Nuclear Engineering and Design 211 (2002) 91 103 www.elsevier.

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Fracture behavior of straight pipe and elbow with local wall thinning
Seok-Hwan Ahn a,*, Ki-Woo Nam a, Yeon-Sik Yoo b, Kotoji Ando b, Su-Hwan Ji b, Masayuki Ishiwata c, Kunio Hasegawa c
School of Engineering, College of Engineering, Pukyong National Uni6ersity, 100, Yongdang-dong, Nam-Gu, Busan 608 -739, South Korea b Faculty of Engineering, Yokohama National Uni6ersity, 79 -1, Tokiwadai, Hodogayagu, Yokohama 240, Japan c Power and Industrial Systems Nuclear System Di6ision, Hitachi, Ltd., Hitachi 317 -8511, Japan Received 24 April 2001; received in revised form 10 September 2001; accepted 12 September 2001
a

Abstract Fracture behavior of pipes with local wall thinning is very important for the integrity of nuclear power plant. Then we studied the fracture behavior of straight pipe and elbow with local wall thinning. For the straight pipe, failure mode, limit load and allowable wall thinning limit based on plastic deformation ability have been studied systematically. Twenty two straight pipe specimens were tested. The failure mode was divided into four types; cracking, local buckling, ovalization and plastic collapse (ovalization + buckling). Maximum load was successfully evaluated using plastic section modulus and modied ow stress, in dependent to failure mode. For the elbow, plastic collapse and low cycle fatigue fracture by reversed loading have been tested using ten specimens. Observed failure modes were ovalization and local buckling under monotonic loading, and were local buckling and cracking under cyclic loading, especially local buckling promoted crack initiation. Test results were compared with ASME design curve and allowable limit of local wall thinning will be discussed. 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction High energy carbon steel pipes and elbow etc. are used extensively in piping systems of power plants. For the service periods, high temperature and high pressure water and steam ow at high velocity through these piping systems. Sometimes, these pipes and elbows are subjected to a wall
* Corresponding author. Tel.: + 82-51-620-1617; fax: + 8251-620-1405. E-mail address: shahn@mail1.pknu.ac.kr (S.-H. Ahn).

thickness thinning at the inside wall by erosion/ corrosion (E/C). Therefore, it is important to evaluate the strength of the pipe and elbow with local wall thinning to maintain the integrity of the piping systems. Up to now, some tests of carbon steel pipes with locally thinned area have been performed to evaluate plastic collapse behavior and strength of pipes by researchers or research institutes (Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute, 1993; Roy et al., 1997; Ahn et al., 1998; Miyazaki et al., 1999). However, the acceptable values of local wall thinning are not well known.

0029-5493/02/$ - see front matter 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 0 2 9 - 5 4 9 3 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 4 4 7 - 2

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Table 1 Chemical compositions of tested materials (wt.%) Materials STS370 STPT410 C 0.15 0.18 Si 0.25 0.22 Mn 0.43 0.43 P 0.008 0.013 S 0.007 0.004

ASME has considered the need to provide appropriate guidance to steel pipes subjected to erosion/ corrosion damage (Deardorff and Bush, 1990). Acceptance rules for local wall thinning have been established for high energy carbon steel pipes based on design construction codes (Mathonet et al., 1995). This study was performed to evaluate the fracture behavior of carbon steel straight pipes and elbows with local wall thinning under monotonic and cyclic load. Based on the failure mode and fracture strength for carbon steel straight pipes and elbows, the allowable level for local wall thinning with erosion/corrosion is proposed.

