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Vol.

61
No 2
2012
issn 0424-7116 | DOi 10.3285/eg.61.2
Edited by the German Quaternary Association
Editor-in-Chief: Holger Freund
Eiszeitalter und Gegenwart
Quaternary Science Journal
GEOZON
E&G
rivErs, lakEs anD pEatlanDs (nE Germany)
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bonn, Germany
lESzEk MArkS, institute of Geology, University
of Warsaw, Poland
HEnk J. T. WEErTS, Physical Geography Group,
Cultural Heritage Agency Amersfoort, The
netherlands
formEr Editors-in-ChiEf
PAUl WOlDSTEDT (19511966)
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rEinHOlD HUCkriEDE (19681978)
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WOlFGAnG SCHirMEr (2000)
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Advisory EditoriAL boArd
FlAViO AnSElMETTi, Department of Surface
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Switzerland
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of Historical Coastal research, Wilhelmshaven,
Germany
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Environmental Processes, national research
Council of italy, italy
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Holloway University of london, Great britain
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Geological Sciences, University of bern,
Switzerland
Dirk VAn HUSEn, Altmnster, Austria
JEF VAnDEnbErGHE, Faculty of Earth and
life Sciences, VU University Amsterdam, The
netherlands
AnDrEAS VTT, institute of Geography,
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Vol ume 61 / number 2 / 2012 / DOi : 10. 3285/eg. 61. 2 / i SSn 0424-7116 / www. quaternar y-sci ence. net / Founded i n 1951
Eiszeitalter und Gegenwart
Quaternary Science Journal
E&G
103
E&G / vol. 61 / no. 2 / 2012 / 103132 / DOi 10.3285/eg.61.2.01 / authors / Creative Commons attribution license
E&G
Quaternary Science Journal
Volume 61 / number 2 / 2012 / 103132 / DOi 10.3285/eg.61.2.01
www.quaternary-science.net
GEOzOn SCiEnCE MEDiA
iSSn 0424-7116
Late Quaternary evolution of rivers, lakes and peatlands in
northeast Germany refecting past climatic and human impact
an overview
knut kaiser, Sebastian lorenz, Sonja Germer, Olaf Juschus, Mathias kster, Judy libra, Oliver bens, reinhard F. Httl
how to cite: Kaiser,K.,Lorenz,S.,Germer,S.,Juschus,O.,Kster,M.,Libra,J.,Bens,O.&Httl,R.F.(2012):LateQaternaryevolution
ofrivers,lakesandpeatlandsinnortheastGermanyrefectingpastclimaticandhumanimpactanoverview.E&GQaternary
ScienceJournal,61(2):103132.DOI:10.3285/eg.61.2.01
Abstract: Knowledgeofregionalpalaeohydrologyisessentialforunderstandingcurrentenvironmentalissues,sucasthecausesofrecent
hydrologiccanges,impactsoflandusestrategiesandefectivenessofwetlandrestorationmeasures.Eventheinterpretationof
modelresultsonfutureimpactsofclimaticandland-covercangesmaybeimprovedusing(pre-)historicanalogies.Anoverview
of palaeohydrologic fndings of the last c. 20,000 years is given for northeast Germany with its glacial landscapes of diferent
age.Riverdevelopmentisexaminedwithafocusonvalley(-foor)formationanddepositionalcanges,rivercourseandcannel
canges, and palaeodiscarge/-foods. Major genetic diferences exist amongold morainic (Elsterian, Saalian) andyoung mo-
rainic(Weicselian)areas,andamongtopographicallyhigh-andlow-lyingvalleys,thelaterofwhicarestronglyinfuencedby
water-levelcangesintheNorthandBalticSeas.Lakedevelopmentwasanalysedwithrespecttolakeformation,whicwaspre-
dominantlydrivenbylatePleistocenetoearlyHolocenedead-icedynamics,andwithrespecttodepositionalcanges.Furthermore,
lake-levelcangeshavebeeninthefocus,showinghighlyvariablelocalrecordswithsomeconformity.Teoverviewonpeatland
development concentrated on phases of mire formation and on long-term groundwater dynamics. Close relationships between
thedevelopmentofrivers,lakesandpeatlandsexistedparticularlyduringthelateHolocenebycomplexpaludifcationprocesses
inlargerivervalleys.UntilthelateHolocene,regionalhydrologywaspredominantlydrivenbyclimatic,geomorphicandnon-
anthropogenicbioticfactors.SincethelateMedievaltimes,humanactivitieshavestronglyinfuencedthedrainagepaternandthe
watercycle,forinstance,bydammingofriversandlakes,constructionofcannelsanddikes,andpeatlandcultivation.Indeed,the
naturalcangescausedbylong-termclimaticandgeomorphicprocesseshavebeenexceededbyimpactsresultingfromshort-term
humanactionsinthelastc.50yearsasdiscargeregulation,hydromeliorationandformationofartifciallakes.
die sptquartre Entwicklung von flssen, seen und mooren in nordostdeutschland als spiegel klimatischer und anthro-
pogener Einfsse eine bersicht
Kurzfassung: DieKenntnisderregionalenPalohydrologieisteinewesentliceGrundlagefrdasVerstndnisaktuellerUmweltfragen,wiezum
BeispielnacdenGrndenvonhydrologiscenVernderungen,demEinfussvonLandnutzungsstrategienundderWirksamkeit
vonRenaturierungsvorhabeninFeuctgebieten.AucdieInterpretationvonModellierungsergebnissenzudenknfigenEinfs-
sen des Klima- und Landnutzungswandels auf das Gewssersystem kann durc die Einbeziehung (pr-) historiscer Analogien
verbessertwerden.FrdasglazialgeprgtenordostdeutsceTiefandwurdeeinebersictdervorliegendenpalohydrologiscen
BefundefrdenZeitraumderletztenetwa20.000Jahreerarbeitet.DieEntwiclungderFlssewurdemitBlicaufdieTal-/Auen-
geneseunddasAblagerungsmilieu,dieVernderungdesTal-undGerinneverlaufssowiedenPaloabfussbzw.dasPalohocwass-
er betractet.Wesentlice genetisce Untersciede bestehen zwiscen Alt- (Elster- und Saalekaltzeit) und Jungmornengebieten
(Weicselkaltzeit) sowie zwiscen hoc und tief gelegenenTlern. Letztere sind stark durcWasserspiegelvernderungen in der
Nord-undOstseebeeinfusstworden.DieEntwiclungderSeenwurdehinsictlicderSeebildung,dieberwiegendeineFolgeder
sptpleistoznenbisfrhholoznenToteistiefau-Dynamikist,undderVernderungenimAblagerungsmilieuanalysiert.Weiterhin
standenSeespiegelvernderungenimFokus,wobeisichocvariablelokaleBefundemiteinigenbereinstimmungenzeigten.Der
berbliczurMoorentwiclungkonzentriertesicaufhydrogenetisceMoorentwiclungsphasenundaufdielangfristigeEntwic-
lungdesGrundwasserspiegels.EngeBeziehungenzwiscenderEntwiclungderFlsse,SeenundMoorebestandeninsbesondere
im Sptholozn durc komplexeVermoorungsprozesse in den groen Flusstlern. Bis in das Sptholozn wurde die regionale
Hydrologieberwiegenddurcklimatisce,geomorphologisceundnict-anthropogenebiologisceFaktorengesteuert.Seitdem
SptmitelalterwurdeinderRegiondasGewssernetzundderWasserkreislaufimstarkenMadurcanthropogeneInterventionen
beeinfusst(z.B.AufstauvonFlssenundSeen,BauvonKanlenundDeicen,Moorkultivierung).Indenletztenetwa50Jahren
habendannsogardiekurzfristigenanthropogenenEingrife,z.B.inFormvonAbfussregulierung,Hydromeliorationundknstli-
cerSeebildung,dieWirksamkeitlangfristigerklimatiscerundgeomorphologiscerProzessebertrofen.
Keywords: palaeohydrology, valley formation, depositional cange, lake- and groundwater-level fuctuation, mire, late Pleistocene, Holocene
Addresses of authors: K. Kaiser
*
, O. Bens, R. F. Httl, GFZ German Researc Centre for Geosciences, Telegrafenberg, D-14473 Potsdam, E-Mail:
kaiserk@gfz-potsdam.de;S. Lorenz, M. Kster,UniversityofGreifswald,InstituteofGeographyandGeology,Friedric-Ludwig-
Jahn-Strae16,D-17487Greifswald;S. Germer, J. Libra,Leibniz-InstituteforAgriculturalEngineeringPotsdam-Bornim,Max-
Eyth-Allee100,D-14469Potsdam;O. Juscus,UniversityofAppliedSciencesEberswalde,FacultyofLandscapeManagementand
NatureConservation,Alfred-Mller-Strae1,D-16225Eberswalde;
*
corresponding author
104
E&G / vol. 61 / no. 2 / 2012 / 103132 / DOi 10.3285/eg.61.2.01 / authors / Creative Commons attribution license
Contents
104 1 Introduction
107 2 Regional settings
108 3 Principle researc questions, concepts and
methods used in regional studies
110 4 Results and discussion
110 4.1Rivers
110 4.1.1Rivervalleyformationanddepositionalcanges
111 4.1.2Changesinrivercoursesandcannels
113 4.1.3Palaeodiscargeandpalaeofoodcaracteristics
114 4.2Lakes
115 4.2.1Lakebasindevelopment
115 4.2.1.1Dead-icedynamics
116 4.2.1.2Depositionalcanges
117 4.2.2Palaeohydrology
117 4.2.2.1Lake-levelcanges
119 4.2.2.2Lake-areaandlake-contourcanges
119 4.3Peatlands
119 4.3.1Peatlandformationandgroundwater-level
canges
119 4.3.1.1Generaldevelopment
119 4.3.1.2Peatlandsinlargerivervalleys
122 4.3.2Humanimpactonpeatlandsandlakesby
millstowage
123 5 Synopsis
123 5.1Impactofneotectonicprocesses
123 5.2Climateimpact
124 5.3Pre-modernandmodernhumanimpact
125 5.4Finalremarksandresearcperspectives
125 6 Conclusions
125 Acnowledgements
126 References
1 introduction
Global climate cange causes regional and local variations
in the terrestrial water balance (e.g.Tao et al. 2003, IPCC
2007, Bates et al. 2008, Gerten et al. 2008, Kundzewicz
et al. 2008, Huang et al. 2010), infuencing the hydrologic,
geomorphic and ecologic properties of the regional drain-
agesystemcomprisedoffowing(rivers,streams)andstag-
nantwaters(lakes,ponds)aswellaspeatlandsofvaryingdi-
mension.Anaridifcationtrend,forexample,willinevitably
causeareduction(1)inthediscargeofriversbydiminish-
ingsupply,(2)inthesizeoflakesbylevelloweringand(3)in
theextensionofpeatlandsbygroundwaterlowering.
As hydrologic and climatic researc in Europe shows,
therearecurrentlydistinctcangesinwaterbalanceswith
regionally difering trends (e.g. Lehner et al. 2006, BACC
AuthorTeam2008,EEA2009,Merzetal.2012).Innorth-
eastGermany widely adrying trend prevails, resulting in
decreasinggroundwaterandlakelevelsaswellasriverdis-
carges (e.g. Gerstengarbe et al. 2003, Kaiser et al. 2010,
2012a,Germeretal.2011).Ifthistrendcontinues,anegative
infuenceonecosystemservices,sucastheprovisionofwa-
terforhumanuseandwetlandconservation,istobefeared.
Undoubtedly, the knowledge of both historic hydrologic
(lastc.1000years)andpalaeohydrologicdevelopmentscan
help us to understand the hydrologic system dynamics at
present and even in the future (e.g. Branson et al. 1996,
Gregory&Benito2003,Brzdiletal.,2006,Gregoryet
al. 2006, Czymzik et al. 2010). In particular, the frequency
andmagnitudeofshort-termevents,sucasriverfoodsand
droughts,aswellaslong-termprocesses,sucaslake-level
fuctuations, canges in the river's mean annual discarge
anditshydromorphologicstatuscanbedetectedretrospec-
tively (e.g. Petts et al. 1989, Berglund et al. 1996a, Har-
rison et al. 1998, Brown 2002, Starkel 2005, Baker 2008,
Battarbee 2010). Insights gained through suc historic
analogiescanbeusedtoimprovetheinterpretationofmod-
elledfutureimpactsofclimaticandland-covercangesand,
hence, to develop and optimise adaptation strategies. Fur-
thermore,informationonthepre-modernecologicstatusof
aquaticlandscapesisapreconditionfordevelopingrestora-
tionmeasuresinaccordancewiththeEuropeanUnionWa-
terFrameworkDirective(CEC2000,Bennion&Battarbee
2007,Zerbe&Wiegleb2009).
Intheory,palaeohydrologyisconcernedwithallcompo-
nentsofthehydrologiccycle.Butinpracticemostresearc
focusesonspecifccompartments,sucasrivercannelsand
discarge,lake-andgroundwater-levelfuctuations,isotope
cemistry,oronproxyindicatorsofpastprecipitationcar-
acteristics (Anthony & Wohl 1998, Gregory & Benito
2003).Sucknowledgeonthepalaeohydrologyoftemperate
regions in the world is well-established. Particularly west-
ern and central Europe have a long-standing researc tra-
dition (e.g. Starkel et al. 1991, Gregory 1995, Hagedorn
1995,Vandenberghe 1995a, Starkel 2003, Macklin et al.
2006,Hoffmannetal.2008).However,strongerintegration
betweentheregionalfndingsaswellaswithrelateddisci-
plinesisnecessary.
InnortheastGermany,therearewell-structuredscientifc
communitiesdealingwithbothpresent-dayandfuturehy-
drologic canges (investigated by hydrologists and climate
impactresearcers)aswellaswithpalaeohydrology(inves-
tigatedbygeoscientistsandpalaeoecologists).Unfortunate-
ly joint investigations by both communities are lacing. In
addition, existing palaeohydrologic knowledge is not suf-
cientlybeingconsideredintheinterpretationof(pre-)recent
hydrologictrendsandprospective(modelling)purposes.Ob-
staclestotheexploitationofhydrologicpalaeo-dataarethe
multitudeoflocalcasestudies,andtheirprevailingpublica-
tioninGermanperiodicalsandmonographswitharegional
ornationalfocus.Publicationssynthesisingregionalpaleo-
hydrologicresultsarerare.
Tis overview ofers access on the results of regional
palaeohydrologicresearcoverthelastc.twodecades.Te
consolidationoffndingsintoonepaperwillhopefullyfoster
the consideration of (pre-)historic hydrologic canges into
the respective discussions, increasing the interpretational
powerformodellingresults.Tispaperprimarilyfocuseson
the evolution of drainage systems during the last c. 20,000
years, spanning the late Pleistocene and the Holocene ep-
ocs.Telong-termandpartlyinterdependentdevelopment
of the regions main aquatic inland environments rivers,
lakes and peatlands will be outlined. For several specifc
issues (e.g. river valley formation, palaeodiscarge carac-
teristics, dead-ice dynamics, lake- and groundwater-level
canges,peatlandformation),thestate-of-the-artwillbere-
ported.
105
E&G / vol. 61 / no. 2 / 2012 / 103132 / DOi 10.3285/eg.61.2.01 / authors / Creative Commons attribution license
24
21
15
6
13
27 28
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Havel
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B a l t i c
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Berlin
Magdeburg
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Leipzig
Dresden
Hamburg
Cottbus
Halle
Szczecin
Hannover
Braun-
schweig
Frankfurt/O.
Lbeck
Kiel
18
Weichselian
Saalian
Elsterian
Maximal extent of Pleistocene ice sheets
Lake River Channel
Study
area/site
0 20 40 80 100 km 60
F
GB
B
North
Sea
PL
D
N
S
NL
CH
A
LT
LV
SK
RO
BY
CZ
DK
H
EST
FIN
L
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U
S
UA
Baltic
Sea
0 250 500 km
Fig. 1: Hydrography, main glacial structures and study areas/sites with palaeohydrologic fndings in northeast Germany (map afer BMUNR 2003, adapt-
ed). Te numbers refer to the study areas/sites presented (see Tab. 1).
Abb. 1: Hydrografe, glaziale Hauptstrukturen (Marginalzonen) und Arbeitsgebiete/-orte mit palohydrologiscen Befunden in Nordostdeutscland
(Karte nac BMUNR 2003, verndert). Die Zahlen beziehen sic auf die vorgestellten Arbeitsgebiete/-orte (siehe Tab. 1).
106
E&G / vol. 61 / no. 2 / 2012 / 103132 / DOi 10.3285/eg.61.2.01 / authors / Creative Commons attribution license
no. study area / site research feld
1
references
1 lake plner see lB, ll, nt, Ga, pl, pE Sirocko et al. 2002, Drfler 2009
2 lower spree river FM, pD, pE Schulz & Strahl 1997, Schulz 2000, SchnfelDer & Steinberg 2004, hilt
et al. 2008
3 leipzig-Halle area lB, ll, Ga, pl, FM, pE,
GG, Hi
hiller et al. 1991, Mania et al. 1993, Wolf et al. 1994, Mol 1995,
bttger et al. 1998, fuhrMann 1999, tinapp et al. 2000, 2008, eiSSMann
2002, Wennrich et al. 2005, czegka et al. 2008
4 lower spree river, lower spreewald
area and Dahme river
FM, lB, pE, GG bttner 1999, JuSchuS 2002, 2003
5 Darss peninsula, Barthe river and
Endinger Bruch basin
lB, ll, Ga, pl, FM, pt,
CE, pE
kaiSer 2001, 2004a, De klerk 2002, kaiSer et al. 2000, 2006, 2007,
laMpe 2002, lane et al. 2012
6 Elbe river n of Magdeburg FM, Hi roMMel 1998
7 lower Havel river, Elb-Havel-winkel
and rhinluch/Havellndisches luch
areas
pt, GG, pE, Ga, ll, Gw,
pl, Hi
MunDel et al. 1983, kloSS 1987a, 1987b, MunDel 1995, 1996, 2002,
SchelSki 1997, kSter & ptSch 1998, roWinSky & rutter 1999, guDerMann
2000, MatheWS 2000, zeitz 2001, graMSch 2000, kaffke 2002, WeiSSe
2003, SchnfelDer & Steinberg 2004
8 Berlin area lB, ll, Gw, Ga, pl, FM,
pE, GG, pt, Hi
bSe & branDe 1986, 2009, pachur & rper 1987, branDe 1986, 1988,
1996, grtner 1993, Schich 1994, uhleMann 1994, VarleMann 2002,
grnert 2003, koSSler 2010, neugebauer et al. 2012
9 lake Mritz ll, pl, pE, Hi kaiSer 1998, kaiSer et al. 2002, ruchhft 2002, laMpe et al. 2009
10 lake plauer see ll, Ga, Hi ruchhft 2002, bleile et al. 2006, bleile 2008
11 nossentiner/schwinzer Heide area lB, ll, pE, pl, FM, Hi SchMiDtchen et al. 2003, lorenz 2003, rother 2003, Hbener & Drfer
2004, lorenz & Schult 2004, kaiSer et al. 2007, lorenz 2007, 2008,
lorenz et al. 2010
12 low-lying river valleys of
vorpommern (e.g. recknitz, peene
and uecker river)
FM, lB, ll, Gw, pE, GG,
CE, pt, Ga, Hi
kaiSer & Janke 1998, helbig 1999, kaiSer et al. 2000, 2003, MichaeliS
2000, Schatz 2000, helbig & De klerk 2002, Janke 2002, 2004, De klerk
2004, kaiSer 2004b, berg 2005, krienke et al. 2006, MichaeliS & JooSten
2010, Jantzen et al. 2011, kSter et al. 2011
13 upper spreewald and Cottbus areas FM, Ga, GG, pE, pt, Hi khner et al. 1999, neubauer-Saurer 1999, rollanD & arnolD 2002,
Woithe 2003, poppSchtz & Strahl 2004, branDe et al. 2007
14 Headwaters of Havel river lB, ll, pE, pl, FM, Hi kaiSer & ziMMerMann 1994, kSter 2009, kSter & kaiSer 2010, kSter et
al. 2012
15 lower Elbe river at lenzen FM, Hi, Ga SchWartz 1999, Schatz 2011
16 lower Oder river, Oderbruch area,
stettiner Haf (szczecin lagoon),
Eberswalder urstromtal (spillway)
FM, GG, pl, pE, CE, pt,
pD, Hi
Dobracka 1983, broSe 1994, 1998, Schlaak et al. 2003, borWka et al.
2005, carlS 2005, DalchoW & kieSel 2005, Schlaak 2005, lutze et al.
2006, brner 2007
17 potsdam area, Havel and nuthe
rivers
lB, Gw, pl, FM, pE, GG,
pt, Hi
roWinSky 1995, WeiSSe et al. 2001, WolterS 2002, 2005, hickiSch 2004,
hickiSch & pzolt 2005, lDer et al. 2006, kiriloVa et al. 2009, enterS et
al. 2010
18 Biesenthal Basin, upper Finow
stream
lB, pE, GG chrobok & nitz 1987, 1995, nitz et al. 1995
19 schlaube stream pl, lB, pE SchnfelDer et al. 1999, broSe 2000, gieSecke 2000
20 kersdorfer rinne (tunnel valley) lB, GG, pE Schulz & broSe 2000, Schulz & Strahl 2001
21 wische area (lower Elbe river) FM caSperS 2000
22 lake arendsee pl, pE, Hi Scharf 1998, Scharf et al. 2009
23 lake stechlinsee, upper rhin river lB, FM, pl, pE grtner 2007, branDe 2003, kaiSer et al. 2007
24 rgen island and adjacent coastal
and land areas
lB, Gw, nt, Ga, pl, pE,
GG, pE, GG, CE, pt
klieWe 1989, Strahl & keDing 1996, helbig 1999, De klerk et al. 2001,
krienke 2003, VerSe 2003, hoffMann & barnaSch 2005, hoffMann et al.
2005, De klerk et al. 2008a, 2008b, koSSler & Strahl 2011
25 weisser schps river (reichwalde
area)
FM, pt, Gw, Ga, pE frieDrich et al. 2001, Van Der kroft et al. 2002
26 upper spree river (nochten/scheibe
area)
FM, GG Mol 1997, Mol et al. 2000, hiller et al. 2004
27 usedom island lB, nt, pl, pE, GG, CE helbig 1999, hoffMann et al. 2005
28 poel island and adjacent coastal and
land areas
CE, nt, pE, Ga, CE laMpe et al. 2005, 2010
29 Jeetzel river FM, pE, Ga turner 2012
30 schorfheide area lB, pE, pt Schlaak 1997, StegMann 2005, Van Der linDen et al. 2008
1
lB = lake-basin formation, ll = lake level, Gw = Groundwater level, nt = neotectonic, Ga = Geoarchaeology, pl = palaeolimnology, FM = Fluvial
geomorphology / valley formation, pD = palaeodischarge, pE = palaeoecology, GG = Glacial geomorphology / geology, CE = Coastal evolution, pt =
peatland evolution, Hi = Human impact on inland waters
Tab. 1: Study areas and sites with palaeohydrologic fndings in northeast Germany (see Fig. 1).
Tab. 1: Arbeitsgebiete und -orte mit palohydrologiscen Befunden in Nordostdeutscland (siehe Abb. 1).
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2 Regional settings
TeregionnortheastGermanyispartoftheNorthEuropean
Plain,whicisboundedbythecoastsoftheNorthSeaand
BalticSeatothenorthandtheGermanCentralUplandsto
thesouth.Tesurfacerelief(<200ma.s.l.)variesfromfatto
undulating.SeveralQaternaryglaciationsofScandinavian
ice sheets, subsequent periglacial shaping and interglacial
processes have formed this area. A multitude of ice termi-
nalzonesoftheSaalianandWeicselianglaciationstraverse
theregionandrefecttheglaciation/deglaciation(Fig.1).Te
complexglacialandinterglacialprocessesproducedamosa-
icofglacial,fuvial,lacustrine,colluvial,marineandaeolian
landformsandsediments.
TeWeicselianglacialbelt(youngmorainicarea)cov-
ersthenorthernareaandcompriseslandscapeswithanim-
matureriversystemthatdevelopedfollowingthelastdegla-
ciation (c. 24,00017,000 cal yrs BP; Bse 2005, Lthgens
&Bse2011).Rivervalleysinthatbeltarecaracterisedby
frequently alternating degradational (erosion) and aggra-
dational (accumulation) river stretces, by frequent shifs
indirection,bythecommonpresenceoflakebasins(partly
within the valley foors) and by frequent areas with inte-
riordrainage.Bycontrast,theriversystemoftheElsterian
(c.>330kyrs)andSaalianbelts(c.>125kyrs;oldmorainic
areas)ismaturated.MajorriversintheregionaretheElbe
andOderwhicdrainnortheastGermanyintotheNorthSea
and the Baltic Sea, respectively. Tese rivers are caracter-
Chronology Phases of river valley genesis Phases of (lake-) basin genesis
(Marcinek & broSe 1972) (nitz 1984)

Late Holocene Holocene phase infuenced by man Colluvial phase
(0-4 kyrs Bp) (Anthropogen beeinfusste, holozne
Phase)
(Kolluviumsphase)

strong human infuence on the drainage
system by channels, weirs, hydro
amelioration and agriculture
man-induced flling up
of smaller depressions
by colluvial sediments
(hillwash)


