lightweight construction components has been undertaken for space flight, weight optimisation being of crucial importance, and a ratio of 1 to 1 of force to own weight was achieved. An arm with 7 DOF weighs approx. 14 kg [255]. The arms and modules are designed in such a way that they detect the slightest disturbances and achieve adjustable compliance behaviour via high-speed control cycles. These prototypes incorporate force-momentum sensors, encoders on the transmission output side and their own drives with power electronics. A superposed joint controller is realised via a DSP with a speed of 330 s, and the motor controller operates at a speed of 25 s. The joint DSP communicates with the higher-level control unit via the SERCOS Bus. With suitable central controls, self-configuring production cells could, in future production locations, control a complete production chain. Predictions about machine tooIs in the year 2010 [2] make mention of the digital factory. In such a factory, in which all the components are kept informed of the status and the current production step of the other machines, manufacturing could be flexible and production completed swiftly. Concepts such as Just in Time production or production for stock, which depends on suppliers and inventory, could be automatically initiated and adapted. Requirements: With a shared communications standard between all sensors and machines, these could be controlled and evaluated by a central intelligence. Defined System Limits: System limits play a crucial role in any discussion about integration of components in mechanical systems. Defined system limits could simplify the integration of components in machine systems in the future. Some standards in the field of mechanical integration are already existing [173]. Components are frequently designed with the clear aim of being mechanically modular or integrated. This is a function of the component itself and its intended purpose. For this reason, defined system limits are not necessary in all components, but could be very useful in most of them. Definition of system limits in relation to energy transfer is however often desirable. When considering uniform voltage for connecting components it is noticeable that dominance in this respect is determined primarily by the market. This applies in particular to the mechanical plug connection to the machine or the control system. One field which has great potential for future integration is information technology. Intelligent data evaluation and data transfer are associated with this. Defined system limits in the form of uniform data formats, bus structures [256][257] and standardised wireless transmission links could be used to define a universal communications standard.

A recent project in this area [256] constitutes a technical leap forward in the direction of key functions suitable for routine application. The developments include components, reference architectures, convergence of technologies via a technology platform and spin-offs and products. By analysing applications, it will be possible to identify the required characteristics of the reference architecture, procedures and components to be developed. A further project Papas [257] was concerned, amongst other things, with the specification of draft designs for Plug and Play modules. A model-based control procedure with real-time model calculations was produced using resources which included the open-source modelling language Modelica. It is usually companies who set or prescribe defined standards by virtue of their market penetration. Definition of an open interface for developers and other suppliers of mechatronic components would open the market for new developments. This opposes efforts in the market economy by companies who control the market. 5 CONCLUSION Mechatronics enables a supreme development methodology for machine tools. The technological developments in the individual domains of the basic structure mechanics/materials, transformation systems sensor/actuator systems and data processing will characterise the future development of intelligent machine tools. Over the next few years, the emerging trends will be the increasing use of self-optimising, in part adaptronic components and the use of ever more efficient control systems for modelsupported compensation of machine errors and process control. All functionality of machines will become electronically enhanced and thus mechatronic functions. Reconfigurability as a necessary pre-requisite for the flexibility of machine tools demands mechatronic machine tool components with Plug & Play functionality. This requires the creation and standardisation of interfaces which are uniform in terms of their mechanical, energy and information technology aspects. These machine tool components must at the same time be strictly functionoriented in their design. They must be subjected to a comprehensive description of their functionality in terms of both hardware and software structures. Analogies with developments in computer technology or robotics will become more prominent. In our vision of the future, the boundaries between robotics and machine tools will become diffuse in mechatronic manufacturing resources. This trend will go hand in hand with a fundamental transformation in terms of kinematic structures, but above all in the architecture of control systems. One of the major challenges will be to guarantee the reliability of these mechatronic systems in order to meet economic demands in terms of the availability of production systems. The challenge is to fully exploit mechatronic options and capabilities already in the earliest design phase. The design tools for such mechatronic systems cannot be reduced simply to the sum of modelling, simulation of individual domains and securing appropriate exchange of data. The task of design technologies which are today subsumed under the heading of virtual machine tool [21] will undergo fundamental expansion. Beyond evaluating the standard of quality met by the specification profile, we shall in the future be guiding the creation in the virtual world of configurations of hardware and software which are already essential: with the implementation of a technological specification profile achieved by integrating mechatronic modules, the software for controlling the en-

