A study into the Selberg Classes.

Bachelor of Science Dissertation by Richard Gibson born on the 4th of January 1989 August 8, 2012 Supervisor: Dr. C. Hughes University of York

1 Acknowledgements: I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Christopher Hughes for his time and the enthusiasm he has given by meeting to discuss the project and his comments on my work as well as his initial explanations of some of the areas I would be researching. Contents 1. The Riemann-zeta function

3 1.1. The Riemann-zeta function 3 1.2. The Riemann Hypothesis 5 1.3. The location and number of zeros of the Riemann-zeta function 7 1.4. The Lindelof Hypothesis 10 1.5. The Riemann-Siegel formula 11 1.6. The Riemann-Siegel Integral Formula 11 2. The Dirichlet L function 13

2.1. The Dirichlet L function 13 2.2. Landau's theorem 16 2.3. The Generalised Riemann Hypothesis 18 2.4. Multiplying series and the Functional Equation 18 2.5. Hurwitz-zeta function 19 2.6. The General Dirichlet series and Bohr functions 20 3. Modular forms 21 3.1. Modular forms 21

3.2. Zeros of an entire modular form 22 3.3. The Eisenstein series 23 3.4. Hecke operators 24 3.5. The connection between Modular forms and Dirichlet series 25 4. Elliptic curves 27 4.1. Elliptic curves 27 4.2. The Riemann Hypothesis for Elliptic curves over a

nite

eld 28 4.3. The functional equation 29 4.4. Convergence of the Elliptic curve 29 5. Selberg Class 30 5.1. De

nition of a Selberg Class 30 5.2. Degree of the Selberg class 31 5.3. Selberg's conjectures 32 5.4. Poles of the Selberg Class 33 5.5. Modular forms in the Selberg Class and the Sato-Tate conjecture 34

5.6. Rankin-Selberg convolution 35 5.7. Examples involving Selberg Classes 35 5.8. Functions in the Selberg Class 37 References 39 Introduction: This project is devoted to the Selberg Class. In sections 1-4 we will explore dierent types of Selberg Class. Section 1 will be devoted to the Riemann-zeta function, section 2 to the Dirichlet L-functions, section 3 to

Modular forms and section 4 to Elliptic curves. Then in section 5 we will de

ne and explore the Selberg Class and some of Selberg's conjectures regarding the Selberg Class before I conclude my

ndings in section 6.

The Selberg Class. 1. The Riemann-zeta function Figure 1. Bernhard Riemann. 1.1. The Riemann-zeta function. The Riemann-zeta function is named after German Mathematician Bernhard Riemann(1826-66). It is widely used and of great importance in the

eld of Number Theory and also has applications in other areas such as Probability Theory, Physics and Statistics (eg. the Casimir eect in Physics). The Riemann-zeta Function is important due to its relation to the distribution of prime numbers and the Prime Number Theorem and has to be understood to understand the Riemann Hypothesis. De

nition 1. The Riemann-zeta function denoted by (s) is a function de

ned over the complex plane for one complex variable, denoted s, such that the real part of s is greater than one. 1 1 11 (s)= =1+ ++ ::. ns 2s 3s n=1 3

Properties of the Riemann-zeta function include, if for any > 0, Re(s) = 1+ . then 1 1 ns n=1 is absolutely and uniformly convergent. Therefore, all (s) are absolutely convergent as Re(s) > 1. The connection between the Riemann-zeta function and the prime numbers was

rst denoted by Swiss Mathematician Leonard Euler (1707-83). He proved that 1 11 (s)= = ..s . ns 1 p n=1 p We will now prove this. Proof. 1 11 1 (s)=1+ + + ::. = . 2s 3s ns

n=1 We now use an ancient algorithm created by Greek Mathematician Eratosthenes of Cyrene (276 -195.BC.) called the Sieve of Eratosthenes. The algorithm works eciently for all primes up to the value of 10 million. First, we know that 1 111 (s)= + + + :::. 2s 2s 4s 6s

We now subtract this from (s). 1 111 (1 )(s)=1+ + ++ :::. 2s 3s 5s 7s This removes all even values of n from the equation which of course are not prime (with the exception of 2) as they are multiples of 2. Now we repeat for the next term which has not been

crossed out, this term is 3. 1 1 111 (1 )(s)= ++ + :::. 3s 2s 3s 9s 15s We subtract this from (1 2 1 s )(s). 1 1 111 (1 )(1 )(s)=1+ ++ + :::. 3s 2s 5s 7s

11s As Re(s) > 1 this converges so repeating in

nitely we get 111 ::. (1 )(1 )(1 )(s)=1. 5s 3s 2s

5 Therefore, if we divide both sides by ::. (1 5 1 s )(1 3 1 s )(1 2 1 s ) we get 11 (s)= 111 = . (1 )(1 )(1 )+ ::. 1 p..s 2s 3s 5s p

Using this result it is easy to show the Riemann-Zeta function is both non-zero and analytic for all s provided Re(s) > 1. Riemann was able to extend the domain of this de

nition of . to the whole plane. In 1859, Riemann showed that the Riemann-zeta function satis

es the functional equation (s)=2ss..1..(1 s) sin( s ). 2 . 1 For alls . C except the values 0 and 1, where ..(s)= 0 e..xxs..1ds is the gamma function for s. Using the functional equation we are able to see the Riemann-zeta function had trivial zeros at s =

..2, ..4, ..6 :::. They are trivial as their existence is easy to prove as for s = ..2, ..4, ..6 :::, sin(s )=0 2 implying the Riemann-zeta function equals to 0 from the earlier formula. 1.2. The Riemann Hypothesis. The Riemann Hypothesis is about the distribution of the zeros of the Riemann-zeta function. It

is one of the Clay Mathematics Institutes Millennium Prize Problems and its solving is worth a million dollars and although remains unsolved it has been shown by computer calculations that it holds for the

rst 10 trillion zeros. The Riemann Hypothesis states that all zeros of the Riemann-zeta function (s) in the region 0 = Re(s) = 1 , called the critical strip, lie 1 on the line s =+ it: 2 On Riemann's 1859 paper named \On the number of primes less than a given magnitude", Riemann's

principle result was . 8 dt J(x)= Li(x) [Li(xp)] log(2) + x t(t2 1) log(t) Im(p)>0 where J(x)= x! whenever x! is a natural number. This denotes the number of primes where pn counts as Rn 1 of a prime and Li(x) is the logarithmic integral

function, given by x dt : 2 log +t

But Riemann was not after a formula for J(x), he required one for (x) which is the number of primes less than any given magnitude, x. Because the number of primes squares, p2 that are less than x equals 1 1 to the number of primes, p less than x , denoted

as (x ), the number 2 2 n ), we can calculate 1 of prime nth powers, pn less than x equals to (x the formula 1 1 1 1 J(x)= (x)+ (x 2 )+