Mid-Holocene Natural Holocene phase Aggradation phase
(4-8 kyrs Bp) (Natrlich holozne Phase) (Verlandungsphase)

weak fuvial erosion and accumulation flling up of lake basins by sedimentation of
gyttja and peat


Early Holocene,
Lateglacial
Lateglacial-Early Holocene transitional
phase
Deep melting phase
(8-13 kyrs Bp) (Sptglazial-altholozne bergangsphase) (Tieftauphase)

reversals of fow direction melting of stagnant ice, formation of (lake)
partly formation of interior drainage basins
melting of stagnant ice / lake formation decay of permafrost
decay of permafrost


Late Pleniglacial Fluvial periglacial phase Conservation phase
(20-13 kyrs Bp) (Fluvioperiglazire Phase) (Konservierungsphase)

formation of a hierarchic river system on conservation of stagnant ice by permafrost
permafrost sedimentation of periglacial lacustrine, fuvial
and aeolian deposits


Late Pleniglacial Fluvioglacial Phase Ice-melting phase
(>20-14 kyrs Bp) (Fluvioglazire Phase) (Niedertauphase)

initial ice-marginal drainage, later ice- inclusion / burial of stagnant ice by sediments
radial drainage
outwash plain formation
Formation phase
(Anlagephase)

formation of depressions by ice exaration and
glaciofuvial erosion

Tab. 2: Conceptual
models of late Qater-
nary river valley and
lake basin development
in northeast Germany.
Adapted and modi-
fed from Marcinek &
Brose (1972) and Nitz
(1984).
Tab. 2: Konzeptionelle
Modelle der sptquar-
tren Flusstal- und
Seebecenentwiclung
in Nordostdeutscland
(nac Marcinek &
Brose 1972 und Brose
1984, verndert).
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ised by present-day mean annual discarges in a range of
500700m
3
s
-1
.Severaltributariesexist;themostimportant
aretheSaale,Havel,Mulde,SpreeandPeene(20120m
3
s
-1
;
BMUNR2003).Amainlyeast-west-orientednetworkofca-
nalsusedforinlandnavigationconnectstherivers.
TeWeicselian belt is caracterised by the occurrence
ofnumerouslakesofdiferentsizeandofdiferentgenetic,
hydrologicandecologictype.Accordingtoestimationsfrom
theadjacentPolishyoungmorainicarea,onlyone-thirdto
half of the former lakes from the late Pleistocene to early
Holocenehaveremainedduetoaggradationcausedbynatu-
ralandanthropogenicprocesses(Starkel2003).Bycontrast,
onlyafewnaturallakesintheSaalianbeltoccur,butseveral
artifcial lakes originating from river damming and lignite
opencastminingexist.InnortheastGermanythetotalarea
of natural lakes amounts to c. 1300 km
2
(Korczynski et al.
2005). In general, the regions natural lakes largely repre-
senthollows located in the frst unconfned aquifer. Tus
groundwaterandlakehydrologyarecloselyconnected.
Inaddition,alargeareaoftheregion(c.5800km
2
)iscov-
eredbypeatlands.Tistermreferstoallkindsofdrainedor
undrainedareaswithaminimalthicnessofpeatofatleast
severaldecimetres(Joosten2008).Peatlandsprimarilyoccur
inrivervalleysandlargebasinsintheFederalStatesofMec-
lenburg-Vorpommern (2930 km
2
) and Brandenburg/Berlin
(2220km
2
;Fig.2A).Smallerareasaredistributedinthelow-
landpartsofSacsen-Anhalt(580km
2
)andSacsen(70km
2
).
Groundwater-fedpeatlandsdominatewithc.99%versusonly
1%rain-fedpeatlands(Couwenberg&Joosten2001).
Te present-day climate of the region (Hendl 1994) is
classifedastemperatehumidwithmeanannualairtemper-
atures around 89 and mean annual precipitation rang-
ing from 773 mm a
-1
(Hamburg) to 565 mm a
-1
(Cotbus).
Adistinctthermoclimaticgradientexistsfromnorthwestto
southeast, dividing the region into maritime, sub-maritime
andsub-continentalpartswithdecreasingprecipitation(Fig.
2B). Te driest sites are located at the Saale (Halle/S.) and
OderRivers(Frankfurt/O.)withameanannualprecipitation
ofabout450mma
-1
.
3 Principle research questions, concepts and methods
used in regional studies
Te main disciplines providing regional palaeohydrologic
knowledge (Fig. 1,Tab. 1) are geomorphology, Qaternary
geology, palaeobotany and historical sciences. Te prin-
Fig. 2: Distribution of large peatlands and large river foodplains (A) as well of thermoclimatic zones (B) in northeast Germany (afer BGR 2007, IfL 2008,
adapted).
Abb. 2: Verbreitung groer Moorgebiete und groer Flussauen (A) sowie thermoklimatiscer Zonen (B) in Nordostdeutscland (nac BGR 2007, IfL 2008,
verndert).
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Zone facies area Example (river) selected genetic properties Comparing conclusions
(cross-zonal)
i periglacial valley
bottoms in the German
uplands
saale, Mulde
(middle
reaches)
state of equilibrium between erosion
and aggradation in the early Holocene
deposition of gravel during atlantic
frequently burying oak stems
late Holocene deposition of food
loams and/or erosion
as most river valleys
(facies zones) are only
initially investigated,
comparing conclu-
sions are partly of
preliminary status
after the retreat of
the weichselian ice
sheet an erosional
phase took place
(lateglacial) afecting
the large river valleys
up to the uplands
erosion / aggradation
in northern valleys is
mainly controlled by
water-level changes
in the Baltic sea and
north sea basins,
whereas southern
valleys are controlled
by climatic and (in
the late Holocene) by
human impact
widespread deposition
of organic sediments
(peat, gyttja) and soil
formation characte-
rises the atlantic and
subboreal
areal deposition of
human-induced
food loams is a
characteristic of the
late Holocene except
in low-lying valleys of
zone ivb
ii valley bottoms in the
loess belt
Elster, unstrut erosional phase in the early Holocene
with subsequent deposition of gravel,
sand and topping overbank fnes
mid-Holocene hiatus (soil formation)
late Holocene deposition mainly of
food loams
iiia valley bottoms in the old
morainic area between
weichselian maximum
and loess belt
spree, neie
(middle
reaches)
similar depositional history as in zone ii
iiib valley bottoms in the
young morainic area
between weichselian
maximum and
pomeranian stage
Havel, Dosse,
spree (lower
reaches)
frequent occurrence of fuvial
connections of basins (river-lake-
structures)
erosion / aggradation depending from
river bed changes of Elbe and Oder
(zone iva)
iva valley bottoms of
large transzonal rivers
occupying several facies
areas
Elbe, Oder erosional phases during (pre-?)Blling
(lower Oder) and early Holocene (Elbe)
early to mid-Holocene deposition of
gravels and sands (Elbe) and mainly of
peat (lower Oder)
late Holocene deposition of overbank
fnes
ivb valley bottoms of
tributaries of the
Baltic sea north of the
weichselian pomeranian
stage
peene, warnow erosional phases during (pre-?)Bl-
ling, preboreal and late Boreal
fattening of the river bed gradient by
organic sedimentation in the atlantic/
subboreal caused by marine infuence
(littorina transgression)
dominating deposition of peat and
gyttja instead of overbank fnes in the
late Holocene
ciple researc questions some of whic have been posed
periodicallyformorethan100years(e.g.Woldstedt1956,
Marcinek1987,Kaiser2002)concern(1)thestructureand
formation of the natural drainage system, (2) its anthropo-
genic use and historic reshaping, and (3) the (palaeo-) eco-
logicstatusandcange.Morespecifcresearcquestionsin
relation to the single aquatic environments investigated
rivers, lakes and peatlands are given in capters 4.1, 4.2
and4.3.
Corresponding to diferent thematic approaces, the re-
searc concepts used come from diferent disciplines. Both
geosciences and palaeoecology use climatologic- and bio-
stratigraphicconceptsandunits.Teyaredefnedfordivid-
ingandexplainingstagesofdeposition,reliefformationand
biotic canges, respectively. More specifcally, the general
modelfortheregionallateQaternaryreliefformationwith
emphasisonfuvialgeomorphology,proposedbyMarcinek
& Brose (1972) and extended to incorporate the develop-
mentoflakebasins(Nitz1984),hasbeenadaptedforusein
this overview (Tab. 2). Additionally, the conceptualised re-
gionalfaciesareasofHoloceneriverdevelopmentbyBrose
&Prger(1983)willbeoutlined(Tab.3).Tesemodelsand
scemes provided the thematic framework for most of the
later geomorphic and palaeohydrologic researc. However,
theybaseonrelativelyfewlocalfeldstudiesonlyandgen-
erallylacsufcientnumericagecontrol.
Arcaeology, as a discipline of the historic sciences, has
concentrated on the setlement and human use of aquat-
ic landscapes in pre-Medieval (i.e. pre-German) times,
thought to be a period with litle human impact on the
aquaticenvironment(e.g.Bleile2012).Historyandhistoric
geographyhavedealtwithstronghumanimpactonthere-
gional drainage system since Medieval times (e.g. Schich
1994,Driescher2003,Blackbourn2006).
Correspondingtothedisciplinesinvolved,theresultspre-
sentedarebaseduponabroadrangeofgeoscientifc(includ-
ing geocronology), biological (palaeoecology) and historic
methods. Te basic geoscientifc methods used include the
analysis of thousands of sedimentary profles from corings
aswellasopensections,geomorphicmappingoffuvialand
lacustrinestructures,sedimentologicanalysesandgeophys-
ics. Geocronology provides absolute cronologic control
Tab. 3: Facies areas of Holocene river valley development in northeast Germany considering geographic location, river valley dimension and valley history
(Brose & Prger 1983, adapted).
Tab. 3: Faziesgebiete der holoznen Flusstalentwiclung in Nordostdeutscland unter Bercsictigung der Lage, der Flusstaldimension und der Talge-
scicte (nac Brose & Prger 1983, verndert).
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comprisingradiocarbondatingand,ataprogressiverate,lu-
minescencedating(mostlyOSL).Normally,thecronology
inthisoverviewisbasedoncalibratedradiocarbonages(cal
yrsBP).But,dependingonthecontext,someothercrono-
logicsystemswerealsoused(e.g.yrsBC,yrsAD,
14
CyrsBP,
varveyrsBP).Temostimportantbiologicalmethodapplied
ispollenanalysisprovidingbothstratigraphic(thustoacer-
taindegreeevencronologic)informationandpalaeoecolog-
icdata(e.g.onvegetationstructure,groundwatersituation,
humanimpact).Regionalknowledgeofthehistoricsciences
ismainlybasedonarcaeologicalexcavationsincludingfnd
materanalysis,andinterpretationofhistoricpublicrecords
(documents) and maps. Te later are not available earlier
thanthe16
th
centuryAD.
4 results and discussion
4.1 rivers
In general, subjects of researc on regional river evolution
havebeenmainly(glacio-)fuvialgeologyandgeomorpho-
logy(e.g.cangeofrivercourse,riverbotomincision/aggra-
dation, valley mire formation), and palaeoecology, particu-
larlyanalysingsedimentaryarcivesinrivervalleysforveg-
etationandwatertrophiclevelreconstruction.Itisonlyin
recentyearsthatquantitativeestimationsofpalaeodiscarge
wereatemptedforsomerivers(Elbe,OderandSpree),us-
ingpalaeoecologic,climaticandhydraulicdata.Tefollow-
ingoverviewonriverandvalleydevelopmentconcentrates
on the aspects (1) river valley formation and depositional
canges,(2)cangesintherivercoursesandcannels,and
(3)palaeodiscargeandpalaeofoods.
4.1.1 river valley formation and depositional changes
Tebacboneoftheregionalrivernetworkhasbeenasys-
tem of glacial spillways (ice-marginal valleys). Tese spill-
waysworkedassoutheast-northwestorienteddrainagefol-
lowingtheretreatoftheWeicselianicesheet,exceptforthe
southernmostspillways,whicoriginatedfromtheprevious
Saalianglaciation.Tevalleyswereoperatingfromc.26,000
to17,000calyrsBP,partlyinitiatedbytheglacierblocing
of northwards, i.e. to the North Sea and Baltic Sea basins,
fowingrivers(Marcinek&Seifert1995).Tegeneralsub-
glacial and subaerial drainage of the ice sheet to the south
ledtoconnectionsofthesespillwaysvialower-scalevalleys.
Aferglaciersdecay,unblocingoftheterrainofenhasiniti-
atedfowreversals(e.g.Kaiseretal.2007,Lorenz2008).In
parallel,severalshort-livedice-dammed(proglacial)lakesof
diferentdimensiondeveloped;someofthemofvastextent
(seecapter4.2.1.2)
Astrikinggeomorphicpropertyoftheyoungmorainicar-
eaistheexistenceofnumerousso-called(open)tunnelval-
2
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
2.0
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 0
Age ( C ky
14
rs BP)
A
l
t
i
t
u
d
e
(
m
a
.
s
.
l
.
/
b
.
s
.
l
.
)
L a t e
P l e i s t o -
c e n e
H o l o c e n e
uncertain
chronologic
grouping
Aller d
Preboreal-
Boreal
B lling
Atlantic-
Subboreal-
(expanded in B)
Recent
A
B
B
after (2007) BRNER
after (1994) BROSE
Floodplain level of Oder River
1
0
-2
-1
2.5 3.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0
Subatlantic Subboreal Chronozone
Pollenzone
Culture period
IX VIII Xa Xb
Bronze Age pre-Roman
Iron Age
Roman
Period
Migration-
Period
2
Mediaeval
Water level at floodplain
Floodplain level
(after 1994) BROSE
-40
Age ( C ky
14
rs BP)
A
l
t
i
t
u
d
e
(
m
a
.
s
.
l
.
/
b
.
s
.
l
.
)
Fig. 3: Changes in the foodplain level
of the lower Oder River. A: General
development during the late Pleis-
tocene and Holocene (afer Brose
1994, Brner 2007, adapted). B:
Detailed development during the late
Holocene (afer Brose 1994, adapted).
Abb. 3: Vernderungen des Auen-
niveaus der unteren Oder. A: Ge-
nerelle Entwiclung whrend des
Sptpleistozns und Holozns (nac
Brose 1994, Brner 2007, verndert).
B: Detaillierte Entwiclung whrend
des Sptholozns (nac Brose 1994,
verndert).
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leys(glacialcannels),containingriversandstreamsaswell
aslakesandpeatlands.Additionally,buriedtunnelvalleysof
similardimensionoccurbothintheyoungandoldmorainic
area (Eissmann 2002). Te valleys were mainly eroded by
meltwater supposed to have drained from subglacial lakes.
Teir water was most likely released in repeated outburst
foods(so-calledjkulhlaups)andfowedinrelativelysmall
cannels on the foors of the tunnel valleys (Piotrowski
1997,Jrgensen&Sandersen2006).
KnowledgeonlateQaternaryriverdevelopmentisvery
irregularly available in the region (Fig. 1, Tab. 1). Te re-
gionsmainriver,theElbe,hasbeenrecentlyonlymargin-
allyinthe(geo-)historicfocus(e.g.Rommel1998,Caspers
2000,Thieke,2002,Turner2012),infurthercontrasttooth-
er large central European rivers, suc asVistula and Rhine
(Schirmeretal.2005,Starkeletal.2006).
Acaracteristicoflow-lyingvalleysinthenorthernpart
ofthestudyarea,comprisingthelowersectionsoftheElbe
andOderRiversaswellastheVorpommernrivers(e.g.Uec-
er,Peene,Trebel,Recnitz;Fig.1),isthehydraulicdepend-
encyofvalleybotomprocessesfromwater-levelcangesin
theNorthSeaandBalticSeabasinsandfromisostaticmove-
ments.Ingeneral,ariseinthewaterlevelintheseabasins
causesalowerhydraulicriverbedgradient,whereasawater
levelfallleadstotheopposite.Tisstronglyinfuencessev-
eralprocessesintheriveranditsfoodplain(e.g.transport,
fooding,sedimentation/erosion,vegetation).TeOderRiver
andsomeVorpommernriverswereextensivelyinvestigated
inthisrespect.IntheLateglacialandearlyHolocenemarked
valleybotomcangeswerecausedbylake-levelcangesof
ice-dammedlakesintheBalticSeabasin(Fig.3).Temid-to
lateHolocenesea-levelrise(Lampe2005,Behre2007,Lampe
et al. 2010) triggered a large-scale formation of peatlands
(mostly of percolation mires), temporally even the drown-
ing of lower valley sections (e.g. Brose 1994, Janke 2002,
Brner2007,Michaelis&Joosten2010).Tus,incontrast
torivervalleysofthehigher-lyingglaciallandscapeandthe
German Uplands, whic are mainly flled by minerogenic
deposits (gravels, sands, food loams), peat widely flls the
presentvalleys(Fig.4).
Most regional studies have noticed that Holocene river
botom development up to the late Atlantic/early Subbore-
al is exclusively controlled by climatic and (natural-) geo-
morphicaswellasbioticprocesses,sucasfuvialerosion/
aggradation and beaver damming. By contrast, Neolithic
andsubsequenteconomies,regionallystartinginthesouth
c. 7300 cal yrs BP (Tinapp et al. 2008) and in the north c.
6100calyrsBP(Lataowa1992),considerablycangedthe
vegetationstructure,waterbudgetandgeomorphicprocess-
es of the catcments. Erosional processes, following forest
clearing and accompanying agricultural use, increased the
suspended load of rivers causing deposition of food loams
(overbankfnes,AuelehminGerman)duringfoodevents.
Accordingly,alargernumberoffoodloamsdatefromthe
lateAtlantic(e.g.Hilleretal.1991,Mundel1996,Caspers
2000).Moreover,thereisamultitudeoffoodloamrecords
datingfromtheSubborealandSubatlantic(e.g.Fuhrmann
1999, Brner 2007, Brande et al. 2007, Kaiser et al. 2007,
Tinappetal.2008).
As shown by palaeo-food indicators, human-induced
cangesinthecatcmenthydrologyledtoanincreaseinthe
frequencyandmagnitudeoffoodsinthelateHolocene(see
capter 4.1.3). Te river valley botoms shifed from quasi-
stabletounstableconditions(Schirmer1995,Kalicki1996,
Starkel et al. 2006, Hoffmann et al. 2008). More frequent
andheavyfoodscausedbothanintensifcationofriverbed
erosionandanaggradationofthevalleybotomandlevel-
lingofitsreliefdiferences.
4.1.2 Changes in river courses and channels
Ingeneral,riverscancangetheircoursebyleavingtheirold
valleyorbyformationofanewcannelwithintheirhith-
ertoexistingvalley.Riverscanbeforcedtoleaveoldvalleys
through tectonics, retrograde erosion or glacier damming.
Teaccordanttimescalemostlyisafewtohundredsthou-
sands of years (in phase with climatic evolution). Smaller
canges in the cannel patern (fuvial style) lead to new
riverbedswithinexistingvalleys,whicarepredominantly
initiatedbyclimate-drivencangesofdrainage(frequency,
magnitude),erosionandbedload.Tisspansatimescaleof
tens to hundreds of years (in phase with climatic canges;
Vandenberghe1995b).
Oftheregionalrivers,onlytheElbehasbeeninvestigated
forcangesinitscourse.IntheTertiarytomid-Pleistocene,
large-scalerivercoursecanges(lateralriverbeddeviation
ofmax.c.150km)occurredduetotectonicprocessesandto
riverdammingtriggeredbyglaciations.Itwasnotuntilthe
endoftheSaalianthatitspresentcoursewassubstantially
formed (e.g.Thieke 2002). Small-scale river course cang-
es(max.c.25km)occurredintheElbe-HavelRiverregion
(Elb-Havel-WinkelinGerman)stillinhistorictimes(early
18
th
century AD), when the river, caused by strong foods,
wasfollowingoldercoursesinthedeeperlyingHavelRiv-
er valley (Schmidt 2000). Finally, evidence for river can-
nelcanges(max.c.5km)isavailablefortheriversection
between Magdeburg and Witenberge, showing that the
present-daysinglecannelriverwasaHoloceneanastomo-
sing system in this section up to the mid-18
th
century AD
(Rommel1998,Caspers2000).
Afewrecordsareavailableoncannelpaterncangesin
the region (Fig. 5). Te mean present-day annual discarge
ofaccordantrivers,however,variesextremely(0.3to550m
3

s
-1
).Sixtypesofcannelpaternswereidentifed(braiding,
meanderingwithlargeandsmallmeanders,anastomosing,
V-shapevalleys/straightcourse,andinundation/valleymire
formation). Te type formed depends on several hydrau-
lic parameters (bed gradient, load, fow velocity, discarge
volume and temporal distribution; Miall 1996). In the late
Pleniglacial and early Lateglacial all rivers investigated
werebraidedsystemscausedbyhighloadandstronglyepi-
sodicdiscargeaferheavysnowmeltingunderperiglacial
conditions(e.g.Mol1997).Anincisionphasetookplacein
theearlyLateglacial,whentheregionalerosionbaseinthe
BalticSeaandNorthSeabasinswasloworwhenthelocal
erosion base was lowered by dead-ice melting. Te (early)
Lateglacial is caracterised by the formation of so-called
largemeanders,whicareatributedtoshort-termhighdis-
carges following extreme snow melting (Vandenberghe
1995a).FortheSpreeRiver,adistinctradiusdownsizingof
sequenced meander generations was postulated (large me-
anders:9001000m,smallmeanders:600900m,recentme-
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Fig. 4: Model of the geomorphic development of low-lying river valleys in Vorpommern (afer Kaiser 2001, Janke 2002, adapted); a scematic geologic
cross-section through a river valley is depicted. Te term W3 used for phases 13 refers to the late Pleniglacial inland-ice advance of the Meclenburgian
Phase (Weicselian3/W3), whic is approximately dated by radiocarbon data from the Pomeranian Bay, southern Baltic Sea (Grsdorf & Kaiser 2001).
Abb. 4: Modell der geologisc-geomorphologiscen Entwiclung tiefiegender Flusstler in Vorpommern (nac Kaiser 2001, Janke 2002, verndert). Dar-
gestellt ist ein scematiscer geologiscer Scnit durc ein Flusstal. Der Begrif W3, genutzt fr die Talentwiclungsphasen 13, bezieht sic auf den
sptpleniglazialen Inlandeisvorsto der Meclenburger Phase (Weicsel3/W3). Dieser Eisvorsto ist nherungsweise durc Radiokohlenstofdaten aus der
Pommerscen Buct/sdlice Ostsee datiert (Grsdorf & Kaiser 2001).
Fine colluvial sediments Fluviolacustrine sand
and silt, silikate gyttja
Peat
Glacier ice,
dead ice
Till
Calcareous
gyttja
Older sediments Coarse glaciofluvial and colluvial
sediments
Glaciofluvial and
-lacustrine sediments
River
Strong erosion
and incision
Discharge direction
NW
1
>18,000 cal yrs BP
1st phase = glacio spillway (pre-W3) fluvial
River
Strong erosion
und solifluction
Discharge dir. NW
Terrace formation
Erosion of till
3rd phase = glaciofluvial spillway (post-W3)
3
17,000-16,500 cal yrs BP
River
Strong incision
Discharge dir. NE
(up to present)
4th phase = Lateglacial incision
4
16,000-15,000 cal yrs BP
Lake River
Increasing
water levels
Deposition of fluvial
and lacustr. deposits
Dead-ice melting
and lake formation
5
13,500-11,500 cal yrs BP
5th phase = Lateglacial aggradation
Lake River
Incision and later on
deposition of fluvial
sands
Dep. of calcareous
gyttjas in lakes
6
11,500-9200 cal yrs BP
6th phase = early Holocene incision
Oxbow
lake River
Valley bottom
rise by peat
deposition
Frequent changes
of the river course,
floods, formation
of oxbow lakes
7th phase = paludification) groundwater rise (
7
9200-5700 cal yrs BP
8th phase = groundwater lowering
Reduced peat
formation, partly
stratigraphic hiatus
Oxbow
lake River
8
5700-2400 cal yrs BP
Increasing
water input
by deforest-
ation of
catchments
Deposition of
hillwash
Extensive grass-
land agriculture
River
9
2400-300 cal yrs BP
9th phase = moderate human impact
Peat
cutting
River
Diking
Peat settling
Complex hydro-
melioration
Degradation of peat
Intensive agriculture
10
300 cal yrs BP-recent
10th phase = strong human impact
Deposition of till
2nd phase = glaciation (W3)
2
18,000-17,000 cal yrs BP
113
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anders:150300m;Schulz2000),whicgenerallyindicates
decreasing (seasonal) discarge volumes. Beginning in the
late mid-Holocene but strengthened in the late Holocene,
some low-lying river sections were temporarily inundated
and were generally transformed into peatlands (e.g. lower
OderRiverandsomeVorpommernrivers).
In the last c. 800 years, human impact has considerably
canged both the foodplain structures and courses of re-
gional rivers by deforestation, artifcial river-bed remov-
ingandstrengtheningaswellasdyking,setlementandin-
frastructure construction (e.g. Schich 1994, Schmidt 2000,
Driescher 2003). For example, a dense network of canals
for inland navigation has been built, beginning in the 16
th