2. Material and experimental procedure The materials used in the experiments are carbon steel straight pipes and elbows called carbon steel pipes for high pressure service, STS370 and for high temperature service, STPT410 in JIS (Japanese Industrial Standards). Both are commonly used in piping systems of nuclear power plants in Japan. STS370 and STPT410 are similar to ASME A333 Gr.6. The chemical compositions and mechanical properties of STS370 and STPT410 are shown in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. Full-scale experiments were performed on 3.5 in. diameter Schedule 80 STS370 carbon steel straight pipes and 4 in. diameter Schedule 40 STPT410 carbon steel elbows with local wall thinTable 2 Mechanical properties of tested materials Materials STS370 STPT410 Tensile strength |u (MPa) 406 450

ning. The effect of the location of wall thinning on fracture behavior was not considered, because the results between inside wall thinning and outside wall thinning were obtained identically for fracture behavior (Miyazaki et al., 1999). Therefore, the local wall thinning was machined on the outside of both pipes. There are many varieties of types of possible wall thinning in pipes. Those may be irregular according to defect size etc. Of them, especially, we simulated various types of local wall thinning that can be occurred at pipe surfaces due to coolant ow. Locally wall thinned shapes were machined to be different in size along the circumferential and axial direction of straight pipes. Straight pipe bending tests were conducted, one in which the locally thinned area was located at the tensile direction side and the other in which it was located at the compressive direction side against loading direction. And the locally thinned area was located at the neutral axis side against loading direction to promote ovalization type failure. Four types of straight pipe specimens and one type of elbow specimens with local wall thinning were made. Straight pipe specimens and elbow specimen are shown in Fig. 1ae and Fig. 2, respectively. The thinned sizes are shown in Tables 35, respectively. A monotonic bending load was applied to straight pipe specimens by four-point loading at ambient temperature without internal pressure. The major and miner spans of the four-point loading were 900 and 245 mm, respectively. Tests were carried out under displacement control of cross head speed 0.1 mm s 1. On the other hand, elbow tests were performed on two types of controlled mode, displacement controlled monotonic load and displacement controlled cyclic load. The controlled displacement of cyclic load test was determined by displacement corresponding to about 90% of maximum load.

Yield strength |y (MPa) 227 301

Elongation (%) 25.3 39.0

Table 3 Specimen geometries and test results of straight pipes Specimen number Thinned or cracked depth, d (mm) Axially thinned length, l (mm) Thinned or cracked angle, 2q () Maximum moment by experiment, Mmax (kN m) Plastic collpase moment by calculation, MPO (kN m) Plastic collpase moment ratio, Mmax (experiment) MPO (calculation) 1.589 1.720 1.759 1.218 1.432 1.430 1.477 1.233 1.380 1.372 1.292 1.307 1.630 1.260 1.290 1.360 1.270 1.230 1.160 1.151 1.138 1.099 Plastic rotation angle by experiment, Pmax (rad) Failure mode S.-H. Ahn et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 211 (2002) 91103

LWT-1 LWT-2 LWT-3 LWT-4 LWT-5 LWT-6 LWT-7 LWT-8 LWT-9 LWT-10 LWT-11 LWT-12 LWT-13 LWT-14 LWT-15 LWT-16 LWT-17 LWT-18 LWT-19 LWT-20 LWT-21 LWT-22

2.0 3.0 4.0 6.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 6.0 4.0 6.0 4.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 5.81 5.54 6.79

25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 102.0 102.0 102.0 102.0 25.0 25.0 102.0 102.0 102.0 37.5 41.0 44.0 37.5 41.0 44.0

360 360 360 360 360 360 360 360 46.1 56.7 46.1 56.7 56.7 48.9 53.9 57.9 48.9 53.9 57.9 33.1 46.1 56.7

25.92 22.95 18.45 6.26 23.35 19.02 15.49 6.34 28.81 26.64 26.96 25.36 27.04 25.84 25.52 26.08 26.16 24.39 22.31 25.27 23.75 21.34

16.31 13.34 10.49 5.14 16.31 13.34 10.49 5.14 20.87 19.41 20.87 19.41 16.61 20.54 19.85 19.22 20.54 19.85 19.22 21.95 20.87 19.41

0.432 0.336 0.156 0.028 0.412 0.283 0.188 0.088 0.704 0.416 0.672 0.428 0.420 0.628 0.536 0.544 0.556 0.391 0.284 0.312 0.244 0.080

O O B B O B B B O O O+B O+B O O+B O+B O+B O C C C C C

O, Ovalization; B, Buckling; O+B, Ovalization+Buckling; C, Cracking; Rs, Outer half diameter ( = 51.0 mm); t, wall thickness ( = 8.1 mm); , increase in value.