(x )+ :::. 2 3 3 Using the inverse Mobius formula . . n f(n) = g(d) (. f(d)( d ) djn djn we get 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 (x) = (x) ) ) ) (x (x (x )+ (x (x )+ ::. 2 3 5 6 7 2 3 5

6 7 1(n) (x n ) 1 = n n=1 where . . (n) = 1 ..1 N = 1, o:w. . njN When we substitute in the original formula for (x) . 8 dt J(x)= Li(x) [Li(xp)] log(2)

+ x t(t2 1) log(t) Im(p)>0 into this we get 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 (x) Li(x))))Li(x

Li(x Li(x )+ Li(x Li(x )+::. 2 3 5 6 7 2 3 5 6 7 as we can ignore the terms which do not grow as x grows and periodic terms.

This implies that (x) ~ Li(x) is Gauss's approximation, whereas Riemann's approximation is 1 (n) Li(x 1 n ) (x) ~ Li(x)+ n n=2 which is a more accurate approximation than Gauss's approximation. Here is a diagram of the distribution of the Riemann-zeta function.

The Riemann-zeta function is holomorphic at every point apart from s = 1 so is therefore a meromorphic function with a simple pole at s =1. 1.3. The location and number of zeros of the Riemann-zeta function. To make the locating of zeros simpler Riemann created another function named the Xi-function. This is de

ned to have the same non-trivial zeros as the Riemann-zeta function but (s) is a real number and therefore easier to locate. The Xi-function is de

ned as 1 (2 s ) (s)= s(s 1) (s). 2 2 p s This also satis

es the functional equation (s)= (1 s) much in the same way as the Riemann-zeta function does. The number of non-trivial zeros in the critical strip above the real axis with imaginary part less than or equal to T is given by the formula N(T )= j(p = + i(p)=0, j 0 <

< 1, 0 <. = T )| . It is also possible to rewrite this formula. First let f(s) be analytic inside on . The formula for the number of zeros of f(s) inside . is 1 f. 11 (s)ds =. log f(s)+ . arg f(s). 2i f

2i 2 . If we apply this to the functional equation and multiply by s(s 1) to get rid of the poles of (s) and ..(2 s ) at the points s = 1 and s =0 we get the formula 11 N(T )= . arg (s)= 2 arg (s).

2p

If f is a product then f f . is a sum of individual pieces p 1 2 arg(s 1)= +0( ) 2 T and s T 2 2 = log(). 2 Therefore, s 1 T 3p 1

2 argG +1 = T log+ +0 . 2 22p 8 T Applying this to the formula of N(T ) we get the equation T T 7 1 N(T ) = 2p log 2e + 8 + 0 T where S(T )= 1 p arg .

1 2 + iT . In 1914, Hardy proved in his paper \Sur les zeros de la fonction (s) de Riemann that the Xi-function has in

nitely many roots and therefore in

nitely many zeros. He proved that if N0(T ) represents the number of zeros of the formas T !1. 1 2 + t where 0 <. = T then N0(T ) !8 Hardy later, together with Littlewood extended this to the number of real roots between 0 and T is at

least kT for some positive constant k and suciently large T. Norwegian mathematician Atle Selberg(1917-2007) later proved in his paper \An elementary proof of the prime number theorem that the number of real roots between 0 and T to be at least kT log T where k is a small number. In 1974, American mathematician Norman

Levinson(1912-1975) proved on his paper \more than one thirds of the zeros of the Riemann-zeta function are on s = 1 2 that the number of zeros of Riemann-zeta func tions that lie on the critical line is greater than a third of the number of zeros of Riemann-zeta functions.

The proof of this would take over 50 pages of working and although using many of Selbergs ideas, diers greatly from Selbergs work. The proof was done by relating the Riemann-zeta functions zeros to its derivative. In 1989, American mathematician John Brian Conrey further improved this estimate to 40 percent on his paper \more than two

fths of the zeros of Riemann-zeta function are on the critical line. This was further improved to 41 percent in 2010 by Conrey and American mathematicians Matthew Young and Hung Biu.

But even the statement that more than 41 percent of zeros of a Riemann-zeta function lie on the critical line s = 1 2 is a long way off proving the Riemann Hypothesis that all zeros of the Riemann-zeta function lie on the critical line. From earlier we know that the only zeros of the Riemann-zeta function

below the line Re(s) < 0 are the trivial values. Using the fact that the pole of the Riemann-zeta function is 1 and for Re(s) > 1 the equation (s)= 1 the factors of which are all non-zero and p 1..p..s holomorphic which contradicts that (s) has a pole at s = 1. This

implies that (s) has no zeros for Re(s) > 1. Therefore, all non-trivial zeros of the Riemann-zeta function lie in the critical strip, 0 = Re(s) = 1. In 1896 French mathematician Jacques Hadamard(1865-1963) and Belgian mathematician Charles Jean de la Vallee-Poussin(1866-1962) proved that the upper boundary of the critical strip contained no zeros. Hadamards proof

was the simpler of the two and can be shown by . 8 11 11 1 log (s)= x ..sdJ(x)= + + :::. ps 2s 3s 2 p3 p 0 p pp If we set 1 11 1 B =++ ::.

2 p2 3 p3 pp we get the equation cos(t log p) Re(log (s)) B ps p This value can approach ..8 as s . 1 only if the

rst term approaches ..1. This implies that cos(t log p) limn!1 = ..8 ps p which is impossible and therefore Re(s) 6 1 for any zeros of the = Riemann-zeta function.