centuryADandculminatinginthelate19
th
toearly20
th
cen-
turyAD(Uhlemann1994,Eckoldt1998),inadditiontothe
constructionofinnumerabledrainageditces.
4.1.3 Palaeodischarge and palaeofood characteristics
Qantitativeestimationsofpalaeohydrologicparametersfor
riversusuallyaimatdescribingpalaeodiscarge(meanan-
nualdiscarge,bankfulldiscarge)andpalaeofoodcarac-
teristics(magnitude,frequency,risk;e.g.Gregory&Benito
2003,Benito&Thorndycraft2005).Whereasintheadja-
centPolishterritory,palaeodiscargeandpalaeofoodstud-
ieswereperformedquiteearly(e.g.Rotnicki1991,Starkel
2003),correspondingstudiesfornortheastGermanyaregen-
erallyrareandofmorerecentstatus.
OnerecentstudyoftheElbeRivermouth(GermanBight,
NorthSea)producedahighresolution800-year-longproxy
recordofpalaeodiscarge,basedona
18
O-salinity-discarge
relationship(Scheurleetal.2005;Tab.4).Tereconstructed
varianceofmeanannualdiscarge(MAD),revealingamin-
imum-maximumspanof1001375m
3
s
-1
,islinkedtolong-
termcangesinprecipitation.Fourmainperiodsofpalaeo-
discarge/palaeoprecipitationbecomeapparent,withhigher
andlowervaluesthanatpresent.
For the lower Oder River, a coupled climatic-hydrolog-
ic model estimated MADs for the early and mid-Holocene
similar to those of today (Ward et al. 2007;Tab. 4). Tese
modellingresultscoincidewithlocalpalaeohydrologicdata
fromtheProsnaRiver(atributaryoftheOderviatheWarta
inPoland;Rotnicki1991),whicshowthatdiscargesthere
intheearlyandmid-Holocenewerebroadlysimilartothose
intheperiod17502000AD.
FortheSpreeRiver,lateHolocenepalaeomeanderswere
investigated (Hilt et al. 2008). Reconstructions show nar-
rower and shallower cannels for the undisturbed lower
Spreeascomparedtorecentconditions,whicarestrongly
infuenced by mining drainage water input (Grnewald
2008).Flowvelocitiesanddiscargeatbankfullstage(Tab.4)
were smaller in palaeocannels and fow variability was
higher.Furthermore,theincreaseinbankfulldiscargewas
atributedtodeforestationanddrainageofthecatcmentas
wellascannelisation,bankprotectionandriverregulation
measures.
ForthejointareaofVorpommernandnortheastBranden-
burg,Borketal.(1998)estimatedaregionalwaterbalance
Lower Oder
(Niederes Oder-
bruch area)
Jeetzel River
BRNER (2007)
TURNER (2012)
Spree
(Unterspreewald
area)
JUSCHUS (2003)
Weier Schps
VAN DER KROFT
et al. (2002)
Spree
(Drahendorf area)
SCHULZ (2000)
PL
Elbe
(Wische area)
CASPERS (2000)
D1 D2 AL D3 ME PB SB BO
14500
13480 13860
13730
AT1 AT2 SA1 SA2 B
13350
12700
11560
10640
9220
7500
5660
2400
1150
Chronozone
Age (cal yrs BP)
Early
Holo-
cene
Mid-
Holo-
cene
Late Holocene Late Pleistocene
Braiding
Meandering -
large meanders
Meandering -
small meanders
Anastomosing
Straight course
(incision)
Inundation,
peatland formation
?
?
?
Vorpommern
rivers
JANKE (2002)
?
?
Fig. 5: Late Pleistocene and
Holocene cannel patern canges
in river valleys in northeast
Germany (afer various authors,
adapted). Note missing data or
questionable records are indicated
by question marks.
Abb. 5: Sptpleistozne und holo-
zne Vernderungen der Gerinne-
betmuster in Flusstlern Nordost-
deutsclands (nac versciedenen
Autoren, verndert). Fehlende
Daten oder fraglice Befunde sind
mit Fragezeicen gekennzeicnet.
114
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forthetimesteps650AD,1310ADandtoday,whicshows
a maximum discarge value for the late Medieval period.
Tiswascausedbythelowestamountofforestedareas(thus
relativelylowamountsofevapotranspirationandintercep-
tion)duringthelateHolocene(Tab.5).
Dataonpalaeofoodcaracteristicsintheregionarepri-
marily available for the Elbe (Brzdil et al. 1999, Glaser
2001,Mudelseeetal.2003),Oder(Glaser2001,Mudelsee
etal.2003)andSpreeRivers(Rolland&Arnold2002).Spo-
radic historical records start in the 11
th
century AD, while
morecontinuousrecordsarenotavailableuntilthe16
th
cen-
tury AD. As an example, for the Elbe River Mudelsee et
al.(2003)detectedsignifcantlong-termcangesinfoodoc-
currence rates from the 16
th
to the 19
th
century AD. A frst
maximum in the fooding rate was reaced in the mid-16
th

centuryAD.Atthistime,riversincentralandsouthwestEu-
ropeexperiencedasimilarincreaseinfoods,whichasbeen
atributedtohigherprecipitation(Brzdiletal.1999).Lat-
eronwinterfoodsreacedanabsolutemaximum(around
1850AD)andthenfnallydecreased.Mudelseeetal.(2003)
concluded by means of statistical correlations for the Elbe
andOderRiversthatreductionsinriverlength,construction
ofreservoirsanddeforestationhavehadonlyminorefects
onfoodfrequency.Furthermore,theyarrivedattheconclu-
sion that there is no evidence from both historic data and
moderngaugingforarecentupwardtrendinthefoodoc-
currencerate(inthiscontextseePetrow&Merz2009).Tis
representsanimportantregionalfndingwithrespecttothe
current debate on regional hydrologic canges initiated by
globalclimatecange,emphasisingtheimportanceoftem-
porallylonghydrologicdataseries.
4.2 Lakes
Ingeneral,lakebasinsubiquitouslyprovidesedimentaryar-
civesfromwhicboththelocalandtoacertainextenteven
theregionallandscapedevelopmentcanbereconstructed.
Telakebasinsinthenorthernpartoftheregion(Mec-
lenburg-Vorpommern) were formerly classifed by size as
largeglaciolacustrinebasins(formerproglaciallakes,>100
km
2
),medium-sizedlakes(0.03100km
2
),andketleholes
(<0.03 km
2
; Kaiser 2001,Terberger et al. 2004). Although
designed for a specifc area, this classifcation by size can
also be applied for the whole morainic area, additionally
taking into account some local caracteristics. Regional re-
searconlakegenesisperformedsofarmainlyconcentrated
on (1) lake basin development (e.g. dead-ice dynamics and
depositionalcanges)andon(2)palaeohydrology(lake-level
andlake-areacanges).Bothaspectswillbepresentedinthe
following.

4.2.1 Lake basin development


4.2.1.1 dead-ice dynamics
Most of the medium- and small-sized lake basins in the
Weicselian glacial belt originated from melting of buried
stagnant ice, usually calleddead ice (e.g. Nitz et al. 1995,
Bse1995,Juschus2003,Niewiarowski2003,Kaiser2004a,
Lorenz2007,Baszkiewicz2010,2011).Tistermrefersto
thetemporarylocalconservation/incorporationoficeinde-
pressions and/or in sedimentary sequences; either coming
fromthefreezingofpre-existingwaterbodies(e.g.shallow
lakes) before being overridden by glacier ice or as a direct
remnantfromtheglacier.Glacially-andmeltwater-driven
River Elbe Oder Spree
Gauging site neu Darchau
(upstream of Hamburg)
Gozdowice
(downstream of Frankfurt/Oder)
neubrck
(downstream of Cottbus)
Recent discharge
(m
3
s
-1
)
720 (100 %)
1
527 (100 %)
1
52 (100 %)
2
Gauging period 1900-1995 1901-1986 present
Approach used proxy record of palaeodischarge
using a
18
O-salinity-discharge
relationship
coupled climatic-hydrologic model proxy record of bankfull palaeo-dis-
charge using hydraulic properties of
palaeomeanders
Palaeodischarge
(m
3
s
-1
)
1300 aD: 800 (111 %)
1
1400 aD: 900 (125 %)
1
1500 aD: 700 (97 %)
1
1600 aD: 500 (69 %)
1
1700 aD: 1000 (139 %)
1
1800 aD: 900 (125 %)
1
1900 aD: 500 (69 %)
1
Max. c. 1580 aD: 1375 (191 %)
1
Min. c. 1260 aD: 100 (14 %)
1
early Holocene (9000-8650 cal yrs
Bp): 522 (99 %)
1
mid-Holocene (6200-5850 cal yrs
Bp): 538 (102 %)
1
late subboreal-early subatlantic (3200-
2500 cal yrs Bp): 8 (15 %)
2
Reference Scheurle et al. (2005) WarD et al. (2007) hilt et al. (2008)
1
mean annual discharge
2
bankfull discharge
Tab. 4: Holocene palaeodiscarge estimations for Elbe, Oder and Spree Rivers afer Scheurle et al. (2005), Ward et al. (2007) and Hilt et al. (2008),
respectively.
Tab. 4: Absctzungen der holoznen Paloabfsse fr die Elbe (Scheurle et al. 2005), die Oder (Ward et al. 2007) und die Spree (Hilt et al. 2008).
115
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erosive processes produced variously formed depressions
(wide basins, cannels, ketle holes), whic were flled by
deadiceduringtheglaciersdecay.Aferthemeltingofthese
iceplombs, water-flled basins of varying size could ap-
pear,dependingonthelocalhydrologicsituation.Between
dead-ice formation/burial and dead-ice melting, thousands
ofyears,occasionallytensofthousandsofyearspassedby.
Incontrast,therarepresent-daynaturallakesintheSaalian
beltowetheirexistencemainlytolocalendogenicprocesses
triggered by the dynamics of Zecstein salt deposits in the
deepunderground.
Dead-ice dynamics can be sedimentologically detected
eitherbydislocationofsedimentlayersorbyunusualsuc-
cessionofcertainsediments.Intheregion,thefrstwasre-
peatedlydemonstratedbytherecordofheavilytiltedpeats
and gytjas (e.g. Kopczynska-Lamparska et al. 1984, Nitz
et al. 1995, Strahl & Keding 1996, Kaiser 2001). Te lat-
ter is normally atributed to the occurrence of basal peats
belowgytjas,partlybelowapresent-daywaterbodyofsev-
eral decametres thicness (e.g. Kaiser 2001, Baszkiewicz
2010,2011).
Subsequent to the melting of dead ice in the basins and
valleys, swamps/mires and lakes began to occupy the de-
pressions.Forpartsofthestudyarea,overviewsonthison-
set of lacustrine sedimentation in medium-sized lakes and
ketleholesareavailable(Kaiser2001,2004b,Brande2003,
deKlerk2008).AccordingtoKaiser(2001),inabout90%of
thelakebasinscompiledforMeclenburg-Vorpommernand
northernBrandenburg(totalproflenumberanalysed=99)
theprocessofsedimentationbeganintheLateglacial,38%
aloneintheAllerd(Fig.6).
In general, basin-forming dead-ice melting processes
occurred from the Pleniglacial up to the early Holocene,
with a concentration in the Allerd. Final dead-ice melt-
ing was assumed or reported for the Preboreal (e.g. Bse
1995,Niewiarowski2003,Baszkiewicz2010,2011).Over
a third of the profles analysed for Figure 6 include basal
peatsmainlyfromtheAllerd,whicendedregularlyina
secondarypositionduetosetlingastheresultofdead-ice
melting.
4.2.1.2 depositional changes
Tedepositionoffnesilicateclasticgytjasiscaracteristic
forthecoldLateglacialstages.Peatsandgytjadepositsric
incarbonatesandorganicmatermainlyoriginatefromthe
relativelywarmAllerd.Tedominantminerogenousinput
during the Lateglacial is caused by a very thin vegetation
coverandanunstableoverallrelief(ablation,defation,gul-
ly erosion, dead-ice melting, braiding). Besides basal peats
fromtheAllerd,higher-lyingpeatsofthesameageburied
bylacustrineandfuvialsandsoccur.Teyindicateasignif-
cantintensifcationoflacustrineandfuvialdepositiondur-
ing the subsequentYounger Dryas, whic has been recog-
nisedthroughoutnortheastGermany,triggeredbyrenewed
cold-climateconditions(e.g.Helbig&deKlerk2002,Kai-
ser2004b,deKlerk2008).Althoughtheincreaseinfuvial
and erosional dynamics during the Pleistocene-Holocene
transition constitutes a more general trend throughout the
region, on an individual basis, some sedimentary records
showthatcangesoccurredrapidlyandwereofentriggered
bylocalreliefinstabilitiesandsmallscalecatastrophicdrain-
ageevents(e.g.Kaiser2004a).
Sedimentation of organic and calcareous gytja as well
aspeatgenerallycaracterisestheHolocene.Tisismainly
due to a reduction in clastic input following a dense veg-
Time step 650 AD 1310 AD Present
Land cover parameter km
2
% km
2
% km
2
%
total area 10000 100 10000 100 10000 100
arable land and grassland 100 1 7900 79 6800 68
Forest (including uncultivated land) 9400 94 1500 15 2400 24
surface waters 500 5 500 5 500 5
Other areas <100 <1 100 1 300 3
Hydrological parameter mm a
-1
% mm a
-1
% mm a
-1
%
Mean annual precipitation 595
1
100 595
1
100 595 100
total runof 40 7 140 24 120 20
surface runof <1 0 10 2 3 <1
subterraneous runof 2 <1 5 1 4 <1
Mean evapotranspiration and interception 555 93 455 76 475 80
1
assumed as today
Tab. 5: Estimation of the water balance for the northern part of northeast Germany considering the Vorpommern and Ucermark areas (afer Bork et al.
1998, adapted).
Tab. 5: Absctzung der Wasserbilanz fr den nrdlicen Teil von Nordostdeutscland (Vorpommern und Ucermark; nac Bork et al. 1998, verndert).
116
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etationcoverandareducedgeomorphicactivity.Inparallel
thelakebioproductionincreased.Depositionofgytjasand,
toalesserdegree,offuvio-deltaicsequencesflledshallow
lacustrine basins. Te common occurrence of fuvio-deltaic
sequences,called(palaeo-)fan-deltasorGilbert-typedeltas
(Postma 1990), in dead-ice depressions represents a previ-
ously undescribed geomorphic feature in the Weicselian
glacialbeltofnortheastGermany(Kaiseretal.2007),whic
correspondstofan-deltasdescribedfromnorthwestPoland
(Baszkiewicz2010).
Peataccumulationcausing(natural)aggradationoflakes
became a widespread regional phenomenon during the
mid- to late Holocene. Commencing in the Subboreal and
increasingly during the Subatlantic, human impact led to
noticeable efects on the lake development. Increases in la-
custrinesedimentationratesandclasticmaterinfuxessince
c. 1250 AD are evidence of erosion following forest clear-
ing and systematic land use including anthropogenic lake-
levelcangesandlakedrainages(e.g.Brande2003,Lorenz
2007, Selig et al. 2007, Enters et al. 2010). In the late 19
th

century AD, but enormously strengthened in the mid-20


th

century,humaninducedeutrophicationbynutrientloading
through agriculture, industry, sewage release, and soil ero-
sion became a major threat to regional lakes (e.g. Scharf
1998,Mathesetal.2003,Lderetal.2006).Tiseutrophica-
tion,partlyinconjunctionwithhuman-andclimate-driven
hydrologic processes (e.g.Germer et al. 2011, Kaiser et al.
2012b),causedbothdepositionalandhydrographiccanges
(increasingdepositionrates,formationofanoxicsediments,
partlyshrinkageoflakesbyaggradation).
Teformervastice-dammed(proglacial)lakesattheBal-
ticSeacoastunderwent,incomparisontothemedium-and
small-sized inland lakes described above, a diferent devel-
opment during the late Pleistocene and Holocene (Fig. 1).
Tese late Pleniglacial lakes received water both from the
melting inland-ice in the north and the stagnant (non-bur-
ied)iceintheimmediatelakesurroundingsaswellasfrom
theice-freeareainthesouth.Telargestlakesreconstructed
aretheHafstausee(c.1200km
2
;Janke2002,Borwkaet
al.2005)inthevicinityofSzczecinandtheRostocerHeide-
Altdarss-Barther Heide-Becen (>700 km
2
; Kaiser 2001) in
the vicinity of Rostoc. During deglaciation around 17,000
cal yrs BP, up to 25 m-thic glaciolacustrine sediments
(clays, silts, sands) were accumulated. Local litoral gytjas
andaeoliansandsdatedtotheLateglacialhavebeenfound,
indicating the end of the large-lake phase still within the
Pleniglacialduetothedecayofthebasinmarginsconsisting
of ice (Kaiser 2001). For the Allerd and the earlyYoung-
er Dryas, soils, peats, litoral gytjas and Final Palaeolithic
arcaeologicalsitesindicatewidelydryconditionsinthese
basins, in whic only local lakes and ponds existed. In the
lateYounger Dryas, over large areas the basin sands were
re-depositedbywind.TeHolocene,ontheonehand,ister-
restrial,orlocallyalsolacustrine,fuvialandboggyinform
(e.g.Bogenetal.2003,Terbergeretal.2004,Borwkaet
al.2005,Kaiseretal.2006,Brneretal.2011).Ontheother
hand,thelowerpartsoftheglaciolacustrinebasinscameun-
dermarineinfuence,therebybecomingintegratedintothe
BalticSeaorthecoastallagoons(Lampe2005,Borwkaet
al.2005,Lampeetal.2010)
4.2.2 Palaeohydrology
4.2.2.1 Lake-level changes
In general, lake-level records ofer an important palaeohy-
drologic proxy as they can document past canges in the
local to regional water budget in relation to climatic oscil-
lations. Lake levels are infuenced by climatic parameters
afecting both evaporation and precipitation. But they can
alsobeinfuencedbyavarietyoflocal,non-climaticfactors
suc as local damming of the outfow by geomorphic pro-
cessesandvegetation,animals(beaver)andman,orbyland-
Fig. 6: Onset of lacustrine sedimentation (lef) and peat formation (right) in lake basins of northeast Germany (areas of Meclenburg-Vorpommern and
northern Brandenburg; afer Kaiser 2001, adapted).
Abb. 6: Beginn der limniscen Sedimentation (links) und der Torfbildung (rects) in Seebecen in Nordostdeutscland (Meclenburg-Vorpommern und
nrdlices Brandenburg; nac Kaiser 2001, verndert).
Start of peat formation Start of sedimentation
0
10
20
30
40
0
10
20
30
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