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3. Test results and consideration

3.1. Fracture beha6ior for locally wall thinned pipes 3.1.1. Straight pipe The test results are summarized in Table 3. In this study, the failure mode was divided into four types; cracking, local buckling, ovalization and plastic collapse (ovalization+ buckling). Four types of failure modes are shown in Fig. 3, respectively. Typical momentdisplacement curves for straight pipe specimens are shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 3a shows momentload point displacement curves for the case of local buckling only. In this case, the load was increased a little after buckling and the specimen showed an enough ductility. In this case, it is characterized that the type of local buckling indicates form such as wrinkle of elephant leg. In the case of ovalization only (Fig.

Fig. 1. Straight pipe specimen with local wall thinning and pre-crack:(a) Type of specimen LWT-1 LWT-8; (b) Type of specimen LWT-9 LWT-12; (c) Type of specimen LWT-13; (d) Type of specimen LWT-14 LWT-19; (e) Type of specimen LWT-20 LWT-22.

Cyclic load test was nished, when the maximum load (that is a load of 1st cycle after the cyclic load is applied to the elbow) reached its 75% or cyclic number to the fracture of 300 cycles. In the same way, tests were carried out under ambient temperature without internal pressure.

Fig. 2. Elbow specimen with local wall thinning.

S.-H. Ahn et al. / Nuclear Engineering and Design 211 (2002) 91103 Table 4 Specimen geometries and test results of elbows under monotonic test Specimen number BP-1 BP-2 BP-3 BP-5 BP-7 Thinned depth Thinned angle (d/t) () 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.5 0.8 360 360 360 Pmax (kN) 87.14 61.28 48.66 18.13 Displacement at Pmax (mm) 25.14 23.71 23.18 6.42 Moment (kN m) 35.28 33.28 32.54 9.01 SM (kN mm2) 1442 1363 1334 366 Failure mode

95

O O O O B

O, Ovalization; B, Buckling; t, wall thickness ( = 6.0 mm).

Fig. 3. Moment (M)-load point displacement (l) curves for the local wall thinning of straight pipes: (a) Case of buckling; (b) Case of ovalization; (c) Case of ovalization + buckling; (d) Case of cracking.

3b), the applied moment has a tendency to decrease slowly after the maximum moment except for the case of local wall thinning with shallowly thinned wall which is located at the tension side toward loading direction. In the case of ovaliza-

tion+ buckling (Fig. 3c), buckling occurred and then the maximum moment was determined by ovalization. However, all specimens showed enough ductility. Especially, it can be seen when the local wall thinning is located at the compres-

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Table 5 Specimen geometries and test results of elbows under cyclic test Speci-men number d/t P1 (kN) Actual displacement (mm) 916.4 98.3 93.24 +3.35 7.37 PE (kN) Mis/Z (MN) ME/Z (MN) SP (MN) SEP (MN) Ni (Cycle) Nf25 (Cycle) Failure mode

BP-4 BP-6 BP-8 BP-9

0.3 0.5 0.8 0.8

+83.5 64.2 +43.6 44.1 +12.37 11.76 +16.17 16.17

9113.2 957.3 922.4 +23.2 50.9

+428.3 329.4 +224 227 +63.5 60.5 +83.2 83.2

9581 9294 9115 +119 261

+1383 1064 +724 733 +205 195 +269 269

91876 9950 9371 +384 269

285 30 15

258 285B 234 27

O B+C B+C B+C

O, Ovalization; B+C, Buckling+Fatigue crack; t, Wall thickness ( =6.0 mm).