1.4. The Lindelof Hypothesis. The Riemann Hypothesis was not the only important hypothesis involving the Riemann-zeta function. The Lindelof Hypothesis created by Finnish mathematician Ernst Leonard Lindelof(1870-1946) although not as strong as the Riemann Hypothesis as the Riemann Hypothesis implies the Lindelof Hypothesis but not vica versa. Lindelof stated that for every positive , (1 2 + it) =

0(t) where 0 is the \big Oh notation. We say that f(x) = 0(g(x)) as x !8 if there exists a constant K and a value x0 such that jf(x) < Kg(x)| whenever x = x0. This is a conjecture on the maximum size of the Riemann-zeta function and can be better understood looking at the 2kth moment

of the Riemann-zeta functions modulus. This was

rst done by British mathematicians John Edensor Littlewood(1885-1977) and Godfrey Harold Hardy(1877-1947). The Lindelof Hypothesis can also be described as for any k and any > 0, Ik(T )=(T ) The 2kth moment is de

ned as . T 1 Ik(T )= T 1 . + it 2 2k dt. o The moments represent the Riemann-zeta functions mean values on the line Re(s)= 1 2 . This is important as these means let us

understand the zeros of the Riemann-zeta function in greater detail. In 1918 Hardy and Littlewood discovered the average value of j(s)j2 where Re(s)= 1 2 is in

nite and I1(T ) ~ log T and in 1922 further simpli

ed this proof by using the approximate functional equation for (s). Since then the 4th, 6th and 8th moments have been calculated as I2(T )= 2 1 2 log4 T = 0(log3 T ) in 1926 by British mathematician Albert Edward Ingham(1900-67), I3(T ) ~ 42 9! a(3)(log T )9 and I4(T

) ~ 24024 16! a(4)(log T )16 which were both conjectured by John Brian Conrey and another American mathematician Steve Gonek. However, there is no proof of the Lindelof hypothesis as the moments for k> 4 have not been found.

In 1918, Swedish mathematician Ralf B acklund showed the Lindelof Hypothesis is equivalent to the statement that for every > 1 2 the number of roots in the rectangle (T = Im(s) = T + 1; s = Re(s) = 1) grows less rapidly than log(T ) as T !1. This is also equivalent to saying that for

every > 0 there exists a T0 such that the number of zeros is less than . log T whenever T = T0. If the Riemann Hypothesis is true there are no zeros in (T = Im(s) = T + 1; s = Re(s) = 1) which implies the Lindelof Hypothesis is true if the Riemann Hypothesis is

true. 1.5. The Riemann-Siegel formula. The Riemann-Siegel formula was found by German mathematician Carl Ludwig Siegel(1896-1981) in Riemann's unpublished papers in the archives of Gottingen's University Library. In these papers Siegel found the Riemann-Siegel formula which is for Z(t) and also a way to represent (s) in terms of de

nite integrals. The Riemann-Siegel formula is a formula estimating the error of the approximate functional equation of the Riemann-zeta function. The Z-function is used to study the Riemann-zeta function along the critical line. It has exactly the same zeros as the Riemann-zeta function along the critical line and is de

ned as 1 i(t) Z(t)= e + it . 2 The formula states that 1s is sp 2 e 4 i(t) Z(t)=2R e Q ;in2 . 2s (2 s ) n=1 The density of these Z-functions on the critical line is

k log k 2p tp where k is a constant and k> 0:41 due to the

ndings stated earlier that more than 41 percent of zeros lie on the critical line. For the Riemann Hypothesis to be true k must equal 1. 1.6. The Riemann-Siegel Integral Formula. Earlier in 1926, German mathematician Bessel-Hagen(1898-1946) found a representation of the Riemann-zeta function in terms of de

nite integrals in Riemann's papers. Siegel included this formula in his paper and stated the formula 2(s) = F (s)+ F (1 s) s(s 1)

where . ..ix2 s ex..sdx s 2 F = J 1 . ix e..ix 2 e 0&1 0 . 1 means the path of integration is a line of gradient -1 which crosses the real axis between 0 and 1.

Therefore, we can see F is an analytic formula de

ned for all s except possibly at the points s =0, ..2, ..4;::. where J(2 s ..1) has simple poles. But using the Riemann-Siegel integral formula it is shown that F (s) is analytic at ..2, ..4;::. but has a simple pole at 0.

2. The Dirichlet L function 2.1. The Dirichlet L function. The Dirichlet L-functions are named after Johann Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet(1805-59) who introduced them in 1837 as part of the proof for the theorem of primes in arithmetic progressions. A Dirichlet L-function is de

ned as 1(n) L(s, )= ns n=1 where s is a complex variable with Re(s) > 1 and . is a Dirichlet character modulo m and 1 if g:c:d(n, m)=1 (n)= . 0 if g:c:d(n, m)=1 6 If this function is holomorphic on all of an

open subset except at the poles for the whole complex plane then L(s, ) is a Dirichlet L-function. Theorem 1. Dirichlets theorem of primes in arithmetic progression states that for any two positive coprime integers a and d, there exist in

nitely many primes of the form a + nd, where n = 0. This is an extension of the theorem of Ancient Greek mathematician Euclid that there are in

nitely many prime numbers. Dirichlets theorem was

rst conjectured by French mathematician Adrien-Mare Legendre(1752-1833) in 1831 in his unsuccessful attempts to solve problems of quadratic equations modulo prime numbers.

Theorem 2. If m . Z+ and . is a Dirichlet character modulo m, and (a, m)=1 then there exist in

nitely many primes of the form p = amodm. Proof. To prove this we need to show that 1 = p pamodm diverges. log L(s, ) can be de

ned on the half plane Re(s) > 1 by . (pk) log L(s, )= kpks p;k where p is prime and k is a positive integer. This can be rewritten as . X. k) ..s 1(p log L(s, )= (p)p + . kpks p pk=2 If

we set 1 X. (pk) R(s, )= kpks pk=2 which clearly converges for Re(s) > 1 2 . Also, if (a, m) = 1, there must be an integer b such that ab = 1modm. We can see that h if bp = 1modm

(bp)= . 0 o:w . So if we multiply both sides by . (b) we get (b) log L(s, )= (bp)p ..s + (b)R(s, ) . p. = hp ..s + (b)R(s, ). pamodm . As R(s, ) converges for Re(s) > 2 1 so does