l
a
c
u
s
t
r
i
n
e

s
e
q
u
e
n
c
e
s
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

l
a
c
u
s
t
r
i
n
e

s
e
q
u
e
n
c
e
s
D1
L a t e
P l e i s t o -
c e n e
H o l o c e n e
L a t e
P l e i s t o -
c e n e
H o l o c e n e
B D2 AL
Ia Ib Ic II
Chronozones:
Palynozones:
D3 PB BO AT1AT2 SB SA1SA2SA3
III IV V VI VII VIII IX Xa Xb
D1 B D2 AL
Ia Ib Ic II
D3 PB BO AT1AT2 SB SA1SA2SA3
III IV V VI VII VIII IX Xa Xb
Medium-sized lake basins, 0.3-100 km
2
Small-sized lake basins km
2
(kettle holes), <0.3
N
lakes
N
kettle holes
= 60
= 33
N
lakes
N
kettle holes
= 57
= 36
117
E&G / vol. 61 / no. 2 / 2012 / 103132 / DOi 10.3285/eg.61.2.01 / authors / Creative Commons attribution license
covercangesinthecatcmentareainfuencingrunofand
groundwater recarge (e.g. Gaillard & Digerfeldt 1990,
Digerfeldt 1998, Duck et al. 1998, Harrison et al. 1998,
Magny2004).
Long-term (continuous) records on the regional lake-
level dynamics are available almost exclusively for the
young morainic area north of Berlin. Tese records have
been synthesised and are shown in Figure 7. Some further
lake-levelrecordsthatexistfortheregionhaveseveralcon-
straints(e.g.coarseresolution,comparativeonly,temporally
veryfragmented,verysynthetic/tentative;e.g.Brande1996,
Bttgeretal.1998,vanderKroftetal.2002,Wennrich
etal.2005).
Te records shown in Figure 7 span diferent time seg-
ments(i.e.cronozones)overthelast15,000years.Teman-
ner of reconstructing past lake levels varied in the investi-
gations(e.g.usingsubaquaticpeats,lacustrineterracesand
beac ridges, subaquatic wood remains and arcaeological
sites, historic documents), so the levels are based on data
withdiferentprecision.Teoriginalrecordsarereferenced
toabsolutetopographiclevels(ma.s.l.),whereasthesynop-
ticpresentationinFigure7usesthe(relative)deviationfrom
the recent lake level for beter comparison. Generally, the
recordsavailablehavearelativelylowresolution,compris-
ingofenonlyonedatapointpercronozone.Tusthelake-
levelcurvesactuallyrepresentlinksofdiscretedatapoints,
notcontinuousrecords.Consequently,farmore(short-term)
lake-level fuctuations can be expected than suggested by
thesecurves.Despitetheseconstraints,however,somegen-
eral trendscanbederived:
InthePleniglacialandinpartsoftheLateglacial,alllakes
investigatedhaddistinctlyhigherlevelsthanatpresent.Tis
was initially caused by deglaciation processes occurring at
higherterrainlevels,andlateroncausedbyseveralgeomor-
phic processes specifc to the Pleistocene-Holocene transi-
tion, suc as dead-ice melting, phased initiation of fuvial
runofandpermafrostdynamics.Aferadistinctlowering
intheearlyHolocene,lake-levelsinoneportionoflakesre-
mainedbelowpresentlevelsuntilthelateHolocene,accom-
paniedbyfuctuations.Anotherportionoflakesshowstem-
porally higher Holocene lake levels than at present. Com-
montoalllakes,however,arethesuddenandlargecanges
inlevels,initiallypositive,lateronnegative,thatoccurredin
thelateHolocene,aferc.1250AD.
Open / drained lakes
Mritz (Mr)
Krakower See (Kra)
Plner See (Pl)
Endinger Bruch (End)
Latzigsee (Lat)
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 11 0
1
0
-1
-2
-3
2
3
4
-4
-5
1
0
-1
-2
-3
2
3
4
-4
-5
D
e
v
i
a
t
i
o
n
f
r
o
m
r
e
c
e
n
t
l
a
k
e
/
g
r
o
u
n
d
w
a
t
e
r
l
e
v
e
l
(
m
)
12 13 14 15
Age ( ) cal kyrs BP
12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 12.6
Age ( )
14
C kyrs BP
Closed / not drained lakes
Krummer See (Kru)
Drewitzer See (Dre)
Groundwater
Rhinluch (Rhi)
D1 D2
AL D3 ME PL PB BO AT SA SB
Chronozone
Mr Kra
Kru
End
Pl
Dre
Lat
Rhi
B
Fig. 7: Reconstruction of late Qaternary lake levels from northeast Germany (Lake Mritz: Kaiser et al. 2002, Lampe et al. 2009; Lake Endinger Bruc:
Kaiser 2004a; Lake Latzigsee: Kaiser et al. 2003, Kaiser 2004b; Lake Krakower See: Lorenz 2007; Lake Groer Plner See: Drfler 2009; Lake Krummer
See: Kster 2009). Additionally the reconstruction of the groundwater level in the Rhinluc peatland is shown (Gramsch 2002). All curves are adapted.
Abb. 7: Rekonstruktion sptquartrer Seespiegel in Nordostdeutscland (Mritz: Kaiser et al. 2002, Lampe et al. 2009; Endinger Bruc: Kaiser 2004a;
Latzigsee: Kaiser et al. 2003, Kaiser 2004b; Krakower See: Lorenz 2007; Groer Plner See: Drfler 2009; Krummer See: Kster 2009). Ergnzend wird
die Rekonstruktion des Grundwasserspiegels fr das Rhinluc abgebildet (Gramsch 2002). Alle Kurven sind verndert.
118
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Morespecifc,distinctphasesofrelativelylowandrela-
tivelyhighlakelevelscanbededucedfortheyoungmorain-
icarea(Fig.7).LowlakelevelsintheAllerdandhighlake
levelsinpartsoftheYoungerDryaswererepeatedlydetected
(e.g.Helbig&deKlerk2002,Kaiser2004a,Lorenz2007),
whiccanbeexplainedbyclimaticandgeomorphiccanges
inthattime.DuringtheAllerdamoderatewarmclimate,
forestvegetationanddominantdead-icemeltingprevailed.
TeYoungerDryas,incontrast,wascaracterisedbyacold
climatewithregionalreestablishmentofpermafrostcondi-
tions,tundravegetationandenhancementofsurfcialdrain-
age.SimilarobservationshavebeenmadefortheBalticSea
near-coastalregionsofPolandandSweden(Berglundetal.
1996b,Ralska-Jasiewiczowa&Lataowa1996).Teearly
Holocene(Preboreal,Boreal)iswidelycaracterisedbylow
lake levels that can be ascribed to climatic warming and a
fully forested landscape, as well as fnal dead-ice melting
andintensifcationoferosivefuvialprocesses.Inthattime
alllakespresentedreacedtheirHoloceneminimum,partly
lying57mbelowthepresentlakelevel(e.g.Lorenz2007).
Inthemid-Holocenewarm-wetAtlanticperiodthelakesini-
tially rose, despite the fact that forests had their Holocene
maximumextentandvigour(Lang1994),potentiallylead-
ingtohighevapotranspirationratesinthelakecatcments.
TisisincontrasttonorthPolishfndingswherepredomi-
nantlylowlakelevelsduringtheAtlantichavebeendetect-
ed (Starkel 2003). Afer the decreases in levels during the
lateAtlanticandSubboreal,some,partlystrong,undulations
tookplaceintheSubatlantic(e.g.Kaiseretal.2002,Lampe
etal.2009).Telastc.800yearssawalmostidenticaldynam-
ics,withincreasesinlakelevelsinthe13
th
14
th
centuryAD
(partlyuptothe17
th
18
th
centuryAD)anddecreasesinthe
Fig. 8: Reconstruction of late Pleistocene and Holocene lake contours from northeast Germany. A: Lake Krakower See (Lorenz 2007). B: Lake Mritz
(Kaiser et al. 2002). C: Lake Arendsee (Scharf et al. 2009). All subfgures are adapted.
Abb. 8: Rekonstruktion sptpleistozner und holozner Seefcen in Nordostdeutscland. A: Krakower See (Lorenz 2007). B: Mritz (Kaiser et al. 2002).
C: Arendsee (Scharf et al. 2009).
Present island Pre-Allerd
Preboreal
Town
Preboreal
Late Atlantic, late Subatlantic
Present lake
Around 1786 AD
After 1300 AD
5 km
Waren
Krakow a.S.
A B
C
Lake Mritz ( et al. 2002) KAISER
River, channel, stream
Lake Krakower See ( 2007) LORENZ
River, stream
Lake Arendsee ( et al. 2009) SCHARF Littoral Present
2 km
Rbel
Present K.
Town A.
Town W.
Arendsee
c. 2500 BC after 822 AD after 1685 AD before 822 AD c. 5000 BC c. 11,000 BC
Profundal
2 km
119
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18
th
19
th
centuryAD.Tesecangesareprimarilycausedby
man, who became a major factor in lake hydrology due to
the construction of mill and fsh weirs, drainage improve-
ment, canal construction and forest clearing (e.g. Jeschke
1990,Schich1994,Kaiser1996,Borketal.1998,Driescher
2003,Lorenz2007,Kster&Kaiser2010).
4.2.2.2 Lake-area and lake-contour changes
Te late Qaternary lake-level canges caused to some ex-
tent drastic canges in the lake topography (volume, area,
contour).However,onlyafewarealcalculationsandtopo-
graphic (map) reconstructions exists for the region so far,
showingthatthelakeareasandcontoursvariedsubstantial-
ly(Fig.8).Forexample,LakeMritz,withacurrentareaof
117km
2
(100%),variedfromaminimumareaofc.74km
2
(63
%)inthePreborealtoamaximumareaofc.188km
2
(161%)
inthebeginningofthe14
th
centuryAD(Kaiseretal.2002).
4.3 Peatlands
Analogouslytoriversandlakes,peatlandscanalsoactaslate
Qaternary palaeohydrologic arcives primarily indicating
groundwaterdynamics(e.g.Chambers1996).Knowledgeon
their contribution, function, stratigraphy and development
innortheastGermanyiswell-developedwithanincreasing
number of studies and publications in the last c. 20 years
(Succow&Joosten2001).Tefollowingoverviewofers(1)
apresentationofgeneralisedphasesofregionalpeatlandfor-
mationandinformationonlong-termgroundwaterdynam-
ics, (2) the identifcation of genetic relationships between
rivers,lakesandpeatlands,and(3)anoutlineoftheimpact
ofhistoricmillstowageonpeatlandsandlakes.
4.3.1 Peatland formation and groundwater-level
changes
4.3.1.1 General development
IncentralEurope,eighthydrogeneticmiretypesmiresare
undrained virgin peatlands (Koster & Favier 2005, Joos-
ten2008)canbedistinguished(Succow&Joosten2001).
Teyaredefnedbythetopographicsituation,thehydrolog-
ic conditions (water input) and the processes by whic the
peatisformed.Tishydrogeneticsetingisofgreatimpor-
tanceindeciphering(palaeo-)hydrologicinformation.
A statistical analysis of 168 palynostratigraphically in-
vestigatedproflesfrompeatlandsinnortheastGermanyre-
veals distinct periods of specifc hydrogenetic mire forma-
tion(Couwenbergetal.2001;Fig.9).Withamaximumage
ofc.12,400
14
CyrsBP(c.14,600calyrsBP),swampmiresare
theoldestpeat-formingsystemsintheregion.Tefrstlake
miresdevelopedstillintheLateglacialatc.11,500
14
CyrsBP
(c.13,400calyrsBP),whereasfrstketle-holeandpercola-
tionmiresdidnotdevelopuntiltheearlyHolocene.Tefrst
rain-fedmiredevelopmentstartedasrecentlyasinthemid-
Holocene at c. 7500
14
C yrs BP (c. 8300 cal yrs BP). Partly,
thistemporalsequencerefectsastratigraphicsuccessionof
diferentmiretypesatthesamelocation.Tecomparatively
lateincreaseandonsetofpercolationmireandrain-fedmire
formation could refect the mid- to late Holocene increase
of regional humidity. Furthermore, there is a conspicuous
peaking for the formation of some mire types in Figure 9,
partly followed by a rapid decline. Between c. 1000500
yrs BP, swamp mires show a maximum formation period,
whicwasatributedtostronganthropogenicdeforestation
(e.g.Brande1986,Jeschke1990,Borketal.1998,Wolters
2005).Tedecliningnumberofketle-hole,percolationand
rain-fedmiresinthelast1000to2000yrs,ontheotherhand,
refectsdirecthumanimpactintheformofhydro-meliora-
tionmeasuresandpeatcuting.Tiscausedthecessationof
peatformationandthedisappearanceofolderpeatlayers.
In contrast to the numerous pollen diagrams from peat-
landsandaccordantestimationsofthelocalrelativeground-
water dynamics, only two curves of absolute groundwater
levelsexistsofarfornortheastGermany.FortheReicwal-
deligniteopencastmine(Niederlausitzarea),ashort-term
curvecoverstheLateglacialBllingtoAllerdcronozones,
i.e. a total of c. 1400 years, showing the development from
arelativelystablelowtoaninstablehighgroundwaterlevel
(vanderKroftetal.2002).TeHolocenegroundwaterdy-
namicsderivedfromthec.11,500years-longsyntheticRhin-
luc peatland record (west of Berlin) reveal a low level at
theendoftheearlyHolocene,anincreasinglevelaccompa-
nied by fuctuations during the mid-Holocene and a maxi-
mumlevelinthelateSubatlantic(Gramsch2002;Fig.7).A
markeddecreaseofthegroundwaterlevelofc.3moccurred
in the very late Subatlantic (18
th
-19
th
century AD), whic
wascausedbylocalhydro-meliorationmeasures(e.g.Zeitz
2001).
4.3.1.2 Peatlands in large river valleys
Closerelationshipsbetweenthedevelopmentofrivers,lakes
andpeatlandsexistedparticularlyduringthelateHolocene
complexpaludifcationprocessesinlargerivervalleysofthe
region.Teyarecaused,ontheonehand,bynaturalclimatic
andhydrauliccangesand,ontheotherhand,bydirectan-
thropogenicimpactintheformofmillstowage(forthesec-
ondseecapter4.3.2).
Telargestpeatlandsintheregionarelocatedinformer
ice marginal spillways of Brandenburg and Meclenburg-
Vorpommern. Beside local lake mires and widely-stretced
(but typically small) foodplain mires accompanying the
abundantrivers,vastswamp(paludifcation)miresoccur.
Te Havellndisces Luc (c. 300 km
2
) and Rhinluc (c.
230 km
2
) peatlands, for instance, form wide elongated de-
pressions whic were formed by glaciofuvial and glacial
erosionalprocessesduringtheWeicselianglaciationandby
(glacio-)fuvialprocessesduringdeglaciationandaferwards
(Weisse 2003). Afer a Pleniglacial fuvio-lacustrine phase
leading to the deposition of vast amounts of sands (Bec-
ensandinGerman),anumberofsmallshallowlakesdevel-
oped following dead-ice melting in the Lateglacial. During
the early Holocene most lakes aggraded by both sedimen-
tary infll and groundwater lowering (Fig. 7), forming local
lakemires(Succow2001a).Datedpalaeosolsinpeat,fuvial
and lacustrine sequences (8770 160 to 4170 150 cal yrs
BP;Mundel1996,Kaffke2002)formastratigraphichiatus,
whicindicatesregionalgroundwaterloweringandreduced
fuvialactivityinthemid-Holocenetotheearlyphaseofthe
lateHolocene.TeformervegetationoftheHavellndisces
Lucpeatlandwithdominatingsedgesandreedwaslargely
120
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replacedbywetforestsconsistingofoaksandalders(Kloss
1987a).Ingeneral,althoughlocalmiredevelopmentinnorth-
eastGermanyvariesconsiderably,manypeatsequencesare
caracterisedbythismid-toearlylateHolocenestratigraph-
ic hiatus (e.g. Brande 1996, Succow 2001a,Wolters 2002,
Janke 2004, Brande et al. 2007) refecting the regional dry
climaticconditionsinthattime.Lookingatthisfromawider
perspective, this northeast German peatland-palaeosol (and
hiatus) is apparently comparable with the so-calledBlac
FloodplainSoil,apolygeneticburiedhumicsoilhorizon(Bo-
real-Atlantic)foundinrivervalleysandbasinsofcentraland
southernGermany(Rittweger2000).Betweenc.3800calyrs
BP(Mundel1996)andc.2600calyrsBP(Kaffke2002)an
increaseingroundwateroccurred,causingregionalpaludif-
cationandlocallakelevelstorise.Tevegetationshifedbac
fromwetforeststoreeds.Basicallyinthattimevastswamp
mires were formed transgrading onto former areas without
peats.Twopossiblysuperimposingreasonshavebeeniden-
tifed for this, namely a supra-regional late Holocene cli-
matic shif to relatively wet-cool conditions (Mundel 1996;
seemoregeneral:e.g.Zolitschkaetal.2003)andaregion-
al damming-efect of the rising Elbe River bed, whic was
driven by the eustatic rise of the North Sea (Mundel 1996,
Kster&Ptsch1998;seemoregeneral:e.g.Behre2007).
Tis damming efect was linked to relatively high aggrada-
tionratesintheElbevalleyversuslowratesintheHavelval-
ley.TeabundantlakebasinsintheHavelcourseserveeven
nowasefectivetrapsforriverload(Weisse2003).Tusthe
drainageoftheHavelanditstributarieswasimpeded,caus-
ingariseintheregionalgroundwater.Nolaterthanthemid-
18
th
to early 19
th
century AD, regional peat growth stopped
again, this time caused by hydro-melioration measures for
agriculturaluseandpeatcuting.
Close relationships between fuvial-lacustrine processes
and mire development are also a caracteristic of several
low-lying river valleys ofVorpommern close to the Baltic
Sea coast, whic were strongly forced by marine infuence
(Janke2002,Michaelis&Joosten2010;seecapter4.1.1).
4.3.2 human impact on peatlands and lakes by mill
stowage
Ingeneral,untilthelate12
th
toearly13
th
centuryADland-
scape hydrology in northeast Germany was dominantly
driven by climatic (e.g. wet and dry phases), geomorphic
(e.g. fuvial aggradation and incision) and non-anthropo-
genicbiotic(e.g.beaveractivity)factors.However,sincethe
Neolithic,localisedandphasedhydrologiccangesincatc-
mentsduetoland-covercangescanbeassumed.
DuringtheGermanMedievalcolonisation,thewatermill
tecnologywasintroducedbythewestGermanandFlem-
ing/DutcsetlersineasterncentralEurope.Forwatermill
N
u
m
b
e
r
o
f
d
a
t
e
d
p
e
a
t
d
e
p
o
s
i
t
s
0
10
20
30
Age ( C yrs BP)
14
5000 0 10000
Swamp mires
0
10
20
30
40
N
u
m
b
e
r
o
f
d
a
t
e
d
p
e
a
t
d
e
p
o
s
i
t
s
5000 0 10000
Kettle-hole mires
Lake mires Percolation mires
20
40
60
0
5000 0 10000
N
u
m
b
e
r
o
f
d
a
t
e
d
p
e
a
t
d
e
p
o
s
i
t
s
5000 0 10000
10
12
2
4
6
8
Rain-fed mires
5000 0 10000
0
0
10
20
5
15
N
u
m
b
e
r
o
f
d
a
t
e
d
p
e
a
t
d
e
p
o
s
i
t
s
N
u
m
b
e
r
o
f
d
a
t
e
d
p
e
a
t
d
e
p
o
s
i
t
s
Age ( C yrs BP)
14
Age ( C yrs BP)
14
Age ( C yrs BP)
14
Age ( C yrs BP)
14
Fig. 9: Temporal distribution of palynologically dated peat and gytja deposits of selected hydrogenetic mire types in northeast
Germany (Couwenberg et al. 2001, adapted).
Abb. 9: Zeitlice Verteilung palynologisc datierter Torf- und Seeablagerungen ausgewhlter hydrogenetiscer Moortypen in
Nordostdeutscland (Couwenberg et al. 2001, verndert).
121
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Activity (+)
Stability (-)
A
n
n
u
a
l
p
r
e
c
i
p
.
(
m
m
)
-10
-15
T
e
m
p
.
J
a
n
u
a
r
y
(