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Fig. 5. Load displacement curve of elastic analysis for non local wall thinned elbow and monotonic load displacement curves of local wall thinned elbow.

sion side toward loading direction. In the case of cracking (Fig. 3d), three specimens (LWT-20, 21, 22) with crack were failed by cracking and compared to locally wall thinned specimens occurred crack initiation. Three specimens with crack showed that load increases slowly after crack penetration, and plastic deformation occurs. Two locally wall thinned specimens failed by cracking, and the load decreased rapidly after crack penetration. Typical failure modes obtained from straight pipe specimens were shown in Fig. 4a c.

Fig. 4. Fracture surface obtained from straight pipe specimens: (a) Case of buckling (LWT-4); (b) Case of buckling (LWT-7); (c) Case of cracking (LWT-19).

3.1.2. Elbow The results of monotonic load tests are shown in Table 4. Pmax is the maximum load and lmax is the displacement at Pmax. Load displacement curves of elastic analysis for the non-local wall thinned elbow and monotonic loaddisplacement curves of the local wall thinned elbow are shown in Fig. 5. Two types of failure modes were ob-

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served, that is, ovalization and buckling. It seems that overstrain was concentrated at local wall thinning when the locally thinned limits have some value. The BP-2 under the tensile load shows a different tendency compared to the BP-1 under the compressive load. In the case of BP-2, the load is increasing with the displacement. This shows that the strength of thinned part retains one until fracture of some extent if the tensile load work on local wall thinning as the external force. In case of all-circumferential thinned elbows, accordingly, it is considered that the compressive force has an effect on the thinned part rather than tensile force is so. The local buckling occurred at elbow specimens indicated the elephant leg type, too. The results of displacement controlled cyclic tests are shown in Table 5. In this Table, P1 is the maximum load at 1st cycle, Ni is the crack initiation cycle and Nf25 is the cycle at 75% of P1. Fig. 6 shows three types of failure modes obtained from displacement controlled cyclic test of elbow. Fig. 6a,b,c are hysteresis curves of loaddisplacement from BP-4 (d/t=0.3), BP-6 (d/t= 0.5) and BP-9 (d/t=0.8), respectively. Hysteric curve of BP-4 did not decrease the load suddenly. From this result, an elbow with d/t= 0.3 had a high strength against the fracture and showed enough ductility. However, an elbow with d/t= 0.8 showed that the load decreases remarkable after buckling. An elbow with d/t= 0.5 showed that the fatigue crack occurred at 285th cycle in spite of buckling, after that, the decrease of load was not so observed. Therefore, in this case, the strength of local wall thinning has a high value and the specimen shows enough ductility. Fig. 7a and b show surface obtained from test result of elbows with d/t=0.8.

3.2. Fracture strength for locally wall thinned pipes 3.2.1. Straight pipe Maximum moments (Mmax) for each thinned conguration were obtained from experiments. Plastic collapse moments (Mpo) were calculated by the net-section stress criterion (Kanninen et al., 1982) using the following equation:

Fig. 6. Hysteresis curves of load displacement for the elbow with local wall thinning: (a) Case of BP-4; (b) Case of BP-6; (c) Case of BP-9.

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Mpo = 2R 2t|f[2 sin i+ (y 2i) cos i] [Ar|f ] (1) where A= R 2q R 2 cos q sin q s s A y i= 4Rt 2 r= R cos i

  

2 sin3 q t + Rs : R= Rs 3 q sin q cos q 2

n!

 "