(b)R(s, ). . If we note that log L(s, ) can also be written as . c L0(u, ) log L(s, )= du + log L(c, ) s L(u, )

for s = Re(s) > 1;c > Re(s) which diverges. This implies the right hand side of the equation diverges also. Therefore, as (b)R(s, ) . converges hp ..s pamodm diverges. As h is a constant we can see that ..s p pamodm

diverges which is what we set out to prove. . As part of his proof Dirichlet showed the L-function, L(s, ) to be non-zero at s=1 implying if . is principal then L(s, ) has a simple pole at s = 1. We can tell the Dirichlet L-function 1(n) L(s, )=

ns n=1 converges for Re(s) > 1 as because j(n)j= 1 it can be compared to 1 1 ns n=1 which converges for Re(s):1. Therefore L(s, ) converges for Re(s) > 1. Much in the same way as the Riemann-zeta function, the Dirichlet L-function has

negative trivial value for its real part, although they depend on the value of . and only exist if . is a primitive character. For Re(s) < 0, if (..1) = 1 then the only zeros of L(s, ) where Re(s) < 0 are the negative even integers, and if (..1) = ..1 then the zeros of L(s,

), where Re(s) < 0 are the negative odd integers. The Dirichlet L-function also has an Euler product which is similar to the Euler product of the Riemann-zeta function.

The Euler product for the Riemann-zeta function is ..s)..1 (s)= (1 p p which can also be written as (s)= (p(s)) p where 1 1 p(s)= . pjs j=0 The Euler product for a Dirichlet L-function is also

of the form L(s, )= Lp(s) p which is very similar to that of the Riemann-zeta function. We have 1 . j Lp(s)= ap js p j=0 which is the same as p(s) with every value of the sum multiplied by a power of ap.

The Riemann Hypothesis might not hold for Dirichlet L-functions due to the possible existence of a Siegel zero. The Siegel zero is named after German mathematician Carl Ludwig Siegel(1896-1981) and is a counter-example of the Riemann Hypothesis for the zeros of Dirichlet L-functions. There are hypothetical complex values, s very close to 1 where L(s, )= 0

for a Dirichlet character, . to the modulus q. Therefore, not all Dirichlet L-functions values have real part equal to 2 1 , although zero free regions past the line Re(s) = 1 exist much in the same way as for the Riemann-zeta function.

2.2. Landau's theorem. In 1953 H. G. Landau proved in his paper \On dominance relations and the structure of animal societies another theorem regarding the Dirichlet series. Theorem 3. If a0 = 0 for all n = 1 and is

nite, then the point of intersection of the real axis with the line of convergence is a singularity of the sum function f(s) of the Dirichlet series 1X an . ns m=1 Proof. Without loss of generality we may assume that =0. Now to prove this

theorem we must show that s = 0 is a singularity of f. The Taylor series of f at s = 1 would have radius of convergence > 1 and the Taylor series could be written as 1X (s 1)v f(v)(1). v! v=0 There would also

exist a real s< 0 for which this Taylor series converges. We also know that 1. ..s log n f(s)= ane n=1 for all 0. We now need f(v)(1). First we derive 1. f(v)(s)= an (log n)v ns

n=1 and then take s = 1 to get 1X (log n)v f(v)(1) = an . n n=1

Substituting this into the Taylor series of f at s = 1 gives 1X (s 1)v 1X (log n)v an v! n v=0 n=1 1X (1 s)v 1X (log n)v = v!

an n v=0 n=1 1X an 1X (1 s)v(log n)v = nv! n=1 v=0 1. = e n n=1 an (1..s) log n which must be convergent for some s<

0. But 1X an n n=1 must diverge which gives a contradiction. Therefore s = 0 is a singularity of f(s). . 2.3. The Generalised Riemann Hypothesis. For the Dirichlet Lfunction a new hypothesis replaces the Riemann Hypothesis. This is called the Generalised Riemann Hypothesis. The

Generalised Riemann Hypothesis states that a Dirichlet character is a completely arithmetic function, . such that there exists a positive integer, k with (n + k)= (n) for all n and (n) = 0 whenever g:c:d(n, k) > 1. If such a character is given we de

ne the corresponding Dirichlet L-function by P8 (n) L(s, )= n=1 ns for every complex number, s with Re(s) > 1. Then for every Dirichlet character, . and every complex number, s with L(s, )=0; if 0 < Re(s) < 1 then Re(s)= 1 2 . 2.4. Multiplying series and the Functional Equation. If we take

any two convergent Dirichlet series f and g de

ned as 1. f(s)= ak ks n=1 1X bn g(s)= ns n=1

19 then the Dirichlet product h is de

ned as 01 !. . 1. 11 ak an 1 @A h(s)= f(s)g(s)= = anb k . n ks ns ks k=1 n=1 k=1 njk The Dirichlet L-functions also have a functional equation. It can be de

ned as L(s, )= L(1 s, . * ) where . is a Dirichlet character and * its complex conjugate. . is also a complex value with absolute value of 1. In the case where . . R then both sides of the equation are equal when . = 1. However, a stronger

result can be obtained using the Hurwitz-zeta function. 2.5. Hurwitz-zeta function. The Hurwitz-zeta function was introduced by German mathematician Adolf Hurwitz(1859-1919) and can be used to show similar properties of the Riemann-zeta function and the Dirichlet L-function. De

nition 2. The Hurwitz-zeta function (s, a) is de

ned by 1 1 (s, a)= (n + a)s n=0 for 1 where a is a

xed real number, 0 <a = 1. When a = 1 we get (s, 1) = (s) which is the Riemann-zeta function. It is also possible to express the Dirichlet L-function in terms of Hurwitz-zeta functions. To do this we take n = qk + r, with 1 = r = k and q =0, 1,

2;::. This gives 1(n) k1(qk + r) L(s, )= = ns (qk + r)s n=1 r=1 q=0 Xk1k 11 r = k..s = (r) (r)s, . ks (q + k r )s k r=1 q=0 r=1 From these results we

can see the properties of both the Riemannzeta function and the Dirichlet L-function both depend on the Hurwitzzeta function.