C
)
T
e
m
p
.
J
u
l
y
(

C
)
Lake basin formation
A) Chronozone
Age (cal BP) kyrs
14 13 15 12 9 10 8 6 4 2 0 7 5 3 1 11
14 13 15 12 9 10 8 6 4 2 0 7 5 3 1 11
Age (cal BP) kyrs
0.02
0
0.04
F) Mire formation
(Couwenberg et al., 2001)
F
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n
r
a
t
e
(
m
i
r
e
y
r
)
-
1
E) Lake-level status
B) River-channel
pattern
C) River-floodplain
deposition
D) Lake-basin
development
Braid-
by dead-ice melting
Meandering and anastomosing
River peatland formation (at low-lying rivers)
Gravels and sands Overbank fines and peat
Artificial drainage and
damming of lakes
Peat-stratigraphic hiatus
PL AL D3
ME
PB SB BO AT1 SA1 SA2
D1 D2
B
AT2
G) Temperature
W Germany
(Litt et al., 2009)
H) Precipitation
W Germany
(Litt et al., 2009)
Iing
High
Low
(low groundwater level)
R
e
l
.
p
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
(
y
r
)
-
1
P
r
o
b
a
b
.
d
e
n
s
i
t
y
(
y
r
)
-
1
K) Lake-level status
S central Europe
(Magny, 2004)
L) Population density
central Europe
(Zimmermann, 1996)
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
(
n
)
P
o
p
.
d
e
n
s
i
t
y
(
h
a
b
.
k
m
)
-
2
Age ( ) cal kyrs BP
12 9 10 8 6 4 2 7 5 3 1 11
20
40
0
0
Age ( ) cal kyrs BP
12 9 10 8 6 4 2 7 5 3 1 11
High
Low
0
10
20
10
0
0
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
14 13 12 9 10 8 6 4 2 7 5 3 1 11
Age ( ) cal kyrs BP
0
Age (cal BP) kyrs
0
0.5
1.0
-0.5
-1.0
12 9 10 8 6 4 2 0 7 5 3 1 11
Age (varve kyrs BP)
600
500
400
700
800
9 10 8 6 4 2 11 7 5 3 1 0
Age (v ) arve kyrs BP
9 10 8 6 4 2 0 11 7 5 3 1
-5
0
5
10
15
20
5
January
July
15
I) Fluvial activity / stability
W and S Germany
(Hoffmann et al., 2008)
J) Fluvial activity
W and central Poland
(Starkel et al., 2006)
R
e
c
o
r
d
s
f
r
o
m
N
E
G
e
r
m
a
n
y
Fig. 10: Late Qaternary hydrologic canges in northeast Germany (B-F) ploted alongside further palaeoclimatic and palaeohydrologic proxy records (G-
K) as well as population data (L) from central Europe. G-H: January and July temperatures and annual precipitation reconstructed from pollen data from
annually laminated (varved) sediments of Lake Meerfelder Maar (Eifel region, west Germany), using pollen-transfer functions (Litt et al., 2009; adapted).
I: Geomorphic activity (positive probability values) and stability (negative probability vales) based on CDPF analysis of west and south German fuvial
deposits (Hoffmann et al. 2008, adapted). J: Geomorphic activity based on CDPF analysis of west and central Polish fuvial deposits (Starkel et al. 2006,
adapted). K: Lake-level status reconstructed from lakes of southern central Europe (Jura, Frenc Pre-Alps and Swiss Plateau; Magny 2004, adapted). L:
population density of central Europe reconstructed from arcaeological evidence (Zimmermann 1996, adapted).
Abb. 10: Sptquartre hydrologisce Vernderungen in Nordostdeutscland (B-F) dargestellt mit weiteren paloklimatiscen und palohydrologiscen
Proxydaten (G-K) sowie palodemografscen Daten (L) aus Miteleuropa. G-H: Januar- und Juli-Temperaturen sowie Jahresniedersclag rekonstruiert
anhand von Pollendaten (mitels Pollen-Transferfunktionen) aus den jahreszeitlic gescicteten (warvierten) Sedimenten des Meerfelder Maars (Eifel,
Westdeutscland; Litt et al., 2009, verndert). I: Geomorphodynamisce Aktivitt (positive Wahrsceinlickeitswerte) und Stabilitt (negative Wahrscein-
lickeitswerte) basierend auf der CDPF-Analyse west- und sddeutscer fuvialer Ablagerungen (Hoffmann et al. 2008, verndert). J: Geomorphodyna-
misce Aktivitt basierend auf der CDPF-Analyse west- und mitelpolniscer fuvialer Ablagerungen (Starkel et al. 2006, verndert). K: Seespiegelstatus
rekonstruiert fr das sdlice Miteleuropa (Jura, franzsisce Voralpen, Scweizer Mitelland; Magny 2004, verndert). L: Bevlkerungsdicte in Mite-
leuropa rekonstruiert anhand arcologiscer Befunde (Zimmermann 1996, verndert).
122
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operation, a local water level diference of c. 1 m at mini-
mumisrequired.Tisledtotheconstructionofamultitude
ofmilldamsand,accordingly,ofdammed(mostlyoriginal-
lynatural)lakesandofrisinggroundwaterlevelsupstream
(e.g.Schich1994,Kaiser1996,Driescher2003,Bleile2004,
Ntzmannetal.2011).Teoperationofhundredsofwater
mills(togetherwithfshweirs)drasticallycangedtheMe-
dievalhydrologyintheregion.
Tephenomenonofmillstowage(MhlenstauinGer-
man)anditsimplicationsforsetlement,economyandland-
scape was frst systematically investigated by Beschoren
(1935)andHerrmann(1959)particularlyfortheSpreeand
Havel Rivers, and later on extended by Driescher (2003)
intheformofamultitudeoflocalcasestudiesinthewider
region. Te impacts of mill stowage on groundwater and
lake levels, mire development and sedimentary processes
are particularly well-investigated in the Berlin region. For
the time-span 12
th
14
th
century AD dated sequences from
peatlands typically show a sudden cange from highly to
weakly decomposed peats or an inversion of the aggrada-
tionsequence(lakedepositsoverlyingpeats).Teserecords
wereinterpretedintermsofanintensifcationofmirefor-
mationandrisinglakelevels,respectively,bymillstowage
(Brande1986,1996,Bse&Brande1986,2009,Kster&
Kaiser2010).Medium-scaleriversandtheirriparianzones,
sucastheHavelandSpree,wereinpartdrasticallyinfu-
encedbytheseprocesses,whereasthelarge-scaleElbeRiver
hadnodammingconstructionsbutboatmills(Grf2006).
Along the low-gradient middle Havel course, mill weirs
in the cities of (Berlin-) Spandau and Brandenburg/Havel,
whic were constructed in the late 12
th
/early 13
th
century
AD (Schich 1994), caused large-scale lake enlargements
andpaludifcations(Kaiseretal.2012b).Somesmallerriv-
ersandstreamshadamultitudeofwatermills(millstair-
cases). For instance, along a 20 km section of the upper
Dahme River (Brandenburg) 14 mills were operated, some
since the 13
th
/14
th
century AD (Juschus 2002), strongly
canging the river gradient, the discarge process and the
localgroundwaterlevel.
5 synopsis
TetemporalfocusofthisoverviewistheLateQaternary
comprisingherethelastc.20,000yearsandusingamillen-
nialscale.Accordingly,thissynopsiswillconcentrateonthis
time span, comparing the regional results with those from
otherpartsincentralEuropeandaddinginformation(e.g.on
climaticevolution),whicisimportantfortheunderstand-
Fig. 11: Lateglacial and Holocene lake- and groundwater-level data from northern and southern central Europe (afer various authors, adapted). Vertical
bars mark syncronicity of wet (in blue) or dry (in red) phases.
Abb. 11: Sptglaziale und holozne Seespiegel- und Grundwasserspiegeldynamik im nrdlicen und sdlicen Miteleuropa (nac versciedenen Autoren;
verndert). Die vertikalen Linien markieren Syncronitt feucter (in blau) oder trocener (in rot) Phasen.
Dry
Groundwater and lake levels of low-lying river valleys in Vorpommern, NE Germany
( 2004) JANKE
11000 10000 9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0
12900 11500 10100 8900 7800 6800 5800 4500 3200 2000 1000 0 Age (cal yrs BP)
Age ( C yrs BP)
14
Wet
W
Low
High
W
Low
High
Low
High
Early Holocene Sub epoch Lategl. Mid-Holocene Late Holocene
Lake levels in N Poland
( 1989 in et al. 2002) RALSKA-JASIEWICZOWA UREK
Wet and dry phases in mires of E Poland
( et al. 2002) UREK
Lake levels in the Swiss Jura and French subalpine mountains
( 1998) MAGNY
123
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ingoftheresultspresented.However,astheregionaldrain-
agesystemisinfuenced,ontheonehand,byverylong-term
endogenicprocesses,and,ontheotherhand,hasexperienced
ahistoricallyunprecedentedstrongcangeduringthelastc.
300years(e.g.Blackbourn2006,Kaiseretal.2012b),these
bothtimeperspectivesshallbetoucedatleastbyaglimpse.
5.1 impact of neotectonic processes
As outlined in capter 2, successive Pleistocene glaciations
have formed the main relief and sedimentary setings in
theNorthEuropeanPlain.However,theriversystemshows
several conspicuous paterns e.g. the asymmetric (right-
skewed)catcmentsoftheElbeandOderRivers,awestori-
entedturnoftheHavelandSpreeRivers,thenearlyorthogo-
nalvalleygridofVorpommern(Fig.1)whicsuggeststhe
impactofneotectonicprocesses.Accordingly,severalauthors
(e.g.Schirrmeister1998,Reicherteretal.2005,Sirockoet
al.2008)haveaskedtowhatextentdoesthepresent-dayto-
pographyoftheso-calledNorthGermanBasinmirrorthe
heterogeneous structure of the basement? Tey stated that
severalrivervalleys(includingspillways)andterminalmo-
raines in northern Germany apparently run parallel to the
majortectoniclineamentsandblocboundaries.Moreover,
the drainage patern and the distribution of lakes in north
Germanyexactlyfollowblocboundariesand,hence,mark
zones of present-day subsidence. TeTertiary morphology
in that area was apparently draped by Qaternary glacial
deposits,butriversandlakesthatdominatethetopography
ofthemodernlandscapestillrefectthegeodynamiccentres
ofTertiarytectonismandhalokinesis(Sirockoetal.2002).
5.2 Climate impact
Te synoptic Figure 10A-F shows a selection of results on
Late Qaternary river, lake and peatland formation, whic
represent the regionally typical processes discussed in the
previous sections. Te temporal resolution of those results
is quite coarse mostly covering a cronozone or represent-
ing, in general, a millennial scale. By contrast, comparing
climatic,hydrologic,geomorphicandhistoricdatafromcen-
tralEuropepartlyrepresentcentennial-uptodecadal-scale
records (Fig. 10G-L). It should be borne in mind that the
statistical basis for certain evidence in northeast Germany
partlyisstillsmall(e.g.onthelake-levelstatus).
Inthisregion,climatewasthedominantdriverforgeo-
morphicandhydrologiccangesuptothelateHolocenein-
tensifcationoflandusebyman.Withtheexceptionofneo-
tectonic processes of yet inadequately known impact even
the partlyconsiderably efective sea level rise of theNorth
andBalticSeasisultimatelyclimate-driven.Withinthiscli-
mate-controlledsetinglocalgeomorphicandbioticprocess-
es operated (e.g. dead-ice melting, fuvial aggradation/inci-
sion,mireformation).
However,thereisnospecifc(high-resolution)LateQa-
ternary climate record from northeast Germany available
so far except those that cover relatively short periods (e.g.
Bntgen et al. 2011). Hence the pollen-based high-resolu-
tion record from Lake Maarfelder Maar (Eifel region, west
Germany;Littetal.2009)canbeusedtocaracterisesome
climatictrendsatleastfortheHolocene,whic,ingeneral,
canbeassumedevenfornortheastGermany.Inparticularfor
therelativelydry-warmearlyHoloceneandthewet-warm
mid-Holocene (Holocene optimum between c. 80005000
varveyrsBP;Wanneretal.2009)somesimultaneoushydro-
logicphenomenaofnortheastGermany(e.g.earlyHolocene
lake-level lowstands, mid-Holocene groundwater lowering
in peatlands) can be presumably ascribed to direct climat-
ic impact. Geocronological data from river catcments of
westandsouthGermanyaswellaswestandcentralPoland
allowsomegeneralassumptionsonpalaeodiscarge and pa-
laeofood dynamics,whiccanbehypothesisedevenforthe
regionunderstudy.Largedatasetsof
14
Cagesobtainedfrom
late Qaternary fuvial units were analysed using cumula-
tiveprobabilitydensityfunctions(CPDFs)inordertoiden-
tifyphasesoffuvialactivity(foods)andstability(Starkel
etal.2006,Kolaczetal.2007,Hoffmannetal.2008;Fig.
10I,J).InthewestandsouthGermanrecord(Fig.10I),sev-
eralperiodsoffuvialactivitywereidentifedandcompared
toclimatic,palaeohydrologicandhumanimpactproxydata.
Untilc.4250calyrsBP,eventsoffuvialactivityaremain-
ly coupled to weter and/or cooler climatic phases. Due to
growingpopulationandintensiveagriculturalactivitiesdur-
ingtheBronzeAgetheincreasedfuvialactivitybetweenc.
3300and2820calyrsBPcannotunequivocallyberelatedto
climate.Since875ADthegrowingpopulationdensity(Fig.
10L)isvialandcovercangesinthecatcments(increasing
arable land and pastures, decreasing forests) considered as
the major external forcing (Hoffmann et al. 2008). Similar
curvecaracteristicsofCPDFsfrom
14
Cdataonfuvialunits
showrecordsfromwestandcentralPoland(Starkeletal.
2006;Fig.10J),allowingcorrespondingconclusions.
FromsoutherncentralEuropeadatasetof180radiocar-
bon,tree-ringandarcaeologicaldatesobtainedfromsedi-
ment sequences of 26 lakes was used by Magny (2004) to
construct a regional Holocene lake-level record (Fig. 10K).
Tedatesformclusterssuggestinganalternationoflower
andhigher,climaticallydrivenlake-levelphases.Tecom-
parison of relative Holocene lake- and groundwater-level
datafromnorthandsouthcentralEuroperevealssomedis-
tinct syncronicities of wet and dry phases, but also some
distinct disparities (Ralska-Jasiewiczowa 1989, Kaiser
1996, Magny 1998, Wojciechowski 1999, Kleinmann et
al.2000,ureketal.2002,Janke2004;Fig.11).Ingeneral,
syncronic correlation of identical phases works far beter
within nearby German and Polish sites of northern cen-
tral Europe. In comparison to the southern central Euro-
peanrecord,however,theserecordsappeartobesomewhat
monolithic, whic probably is caused by a low temporal
resolution.FortheearlyHolocene,thelake-levelrecordin
northeast Germany and north Poland shows a clear ten-
dency towards low levels. Tis is not refected in the mire
recordofeastPolandthatwidelyindicatesawetphase.Te
late Boreal and partly the early Atlantic is caracterised
by increasing lake and groundwater levels followed by a
decrease in the late Atlantic. Te beginning and mid-late
Holocene (c. 2500 cal yrs BP) reveals wet phases, whereas
a dry phase lies in between. Te general wet-dry patern
inferred correlates well with major Holocene climatic epi-
sodes (e.g. Harrison et al. 1993, Magny 2004, Litt et al.
2009,Wanneretal.2009).
A synoptic view on the northeast German results (Fig.
124
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10B-F)andonevidencefromothercentralEuropeanregions
(Fig.10G-L)revealssomeconcordances.Butevendiscrepan-
ciesbecomeapparent,partlywithinatypeofproxy.Reasons
for this might be, on the one hand, real diferences in the
regional hydrologic evolution, whic are partly caused by
diferent(pre-)historichumanimpact.Ontheotherhand,a
partlydrasticallydiferentstatisticalbasefortheparameters
presentedistoconsider.Forexample,afewdataonthelake-
levelstatusinnortheastGermanycontrastalargedatabase
in southern central Europe. Tus future researc possibly
willmodifytheregionalinformationavailable.
5.3 Pre-modern and modern human impact
First intended canges of the regional hydrography date
fromlateMedievaltimes(sincethelate12
th
centuryAD).In
paralleltheregionalforestswerewidelycleared(Borketal.
1998;Tab.5),causingseveralunintended hydrologiccanges
sucasrisinggroundwaterandlakesfollowedbyincreasing
fuvialdiscarge.Intheperiod18
th
tofrsthalfofthe20
th
cen-
turyADmostofthepeatlandsweretransformedbyhydro-
melioration into extensive grasslands (Schultz-Sternberg
et al. 2000). In parallel a dense network of cannels for in-
landnavigationwasformedandmostcannelsoflargeriv-
ersweremodifedbyhydraulicengineering.
Te most intensive canges, however, did not occur un-
til the last c. 5060 years. Te peatlands were nearly total-
ly transformed into intensive grassland and arable land by
complex melioration measures (e.g. Succow 2001b); only
2%oftheoriginalmiresremainedinanear-naturalstatus
(Couwenberg & Joosten 2001). In Meclenburg-Vorpom-
mern, for instance, for the period 19651995 a total loss of
c.290km
2
peatlandsbypeatdecompositionwascalculated,
whic accounts for c. 13 % of the states pre-modern peat-
land area (Lenschow 2001). Even as a consequence of hy-
dro-meliorationmeasuresinparallelwithclimaticandland-
cover canges, the groundwater level of the frst aquifer
signifcantlydropped(12m)ataregionalscale,particular
inBrandenburg,causinginmanycaseslake-levellowerings
(e.g.Germeretal.2011,Kaiseretal.2012b).
Furthermore, lignite open cast mining has drastically
cangedvastareasinsomeregions.IntheNiederlausitzre-
gionatotalofc.800km
2
wasrequiredforminingactivityso
far.Alargenumberofartifciallakesandconnectivecanals
wereformedbyfoodingofdisusedopen-castmines,form-
ingtheLausitzerSeenland(Grnewald2008).Inthenear
futurethelakeareahereamountstoatotalofc.250km
2
.In
theLeipzig-Halle-Biterfeldareathetotalareaofanthropo-
geniclakesinthemid-21
st
centuryADwillresultinc.70km
2
,
forming theNeue Miteldeutsce Seenlandscaf (Czegka
et al. 2008). If the total area of natural lakes in northeast
Germanyisconsidered(c.1300km
2
;Korczynskietal.2005),
artifciallydugnewlakes(c.320km
2
)willformaportionof
c.20%ofthetotallakeareasoonofc.1620km
2
.
Tusinmoderntimes,manbecamebyseveralimpactsa
veryimportantgeomorphicandhydrologicfactorinthere-
gion.Withrespectonthepaceandmagnitudehisinfuence
exceedsnaturalcangesbyclimateandnaturalgeomorphic
processes.
5.4 final remarks and research perspectives
Teresultspresentedhereonthepartlyinterdependentde-
velopment of the main aquatic (inland) environments in
northeastGermany hold treasures for those seeking to un-
derstand the long-term hydrologic dynamics of these eco-
systems. Many modern day issues, suc as understanding
the causes of present hydrologic canges, re-evaluation of
landusestrategiesandimplementationofrestorationmeas-
ures,canproftfrombeinglookedatfromalongertempo-
ral perspective. Periodic hydrologic cange is thenormal
status of the environments discussed. But even if the cur-
research feld remarks
Exploration and combination
of proxies
using new proxies and new combinations of proxies for deciphering and validating of palaeohydrologic
information (e.g. tree ring data, near-shore and shoreline sediments of lakes, palaeosols of wetlands)
Human induced lake drainage Exploring the occurrence and the rewetting potential of lake basins drained by historic anthropogenic
hydromelioration
Human induced lake
formation
Exploring the properties and genesis of lakes and ponds formed in Medieval times and afterwards;
deciphering historic hydrologic information from young deposits / geoarchives
long hydrologic time series linking instrumental records of specifc hydrologic parameters (observations e.g. by gauging) with proxy
records from geoarchives
Quantitative palaeohydrology Combining palaeohydrologic feld records with hydrologic modelling at diferent areal and temporal scales
reference status of wetlands reconstructing the (near-) natural status of wetlands; i.e. before human impact has sustainably changed the
aquatic environments
Tab. 6: Examples of new and promising palaeohydrologic researc topics for northeast Germany.
Tab. 6: Beispiele fr neue, vielversprecende Forscungsthemen zur Palohydrologie/Historiscen Hydrologie in Nordostdeutscland.
125
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rentregionalhydrologiccange,probablystronglytriggered
byman-madeglobalclimatecange,shouldbeexceptional
with respect to its pace and magnitude, historic analogies
mayhelptounderstandorevenforeseecomplexfutureland-
scapedynamics.
As shown above, a number of principle questions on
regional palaeohydrology have been posed periodically
gaining in signifcance eac time they resurface. Researc
overthelastc.20yearshasgenerallymadeprogressinterms
ofexpandingtheregionalthematicknowledgebase.Whatis
new for theregion is the growth in well-documentedlocal
feldfndingswithabroadrangeofaccompanyinglabanal-
yses, particularly of geocronological and palaeoecological
data.Tesehavebeencomplementedwith(semi-)quantita-
tivedataonthedevelopmentofspecifchydrologicparam-
eters (e.g. on river-cannel paterns or lake-level status) as
wellassummariesofcertainprocesses(e.g.onpeatlandfor-
mation) in several studies. Even some specifc geomorphic
andsedimentary-pedologicfeatureswerenewlydiscovered
for the region (e.g. fuvio-deltaic sequences / fan-deltas in
lakebasins,palaeosols/hiatusesinpeatlands).
Newresearcisneededtorefneknowledgeonthelong-
term development of the regional drainage system and its
specifc aquatic environments. Tis includes the establish-
ment of hydrologic records with high temporal resolution,
whic are widely missing in the region so far. In addition,
new and particularly promising regional researc aspects
stillabound;someexamplesarelistedinTable6.
6 Conclusions
(1)RegionalresearcperformedonlateQaternarypalaeo-
hydrologyhaslargelyconcentratedonsingleaquaticenvi-
ronments and single hydrologic parameters so far. But the
drainagepaternevolutionasasystemwasrarelyinfocus.
Tisfrstcomprehensiveoverviewondrainagesystemevo-
lutioninnortheastGermanyhasshownindetailhowrivers,
lakesandpeatlandsdevelopedpartlyinterdependentlydur-
ingthelastc.20,000years.
(2)UntilthelateHolocene(c.12
th
/13
th
centuryAD),land-
scapehydrologyinnortheastGermanywaspredominantly
driven by climate, including geomorphic and non-anthro-
pogenic biotic factors. Furthermore, initial structural geo-
logicfndingssuggestthattectonicandhalokineticinfuence
played a more pronounced role on late Qaternary hydro-
graphicevolutionthanpreviouslyassumed.Tefrstindent-
edanthropogeniccangesoftheregionalhydrographydate
fromthelateMedieval.Stronghumanimpactsonaregional
scaleoccurredfromthe18
th
centuryADonwards.Inmodern
times,mansimpactexceedsthenaturalcangescausedby
naturalclimaticandgeomorphicprocesses.
(3)Althoughcertainaspectsofregionaldrainagenetwork
evolution have atracted considerable interest, the general
stateofthematicknowledgecanbecaracterisedasmoder-
ate at best. For example, (a) the late Qaternary develop-
mentofthelargerivers(Elbe,Oder)andmostofthemedi-
um-scale rivers (e.g. Havel, Spree) is only initially known;
(b) high-resolution lake-level records are not yet available;
(c) estimations of palaeodiscarge and palaeofood carac-
teristicsarewidelylacing;(d)theaspectofclimaticversus
humanforcingofpasthydrologicprocesseshasrarelybeen
pursuedsofar;and(e)theroleofbeaversasefectiveengi-
neersformingHoloceneaquaticlandscapeshasnotyetbeen
approacedintheregion.
(4)Toovercomethesedefcienciesnewresearcisneces-
sary. Several current and planned projects on river valley
and peatland restoration in the region open promising op-
portunities for the regular integration of palaeohydrologic
workintopresentissues.Futureresearc,morethanprevi-
ously,shouldaimatdevelopingandintegratingmultiproxy
recordsfromavarietyofscientifcperspectives.Closelinks
to high resolution records of climate and human impact,
whicregionallyarestilltobeestablished,mustbeencour-
agedandfostered.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to K. Billwitz (Hude), A. Brande (Berlin),
F.Brose(Frankfurt/Oder),L.Eimann(Leipzig),K.-D.Jger
(Berlin),W. Janke (Greifswald), H. Kliewe (, Greifswald),
H.Liedtke(Bocum),J.MarcinekandB.Nitz(bothBerlin)
as well as M. Succow (Greifswald) for initiating, stimulat-
ingandsupportingregionalpalaeohydrologicresearcfrom
diferent viewpoints and in the course of various projects.
Allthesecolleagues,someofwhomstartedtheirinvestiga-
tionsmorethan50yearsago,formthefoundergeneration
for modern thematic researc in the region. Basic researc
for the results presented in this overview was made possi-
bleparticularlybyprojectsfundedbytheGermanResearc
Councilinthe1990sand2000s(grantsBi-560,Ma-1425and
Ni-343).We would like to thank P.Wiese (Greifswald) for
preparation of some fgures. Te German Academy of Sci-
ence and Engineering (acatec) and the German Researc
Centre for Geosciences (GFZ) are kindly acnowledged,
for providing the framework for this overview within the
projects Geo Resource Water the Challenge of Global
Change, Terrestrial Environmental Observatories (TER-
ENO),andVirtualInstituteofIntegratedClimateandLand-
scapeEvolutionAnalyses(ICLEA).
Finally,wearegratefultoM.Bse(Berlin)andananony-
mousreviewerwhogaveusinspiringcomments,improving
signifcantlyourmanuscript.
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E&G
Quaternary Science Journal
Volume 61 / number 2 / 2012 / 133145 / DOi 10.3285/eg.61.2.02
www.quaternary-science.net
GEOzOn SCiEnCE MEDiA
iSSn 0424-7116
younger middle terrace saalian pre-drenthe deposits
overlying mis 7 nachtigall interglacial strata near hxter/
Weser, nW-Germany
Peter rohde, Jochen lepper, Wolfgang Thiem
how to cite: Rohde,P.,Lepper,J.,Thiem,W.(2012):YoungerMiddleTerrace:Saalianpre-DrenthedepositsoverlyingMIS7Nactigallinter-
glacialstratanearHxter/Weser,NW-Germany.E&GQaternaryScienceJournal,61(2):133145.DOI:10.3285/eg.61.2.02
Abstract: SubrosionofLowerTriassicevaporitesbysubsidencehaspreservedpeatcoalandclayasPleistocenewarmandcoolstagedeposits
nearHxterinthenorthwest-Germanuplands.Tere,intheupperreacesoftheRiverWeser,peatcoalandclayaresandwiced
bygravel and sand of two river terraces;theywere exploited ina smallpit calledGrube Nactigall.Explorationdrillingsfrom
1997/98enabledinvestigatinga13.5mcorewiththewarmandcoolstagedepositsinrespectofsedimentology,palynostratigraphy
andradiometricdating.In2011theresultsconcerningthisNactigall-Complexhavebeenpublishedseparatelybytwogroupsof
authorsalsoconcernedwiththeproject.Since1994alsoanalyzinglithostratigraphyandstructureofthePleistoceneframework,
thatistosayabout25squarekilometersofvalleyfoorandhillsidelandscape,hasbeentheaimofthemethodologicallyindepend-
entstudypresentedhere.Tesubrosionstructureturnedouttobepartlylimitedbyfaults.TemostimportantPleistocenemapping
unitsarethedepositsof4riverterraces;indescendingcronologicalordertheseare:youngestUpperTerrace,notdislocated
OlderMiddleTerrace,subsidedYoungerMiddleTerrace,notsubsidedLowerTerrace,notsubsided,itssedimentspartially
lying upon subsided Older MiddleTerrace deposits. Te layers of Nactigall-Complex likewise directly overlie subsided Older
MiddleTerracedepositsandwithanangularunconformityareoverlainbyYoungerMiddleTerracedeposits;theyaresubsidedand
deformed.Accordingtogenerallyacceptedtraditionalmappingoutsidethestudysite,theOlderMiddleTerracehastobeassigned
totheMIS8equivalentinthelowerpartoftheSaalianComplex,andtheYoungerMiddleTerracetothedeepMIS6equivalentin
thedeepestportionoftheupperSaalianComplex,i.e.pre-Drenthe.HencethepalynologicalaswellastheradiometricMIS7ageof
therecentlydefnedNactigall1Interglacialcorrespondtothelithostratigraphicmodelinferredfromstructuralanalysis.
die vor-drenthe-zeitliche Jngere mittelterrasse ber dem mis 7 nachtigall-interglazial Elemente der subrosions-
struktur Albaxen bei hxter/Weser, nW-deutschland
Kurzfassung: IneinerSubrosionsstrukturberEvaporitendesOberenBuntsandsteinsindimBerglandamOberlaufderWeserzwiscenHx-
ter und Holzminden pleistozne warm- und khlzeitlice Tone- und Torfe erhalten geblieben. Sie trennen hier kaltzeitlice
Terrassen-Kiese und -Sande derWeser. Als Rohstof wurden sie in dem kleinenTagebau Nactigall abgebaut. Aus Bohrungen,
die 1997/98 zur Erkundung der Lagerstte u.a. als Rammkernbohrungen niedergebract wurden, standen fr geowissenscaf-
lice Untersucungen 33 m nahezu durcgehende Kernstrece zur Verfgung. Daraus konnten 13,5 m fr sedimentologisce,
palynostratigraphisce und radiocronologisce Untersucungen ausgewhlt werden. Diese warm- und khlklimatiscen Ab-
lagerungen wurden als Nactigall-Complex zusammengefasst und 2011 von zwei Autorengruppen des Projekts in zwei metho-
disc untersciedlicen Artikeln verfentlict. Als geologiscer Rahmen wurden 25 km
2
Flussniederungs- und Hanglandscaf
seit 1994 lithostratigraphisc und strukturgeologisc mit dem hier vorgelegten Ergebnis analysiert. Die zuvor scon bekannte
Subrosionsstruktur erwies sic als z.T. von Strungen begrenzt. Die wictigsten pleistoznen Kartiereinheiten sind die Sedi-
mentkrpervon4Flussterrassen;nacabnehmendemAltersinddies:jngstederOberterrassen,nictabgesunkenltere
Mitelterrasse (MT), abgesunken Jngere Mitelterrasse, nict abgesunken Niederterrasse, z.T. auf Scicten der abge-
sunkenen MT. Die Scicten des Nactigall-Complex liegen direkt ber Scicten der MT und werden von Scicten der
Jngeren Mitelterrasse diskordant berlagert; sie sind abgesunken und verformt. Auerhalb des Untersucungsgebietes wird
dieMTihrerLageinderTerrassentreppegemdemMarinenIsotopen-StadiumMIS8imunterenTeildesSaale-Komplex
zugeordnet, die Jngere Mitelterrasse dem lteren Abscnit von MIS 6 im tiefen oberen Teil des Saale-Komplex vor dem
Drenthe-Stadium. Damit wird das sowohl palynostratigraphisc als auc radiometrisc ermitelte MIS 7-Alter des zwiscen
beidenliegendenjngstdefniertenNactigall1Interglaziallithostratigraphiscgesttzt.
Keywords: Younger Middle Terrace, Wehrden-Niveau, Nactigall1 Interglacial, Older Middle Terrace, Reiherbac-Niveau, Saalian Complex,
pre-Drenthe period, MIS6, MIS7, MIS8, mapping, lithostratigraphy, structural analysis, river terrace, staircase-position, stac-
position, Weser upper reaces, Albaxen subrosion structure, NW-Germany
Addresses of authors:P. Rohde, MdenerWeg61,30625Hannover,Germany;J. Lepper,AhldenerStrae10E,30625Hannover,Germany;
both formerly state geological survey of Lower Saxony, todays Landesamt fr Bergbau, Energie und Geologie, Hannover

134
E&G / vol. 61 / no. 2 / 2012 / 133145 / DOi 10.3285/eg.61.2.02 / authors / Creative Commons attribution license
1 introduction
Ifwelookbactothestartingpointofthepresentstudyin
1998,wefnd:
apitforexploitingpeatcoalandclayformanifestly
morethanacentury
iceagedepositsofinterglacialcaractertakennoteof
foratleastahundredyears
questionableassignmentofthewarmperiodstratato
thePleistocenestratigraphy.
We also fnd a drilling project for expanding the area of
opencastworkingtothenorth.JocenLepperlocatedand
supervisedthedrillings,evaluatedthedrillingproject(Lep-
per 1998, 2011) and made available core KB 1 for scientif-
ic investigation. He also coordinated the studies that are
basedonstructuralanalysispluslithostratigraphy,onsedi-
mentology, on palynology plus palynostratigraphy, and on
radiometric dating. An initially envisaged common publi-
cation regretably has not been realized as it turned out to
be too complex and too long. Special mention should be
made of the comprehensive palaeobotanic analyses of Hel-
mut Mller, by whic he unravelled intricate depositional
environmentsofpeatcoalandclay.Tushedeterminedthe
stratigraphic position of Nactigall-Complex, got aware of
itscontemporaneitywiththesuccessionofGtingen/Ot-
tostrae(Grger1996),andfoundouttheanalogywiththe
Velay profle, Massif Central, south-central France (Reille
etal.2000,Beaulieuetal.2001).Hisdeathcalledforfnally
supportinghispalynostratigraphicconclusions.Tewayin
whictheauthorsaccountedforthebio-andcronostrati-
graphic results has been outlined by Kleinmann, Mller,
Lepper&Waas(2011).
PeterRohdecoulddiscussthoroughlyhisresultsofterrace
stratigraphyandhisideasconcerningthesourceofcertain
fne-grainedclasticmaterwithHelmutMller.Histerrace
modelissupportedbyresultsofthedeceasedfeldgeoscien-
tistandhighlyappreciatedcolleagueWolfgangTiem,Han-
noverUniversity,GeographicInstitute(Thiem1988;Rohde
&Thiem1998).WolfgangTiemhastakenactivepartinthe
feldworkinNactigallpit.Tepresentpaperhasbeeniniti-
ated by Jocen Lepper, who above all contributed the geo-
logicalseting.
Wewouldliketopointtotheendoftextwhereabbrevia-
tionsareexplained.
2 study site
TestudyareaintheWeserValleyinNW-Germanyissitu-
ated in the Mesozoic uplands, about 60 km south of their
northern edge. Here, downstream of the medieval town of
Hxter,about25squarekilometersofvalleyfoorandhill-
sidelandscapeareincluded(Fig.1).Fororientingoneself,a
more prominent place may be Corvey Abbey near Hxter,
a world heritage name because of the 1130 years old, well
preservedCarolingianwestwork.
Te so called Zece NACHTIGALL (Nightingale pit) is
ataplacethatsincethemiddleofthe16thcenturyiscalled
Bergsteteintermsofaprospectivesite(MichaelKoch,
Hxter,personalcommunication2010).Ithasbeenexploit-
edmaybesince1795(TonenburginWikipedia[27Fe-
br.2012]),maybefromthe1840s(Schlegel1997).Documen-
tarilymentioned,subsurfacepeat-coalminingwaspracticed
at least since 1857 (Schlegel 1997: map of mine 1866) up
to a date well before 1884/86 (Carthaus 1886), and about
1920 until 1923. Besides,clay has been extracted tempo-
rarilybyopencastworkhavingstartedsometimebetween
1866 and 1884. In 1895 the Feldbrandziegelei Johann Buc
was founded. Recently the bricworks Ziegelwerk Buc at
Hxter-Albaxen,initssmallNactigallclaypit(Fig.1,2,3)
extracted minor quantities of peat coal, but primarily car-
bonaceouspelitesasbefore.
It is worth noting that at a distance of about 150 km, at
Witen-Bommern,Ruhrdistrict,thereisanotherancientpit
withthesamenameZeceNactigall.17431892,thisformer
collieryproducedcarboniferoushardcoal,and2003hasbeen
transformedintotheidenticallynamedIndustrialMuseum.
3 Previous research
TepeatandclaydepositsofNactigallpithaveatractedinter-
estsincethe19thcentury(Dechen1884;Carthaus1886;Ko-
ken1901;Siegert1913,1921;Soergel1927,1939;Stoller1928).
In 1908/09 and 1927 frst thorough studies were conducted to
presentthegeologicalmap1:25000,sheetHolzminden,todays
number4122(Grupe1912,1929).Muclaterthesite-specifcex-
traordinaryPleistocenesuccessioninthesouthofthemapped
area was dealt with again (Brelie et al. 1971, Mller 1986,
Rohde 1989, Rohde & Thiem 1998). Mangelsdorf (1981)
studiedgeologicallytheNactigallsiteandinvestigatedpal-
ynologicallythesuccessionofitsMiddle-Pleistoceneorganic
deposits. Te hydrogeological aspect of the area has been
investigated by Straaten (1982) and Fischer et al. (1990).
Telatestinformationwasgivenbyanunpublishedreport
byLepper(1998)inthecontextofthecompanysrequestto
theauthoritiesforextendingthehithertograntedexploita-
tionofthecarbonaceousbricclay.Forarcivedsupporting
documentsseeLepper(2011).
4 borehole evidence
Tepresentstructuralstudyandmaparebasedonboreholes
of very diferent informative value (Fig. 2, 3) that may be
dividedinto5groups.
1) Treepercussivecore/washboreholesasexplora-
tionboreholesforexploringtheextensionoftheclay
andpeatdeposit,additionallyusedasgroundwater
observation-wells/Grundwassermestellen(Lepper
1998,2011).
KB1 (1998),cored1043m;thecorewasinvestigated
sedimentologicallyandpalynologicallyingreatdetail
(Kleinmannetal.2011),partiallyalsobyradiometric
dating(Waas,Kleinmann&Lepper2011);
Gauss-KruegergridreferenceR3527755/H5741810,
elevation+108.55mNN;geographiccoordinates
514834.8N/92404.7E.
KB2(1998),cored1013m/1516m/18.232m,
washedfortherest;Gauss-Kruegergridreference
R3527855/H5741805,elevation+105.27mNN.
135
E&G / vol. 61 / no. 2 / 2012 / 133145 / DOi 10.3285/eg.61.2.02 / authors / Creative Commons attribution license
Fig. 1: Geological Seting. Taken from Lepper & Mengeling (1990), with modifcations. As to further details see Fig.2.
Abb. 1: Geologiscer Rahmen. Nac Lepper & Mengeling (1990), mit nderungen. Weitere Signaturen siehe Abb.2.
//y
//f
//fl
//Lo
qN
q(WE)
qpi
q(R)
q(L)
q(W)
q//t
q//tn
k
mo
mm
mu
so
smS
KB 1
49, 158,161




































































