where, i is one half of the neutral angle of the pipe at bending moment, A is the locally thinned area, R is the mean radius of the pipe, Rs is the outer radius of the pipe, q is a half of the thinned angle, r is the moment arm and |f is the ow stress given by [yield strength+ tensile strength]/2. Maximum moments for thinned pipes are evaluated very conservatively by the net-section stress criteria as shown in Table 2. Fig. 8 shows the relation between experimental maximum moments (Mmax) and calculated plastic collapse moments (Mpo). In gure, the correlation of Mmax = 1.25Mpo was shown by dash line. This gure shows that the calculation is still conservative even when Mpo is calculated by using modied ow stress 1.25|f. In this gure, upper arrows mean that the maximum moment obtained from the experiment is higher than the actual maximum moment showed in Fig. 8 if the experiment is continued. MY is the general yielding moment of the pipe and it was calculated using |y denoted yield strength of STS370 of the material used in this experiment. For the locally thinned pipe, the general yielding condition was evaluated as a function of aw depth, aw angle and ow stress. The result is shown in Fig. 9. Plastic rotation capacity is a very important factor for the integrity of indeterminate piping system. Therefore, the relation between plastic rotation angle (Pmax) and plastic collapse moment by the modied ow stress 1.25|f (Mtp) are shown in Fig. 10. In this case, the plastic rotation angle was calculated by Eq. (2).
Fig. 7. Fracture surface obtained from test result of elbows with d/t= 0.8: (a) Case of monotonic test (buckling: BP-7); (b) Case of cyclic test (fatigue crack after buckling: BP-9).

Pmax =

4lPmax LO LI

(2)

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Fig. 8. Relation between experimental maximum moments (Mmax) and calculated collapse Moments (Mpo).

Where, Pmax is the plastic rotation angle, lPmax is the plastic displacement at the maximum load point obtained from the experiments, LO is the outer span length and LI is inner span length. From this gure, Pmax of 0.15 0.2 rad may be required to form the plastic collapse mechanism of piping system that is regarded as indeterminate one (Liu and Ando, 2000). When Mtp is larger than MY, Pmax is larger than 0.2 rad, except for pipes with crack. Then, it can be concluded that is a necessary acceptance condition for local wall thinning if Mpo should be larger than MY.

FEM analysis, the moment at assessment point 3 was calculated with elastic load (reactions) obtained from non-local wall thinning. The moment of point 3 was 28.1 kN m and the displacement corresponding to one was 20 mm. And the force of point 1 (or point 6) was 138.1 kN. From this result, the relation between moment and controlled displacement is shown in Fig. 12. The

3.2.2. Elbow The moment by elastic FEM analysis was calculated for the stress evaluation of monotonic load test and displacement controlled cyclic test. The elbow was represented elastic beam element in order to perform FEM analysis. The relation between load and displacement was obtained by applying moment of inertia to a pipe. Fig. 11 shows schematic of FEM analysis model. In FEM analysis, each parameter is; outer diameter (D) 114.3 mm, wall thickness (t) 6.0 mm, radius of the elbow (Re) 228.6 mm, Youngs modulus (E) is 206 kN mm 2 and Poissons ratio (w) is 0.3. From

Fig. 9. General yielding region to show enough ductility.

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Fig. 10. Relation between plastic rotation angle (Pmax) and calculated plastic collapse moment by the modied ow stress 1.25|f (Mtp).

moment (M) of monotonic load test and the moment (ME) of displacement controlled cyclic test were calculated from Fig. 12. Stress intensity value for the evaluation of monotonic load test was obtained from Eq. (3). SM = B2 M Z (3)

where, SM is assessment stress, B2 is 2.16, M is the moment and Z is the modulus of section with t =6 mm. The fracture under monotonic test occurred at the maximum load point. The results are shown in Table 4. The allowable limit was evaluated with SM and Sm under each operating condition. Sm indicates the design stress intensity value in ASME Code SEC.III (ASME, 1992) 1.5Sm and 3.0Sm showed in order to compare with SM. Sm is 0.137 kN mm 2 in carbon steel pipes for high pressure service STS410. Comparison between SM and Sm is shown in Fig. 13. Using Sm, SM can be

Fig. 11. Schematic of FEM analysis model.