2.6. The General Dirichlet series and Bohr functions. A general Dirichlet series is an in

nite series de

ned as 1 ..s(n) f(s)= (s)e n=1 where (s) and s are complex numbers and (n) is a strictly increasing sequence of positive numbers which tend to 1. The Dirichlet series can be de

ned from f(s) by replacing (n) by log n and the kth derivative of f(s) can be denoted by 1 ..s(n) f(k)(s) = (1)k (n)k(n)e. n=1 To study the Bohr functions we must

rst de

ne Bohr matrices and bases. De

nition 3. An in

nite square matrix R =(rij) with rational entries is a Bohr matrix if all but a

nite number of entries in each row equal zero. De

nition 4. B is a basis for a Dirichlet L-function L(s, ) if (i) RB =0 implies R =0 (ii) There exists a Bohr matrix R such that L(s, )= RB (iii) There exists a Bohr matrix T such that B = TL(s, ). Now we have all the information needed to de

ne a Bohr function. De

nition 5. For every General Dirichlet series 1 L(s, )= (s)e ..sn n=1 there exists an associated Bohr function F (z1;z2;:::) of countable many complex variables z1;z2;:::. The Bohr function is de

ned as 1 ..(R(z1;z2;:::))..n F (z1;z2;:::)= (s)e. n=1 Now if we replace (z1;z2;:::) with Z we get the equation 1 ..(RZ)n F (Z)= (s)e n=1 where (RZ)n represents the nth entry of column matrix RZ.

3. Modular forms 3.1. Modular forms. A modular form is an analytic function on the plane with positive imaginary part (H = x + iyjy> 0; x, yR) which satis

es a certain kind of functional equation and growth condition. De

nition 6. A function f is an entire modular form of weight k if (i) f is analytic in H = x + iyjy> 0; x, yR. (ii) f(a+b )=(ct +d)kf() (the functional equation of a modular form) c+d. ab whenever is a member of the modular group gamma. cd

(iii) The Fourier Series of f has the form 1 2int f(t )= c(n)e n=0 Modular forms do not just appear in Number Theory but also in other areas of mathematics such as Complex Analysis and Topology. Using condition (iii) we can show that an entire modulo form is analytic at

the point i8 and everywhere on the half plane, H. We can see this as condition (iii) states the Laurent expansion of an entire modular form contains no negative powers of x and the Fourier expansion of a function of period 1 is equivalent to its Laurent expan 2int sion near x = 0

and x = e. For x to equal 0 we need either f to either be on the half plane, H or for f to be i1.

The value c(0) is called the cusp form and is the value of f at i1. At this value no Eisenstein series G2k vanishes with G2k denoted by 1 G2k = (m + n)2k (m;n)6 =(0;0) where k is an integer greater than or equal to 2.

A modular form which is not entire may have poles at the points i8 and at values along the half plane, H. 3.2. Zeros of an entire modular form. De

ne the open set RG = ft . H : k. > 1, kt +^. < 1} as a fundamental region for ... Then an entire modular form which does not equal 0 with N zeros in the closure of RG has the weight k = 12N +6N(i)+4N() + 12N(i1). We can prove this as we know f has no

poles, so we can write 1 . f0() N = dt 2i @R f() where the path @R is the path along the edges of R avoiding the zeros at the vertices and any other zeros occurring on the edges. If we then calculate the limit of the integral we get the formula k 11

N = N(i) N() N(i1) 122 3 and by dividing by 12 and addition and subtraction of values to each side of the equation we get k = 12N +6N(i)+4N() + 12N(i1) which is what we set out to prove. We call this formula the weight formula.

Using this formula we can study the entire modular forms for certain values of k. Firstly, the only entire modular forms of weight k = 0 are the constant functions. We can show this as any entire modular form with weight, k = 0 is a modular function de

ned as a function f which satis

es any of the 3 properties for an entire modular form. Also as it is analytic at every point in the half plane it must be constant. By studying the weight equation we can also see that if k is a positive odd integer or k = 2 then the only entire modular form of weight k is

the zero function. This can be shown as N, N(i), N() and N(i1) are all non-negative therefore using the equation for k we can see that

k is even and cannot be negative. Therefore, the only entire modular form of weight k in this case is the zero function. Further extending this work we can show that k = 4 if k is odd. Furthermore, we can show the only entire cusp form of weight k< 0 is the zero function as if

k< 12 then N(i1) = 0 and therefore if f is a cusp then it must equal 0. 3.3. The Eisenstein series. For the Eisenstein series of order k for k> 2 de

ned as 1 Gn = wn w6 =0 we have the invariants g2 = 60G4 and g3 = 140G6 such that . is the discriminant and is a polynomial in G4 and G6. We de

ne the discriminant . = g2 3 27g3 2 = (60G4)3 27(140G6)2 . To show every entire modular form with weight, k> 2 is a polynomial in G4 and G6 we take two entire modular forms f and g with weights k1 and k2. We know the product fg is an entire modular form with weight

k1 + k2 and f g is also an entire modular form with weight k1 k2 if g has no zeros in H or at the point i1. It is also possible to express any entire modular form in terms of G4;G6, . and Klein's modular invariant J. Klein's modular function is homogeneous of degree

0 and is a combination of g2 and g3. De

nition 7. If k k 2 1 is not real we de

ne g2 3(k1;k2) J()= J(k1;k2)= . (k1;k2) Therefore, if f is an entire modular form with N zeros z1;z2;:::;zN in the closure of RG then there exists a constant c such that N N()N(i)N(i1)N f(t )= cG4()G6()()(t )(J() J(zk). k=1 Proof. First look at the function

N g()= (J() J(zk). k=1

This function is an entire modular form with its only zeros in the closure of R... These are at the points z1;z2;:::;zN and with a pole of order N at i1. We also know that the discriminant . has a zero of

rst order at the point i8 and N g is an entire modular form in the closure of R.., vanishing at the points z1;z2;:::;zN . The weight of N g is 12N. Manipulating this we can see that a function h de

ned as N()G6 N(i)N(i1)N h = G4 g has identical zeros to the function f in the closure of R... We can see the weight of h is k =4N()+6N(i) + 12N(i1) + 12N. This is the same as the weight for f and implies h is an entire

modular form with weight identical to that of f. Therefore f h is an entire modular form of weight 0 which implies f h is constant and therefore proves the formula for f() to be correct. . 3.4. Hecke operators. Hecke operators introduced by German mathematician Erich Hecke(1887-1947)to help determine all entire modular forms with multiplicative coecients. The