anthropogenic landfill
Holocene floodplaine loam
periglacial solifluction detritus
loess and loess derivatives
Lower Terrace deposits (Weichselian and uppermost Saalian)
deposits of Younger Middle Terrace: Wehrden-Niveau (upper Saalian)
Nachtigall-Complex: warm and cool climate with interbedded cold climate deposits
deposits of Older Middle Terrace: Reiherbach-Niveau (lower Saalian)
Upper Terraces, youngest unit: Lauenfrde-Niveau (Elsterian)
Upper Terraces, second youngest unit: Wrgassen-Niveau (Elsterian)
deposits of Weser terraces older than Weichselian
deposits of tributary valleys terraces
Keuper (Upper Triassic)
Upper Muschelkalk (Middle Triassic)
Middle Muschelkalk (Middle Triassic)
Lower Muschelkalk (Middle Triassic)
Upper Buntsandstein (Lower Triassic)
Solling-Folge, Middle Buntsandstein (Lower Triassic)
edge of valley floor (flood plain and Lower Terrace)
subsurface fault, inferred, in parts limiting the subsided area
border zone, where subsidence is fading away
reference borehole
cored research borehole 1998
outcrop numbers, without relevance in this map section
NWSE-line of vertical section, northern part of map, without relevance in this map section
136
E&G / vol. 61 / no. 2 / 2012 / 133145 / DOi 10.3285/eg.61.2.02 / authors / Creative Commons attribution license
KB3(1998),partlycored1517m,cored1728mdepth,
washedfortherest;Gauss-Kruegergridreference
R3527888/H5741665,elevation+102.22mNN.
2) Treeadditionalwashboreholesasexploratoryand
groundwaterobservationwells;theseareB1,B2,B4
(1998)of36m/27.5m/31m,havingpenetratedthe
clayandpeatdeposit(Lepper1998).
3) EightpercussionboreholesS1S8(1997),upto13m
deep,forgroundwaterobservationandforinvestigating
thestratathatoverlietheclayandpeatdeposit(Lep-
per1998).
4) Approximately50boreholesforgravel-explorationand
groundwatersurveyinthesurroundingsoftheclayand
peatdeposit(1952and1972-1998,databasesofthestate
geologicalsurveysLandesamtfrBergbau,Energieund
Geologie,Hannover,aswellasGeologiscerDienst
Nordrhein-Westfalen,Krefeld).
5) AccordingtoGrupe(1929)fvehistoricalexploration
boreholesinthecontextofcoalminingactivities,54m
(about1905)and18m/20m/28m/29m(about1919).
5 methods
Te geological study is principally concerned with the
structural analysis of a 25 km
2
area around Nactigall pit
with its deposits of interglacial caracter (Nactigall-Suc-
cession,Kleinmannetal.2011).Itdistinguisheslithostrati-
graphic units and decodes the intricate structure of their
horizontal and vertical relative positions. Finally it aims at
assigning the elements of the structural geological mod-
el to Pleistocene stratigraphy (Litt et al. 2007) and to the
cronostratigraphically calibrated MIS system of Marine
16
O-IsotopeStages(e.g.Petitetal.2000).
Te lithostratigraphic and the structural investigations
comprisegeologicalmappinginthepitandapplyingthede-
tailedgeologicalmap1:25000byGrupe(1929)andalsothe
diplomathesisbyStraaten(1982).Moreoveritcomprises
evaluatinghistoricalmineplansaswellasevaluating,inter-
pretingandcorrelatingthepetrographicboreholedataofall
sortsofboreholerecordsavailable(seeabove).Groundlevel
elevation refers to German Ordnance datum NN (Normal
Null)mainlyaccordingtoTopographicMap1:5000,partly
toTopographicMap1:25000.
Assigningthesedimentarybodiestospecifcunitsofthe
Pleistocenestratigraphyhasbeencarriedoutonthebaseof
Fig. 2: Albaxen subrosion structure. Central part of Fig. 1, augmented.
Mapping 2008 by Peter Rohde.
Abb. 2: Subrosionsstruktur von Albaxen. Innerer Teil von Abb. 1, vergr-
ert. Kartierung 2008, Peter Rohde.
Fig. 3: Plan of Nactigall pit. Topography from Deutsce Grundkarte
1:5 000, Nactigall, 3526Rects, 5740Hoc.
Abb. 3: Gelndegrundriss der Grube Nactigall. Topographie nac Deut-
sce Grundkarte 1:5 000, Nactigall, 3526Rects, 5740Hoc.
100 200 m
W
E
S
E
R
Nachtigall
Gr2
B1
Gr1
Gr3
KB2
S1
S4
S2
S5
S6
KB3
B4
S3
B2
S8
S7
KB1
N
Hxter
Holzminden
C
M
Y
CM
MY
CY
CMY
K
ocp
1 km
W
e
s
e
r
Albaxen
KB1
A B
Fig. 3
valley floor (flood plain and Lower Terrace)
subsurface fault, inferred, in parts limiting the subsided area
border zone, where subsidence is fading away
reference borehole
Holz-
minden
N
underground mining 1859/66
underground mining
1920 and before
area of expansion of the site to the north, with
exploration boreholes KB _, B _, S _ (see chapter 4)
WE vertical section (see fig. 4)
open cast pit


26 Rechts, 40 Hoch, Nachtigall.
3



40 Hoch, Nachtigall.
3

ocp
}
(from Hoffmann 1920)
137
E&G / vol. 61 / no. 2 / 2012 / 133145 / DOi 10.3285/eg.61.2.02 / authors / Creative Commons attribution license
mapping experience both in the uplands of Lower Saxony
withtheirfuvialterraces(e.g.Rohde1989)andinthelow-
lands with their drif sediments and, moreover, in the bor-
derlandinbetween.Forbroadunderstandingthepresentar-
ticlereferstotheMIS-system(Marineisotopestages)ashas
beentakenintoaccountbyLittetal.(2007).
6 Geological setting: the solid rock
TeNactigallclaypitissituatedatthewesternfankofthe
anticlinal structureSolling-Gewlbe built up by red beds
oftheBuntsandstein group (Germanic LowerTriassic)that
comprises a clastic, pelitic sequence with evaporitic inter-
bedsinitsupperportion(Fig.1).Only0.7kmwestofNacti-
gallpitshallowmarinesedimentsoftheMuscelkalkgroup
(GermanicMiddleTriassic)thatoverlaystheBuntsandstein
group are outcropping. Te botom of the Buntsandstein is
builtupbyanUpperPermian(Zecstein)successionofma-
rineevaporitesandcarbonatesunderlainbyLowerPermian
(Rotliegend)redbedswhicrestunconformablyonthefold-
edVariscanbasement.
Afer updoming of the Mesozoic sediment pile in the
course of late Cretaceous toTertiary times, the antecedent
RiverWeser subsequently incised an isoclinal valley from
late Tertiary to late Pleistocene in the zone between the
western fank of the Buntsandstein-anticline and the out-
croppingLowerMuscelkalktothewestofit.Inthestudy
areatheWeservalleygenerallyfollowsthestrikeoftheUp-
perBuntsandsteinbedswithpelitesandevaporiteseasilyto
beeroded.
Within the Upper Buntsandstein mudstone and evapor-
ites, leacing processes have afected cloride and sulfate
layers. Te process started in the evaporite outcrop area at
thewesternfankoftheSolling-Gewlbeandsuccessively
progradedfromeasttowestandfromsurfacetosubsurface
according to the regional dip. Te original evaporite thic-
nessmighthavebeenuptoapproximately100m.
Tereforeinthewesternpartofthepresentvalleyandon
theadjacenthillsidethisgeneralgeologicalsetingiscompli-
catedbyasubrosionstructureasasediment-trapofPleis-
tocene age whic cannot be recognized morphologically at
the ground surface but whic is refected by the trapped
Tab. 1: Qaternary lithostratigraphic units in Albaxen site near Hxter, NW-Germany. Te site includes the Albaxen subrosion structure with the warm,
cool, and cold stage sedimentsts of Nactigall-Deposit. Data concerne base level, surface level and thicness of lithostratigraphic units (Rohde2008).
Maximum subsidence suggested 6265m (?78m).
Tab. 1: Qartrzeitlice lithostratigraphisce Einheiten im Gebiet Albaxen bei Hxter in NW-Deutscland. Das Gebiet umfasst die Subrosionsstruktur
von Albaxen mit den warm-, khl- und kaltzeitlicen Nactigall-Lagersttenscicten. Erfasst sind die Einheiten nac Basis- und Oberfcen-Hhen-
lage und Mctigkeit (Rohde2008). Die Absenkung durc Subrosion betrgt maximal vermutlic 6265m (?78m).
deposits base: meter relative to recent surface recent thickness: meter
nn
wOF
1)

{} km 27 117
meter nn mean minimum maximum
upper terraces,
lauenfrde niveau
116 126 {28 37} 132 (?)
Older Middle terrace (reiherbach niveau)
ditto: subsided
103 110 {15 22}
- borehole kB 3 / 1998
- borehole kB 2 / 1998
- borehole GrupE 1 (1919?)
< 74.2
< 73.3
< 69.9
< -13.6
< -14.4
< -18
4
5
7.3
OMt, subsided and undistinguishably cov-
ered by lower terrace
OMt, subsided, base extremely low-lying
71.0 75.5
40.8/38.0/?25.1
11.4 (n=8) 8.0 13.6
46.2
nachtigall-Deposit, subsided
ditto: top low-lying due to erosion
72.5 82.4 94.2 99.0
87.1 89.1
19.2 (n=3) 13.3
6.7
25.0
8.7
Younger Middle terrace (wehrden niveau) {-4 -1}
- borehole kB 2 / 1998
- borehole B 2 / 1998
- borehole kB 3 / 1998
87.07
87.56
89.12
-0.7
-0.1
+1.4
94.7
95.3
92.2
6.0(n=3)
{
7.4
7.7
2.8
solifuction matter incl. loess
loess: (sandy) loess, partly reworked
92.2 99.0
ground level
exceeding that of
lower terrace
10.4 (n=10)
2.5 (n=12)
9.0
2.0
11.0
3.1
lower terrace
ditto: top low-lying due to erosion and
covered with foodplain loam

76.2 80.3
{-11 -6}
ca -9
86.2 88.5
84.5 87.0
ca 9
7.6 (n=33) 5.0 10.2
foodplain loam (Holocene) 84.5 87.0 (88.5?)86.2(84.8) 2.6 (n=40) 0.6 3.5
1)
wOF: water-level of over-bank fooding; corresponding to Mittleres Hochwasser
MHw ( Mean annual highest water-level) 19411980, weser-km 7383
88.5 84.8
}
138
E&G / vol. 61 / no. 2 / 2012 / 133145 / DOi 10.3285/eg.61.2.02 / authors / Creative Commons attribution license
sediments(Albaxensubrosionstructure,Fig.1and2)and
isdealtwithincapter7.
7 the Quaternary deposits within and adjacent to the
subsided area
Tefossilsubrosionstructureis5kmby2or3respectively,
thelongaxisfollowingtheSSWNNEtrendingWeserval-
ley (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2; Rohde 2008). Te Pleistocene depo-
sitional environment comprises two diferent sedimentary
complexesbelongingtodiferentmorphologicalunits.
7.1 todays valley foor
Tis fat ground extends as far as the mainlyWeicselian
Lower Terrace and the Holocene food plain (Fig. 1). Te
surfaceleveloftheLowerTerraceisat+86.2to+88.5mNN,
whereasthatofthefoodplainonlyisat86.2monaverage
(84.888.5 m; Table 1). Te top layers of the Lower Ter-
race comprise 2 m, in some parts 3 m of sandy loess-like
loam, deposited by a periglacial river in the braided river
plain during a period of very low river activity.Yet in the
foodplaintherehavebeenaccumulated2.5m(min:0.5m,
max:3.5m)oforganicsandyorargillaceoussilt,deposited
as over-bank sediments during foods of the meandering
Weser. Beneath both of them there are periglacial braided
riversandandgraveloftheLowerTerracewithasupposed
baselevelof+76.2to+80.3mNN,thatis9mbelowrecent
Water-levelofover-bankfooding(WOF),onaverage.
In a certain area similar sand and gravel are also found
belowthislevel(Fig.2;Fig.4:q(R)),ineightboreholesdown
to +71 m NN, and in a few boreholes still deeper, with a
minimumvalueof+40.8andpossiblyeven+25.1mNN.Te
resulting overall thicness of sand and gravel is 11.5 m on
average and 46 m as maximum in comparison with 7.5 m
concerning the Lower Terrace separately. Tis diference
of thicness is explained by subsidence due to subrosion,
the lower part of the sediment stac interpreted as Older
MiddleTerrace sediments (see below); the actual situation
suggestsdepositionofonlythatseriesduringsubsidenceof
thebedrocbeneathit.
7.2 todays hillside
Te subrosion structure is not confned to the valley foor,
but westward also comprises the lower part of the hillside
downhilltheMuscelkalkescarpmentandalsoincludesthe
Nactigallopencastpit.Tesurfaceoftheslopeisbuiltup
by loess and solifuction detritus (gelifuction detritus) of
limestoneandmudstonewiththinslopewashintercalations
Fig. 4: MIS 7 Nactigall interglacial deposits between Saalian Older Middle Terrace and Younger Middle Terrace of the River Weser in stac-position (!not:
staircase-position). Cross section; main focus upon Nactigall concession near Albaxen, Nof Hxter, NW-Germany. Draf: Peter Rohde in2008. As to the
up-to-date stratifcation of KB1 borehole profle see Kleinmann etal.(2011) and present paper, section7.2.
Abb. 4: Ablagerungen des MI-Stadium 7 mit Nactigall-Interglazial. Vorkommen zwiscen der lteren und der Jngeren Weser-Mitelterrasse aus der
Saale-Kaltzeit in Stapel-Lagerung (und nict Treppen-Lagerung). Vertikaler Qerscnit, im Wesentlicen durc das Gelnde der Konzession Nactigall
bei Albaxen nrdlic von Hxter in NW-Deutscland. Entwurf: Peter Rohde i.J.2008. Zur aktuellen Gliederung der Scictenfolge in Bohrung KB1 siehe
Kleinmann etal.(2011) sowie Abscnit7.2 der vorliegenden Verfentlicung.
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
50 100 m m above
sea-level
W E
KB1 KB2 B2
S2 S5
projected
{
s
q(R)
qN
//f
qpi
q(WE)
//fl
//Lo
Recent time
Weser River: water (mean water level)
Holocene








Saalian Complex, upper cold period
Younger Middle Terrace (Wehrden-Niveau):
gravel and sand of the Weser River









//f
q(WE)
Weser River
s
C
M
Y
CM
MY
CY
CMY
K





g
Weichselian (high-glacial time)
loess, sandy loess, loess slope-wash: silt, fine sand, middle sand
Weichselian and upper cold period of the Saalian Complex
solifluction detritus: silt/sand (including loess etc)/clay with
fragments of limestone/mudstone






Saalian Complex, lower cold period
Older Middle Terrace (Reiherbach-Niveau),
subsided: gravel and sand of the Weser River
Upper Buntsandstein: mudstone, gypsum residuals
(at 130m above sea-level overlain by Lower Muschelkalk
limestone [mu])
s
q(R)
//fl
//Lo

30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
m above
sea-level
W
KB1 K B2
S2 S5
projected
{
qpi
q
//fl
//Lo
Recent time
Weser River: water (mean water level)
Holocene
floodplain loam: humous silt
Weichselian (and uppermost Saalian)
Lower Terrace: gravel and sand of the Weser River
Weichselian (high-glacial time)
loess, sandy loess, loess slope-wash: silt, fine sand, middle sand
Weichselian and upper cold period of the Saalian Complex
solifluction detritus: silt/sand (including loess etc)/clay with
fragments of limestone/mudstone












s
q(R)
qN
//f
qpi
q(WE)
//fl
//Lo

s
C
M
Y
CM
MY
CY
CMY
K
Saalian Complex, middle period including Nachtigall-Complex,
warm, cool and interbedded cold climate deposits, subsided:
lacustrine silt / clay, paludial organic silt / clay, peat





g
W










S











River


























g
W










S











Weser River
W

























g
W










S











River


























g
W










S











Weser River
W

























g
W










S











River


























g
W










S











Weser River
W

























g
W










S











River


























g
W










S











Weser River
W

























g
W










S











River


























g
W










S











Weser River
W




















medium





g
W
sand









S













sand
























g
W
sand









S













sand
























g
Weichselian (high-glacial time)
loess, sandy loess, loess slope-wash: silt, fine sand, middle sand
Weichselian and upper cold period of the Saalian Complex
solifluction detritus: silt/sand (including loess etc)/clay with
fragments of limestone/mudstone






Saalian Complex, lower cold period
Older Middle Terrace (Reiherbach-Niveau),
subsided: gravel and sand of the Weser River
Upper Buntsandstein: mudstone, gypsum residuals
(at 130m above sea-level overlain by Lower Muschelkalk
limestone [mu])
s
q(R)
//fl
//Lo

30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
m above
sea-level
W
KB1 K B2
S2 S5
projected
{
qpi
q
//fl
//Lo
Recent time
Weser River: water (mean water level)
Holocene
floodplain loam: humous silt
Weichselian (and uppermost Saalian)
Lower Terrace: gravel and sand of the Weser River
Weichselian (high-glacial time)
loess, sandy loess, loess slope-wash: silt, fine sand, middle sand
Weichselian and upper cold period of the Saalian Complex
solifluction detritus: silt/sand (including loess etc)/clay with
fragments of limestone/mudstone












s
q(R)
qN
//f
qpi
q(WE)
//fl
//Lo

s
C
M
Y
CM
MY
CY
CMY
K
Saalian Complex, middle period including Nachtigall-Complex,
warm, cool and interbedded cold climate deposits, subsided:
lacustrine silt / clay, paludial organic silt / clay, peat





g
Weichselian (high-glacial time)
loess, sandy loess, loess slope-wash: silt, fine sand, middle sand
Weichselian and upper cold period of the Saalian Complex
solifluction detritus: silt/sand (including loess etc)/clay with
fragments of limestone/mudstone






Saalian Complex, lower cold period
Older Middle Terrace (Reiherbach-Niveau),
subsided: gravel and sand of the Weser River
Upper Buntsandstein: mudstone, gypsum residuals
(at 130m above sea-level overlain by Lower Muschelkalk
limestone [mu])
s
q(R)
//fl
//Lo

Saalian Complex, middle period including Nachtigall-Complex,
warm, cool and interbedded cold climate deposits, subsided:
lacustrine silt / clay, paludial organic silt / clay, peat





g
Weichselian (high-glacial time)
loess, sandy loess, loess slope-wash: silt, fine sand, middle sand
Weichselian and upper cold period of the Saalian Complex
solifluction detritus: silt/sand (including loess etc)/clay with
fragments of limestone/mudstone






Saalian Complex, lower cold period
Older Middle Terrace (Reiherbach-Niveau),
subsided: gravel and sand of the Weser River
Upper Buntsandstein: mudstone, gypsum residuals
(at 130m above sea-level overlain by Lower Muschelkalk
limestone [mu])
s
q(R)
//fl
//Lo

30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
m above
sea-level
W
KB1 K B2
S2 S5
projected
{
qpi
q
//fl
//Lo
Recent time
Weser River: water (mean water level)
Holocene
floodplain loam: humous silt
Weichselian (and uppermost Saalian)
Lower Terrace: gravel and sand of the Weser River
Weichselian (high-glacial time)
loess, sandy loess, loess slope-wash: silt, fine sand, middle sand
Weichselian and upper cold period of the Saalian Complex
solifluction detritus: silt/sand (including loess etc)/clay with
fragments of limestone/mudstone












s
q(R)
qN
//f
qpi
q(WE)
//fl
//Lo

s
C
M
Y
CM
MY
CY
CMY
K
Saalian Complex, middle period including Nachtigall-Complex,
warm, cool and interbedded cold climate deposits, subsided:
lacustrine silt / clay, paludial organic silt / clay, peat
Saalian Complex, middle period including Nachtigall-Complex,
warm, cool and interbedded cold climate deposits, subsided:
lacustrine silt / clay, paludial organic silt / clay, peat





g
Weichselian (high-glacial time)
loess, sandy loess, loess slope-wash: silt, fine sand, middle sand
Weichselian and upper cold period of the Saalian Complex
solifluction detritus: silt/sand (including loess etc)/clay with
fragments of limestone/mudstone






Saalian Complex, lower cold period
Older Middle Terrace (Reiherbach-Niveau),
subsided: gravel and sand of the Weser River
Upper Buntsandstein: mudstone, gypsum residuals
(at 130m above sea-level overlain by Lower Muschelkalk
limestone [mu])
s
q(R)
//fl
//Lo

Saalian Complex, middle period including Nachtigall-Complex,
warm, cool and interbedded cold climate deposits, subsided:
lacustrine silt / clay, paludial organic silt / clay, peat





g
Weichselian (high-glacial time)
loess, sandy loess, loess slope-wash: silt, fine sand, middle sand
Weichselian and upper cold period of the Saalian Complex
solifluction detritus: silt/sand (including loess etc)/clay with
fragments of limestone/mudstone






Saalian Complex, lower cold period
Older Middle Terrace (Reiherbach-Niveau),
subsided: gravel and sand of the Weser River
Upper Buntsandstein: mudstone, gypsum residuals
(at 130m above sea-level overlain by Lower Muschelkalk
limestone [mu])
s
q(R)
//fl
//Lo

Saalian Complex, middle period including Nachtigall-Complex,
warm, cool and interbedded cold climate deposits, subsided:
lacustrine silt / clay, paludial organic silt / clay, peat
Saalian Complex, middle period including Nachtigall-Complex,
warm, cool and interbedded cold climate deposits, subsided:
lacustrine silt / clay, paludial organic silt / clay, peat
Saalian Complex, middle period including Nachtigall-Complex,
warm, cool and interbedded cold climate deposits, subsided:
lacustrine silt / clay, paludial organic silt / clay, peat





g
Weichselian (high-glacial time)
loess, sandy loess, loess slope-wash: silt, fine sand, middle sand
Weichselian and upper cold period of the Saalian Complex
solifluction detritus: silt/sand (including loess etc)/clay with
fragments of limestone/mudstone






Saalian Complex, lower cold period
Older Middle Terrace (Reiherbach-Niveau),
subsided: gravel and sand of the Weser River
Upper Buntsandstein: mudstone, gypsum residuals
(at 130m above sea-level overlain by Lower Muschelkalk
limestone [mu])
s
q(R)
//fl
//Lo

Saalian Complex, middle period including Nachtigall-Complex,
warm, cool and interbedded cold climate deposits, subsided:
lacustrine silt / clay, paludial organic silt / clay, peat
+





g
Weichselian (high-glacial time)
loess, sandy loess, loess slope-wash: silt, fine sand, middle sand
Weichselian and upper cold period of the Saalian Complex
solifluction detritus: silt/sand (including loess etc)/clay with
fragments of limestone/mudstone






Saalian Complex, lower cold period
Older Middle Terrace (Reiherbach-Niveau),
subsided: gravel and sand of the Weser River
Upper Buntsandstein: mudstone, gypsum residuals
(at 130m above sea-level overlain by Lower Muschelkalk
limestone [mu])
s
q(R)
//fl
//Lo