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evaluation of displacement controlled cyclic test was calculated by Eq. (4). SEP = K2C2 ME Z (4)

Fig. 12. Moment vs. controlled displacement by elastic FEM analysis.

where, stress index of a bended pipe K2 is 1.0, C2 is 3.23 as stress index calculated from 1.95/h 2/3 (h=tRe/r 2; t= wall thickness, Re = radius of the elbow, r= pipe mean radius), ME is the moment calculated from PEle(PE = elastic load derived from elastic analysis, le = 269.5 mm) and Z is the modulus of section with t= 6 mm. Also, the stress (SP) obtained from the displacement controlled cyclic test can be written by substituting Mis (= P1le) for ME and P1 (load obtained from the experiment) for PE in Eq. (4). The results are shown in Table 5. Cyclic failure stresses of ctitious stress amplitude (Sa) for elbows with local wall thinning are shown in Fig. 14. The moment of each specimen is calculated from the elastic load. Failure stresses derived from moments are shown in Table 5. The failure stress of BP-9 specimen is not clearly plotted, because the stress amplitude is skew (R" 1).

4. Conclusions This study was performed to evaluate the fracture behavior of carbon steel straight pipes and elbows with local wall thinning under monotonic and cyclic load. The results obtained from the present study can be summarized as follows: 1. The four types of failure modes were observed in straight pipes, that is, ovalization, buckling, ovalization+ buckling and cracking. Also, the failure modes of elbows were ovalization and buckling under the monotonic load test and were ovalization and buckling+ fatigue crack under the cyclic load test. 2. For locally wall thinned specimens, maximum moments (Mmax) were estimated by using the modied ow stress(|tf = 1.25|f) and the netsection stress criterion (when Mmax ] MY). These conditions were evaluated as a function of aw depth, aw angle and ow stress. 3. The allowable limit of elbows was derived from the comparison between assessed stress

Fig. 13. Comparison between SM and Sm.

allowed when 1.5Sm 50SM 53.0Sm. That is, the ovalization after buckling or the ovalization as the failure mode can be allowable. However, a locally thinned elbow with d/t = 0.8 cannot allow because of the fatigue crack occurred after buckling. When the locally thinned area occurs in the piping system, the modulus of section decreases and the applied stress increases. In this study, the moment is obtained from experimental results based on ASME Code SEC.III (ASME, 1992). In this case, the decrease of modulus of section by local wall thinning is not considered. This means conservative evaluation. The current piping system design uses the elastic FEM analysis and stress index. Therefore, the elastic stress for the

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Fig. 14. Comparison between elbow strength and ASME design fatigue curve.

(SM) and design stress intensity value (Sm). The failure stress can be allowed 1.5Sm = SM =3.0Sm in the case of ovalization or ovalization after buckling as the failure mode. However, the case of d/t =0.8 cannot be allowed because the fatigue crack occurred after buckling. 4. From the comparison between elbow strength and ASME design fatigue curve, the strength of elbow for the case of d/t =0.5 is conservative.

References
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71-75. Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute, 1993. Technical report on the piping reliability tests at the Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute (Japanese), JAERI-M, 93-076, 104-115. Kanninen, M.F., Zahoor, A., Wilkowski, G., Abousayed, I., Marschall, C., Broek, D., Sampath, S., Rhee, H., Ahmad, J., 1982. Instability predictions for circumferentially cracked Type-304 stainless pipes under dynamic loading, EPRI NP-2347, Vols.1 and 2, EPRI, Palo Alto. Liu, S.P., Ando, K., 2000. Leak-before-break and plastic collapse behavior of statically indeterminate pipe system with circumferential crack. Nucl. Eng. Des. 195, 261 270. Miyazaki, K., Kanno, S., Ishiwata, M., Hasegawa, K., Ahn, S.H., Ando, K., 1999. Fracture behavior of carbon steel pipe with local wall thinning subjected to bending load. Nucl. Eng. Des. 191, 195 204. Mathonet, J.F., Cherasse, J.M., Leblois, C.L., Guyette, M.A., 1995. Belgian methodology for evaluation of erosion corrosion phenomena in units 1 2 3 & 4 of the Doel Nuclear Power Plant (NPP). ASME PVP 303, 393 399. Roy, S., Grigory, S., Smith, M., Kanninen, M.F., Anderson, M., 1997. Numerical simulations of full-scale corroded pipe tests with combined loading. J. Press Vessel Technol. 119, 457 466.