Hecke operators are denoted by Tn where n =1, 2;::. and they map Mk onto itself. Mk is a linear space over a complex

eld where Mk is the set of all entire modular forms of weight k. De

nition 8. For a

xed integer k and any n . (1, 2;:::) Tn is de

ned on Mk as d..1 nt + bd k..1 d..k (Tnf)()= nf(). d2 djnb=0 Proof. To prove that Tn maps each entire modular function , f in Mk onto another function in Mk we must

rst use the Fourier expansion. f has the Fourier expansion 1 2imt f()= e. m=0

If we apply the de

nition of Tn to the Fourier series we get the equation d..11 2im(n+bd) k..1 d..k (Tnf)()= nc(m)e d2 djnb=0 m=0 1d..1 n 2imnt 1 2imb )k..1 =( c(m)e d2 e d . dd m=0 djnb=0 If we set m =

qd then using the fact that the sum on b equals to d if djm and is zero otherwise we can get the equation 1 n 2imb )k..1 d (Tnf)()= ( c(qd)e. d q=0 djn nm Then replacing d by d and q by d

we get 1 X. mn 2imt (Tnf)()= (d)k..1 c( d2 )e. q=0 djn djm The djm occurs as m = qd. So if f . Mk has a Fourier expansion then Tnf has the Fourier expansion we just calculated. . It is also possible to

write the equation for Hecke transformations as (Tnf)()= n k..1 d..kf(A) a1;ad=n 0b<d = 1 a kf(A) n a1;ad=n 0b<d a+b where At = and n = ad. d This can further be simpli

ed into the form (Tnf)()= 1 a kf(A) n A ab where matrix A = and d runs through the positive divisors of n 0 d and b runs through a complete residue system modulo d. Also, a = nd and is the

rst value of the

rst column of matrix A.

3.5. The connection between Modular forms and Dirichlet ser ies. If we take any modular form with Fourier series 1 2int f()= c(0) + c(n)e n=1 and a Dirichlet series of the form 1c(n) (s)= ns n=1 then they will both be formed with the

same coecients except for c(0). Hecke also proved that if f . M2k then the order of c(n) is nk is f is a cusp form or n2k..1 is f is not a cusp form. This information proves the convergence of the Dirichlet series (s). (s) converges absolutely for Re(s) >k + 1 in the case

where f is a cusp form and for Re(s) > 2k when f is not a cusp form.

4. Elliptic curves 4.1. Elliptic curves. De

nition 9. A function f is called elliptic if (i) f is doubly periodic, i.e. f is de

ned at all points on the complex plane and has two complex numbers u and v which are named periods which are linearly independent as vectors over the

eld of real numbers and f(z)= f(z + u)= f(z + v). (ii) f is meromorphic, i.e. its only singularities are poles. There exists an L-function on an elliptic curve which was

rst introduced by German mathematician Helmut Hasse(1898-1979) and later extended by French mathematician Andre Weil(1906-1998). It is therefore named the Hasse-Weil zeta function. There are two properties of

the Hasse-Weil zeta function, the

rst states that an L-function de

ned a Dirichlet series for Re(s) > 3 2 has an analytic continuation to the complex plane and satis

es a functional equation under re exion s to 2-s. The second property was conjectured by British mathematicians Peter Swinnerton-Dyer(1927-present) and Bryan John Birch(1931-present). It is known as the Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture and is another of the Clay Mathematics Institutes Millennium Problems. The First Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture: Let E be an elliptic curve over a

number

eld K with LEjK(s) having analytic continuation to the complex plane. Let gEjK denote the rank of E(K). Then gEjK is equal to the order zero of LEjK (s) at the point s = 1. This conjecture has only been proven for rank less than or equal to one but a weaker form of it has been. It

was created by Australian mathematician John H. Coates(1945-present) and states that ords=1LEjK (s) = gEjK iff IIIEjK is

nite. Coates along with British mathematician Sir Andrew John Wiles(1953present), who is famous for proving Fermat's Last Theorem, also created another conjecture, this time for elliptic curves with complex multiplication. Theorem 4. Let E be an elliptic curve over the

eld K which is either the rational numbers or the

eld of complex multiplication. If gEjK 6 =0, then LEjK (1) = 0. In other words the L-functions of E over K has a zero at s =1. It is also possible to have modular elliptic curves. They were shown to be elliptic curves over the rational numbers with complex multiplication by Japanese

mathematician Goro Shimura(1930-present) in 1971. He also showed that if E is a modular elliptic curve de

ned over the rational numbers and its L-function has a zero at s = 1 then E(Q) is in

nite.

4.2. The Riemann Hypothesis for Elliptic curves over a

nite

eld. There is also a version of the Riemann Hypothesis for Elliptic curves. It was

rst conjectured by Austrian-Armenian mathematician Emil Artin(1898-1962) in 1930 and later proved by Hasse in 1934. Theorem 5. Let E be an elliptic curve de

ned over a

nite

eld Fq and let Nm =#E(Fqm ). Then, for all m = 1 we have m j1+ q m Nmj= 2q 2 . This is the Riemann Hypothesis for Elliptic curves. It is equivalent the fact that the roots of fE(T ) are complex conjugates of each other where fE(T )=

det(1 ET )=1 (Tr())T + qT 2 and is known as the characteristic polynomial of Frobenius. The roots of fE(T ) have absolute values of p1 q and therefore if we introduce the zeta function E(s) de

ned as fE(q..s) (1 Tr())q..s + q1..2s E(s)= = (1 q..s)(1 q1..s) (1 q..s)(1 q1..s) then E(s) has zeros on the line Re(s)= 1 2 which is more recognisable as a Riemann Hypothesis. Using the equation for (s) it is easy to see that the zeta function

has poles at s = 0 and s = 1. 4.3. The functional equation. We know that ..s 1..2s fE(q ..s)=1 (T r)q + q. Let us now replace s with 1 s. ..(1..s)1..2(1..s) fE(q ..(1..s))=1 (T r)q + q s..12s..1 =1 (T r)q + q 1..2s) =

q 2s..1(1 (T r)q ..s + q = q 2s..1fE(q ..s). Therefore, the functional equation for an elliptic curve is E(1 s)= q 2s..1E(s).