Saalian Complex, middle period including Nachtigall-Complex,
warm, cool and interbedded cold climate deposits, subsided:
lacustrine silt / clay, paludial organic silt / clay, peat
Saalian Complex, middle period including Nachtigall-Complex,
warm, cool and interbedded cold climate deposits, subsided:
lacustrine silt / clay, paludial organic silt / clay, peat
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
m above
sea-level
W
KB1 K B2
S2 S5
projected
{
qpi
q
//fl
//Lo
Recent time
Weser River: water (mean water level)
Holocene
floodplain loam: humous silt
Weichselian (and uppermost Saalian)
Lower Terrace: gravel and sand of the Weser River
Weichselian (high-glacial time)
loess, sandy loess, loess slope-wash: silt, fine sand, middle sand
Weichselian and upper cold period of the Saalian Complex
solifluction detritus: silt/sand (including loess etc)/clay with
fragments of limestone/mudstone












s
q(R)
qN
//f
qpi
q(WE)
//fl
//Lo

s
C
M
Y
CM
MY
CY
CMY
K
Saalian Complex, middle period including Nachtigall-Complex,
warm, cool and interbedded cold climate deposits, subsided:
lacustrine silt / clay, paludial organic silt / clay, peat
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
m above
sea-level
W
KB1 K B2
S2 S5
projected
{
qpi
q
//fl
//Lo
Recent time
Weser River: water (mean water level)
Holocene
floodplain loam: humous silt
Weichselian (and uppermost Saalian)
Lower Terrace: gravel and sand of the Weser River
Weichselian (high-glacial time)
loess, sandy loess, loess slope-wash: silt, fine sand, middle sand
Weichselian and upper cold period of the Saalian Complex
solifluction detritus: silt/sand (including loess etc)/clay with
fragments of limestone/mudstone












s
q(R)
qN
//f
qpi
q(WE)
//fl
//Lo

s
C
M
Y
CM
MY
CY
CMY
K
Saalian Complex, middle period including Nachtigall-Complex,
warm, cool and interbedded cold climate deposits, subsided:
lacustrine silt / clay, paludial organic silt / clay, peat
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ofred,originallyeoliansand.Teseperiglacialsedimentsin
the northern pit area are 911 m thic (Fig. 4,Tab. 1) and
include an Eemian palaeosol of decalcifcation. Tey are
down-dippingtowardstheadjacentvalleyfoorintheeast.
Intheopencastpittheyoverlietheirsubstratumatanan-
gularunconformity,asthesubstratumgottrough-shapedby
subrosion,andinitseasternpartwastiltedtothewestand
erodedatitsformersurface.
Concerningthesubstratumupto25moflacustrinesilt,
clayandmudareinterbeddedwithseveralseamsofslight-
lycalciferouspeat.Intherecentquarryallthesesediments
(Fig.5)aredippinginwesterlydirectionstowardstheslope;
the bedding would assign the investigated section to the
eastern fank of a very shallow syncline if compared with
theformersubsurfaceminingareafartherinthesouth.Te
interglacial,interstadialandincludedstadiallayers,inbore-
holeKB1corecomprising10mofsediments,byA.Klein-
mannhavebeentermedNactigall-Succession(Kleinmann
et al. 2011; see Chapter 9). Te whole 13.5 m section stud-
iedpalynologicallyinKB1corebyA.Kleinmannhasbeen
termed Nactigall-Complex; it encloses 3.5 m of cold and
cool climate lacustrine mud and fen peat in its upper part.
With additional cold climate lacustrine (7.22 m) and am-
biguouslacustrineorslopesediments(4.28m)theKB1core
section is called Nactigall-Deposit in the present paper
(Tab.1).
InsummarythetermsusedforsectionsofKB1coreand
inthepresentpaperare
Nactigall-Succession: contains the deposits of intergla-
cial/interstadialcaracter(36.0026.02m);Nactigall-Com-
plex:stratawitharborealpollen>20%,i.e.atleasttreetun-
dra (36.0022.50 m); Nactigall-Deposit: contains peat and
clayintermsofnaturalmineralresource(36.0011.00m).
WithintheNactigall-Successionanditslowestsection,i.e.
Nactigall1Interglacial,thebaseofAllocthonousUnitI(cf.
Chapter9)includesdropstonesofWesercaracteristicswith-
out nordic material (pebbles 220 cm, sample K.D. Meyer,
August1998,analysisP.Rohde&J.Lepper,December1998).
SimilarlythebaseofAllocthonousUnitIIincludesanerratic
boulderofSwedishDalaquartzite(Grupe1929:Bohrung4,
meaning a shaf, but localisation regretably not to be veri-
fed).ItmusthavebeentransportedprimarilybytheElsterian
inlandice,thenmighthavebeendepositedinTuringiaand
icedrifedfromthereonalakeorbytheriver.Alternatively
it might have been drifed directly from the north to Nac-
tigallsiteonanElsterianicedammedlake(e.g.Winsemann
etal.2011;seealsoChapter10)andperhapsfurthermoreslid
down at the slope above the pit area from an unknown El-
steriansecondarydeposit.Teextraordinarylateralsupplyof
mineralmaterinwarmclimateperiodsstillisworthdiscuss-
ing(seeChapter10).
Adjacenttothepresentvalleyfoor,theNactigall-Depos-
Fig. 5: Temporary outcrop of Nactigall1 Interglacial with peatsA, B, C andD. As to lithostratigraphy see capter9. Folding ruler 1m. Photo Jocen Lep-
per, 18August1998. Approximate thicnesses are: - peat(D) 1.40m, upper part not visible, - clay and silt 1.90m, - peat(C) 0.05m, - clay and silt 1.00m,
- peat(B) 0.40m, - clay and silt (lower part dark) 0.85m, - peat(A) 1.30m, lower part not visible.
Abb. 5: Kurzzeitiger Aufscluss des Nactigall1 Interglazial mit den TorfenA, B, C undD. Zur Lithostratigraphie siehe Kapitel9. Messstab 1m. Foto
Jocen Lepper, 18.8.1998. Die Mctigkeit der Scicten betrgt etwa: - Torf(D) 1,40m, oberer Teil nict sictbar, - Ton und Scluf 1,90m, - Torf(C) 0,05m,
- Ton und Scluf 1,00m, - Torf(B) 0,40m, - Ton und Scluf (unterer Teil dunkel) 0,85m, - Torf(A) 1,30m, unterer Teil nict sictbar.
140
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itpartiallywaserodedatthetop.Forminganangularuncon-
formity, the erosion surface partially has been covered by
upto8morperhapsmoreoffuvialgravelandsandat-
tributed to the younger Saalian Weser terrace (Younger
Middle Terrace orWehrden-Niveau,Table 1, Fig. 4, Fig. 5;
Rohde1989).Testratahavenotbeendislocated,theirbase
levelisat+87to+89mNN(Grupe1929:geol.Map),i.e.mi-
nus0.7mtoplus1.4mrelativetoWOF.Tesedatesarein
accordancewithresultsofareferencesurvey(Rohde1989).
Partially the sediments interfnger with the solifuction de-
tritus mentioned above. Later, the fuvial gravel and sand
were covered with diferent periglacial sediments, whic
alsocappedthewestern,lessornoterodedpartoftheNac-
tigall-Deposit.
In KB 1 borehole above the Nactigall-Deposit no fu-
vial, but only sediments of the slope were encountered
(Fig. 4). In contrast KB 2 core drilling revealed Younger
MiddleTerracesedimentstop-downconsistingof:
1.9m medium-grainedsandwithsilt,fnesand,coarse
sand,litlefnegrit,redbrown,fuvial(Weser)
5.7m gravel,withsandandcoarsepebbles,redtogrey,
fuvial(Weser).
Tis succession is typical for a fuvial sediment series
formedduringperiglacialconditions.
TeNactigall-Depositisunderlainbyfuvialgraveland
sand assigned to the older Saalian Weser terrace (Older
Middle Terrace or Reiherbac-Niveau, Table 1; Roh-
de 1989). By the pit-extension drillings its base was not
reaced, lying deeper than +74 m to +70 m NN. In the
valley-foor where this gravel and sand are also found
theirbasemightbeatabout+41mNNminimum(oreven
+25mNN,seeabove).
7.3 basin structure and development
Te two morphological elements, that means valley foor
andhillside(section7.1,section7.2),aredividedbyayoung
scarp at the foot of the hillside (Fig. 4: 10 m east of KB 2
borehole) and close to it by an escarpment visible as steep
western river bank and extending down below the river
surface(Fig.4:80meastofKB2).Bothfacesareduetofu-
vialdowncuting.Telater,beingtheolderone,originated
whentheLowerTerraceriverformedthedeepincisionand
the wide periglacial braided river plain at the end of the
//Lo
qw//fl
qs//fl
q(WE)/Gr
q(WE)/S
q(WE)/G
// l-pal
WEICHSELIAN
Loess etc. (see Fig.4: //Lo)
Solifluction detritus (see Fig.4: //fl)
SAALIAN COMPLEX
UPPER COLD PERIOD
Solifluction detritus (see Fig.4: //fl)
YOUNGER MIDDLE TERRACE
(Wehrden Niveau, cf. Fig.4: q(WE))
Limestone debris (from hillside) and
sand (Weser)
Sand (Weser), partly cross-bedded
Gravel and sand (Weser)
MIDDLE PERIOD TO UPPER COLD PERIOD
Lacustrine and paludal silt / clay
//Lo
qw//fl
qs//fl q(WE)/Gr
q(WE)/Gr
q(WE)/S
q(WE)/G
// l-pal
// l-pal
// l-pal
// l-pal
// l-pal
// l-pal
// l-pal
W E
Photo
Fig. 6: Younger Middle Terrace deposits interfngering with solifuction detritus. Qarry face, autumn2011. Drawing: lef margin R 35 27 760,
H 57 41 690, elevation +108.7mNN, height above botom 16.4m, right margin R 35 27 875, H 57 41 685, elevation +103.5mNN, width 115 m.
Photo: lef margin R 35 27 790, H 57 41 700, elevation +107.3mNN, width 85m. Above numerical data approximate only. Folding rule in middle of photo:
1 m; at right margin: 2m. Photos Jocen Lepper, 7Oct. and 30Nov. 2011. Photo interpretation Peter Rohde. For the frst time the quarry face exposes the
complete overburden stac of the Nactigall-Deposit in a WEsection, appr. hundred meters south of sectionAB (Fig.3, Fig.4).
Abb. 6: Ablagerungen der Jngeren Mitelterrasse, verzahnt mit Solifuktionsscut. Grubenwand, Herbst 2011. Zeicnung: linker Rand R 35 27 760,
H 57 41 690, Gelnde +108,7mNN, Wandhhe16,4m, recter Rand R 35 27 875, H 57 41 685, Gelnde +103,5mNN, Wandlnge 115m.
Foto: linker Rand R 35 27 790, H 57 41 700, Gelnde +107,3mNN, Wandlnge 85m. Alle Lage-Angaben als Circa-Werte. Messstab im Foto, Mite: 1m;
recter Rand: 2m. Fotos Jocen Lepper, 7.10. und 30.11.2011. Foto-Auswertung Peter Rohde. Erstmals erscliet die Grubenwand die vollstndige Scic-
tenfolge ber der Nactigall-Lagerstte in einem WE-Scnit etwa 100m sdlic des ScnitsAB (Abb.3, Abb.4).
141
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Saalian period. Te former resulted from partial erosion of
theLowerTerracesedimentstacneartoitsformersurface
atlate-glacialtime.
Yet the overall structure is complex. Information from
outcrops,boreholesandfromthegeologicalmapespecially
ofthepitareasuggestthatsubsidencebysubrosionafected
only the Older MiddleTerrace and the Nactigall-Deposit.
Faults(Fig.1,Fig.2)aresupposedtohavebeenefectiveas
slides during subsidence. At least partially they may have
been caused by subrosion. Only the aforementioned sedi-
mentsweredislocated.Tereareneitherindicationsofsub-
sidence concerning Elsterian deposits (Tab. 1; Rohde 1989:
LauenfrdeNiveau;Grupe1929:geol.Map:ObereTerrasse
between+120mand+132mNN)norarethereindications
concerningthesedimentsofYoungerMiddleTerraceandof
LowerTerrace and of the periglacial slope deposits. In the
valley foor, larger diferences of thicness of Pleistocene
depositsbeneaththeHolocenefoodplainalsomustbeex-
plainedbysubsidence.Tere,thisprocessexclusivelyhasaf-
fected the Older MiddleTerrace sediments underlying the
Lower Terrace sediments in great parts. Towards the east,
beneathfoodplainloamandLowerTerracegravelandsand,
thepreservationofOlderMiddleTerracedepositsbysubro-
sionisfadingaway.ItisimportanttonotethatOlderMiddle
Terracesedimentssubsidedbysubrosionhavebeenidenti-
fedatseveralsitesoftheWeservalley,sonearPolle,Boden-
werderandmaybealsonearHameln(Thiem,Fleig,Kliem
partlyjointinRohde&Thiem1998:116,120,141;besides
orallybyW.Tiem).
As to maximum subsidence there is no validated evi-
dence.FromthreedatesofOlderMiddleTerracesediments
a subsidence of ca 65 m, perhaps even of ca 78 m, relating
totheirundisturbedbaselevelinanupperWeserreference
surveybyRohde(1989)areworthbeingconsidered.
Generally the base of the Qaternary deposits seems to
be irregular as a result of diferent degrees of subrosion.
Tere might exist various sinking centers within the ba-
sin.Tracing a contour map of the base of the Qaternary
sedimentsinacoherentmannerregretablyremainsleftill
additionalboreholesprovidelessscateredandlessdiscon-
tinuousdatadistribution.
7.4 Postscript fndings in autumn 2011
Te advance of the open cast work to the north of the pit
area made possible studying the complete overburden
stac of the Nactigall-Deposit in a vertical and straight
quarry face for the frst time. Te study corroborates prin-
cipally the borehole data evaluation as presented in the
cross section of Fig. 4. Beyond that, explicitly examined it
reveals the onlapping superposition of younger units on
deformed and hill-ward dipping clay/silt layers of Nacti-
gall-Deposit. On an erosive basal face the onlapping units
comprise horizontal Younger Middle Terrace gravel and
sandintheeastaswellasthelowestsolifuctionunitinthe
west.Mostinstructivetoseehowtheyoungerfuvialsedi-
ments are directly supplied by limestone debris, that have
been transported downslope by periglacial solifuction.
Te overlying fuvial red sand displays evidently that the
periglacial fuvial activity weakened in the fnal stages as
generally is known from the latest phase of terrace build-
ingaccumulation,e.g.concerningLowerTerracetoplayers
(Rohde & Becker-Platen 1998: 42; 2002: 106). Fig. 6 sum-
marizes our supplementary fndings. It displays the quarry
face in direction of the hill slope and across the strike of
the clay deposits, as exposed in autumn 2011. It refers to
section2ofcapter7andsupportsevidentlythesuggested
synthesis. Te drawing is based on reconnaissance exami-
nation in the pit, supplemented by a relevant photo evalu-
ation.
At the time mentioned the bricworks being in liquida-
tion,theoutcropisinrisktogetlost,unfortunately.
8 discussion: younger middle terrace
Te Younger Middle Terrace seems to be a weakly devel-
oped geologic and hardly to distinguish morphologic ele-
ment. It might be overlooked therefore in most cases. Its
base instaircasepositionisminus4m(tominus1m)rela-
tive toWOF mapped by a reference survey (Rohde 1989).
Tat implies only ca 5 m of diference to the base of the
LowerTerraceandapositionlowerthantheLowerTerrace
surface.LikethesedimentpacageoftheOlderMiddleTer-
raceitisoneofthegeologicalunitsthatbuilduptheslope
along the side of a recent valley. Consequently its surface
lying at the botom of a slope is hidden by slope deposits
and/orloess.PossiblyinuplandpositionsYoungerMiddle
Terrace deposits with a rather low surface level escape the
geologists notice at the edge of the Lower Terrace or are
visibleonlyinoutcrops.
Tus feld mapping is in risk not to discern the depos-
its where both terraces really are existing and then simply
defnesamappingunitMiddleTerraceinthesenseofthe
common Older MiddleTerrace, the more so as this is sup-
posedtobethemainSaalianfuvialformationinLowerSax-
ony(yetWansainLittetal.2007:38).Ifthesedimentsof
diferentterracesoccurasstac,asisthecaseduetosubro-
sion(W.TiemconcerningWeservalley:Thiem1988;Rohde
&Thiem1998)andgenerallyisthecaseinlowlandregions,
theymightbecomplete,butinevitablyaredifculttoiden-
tifyincasetheylacinterbeddedinterglacialdeposits.
9 Conclusion: mis 8 -, mis 7 - and prior to saalian inland
glaciation mis 6 -deposits
Te fuvial deposits of the two Middle Terraces have to
be assigned stratigraphically to pre-Drenthe-stadial pe-
riods of the Saalian Complex (Litt & Turner 1993, Litt
etal.2007).InandaroundNactigallpitthedepositsmatc
thestratigraphicunitsastabulatedbelow(Tab.2).
Te direct contact of the sediments whic inTab. 2 are
accentuated by heavy print, contrasts with common ter-
race staircases in uplands; this fact must be emphasized
sufciently.IntheirspecialpositiondemonstratedinFig.4,
thetwoterracescorroboratethattheNactigall-Succession
with its interglacial and stadial layers has been deposited
during Marine Isotope Stage 7 (MIS 7) and neither during
theHolsteinian(MIS9e,Geyh&Mller2005)norduring
theEemian(MIS5e)interglacialperiods.Tecorrelationof
the Holsteinian interglacial alternatively to MIS 11 cannot
bediscussedhere.
Ashasbeenmentionedthefuvialactivityleadingtothe
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accumulation of the Younger Middle Terrace occurred be-
fore the Drenthe-stadial ice had covered northern Germa-
ny. For the time in question temperature and dust records
from Antarctica suggest a span between ca 190 (200) and
160 ka b.p. (temperature-against-time-graph of Vostok ice
core,seePetitetal.1999,Petitetal.2000).
Onthebasisofpalynologicalandsedimentologicalstud-
iesinKB1core,A.Kleinmanndistinguishedthefollowing
units(Kleinmannetal.2011):
Nactigall 1 Interglacial, 36.028.60 m, corresponding
to Boucet 2 in theVelay sequence (Beaulieu et al. 2001,
Reilleetal.2000,Tzedakisetal.1997)andtoMIS7c.Te
warmperiodsedimentsconsistofpeat,clayandmudwith
intercalatedlayersofallocthonousmaterial:
peat A 36.0034.70 (Grupe 1929: Unterfz des Haupt-
torfagers)
AllocthonousUnit(I)34.7033.85
peatBandlacustrineclay/mud33.8533.25(Grupe1929:
OberfzdesHauptorfagers)
Allocthonous Unit (II) 33.2530.00, with peat C at
32.0031.97m
peatD30.0028.60.
Tab. 2: Deposits of Nactigall site matced to the stratigraphic sceme for North Germany. Loess and solifuction deposits
(Weicselian, Warthe and period of Younger Middle Terrace) omited.
Wehrden Niveau, Reiherbac Niveau: according to Rohde1989.
Boucet 2, Boucet 3: according to Beaulieu et al.2001 and others (see capter 9).
N. Nactigall
deposits subsided by subrosion.
Tab. 2: Scicteinheiten im Gebiet der Grube Nactigall im stratigraphisces Scema fr Nord-Deutscland.
Lss und Solifuktionsablagerungen (Weicsel-Kaltzeit und Warthe-Stadium und Zeit der Jngeren Mitelterrasse) nict einbezogen.
Wehrden-Niveau, Reiherbac-Niveau: nac Rohde(1989).
Boucet 2, Boucet 3: nac Beaulieu et al.2001 und weiteren (s. Kap. 9).
N. Nactigall
Ablagerung durc Subrosion abgesenkt.
north GErmAny
litt et al. 2007, with regard to ongoing discussion
modifed according to proposal of kleinMann et al. 2011
nAChtiGALL sitE
weichselian Mis 2-5d cold period with interstadials lower terrace
Eemian Mis 5e interglacial (decalcifcation on slope)
saalian Complex
Mis 6
warthe- +
Drenthe-
stadium
(? lower terrace, older part)
(glaciation)
cold stage
(?Delitzsch-phase)
Younger Middle Terrace
(wehrden niveau)
with interstadials
stadial of N.-Deposit
stadials + 5 interstadials of
N.-Complex / -Deposit
Mis 7a
warm stage (cf. velay,
France: Bouchet 3) Nachtigall-
Succession
(i.e. lower part of
n.-Complex /
lowest part of
n.-Deposit)
n.2 inter-
stadial
Mis 7b cool stage
albaxen
stadial
Mis 7c
interglacial (cf. velay,
France: Bouchet 2)
n.1 inter-
glacial
Mis 7d, e (cool stage, warm stage)
Mis 8 cold stage
Older Middle Terrace
(reiherbach niveau)
Mis 9a-d (2 warm, 2 cool stages)
Holsteinian Mis 9e (interglacial)
Elsterian Mis 10 cold period
(glaciation)
youngest upper terrace
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Albaxen Stadial, 28.6027.05 m, corresponding to Bonne-
fondintheVelaysequenceandtoMIS7b.
Nactigall 2 Interstadial, 27.0526.02 m, corresponding to
Boucet 3 in theVelay sequence and to MIS 7a. At 27.00
26.54itcontainsdarkclay(organogeniclayerE).
Stadials 15, 26.0222.50 m, separated by the minor Inter-
stadials 14, corresponding to Costaros in the Velay se-
quenceandtothebeginningofMIS6.
Dating of core samples from KB 1 borehole by TIMS
230
T/Umethodyieldedthefollowingisocroncorrectedag-
es(Waas,Kleinmann&Lepper2010):
227+9/-8kaforbircfenpeatsample34.8734.83m(closed
systemwithinpeatA)
201+15/-13kaforbrownmosspeatsample33.6333.47m
(closedsystemwithinpeatB)
2066kaforfenpeatsample28.9028.82m(closedsystem
withinpeatD).
An atempt at dating the clay sample 26.826.7 m with
ca15%organicmater(organogeniclayerE)yieldedanage
1778kawhicseemstobenotconsistentwiththepalyno-
logicalresults,ahigheragebeingexpected.
As a result of these contemporary researc activities by
three-wayapproac,thewarmclimatedepositsofNactigall
pit, known since a long time, actually have to be assigned
toMIS7warmstageperiods.Tepresentstudycontributes
lithostratigraphic aspects: directly subjacent as well as di-
rectlyoverlyinggraveldepositsrepresentOlderMiddleTer-
raceandYoungerMiddleTerracerespectivelyandthusalso
establishtheageoftheNactigallwarmclimatedepositsas
mid-SaalianMIS7.
10 further tasks
Allocthonous Unit I as well as Allocthonous Unit II of
Nactigall-Complex (Chapter 7.2, Chapter 9) have equiva-
lents in the succession of Gtingen-Geismar, Otostrae,
50kmawayfromNactigallpit(Grgeretal.1994;Klein-
mann et al. 2011, mentioning this correlation as orally
communicated by Helmut Mller in or just before 2007).
Terespectivesectionswiththeirstrikingamountsofmin-
eral mater from the slope occur at the same palynostrati-
graphic positions during warm climate. Catastrophic rain-
falls during the periods in question might have torn open
theplantcoveratslopesandthusmadepossibletheanom-
alous mass transport (Kleinmann et al. 2011). Apparently
the events on whic the contemporaneity is based were
not triggered by seismic activities: there is no evidence
of earthquakes in sedimentological record, and in fact the
palynological record even revealed certain vegetational
developments in Allocthonous Unit I and Allocthonous
UnitII(A.Kleinmann,orally).Aconclusiveexplanationof
the circumstances that determined the contemporaneity of
the peculiar sedimentation at both sites seems to be worth
furtherstudy.
BytheirclimaticconditionsofaccumulationtheNac-
tigall warm and cool climate deposits are expected to
yield arcaeological fnds that have not been taken into
accountsofar.
As to lithostratigraphy it is an open question, how the
inland ice infuenced sedimentation at the study site from
its margin about 20 km in the north.We have to assume
thaticedammedlakescoveredtheuppervalleyoftheRiv-
er Weser (glacial Lake Weserbergland, Wortmann 1998;
glacial LakeWeser,Winsemann et al. 2009, 2011). Te sur-
faceoftheDrenthevalleyfoormighthavebeenatalevel
ofabout+95mNNattheleast,beingformedbytheYoung-
er Middle Terrace. Up to now glaciolacustrine fnegrained
sediments or delta or subaqueous fan deposits have not
been identifed in or around Nactigall pit. According to
Grupe (1929) an erratic boulder of Swedish Dala quartzite
was found in the pit area, beneath 0.5 m ofWeser gravel
and 17.4 m ofclay with some peat layers at a depth of
23.9m.Yetitwasinterbeddedinallocthonousdepositsof
Nactigall 1 Interglacial and not in glacial sediments (cf.
Chapter7.2).
A fundamental stratigraphic detail is concerning the
base of the Lower Terrace deposits. Tis means the ques-
tionwhethertheWeserasabraidedriverformedthedeep
incision and the wide periglacial valley plain by downcut-
tingreallyduringthedeglaciationattheendoftheSaalian
Complex.SubsequentlystillpriortotheEemianinterglacial
theLowerTerraceaggradationstartedduringcoldandwet
climateandcontinuedafertheinterglacial.Tismodelap-
pliesaccordinglytoolderterraces(Wortmann1968,Wort-
mann&Wortmann1987,Bridgland1994,Schreve2004,
McNabb 2007). On closer inspection the very important
processofdowncutingalreadymayhavebeeninitiatedas
fuvial response to sea level lowering prior to the advance
oftheinlandice.TismodelmaybeinferredfromElsterian
fuvial and fuvioglacial deposits (Flurinnen-Scicten)
in the formerWeser valley in and near Hannover (Rohde
1983,1994,Rohde&Becker-Platen1998:38f.,138f.,34f.).
in memoriam
Tis work has been accomplished in reverence for Helmut
Mller(20July192418June2008)whoopenedthepalaeo-
botanicalsecretsoftheNactigalldepositsandstratigraphi-
callyassignedthemtoastillincompletelyknownmid-Saal-
ianwarmstage.
Acknowledgements
Mr. Robert Buc generously granted the permission to
publish the geoscientifc data from exploration boreholes
of the Buc bricworks company at Hxter-Albaxen and
fromourstudiesinthepit.AngelikaKleinmannandDeniz
Waas agreed to take the sedimentological and radiometric
partoftheproject;Mrs.Kleinmannalsoagreedtocontinue
the palynological work of Helmut Mller. From among
our Hannoverean colleagues Klaus-Dieter Meyer contrib-
utedtosomeextenttothefeldworkandMebusA.Geyh,
just as Juta Winsemann, Hannover, visited the pit. Eac
of them, likewise Eberhard Grger, Gtingen, and our
colleague Josef Merkt were readily critical dialogue part-
ners. Jocen Farrenscon, Krefeld, cooperatively assist-
ed us in communicating with the state geological survey
144
E&G / vol. 61 / no. 2 / 2012 / 133145 / DOi 10.3285/eg.61.2.02 / authors / Creative Commons attribution license
Geologiscer Dienst Nordrhein-Westfalen. Stephan
Dreher and Guntram Herrendorf provided assistance in
electronic data processing. Hansjrg Streif contributed
comprehensive and detailed advice to improve the manu-
script,andJuliaKnowlesproofreadtheEnglishtextasana-
tivespeaker.Finallytworeviewersgavehelpfullyconstruc-
tivecomments.Toallofthemweexpressourgratitude.
Abbreviations
ka b.p. Kiloannos(thousandyears)beforepresent(1950)
MIS Marine isotope stage (warm or cold stage of Qa-
ternary period, established by temperature-de-
pendent
18
O/
16
O oxygen isotopes ratio of marine
calcareous microfossil shells [foraminifers] or gla-
cier ice). Alternative notation: MI stage. In general
odd numbers are applied for warmer stages, even
numbersforcolderstages
NN German Ordnance datum (Landkarten-Bezugshhe
NormalNull)
OMT OlderMiddleTerrace(olderSaalianfuvialterrace)
TIMS Termalionisationmassspectrometry
WOF Water-level of over-bank fooding. Correspond-
ingly:levelofyoungeralluvialclay(JngererAue-
lehm). Also correspondingly: 30/40 years mean
annual highest water-level (Mitleres Hocwasser
MHW194170/80)
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1 introduction
On a geomorphological viewpoint, the Amazon rainforest
canbecaracterizedbyitslowlandreliefandextensivefor-
estedareas,bythedicotomybetweenmainallocthonous
andsmallautocthonousrivers,aswellascombininglatosol
and podzol low fertility soils. Te annual thermal range is
relativelyhomogeneous,24Cto26C;therainfallishetero-
geneous, 1750 to 2300 mm/year, outside the Andes, whic
is around 7000 mm/year; and the vegetation is a complex
netdistributedoverperiodicallyfoodedforestandupland,
vrzea and terra frme respectively (Victoria et al. 2000;
AbSaber 2003). Tese combined geomorphological fea-
tures form an area of approximately 7 million km, called
theAmazonmorphoclimaticdomain.WhatinBrazilwecall
amorphoclimaticdomainisanareaofsub-continentaldi-
mensions,withcaracteristicpaternsofrelief,drainage,cli-
mate,soilsandvegetation(AbSaber1967).
One important feature of the Amazon morphoclimatic
domainisthephysiognomyofitsvegetation,whiccanbe
open(scrubs,herbsandsmalltrees)orclosed(talltrees,with
E&G
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Volume 61 / number 2 / 2012 / 146155 / DOi 10.3285/eg.61.2.03
www.quaternary-science.net
interrelation of geomorphology and fauna of Lavrado region in
roraima, brazil suggestions for future studies
Thiago Morato de Carvalho, Celso Morato de Carvalho
how to cite: Carvalho,T.M.,Carvalho,C.M.(2012):InterrelationofgeomorphologyandfaunaofLavradoregioninRoraima,Brazilsug-
gestionsforfuturestudies.E&GQaternaryScienceJournal,61(2):146158.DOI:10.3285/eg.61.2.03
Abstract: TeauthorsdiscusstherelevanceofgeomorphologyandbiologyinteractionundertheconceptsoftheBrazilianmorphoclimatic
domains.Tediscussionisfocusedonbiogeographicalandecologicalaspects.TeopenareasofRoraimathelavradolocalized
betweenBrazil,VenezuelaandGuyana,intheNorthernportionoftheAmazonmorphoclimaticdomain,istheregionwherethe
presentcasestudywascarriedout.Remotesensingtecniqueswereappliedtodeterminethereliefandfeldbiologycaracteriza-
tion.Tegeneratedproductswereusefulfordescribingthehabitatsandlocaldistributionofthelavradosfauna.
die Wechselbeziehung von Geomorphologie und fauna in der Lavrado region in roraima, brasilien: vorschlge fr zuknf-
tige studien
Kurzfassung: IndervorgelegtenArbeitwirddieAbhngigkeitvonGeomorphologieundbiologiscenInteraktionunterVerwendungdesKon-
zeptesmorphoklimatiscerRegionenBrasiliensvorgestellt.DieDiskussionfokussierthierbeiaufbiogeographisceundkologisce
Aspekte.DievorgelegteStudiewurdeindenofenenBereicenvonRoraimaLavradozwiscenBrasilien,VenezuelaundGu-
yanadurcgefhrt.DiesesGebietliegtimnrdlicenTeildermorphoklimatiscenRegionAmazoniens.ZurAnwendungkamen
Tecniken der Fernerkundung, um das Relief der Region zu ermiteln und biologisce Charakterisierungen durczufhren. Die
hierdurcerzieltenErgebnissewurdengenutzt,umLebensrumederRegionunddieVerteilungderLavradoFaunazubescreiben.
Keywords: Biogeomorphology, Amazon morphoclimatic domain, Roraima, lavrado
Addresses of authors:Tiago Morato de Carvalho*, Celso Morato de Carvalho**,NationalInstituteofAmazonianResearc(InstitutoNacionalde
PesquisasdaAmaznia-INPA)BoaVista,Roraima,Brazil.ZipCode69301-150.*tmorato@infonet.com.br;**cmorato@inpa.gov.br
some emerging).Taking only this aspect into account, the
open areas that occur in the Amazon region can be quite
similartothoseoccurringinotherdomains,forexample,the
openvegetationofcerradointheCentralBrazilianecosys-
tem, the Bolivian Chaco or the lhanos inVenezuela. How-
ever,therearemanyecologicalandphysiologicaldiferences
between these open formations, suc as foristic composi-
tion,soilformation,geomorphologicalgenesis,drainageand
climate(Vanzolini&Carvalho1991;Eiten1992,1994).
We can focus on this physiognomic dicotomous prop-
ertyoftheAmazonvegetationwithdiferentlenses,depend-
ingofthegoal.Fromthebiogeographicalviewpoint,forin-
stance,thesetwomorphologicalaspectsofvegetation,open
andclosedareas,areimportantforunderstandingthedistri-
butionoforganisms,principallywhenweconsiderthepul-
sationoftheforestoverthelast20.000yearstheopenareas
enteringtheforestduringthePleistoceneglacialdryperiods
and the expansion of the forest during the interglacial wet
periodsthroughoutSouthAmericanecosystems(Vanzolini
1988;AbSaber1977;Pessendaetal.2009).
In the Brazilian Amazon there are expressive open veg-
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etationareasinthestatesofPar,AmapandRoraima,oc-
curringasenclavesinsideextensiveforestedareas(Mura-
Pires1974;Carvalho2009;Vanzolini1992)andalongthe
major rivers, suc as the Trombetas (Egler 1960), Negro
(Ducke & Blake 1953), in the mouth of theTapajs (Rad-
ambrasil 1975) and in the Madeira (Mura-Pires 1974).
Teseopenareascompriseseverallandscapes,sucasplains,
plateaus, hills and mountains. Associated with these geo-
morphologicalfeaturesthereoccurthescrubs,herbs,grasses
andcactaceanadaptedtothesephysicalformations,consti-
tutingveryparticularhabitatswherecanliveandreproduce
diferentspeciesofanimals.
Temostrelevantfactconcerningthedistributionofani-
mals and plants is that they are not randomly distributed
along their areas of occurrence; on the contrary, there are
specifc habitats where they can live. In this way, it is our
thoughtthat:i)biologicalaspectconcerningthedistribution
oforganismsamongthevarioushabitatsthatformecosys-
temscannotbeunderstoodwithouttheunderstandingofthe
physical structure of these habitats, ii) this comprehension
canbegivenbyageomorphologicalapproac.
Terationalofourthoughtistiedtotheconceptsestab-
lishing that the distribution of organisms refects their sets
of adaptations to the immediate environment, a concept
known as ecological nice (Vanzolini 1970; Pianka 1994).
Tis idea is the soul of classical studies approacing biol-
ogy (zoogeography) and geomorphology, whic were car-
riedoutbyVanzolini&Williams(1970),Vanzolini(1970,
1981)andAbSaber(1967),currentlyincrementedbynews
geoprocessingtecniques(Carvalho&Ramirez2008;Car-
valho2009a;Metzger1997).
Inthiscontext,theaimofthepresentstudyisfocusedon
thelandscapeandhabitatsthatoccurinopenareasinsidethe
Amazonregion.Tescenarioofthisdiscussionencompass-
ingthefeldofbiogeomorphologycomprisesthreeways:i)
concepts of morphoclimatic domains and biogeography, ii)
thecasestudyofaveryinterestingopenareaknownas la-
vrado,situatedintheNorthernAmazonregiontheBrazil-
ianstateofRoraima,iii)useofgeoprocessingtecniquesfor
identifyinganddescribinghabitats.
2 the case study area
Te general region described in this report (Fig. 1), com-
prisedintheGuyanaShield(Hammond2005),isaverype-
culiaropenareaofsome69.000km,mostlysituatedinthe
northern portion of the Amazon morphoclimatic domain,
overlying three countries.We estimate, by remote sensing,
thatthisareacoverssome45.000kmintheBrazilianstateof
Roraima,10.000kminVenezuelaand14.000kminGuyana.
InVenezuelathisportionofopenareasisabout12001600
metersabovesealevel.Itiscaracterizedbythepresenceof
ruiniformtabularmountains,individuallycalledtepuy.Te
tepuyes are part of a geomorphological formation known
inVenezuelaasGran Sabana.IntheBrazilianterritorythe
bestknowntepuyistheRoraimaMount(0511S,6049W),
around 2800 meters high, situated on the triple border of
Brazil,VenezuelaandGuyana.WedonotconsiderthisVen-
ezuelanregiontobepartoftheAmazonmorphoclimaticdo-
main(seeAbSaber2003).
IntheGuyanaregionthisNorthernAmazonopenareais
mostlysituatedonthebasinoftheRupununiRiver,anafu-
entofthemainGuyaneseriver,theEssequibo.Tisopenar-
ea,locallyknownasRupununi Savanna,isseparatedbythe
TacutuRiver.Tisriver,thatformstheborderofBraziland
Guyana, runs in a geological fssure from South to North,
where it turns westward to fow into the Uraricoera River
in Brazil (approximately at 0301N, 6028W), both rivers
formingtheBranco,whicfowssouthwardintotheNegro
RiverintheBrazilianstateofAmazonas.
In the Brazilian portion, the state of Roraima, this area
isknownaslavrado,anoldPortuguesetermforopenveg-
etation(Vanzolini&Carvalho1991;Carvalho2009). Te
lavrado has its own socio-cultural and ecological identity,
integrated by complex networks of interactions among the
localpeoplewiththelandscape,andbyacaracteristiclocal
fauna and fora adapted to the lavrado ecosystem (Nasci-
mento1998).
Tis open area is formed by peculiar geomorphological
features,sucasboulders,alluvialplains,lakesandgallery
forestsalongtherivers.Isolatedpatcesofforest,scrubsand
herbs, are present throughout the area. Gallery forests oc-
curinthebanksoftherivers.Tesefeaturesformthe lavra-
do habitats,harboringmanyspeciesofplantsandanimals,
whosebiologicalaspectsoftheirdistributionalongthesere-
gionalhabitatsarealsofocusedinthisstudy.
3 material and methods
3.1 Geomorphology
Todescribethemorphologyofthecasestudyreliefweused
remotesensingtecniques(hypsometry,shadedrelief,topo-
graphicproflesandRGBcomposition)fromelevationsmod-
elofSRTM(ShutleRadarTopographyMission)andLandsat
5images.TeelevationmodelfromSRTMisaradarimage,
acquiredbyinterferometrymethodin2001forentireglobe,
usedforgeomorphometricsanalysisoftheterrain.
TesofwareENVI4.3wasusedtoresizetheSRTMdata
to30meters,byinterpolation,fromoriginalspatialresolu-
tionof90meters.Tisdigitalelevationmodelwasimportant
toidentifythediferentaltimetryvalues,andthemorphol-
ogyofdenudationforms(rangesandhills)usingshadedre-
Fig. 1: Examples of open areas within the Amazon morphoclimatic domain.
1 Roraima, Venezuela and Guyana. 2 Amap state, Brazil. A Monte
Roraima; B Branco River; C Lacustrine Systems; D Serra da Lua; E
Serra Marari; F Marac Island; G Serra do Tepequm.
Abb. 1: Beispiele von Freifcen innerhalb der morphoklimatiscen Region
Amazonas. 1 Roraima, Venezuela und Guyana. 2 Bundesstaat Amap,
Brasilien. A Monte Roraima; B Branco River; C Lacustrine Systems;
D Serra da Lua; E Serra Marari; F Marac Island; G Serra do
Tepequm.
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liefandtopographicproflestecniques.Teopticalimages
ofLandsat5aremostlyusedforenvironmentalstudies,with
30 meters spatial resolution, and were used for identifying
agradationalmorphologies,likefuvialplains,lakesandveg-
etationaspectsbyvisualinterpretation.
Te Landsat 5 images RGB composition was applied
in ENVI 4.3, using bands 5,4 and 3. Te Landsat 5 images
wereacievedin2005,fromDecembertoApril,whiccor-
responds to dry season (without clouds), patc-rows were
232(56,57,58);231(57,58).Teseimageswereacquiredatthe
National Institute of Spatial Researc (INPE) www.dgi.
inpe.br/CDSR/ and Embrapa Relevo www.relevobr.cnpm.
embrapa.br/.