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tire system will be created automatically, as will the software of corresponding agents in the components. Optimisation tools will achieve the optimum division of functions between components, in terms of energy criteria also. At the same time, a reliability model will be produced which will take account of all the available sensors in the system. This will ensure, what is inherently retrievable in any operating status in mechatronic systems, the availability of the production system. This will be achieved by means of a certain degree of hardware and software redundancy and by means of the extensive knowledge of the current status of the system. As a result, the transformation of the paradigm reliability despite mechatronics into reliability by means of mechatronics will be complete. 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank all the members of the CIRP Editorial Committee for their reviews and comments. We gratefully received contributions of a number of colleagues (in alphabetical order and with CIRP members denoted by *): Prof. Y. Altintas*, Prof. T. Aoyama*, Prof. B.-A. Behrens*, Prof. C. Brecher*, Prof. D.B. Debra*, Prof. K. Erkorkmaz*, Prof. J. Fleischer*, Prof. P. Groche*, Prof. K. Gromann, Prof. U. Heisel*, Prof. J. Hesselbach*, Prof. F. Jovane*, Dr. X. Lu, A. Paul, Prof. G. Pritschow*, Prof. H. Shinno*, Prof. G. Tani*, Prof. E. Uhlmann*, Prof. M. Weck*, Prof. K. Weinert* and Dr. M. Zatarain*. This paper would not have been realized without the dedicated effort of Dr. W.-G. Drossel, Dipl.-Ing. M. Wabner, Dipl.-Ing. A. Wedler, Dipl.-Ing. J. Immel, Dipl.Ing. Ihlenfeldt, Dr. T. Pler, Dipl.-Ing. H.-C. Mhring and Dipl.-Ing. C. Will. 7 REFERENCES [1] European Commission, 2004, Manufuture: A Vision for 2020, Report of the High-Level Group. [2] Reinhart, G., Zielasko, W., Spath, D., 2002, Abschlussbericht: Werkzeugmaschine 2010: Voruntersuchung zum Thema Werkzeugmaschine 2010, Karlsruhe. [3] Chryssolouris, G., 2005, Manufacturing Systems: Theory and Practice, Springer-Verlag, New York. [4] Byrne, G., Dornfeld, D., Denkena, B., 2003, Advancing Cutting Technology, CIRP Annals, 52/2:483-507. [5] Neugebauer, R., Drossel, W.-G., Roscher, H.-J., rd Schwaar, M., 2002, Intelligent Strut, 3 Chemnitz Parallel Kinematics Seminar, Chemnitz, 23.25.04.2002:17-47. [6] Jovane, F., Bor, C. R., Koren, Y., 2003, Present and Future of Flexible Automation: Towards New Paradigms, Annals of the CIRP, 52/2:543-561. [7] VDI 2206 Design Methodology for Mechatronic Systems, Beuth-Verlag GmbH, Berlin. [8] Van Brussel, H. M. J., 1996, Mechatronics A Powerful Concurrent Engineering Framework, IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics, 1/2:127-136. [9] Janocha, H., 1999, Adaptronics and Smart Structures, Springer-Verlag Berlin. [10] www.pt-piesa.tu-chemnitz.de. [11] www.tu-braunschweig.de/adaptronik/ ausschreibung. [12] Moore, G. E., 1965, Cramming More Components onto integrated Circuits, Electronics 38(8):114117.

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