4.4. Convergence of the Elliptic curve. The Weierstrass was introduced by German mathematician Karl Weierstrass(1815-1897) to help prove the convergence of functions de

ning elliptic curves. De

nition 10. The Weierstrass is de

ned as 1 11

L)= + . z2 (z w)2 w2 w2L..0 11 2wz..z The equation can be rewritten as 2 . 2 (z..w)2 ww2(z..w) This behaves in the same way as 1 for suciently large jw| and as 3

w we know that 1 w3 w2L..0 converges absolutely. This implies converges as w !1. We can compare this with the . function which we de

ne as 1 11 z (z; L)= (z)= + [ ++]. zz www2 w2L..0 11 zz The sum + + can be rewritten as 2 which also behaves 2 z..wwww2(z..w) in a similar way to w 1 3 . Therefore we can

say the . function converges as w !1.

5. Selberg Class 5.1. De

nition of a Selberg Class. In Atle Selbergs 1992 paper named \Old and new conjectures and results about a class of Dirichlet series he introduced the idea of a \Selberg class which is an axiomated de

nition of a class of L-functions. De

nition 11. An absolutely convergent Dirichlet series F of the Selb erg class S satis

es the following conditions. (i) The Ramanujan conjecture: In the half plane Re(s) > 1, 1 an F (s)= ns n=1 is an absolutely convergent Dirichlet series with a1 =1 and an . n. for every > 0. (ii) Analyticity: There exists an m . N such that (s -

1)mF (s) is an analytic function of

nite order over the whole complex plane. (iii) Functional equation: There exists a function r (s)= Qs ..(js + j)F (s) j=1 where Q, j > 0 and Re(j) = 0 such that (s)= w1 ( s) where the absolute value of w is 1 and f(s)= f(s).

The degree of F is given by d =2 j r =1 j. It is important to have the real part of j greater than or equal to zero and some negative real part L-functions do not satisfy the Riemann Hypothesis. (iv) The Euler product: log F (s) is expressionable as a Dirichlet series as

1bn (n) log F (s)= ns log n n=2 where bn . n. for some < 1 2 . It is important not to include . = 2 1 as this would violate the Riemann Hypothesis. 5.2. Degree of the Selberg class. Conjecture 1. All functions in S have

degrees that are integers. In 1957, German mathematician Hans-Egon Richert(1924-1993) showed that there are no elements in a Selberg class with degree 0 <d< 1. This was further improved by Conrey and Indian mathematician Amit Ghosh on their 1993 paper On the Selberg class of Dirichlet series: Small degrees. They proved that if a function is

in the Selberg class it's either equal to 1 or has a degree greater than or equal to 1. Theorem 6. If F . S then F =1 or dF = 1. Proof. Suppose dF < 1. We can say that P (log x) h(x)= + K(x) x where

F 1(..1)n (n + 1)F (n + 1)(2x)n K(x)= F (..n)n! n=0 and P is a polynomial. F (n+1) ..(1..d)n We can see that h(x) is an analytic function as . nAn F (..n)n! where A> 0 which shows K(x) is an entire function of

x and therefore H(x) is analytic.

But h is also entire as it has a period i and therefore has no singularities on the real axis. Now we can set 1 h(iz)= ane nz = H(z). n=1 So if y> 0 then . 1 ..2ny ..nxdx ane = H(z)e 0

which if we dierentiate both sides twice and then set y = 0 becomes . 1 . 1 (2n)2 an = H00(x)e ..nxdx jH00(x)| dx . 1. 0 0 From this we can derive an . n 1 2 . We know a Dirichlet series F (s) is

absolutely convergent for Re(s) > ..1 and is bounded for Re(s) > 2 1 . But as (s) F (s) F (1 s)= ~ F (1 s) F (1 s) for Re(s) = > 1 this is a contradiction. To prove for F = 1 Conrey [9] contradicted

the existence of a < 1 2 for which bn . n. . 5.3. Selberg's conjectures. In Selberg's paper he made several conjectures for the Selberg class. (i) Regularity of distribution: Each F . S has a corresponding integer nF such that . japj2 = nF log log x + 0(1). p px Also if

F is a primitive function then nF = 1 which gives . japj2 = log log x + 0(1). p px (ii) Orthonormality: If we have two distinct and primitive functions F and F . then nF = 1 and apap = 0(1). p px

(iii) GL(1) twists: If . is a primitive Dirichlet character and F and F . are both in the Selberg class then k F = Fi i=1 where Fi are primitive implies that k F . = Fi i=1 where Fi . are primitive elements of the

Selberg class. Selberg also stated that for all functions in the Selberg class the Riemann hypothesis holds, that is that all functions in the Selberg class have real part equals to 1 2 . 5.4. Poles of the Selberg Class. Suppose that F (s) . S has a pole or zero at s =1+ i, a

. R. Then ap p1+ia px are unbounded as x !1. Proof. We know F (s) ~ C(s (1 + i))m as s = s + ia . 1+ + i, m . (Z+). Then log F (s) ~ m log(s 1). By the Euler product condition of

a Selberg Class 1bn(n) log F (s)= ns log n n=2 1 bn = ns n=1 ap = + 0(1). ps p Therefore, . p ap ps ~ m log(s 1) as s .

1+ .

Now we show that ap = 0(1). ps p Let ap S(x)= . p1+ia px If we assume S(x) is bounded then . 8 ap = x 1..dS(x) ps 1 p . 8

=(s 1) S(x)x ..1dx 1 = 0(1). This is a contradiction, therefore ap p1+ia px is unbounded as x !1. 5.5. Modular forms in the Selberg Class and the Sato-Tate conjecture. It is possible to connect modular forms to the Selberg class by Langland's conjectures. Langland's conjectures

connect number theory and the representation theory of certain groups. They allow L-functions which are associated with symmetric power representations to be in S. Now we can connect modular forms to this by associating L(s) with a cusp form where ..1 ..1 p

p L(s)= 1 1 ps ps p is in S and m..1 Y. j

m..j Lm(s)= 1 pp ps pj=0 where Lm(s) is the m-th symmetric power L-function then Lm(s) . S for all m> 0. In 1968, French mathematician Jean-Pierre Serre(1926-present) proved that this fact together with the non-vanishing on the line s = 1 implies

the Sato-Tate conjecture in his paper \Abelian l-adic representations and elliptic curves. De

nition 12. The Sato-Tate conjecture is Np 1 =1+0 . p (p) as p !8 where Np denotes the number of points on Ep. Ep is a family of elliptic curves over a

nite

eld with p elements obtained from an elliptic curve E over the ration

eld by the process of reduction modulo p. 5.6. Rankin-Selberg convolution. The Rankin-Selberg convolution originated from Selbergs papers and was developed by British mathematician Alexander Rankin(1915-2001) in 1939 and Selberg in 1940. For a modular form g and a Dirichlet character . = qD where q and D are Dirichlet characters modulo q and D. If we take

f . Sk(q, q) and g . S(D, D)* then we can de

ne a L-function as f (n)q(n) L(f . g, s)= L(, 2s) ns n1 22..1 f;i(p)g;i(p) =1 ps pi=1 j=1 where . = r2 + 1 4 , r . R and f;1(p);f;2(p);g;1(p) and g;2(p) are the roots of X2 + f (p)X

+ q(p)=0 and X2 + g(p)X + D(p)=0. This function is analytic over the whole complex plane except when f = g. At these points it has poles at s = 0 and s =1. It has a functional equation of (f . g, s)= (f . g)(f . g, 1 s).

5.7. Examples involving Selberg Classes. L(s;f) Lemma 1. For a q-periodic function f, is an entire function (s) implies that s 2 q s L(1 s, f)= v ..(s) cos L(s, f+). q 2p 2 Proof. Because (s) has trivial zeros when s is a

negative even integer L(s, f) must vanish there also. Using the functional equation . . L(1..s, f) = q 2p s ..(s) v q exp is 2 L(s, f..) + exp ..is 2 L(s, f+) with f(n) = 1 v . f(a) exp . 2i an . q amodq q we can show L(2m + 1,

f+) = L(2m + 1, f..) which implies 1. f+(n) f..(n) n2m+1 = 0 n=1 for all m . N. It follows that f+ = fwhich shows that s 2..(s) q s L(1 s, f)= . cos . (s)2p 2 Using this fact and the fact G

. S0 # is a Dirichlet polynomial where g(n) G(s)= ns njQ2 with . nQ2 g(n)= wg Qn and Q2 . N as proved by Kaczowski and Perelli in their 1999 paper \On the Structure of the Selberg Class we may prove another theorem. Theorem 7.

G . S0 # if and only if there exists an f : N . C where f+ = wf L(s;f) with w . C, jw| =1 and G(s)= de

nes an entire function. (s)

38 L(s;f) Proof. If G(s) = is an entire function we can use the lemma to (s) show that if f satis

es f+ = wf with w . C and jw| = 1 then s 2wq s L(1 s, f)= v ..(s) cos L(s, f). q 2p 2 Using this and the fact that L(s, f) . S1 # we get the functional equation s (1..s)

2 q 2 G(s)= wq G(1 s). As G(s) is the entire quotient of two series in S1 # it therefore lies in # S: 0 Now to prove the opposite direction. Assume G . S0. There exists a Q2 . N such that 1g(n) G(s)= ns n=1

with g(n)=0 if nQ2 . Now, if we de

ne f = g(d) djn then f(n + Q2)= g(d)= g(d)= f(n) djn+Q2 djn djQ2 djQ2 which shows f is Q2-periodic. Now we must show that f+ = wf with w . C, jw| = 1 and G(s)= L(s;f) de

nes an entire function. (s) We know 2 q s s L(1 s, f)= v ..(s) cos L(s, f+) q 2p 2 s 2wq s = v ..(s) cos L(s, f) q 2p 2 which implies L(s, f+)= wL(s, f). This

proves f+ = wf with w . C and jw| = 1 and also proves the theorem. .

5.8. Functions in the Selberg Class. The four functions we studied in previous chapters can be shown to be in the Selberg Class. First we will show the Riemann-zeta function is in the Selberg class. Proof. (i) For the Riemann-zeta function we can clearly see that a1 =1 and an = 0 for all n = 2.

This is equivalent to showing an . n. . From section 1.1 we know (s) is absolutely convergent for Re(s) > 1 which means property (i) holds. (ii) We know (s) is analytic except at s = 1. When s = 1 we have (s 1)m = 0 which implies (s) is analytic over the whole complex

plane and therefore (ii) holds. (iii) As shown in section 1.1 the functional equation is (s)=2ss..1..(1 s)sin( s ). 2 Therefore (iii) holds. (iv) As shown in section 1.1 the Euler product is 1 (s)= . 1 p..s p Therefore (iv) holds and (s) . S.

Now we will proove the Dirichlet L-functions are in the Selberg class. Proof. (i) As stated in section 2.1 L(s, ) is absolutely convergent for Re(s) > 1. Because an = (s) either equals 0 or 1 this means an = epsilon 1 . n. Also, a1 =1 as g:c:d(m, 1) = 1.

Therefore (i) holds. (ii) L(S, ) is analytic for all non-trivial . Therefore, (s..1)mL(s, ) is analytic for m = 1 and (ii) holds. (iii) As shown in section 2.4 the functional equation of L(s, ) is L(s, chi)= L(1 s, . * ). Therefore (iii) holds. (iv) The Euler product of a Dirichlet L-function

can be written as ..s)..1 L(s, )= (1 pp. p Therefore (iv) holds and L(s, ) . S. . Now, as both the modular forms and elliptic curves can all have connected L-functions this shows they are also part of the Selberg class.

References [1] Edwards, H.M., The Riemann-zeta function, 1974. [2] Rose, H.E., A Course in Number Theory, 1995. [3] Apostol, T, M., Introduction to Analytic Number Theory, 1976. [4] Apostol, T, M., Modular Functions and Dirichlet Series in Number Theory, 1990. [5] Hughes, C. and Beinek, J., Great Moments of

the Riemann-zeta Function, 2008. [6] Koblitz, N., Introduction to elliptic curves and modular forms, 1984. [7] Selberg, A., Old and new conjectures and results about a class of Dirichlet series, 1992. [8] Soundararajan, K., Degree 1 elements of the Selberg class, 2005. [9] Conrey, J, B. and Ghosh, A., On the Selberg

Class of Dirichlet Series: Small Degrees, 1993. [10] Kaczorowski, J. and Perelli, A., On the Structure of the Selberg Class, I :0 = D = 1, 1999. [11] Kowalski, E. Michel, P. and VanderKam J., Rankin-Selberg L-functions in the Level Aspect, [12] Steuding, J., A Note on the Selberg class (degrees 0 and 1),

2003.