3.2 fauna examples
Casestudyoffaunalelements,inthepresentcontext,were
determined through feld work conducted by the Instituto
Nacional de Pesquisas da Amaznia (National Institute of
Amazonian Researc INPA) in Roraima throughout the
pasttwodecades,mainlyonthelavradoarea(seeCarvalho
Fig. 2: Roraima, topographic transects profles a-a to c-c; Venezuela Roraima, transect D.
Abb. 2: Roraima, topographisce Transekte a-a to c-c; Venezuela Roraima, Transekt D.
2009).Wetakeasexamplesthevertebratefaunaofthearea,
mainly aspects of its distribution along the habitats com-
prised by geomorphological features determined through
geoprocessingtecniques(Figures8,9,10).
4 results and discussion
4.1 Geomorphological features of the lavrado: remote
sensing
Onecanseethepositionandtopographicprofleofthela-
vrado andadjacentforestedareasjustlookingattheregion
through transects, for example covering the forests of the
West portion of Roraima up to the open areas in the East,
or covering part of theVenezuelan Gran Sabana, until the
lavrado areas (Fig. 2). At the same way, through transects
(Fig.3)wecanseethemainfeaturesofthe relief,likehigh
altitudes (more than 1500 meters high), with tabular relief
(tepuys), agradational and denudational processes, moder-
ateddissectionandlowstructuralcontrol(Fig.31);inter-
mediary altitude, somewhat of 5001500 m, with denuda-
tional processes, high dissection and strong structural con-
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icpaterns.Teselakesarefedbygroundwaterandresem-
ble the lakes of the morphoclimatic domain of the cerrado
(Carvalho&Zucchi2009).Figures67showsomeaspects
ofthefuvialplainandvegetationofthelavrado.
Teriversthatcrossthelavradoareautocthonous,with
its headwaters in the elevated serras that make the border
ofBrazilandVenezuela,theParima-Pacaraimasystem.Te
lavrado drainage, formed by well developed fuvial plains,
is directed to the Negro River, whic runs from the Andes
until its confuence to the Solimes River, in the Central
AmazonBasin.Temainriversthatruninthe lavrado have
banks(dique marginal)andbeyondtheseaformationcalled
vrzea,afoodplainareaformedalongthemainriversdur-
ingtherainyseason.
Tevegetationofthelavradoiscomposedbyinteresting
formations(Beigbeder1959;AbSaber1997).Troughout
thisopenareaonecanseenear810metersheightandless
than0.5ha,woodpatces,surroundedbygroupedormore
disperse scrubs and small trees. Te ground is covered by
grassesandgrass-likeplants(familyCyperaceae).Linesof
palm trees (Mauritia fexuosa), known as buritizais, due
to the popular name buriti (family Palmae) for the palm
tree, is an important element of the lavrado landscape,
starting in small lakes and running toward the main riv-
ers, for a distance of around 300800 meters. Te lavrado
issurroundedby1520metershighforest,soilwithshal-
lowliter,someemergingtreesandsomewhatunstructured
understory.
4.2 Geomorphology and fauna
4.2.1 the approach
Wecanlookatthisinteractionbetweengeomorphologyand
biologyfromthepointofviewofdiferentrelatedareasof
knowledge.Whateverthearea,themainideaofthisinterac-
tionisfocusedonspeciesandpopulationsdistribution,local
oralonglargeareas.Ontheregionaldistribution,onemay
beinterestedindescribingthespeciesricnessbetweenhab-
itatswithinanecosystem,tounderstandaspectsofthelocal
biodiversity.Ontheotherhand,wecanfocusonthedistri-
trol (Fig. 32); low sedimentary plains, around 70100 m,
withagradationalprocesseslikefuvialplainsandlacustrine
systems(Fig.33);andisolatedhills,inselbergs,withstruc-
turalcontrol(Fig.34).
In contrast with the high elevation of the Venezuelan
Gran Sabana,theelevationofthelavradoareaisrelatively
low,around70200ma.s.l.TisareaisdrainedbytheBran-
coRiver,whiciscomposedbyasystemoflowhills,with
lowdissectedrelief,isolatedresidualpeaks(inselbergs),sur-
rounded by lakes in the headwaters, the fowing of whic
creates a interconnected streams (igaraps) separated by
smallelevations,knownastesos, formsdrainagedissection
aroundthelakesandstreams(Fig.4).Alsowecanseeinthe
area the sugar-loaf formations (po-de-aucar) and laterite
layersexposedonthesoil(lajeiro).
In all lavrado areas narrow lines of palm trees remind
oneofthelandscapesofthemorphoclimaticdomainofthe
Central Brazil cerrados. Of course this resemblance is on-
ly apparent, since the cerrado is a very distinct ecosystem,
situated a few thousands kilometers from the lavrado. Te
reconnaissance of the distinctiveness between bothecosys-
temslavradoandcerradohasaveryimportantecologi-
calandbiogeographicalsignifcance(Eiten1963;Coutinho
1978;Vanzolini&Carvalho1991;Carvalho2009).
Te predominant declivity of the lavrado is between
58,withlowenergy,formingaregionthatreceivessedi-
mentarymaterial,mainlysandcomingfromthesurround-
ingcrystallineuplands(GuyanaShield).Telavradocentral
portions relief low energy favors the formation of a com-
plex lacustrine system, composed by more or less circular
up to 300 meters long lakes, most of whic aretemporary
(Fig.5).Teselakesareindependent,interconnectedbynar-
rowstreams,formingdendritic,rectangularandsubdendrit-
Fig. 3: 1 Mount Roraima, moderate relief dissection, border of Venezuela
and Brazil (0511N, 6049W); 2 Serra Marari, moderate to strong dis-
sected relief (0416N, 6046W); 3 Uraricoera River, low relief dissec-
tion (0319N, 6025W); 4 Serra da Lua, low and strong relief dissection
(0227N, 6028W).
Abb. 3: 1 Mount Roraima, moderate Reliefzergliederung an der Grenze
zu Venezuela und Brasilien (0511N, 6049W); 2 Serra Marari, mige
bis starke Reliefzergliederung (0416N, 6046 W); 3 Uraricoera River,
niedrige Reliefzergliederung (0319N, 6025W); 4 Serra da Lua, niedrige
und starke Reliefzergleiderung (0227N, 6028W).
Fig. 4: 1 Tesos (low hills) convex morphologies; 2 lakes; 3 small
elevations between the streams.
Abb. 4: 1 Tesos (faces Hgelland) konvexe Morphologie; 2 Seen; 3
kleine Erhebungen zwiscen den Strmen.
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butionofspeciesandpopulationsamongecosystem,inorder
to understand extensive distribution paterns, for example,
populationsincontactorseparatedbygeomorphicbarriers
thathaveoccurredinthepresentorpastevents.
Twoemeritusherpetologiststogetherwithonegeologist
werethefrsttoapproacgeomorphologytobiologyin1969
1970.TezoologistsaretheBrazilianscientistPauloEmlio
VanzoliniandhisNorthAmericancolleagueErnstWilliams.
TeyhaveformulatedaveryelegantSouthAmericanlizard
(genusAnolis,familyPolycrotidae)speciationmodelbased
onforestexpansionandretraction,paleoclimaticeventsthat
occurredundertheinfuenceofthePleistocenedryandwet
periodsoverthepast20.00010.000years.
Tis model of speciation formulated by Vanzolini &
Williams(1970)establishesthatbecauseoftheforestfrag-
mentationoccurringduringpaleoclimaticdryperiods(gla-
ciation) animals became isolated in forests patces, whic
resultedinecologicalbarriersforestspeciesdonotlivein
openareas.Tesebarriers,inturn,determinedtheinterrup-
tion of gene fow between populations. Dry events of the
pastcanbeinferredatpresentbygeomorphologicfeatures,
sucasthestone-lines(paleosolsformedindrypaleoclimat-
ic periods and buried in sedimentary deposits), indicating
that a forested area today was open in the past (AbSaber
2003;Hiruma2007).Anotherwaytoinferpastdryeventsis
through palynological records and
14
C dating of sediments
(Absy2000;Salgado-Laboriau1982).
Duringthehumidphase(interglacial)theforestcoalesced
andwhatwasfragmentedforestbecamecontinuousforest-
edarea;however,manyanimalspeciesdidnotcangegene
again,becausetheirpopulationswereisolatedforaperiodin
whicseveralbiologicalandphysiologicalcangesoccurred
ineacone.Teresultoftheseprocesseswastheformation
ofdistinctspecies.Temodelfocusedmainlyonthepulsa-
tion of the forest in the Amazon region; however, the idea
wasappliedforotherregionsandspecies(Vanzolini1988,
2002;Wsteretal.2005).
Following another way of the same theme, the German
geologist Jrgen Hafer studying Amazonian birds, in 1969
cametothesameconclusionandmodelofspeciationasdid
VanzoliniandWilliamsforlizardsinearly1970.Tismodel
ofspeciation,takinggeomorphologicalevidencesofexpan-
sionandretractionoftheforest,becameclassicinbiogeog-
raphyandiswellknownasPleistoceneRefugiaModeland
RefugiaTeory(Vanzolini1970;Absyetal.1991;Haffer&
Prance2001;Haffer1969;AbSaber1982).
Te morphoclimatic domains concepts, adopted byVan-
zoliniandWilliamsasvegetationcriteriafortheirstudyof
species distribution and refuges, were frst formulated by
AzizNacibAbSaberin1967.PriortothisBraziliangeogra-
pherandgeomorphologist,thevegetationoftheregionsin
Brazil was identifed through fragmented foristic features.
TemodelofAbSabergavethenecessarystrengthiniden-
tifyinglargevegetalformations,insteadofpatcesinsidethe
same ecological and geomorphologic formation. AbSaber
usedtheclimate,vegetation,soil,Hydrographyandreliefas
featurestorecognizewhathecalledtheareacoreinado-
main, inasub-continentalscale.Allkindsof regionalgeo-
morphologicalfaciescould,then,beincludedinonedomain
or another cerrado, caatinga, mata atlntica and hilia
(theAmazon)recognizingthetransitionalzones.
TemodelformulatedbyAbSaberwasagreatadvance
tothefeldsofgeographyandgeomorphology,sinceregions
could then be identifed as a continuous unit with related
geomorphologic features.To biologists interested in ecolo-
gyandbiogeographythisgeomorphologicmodelintegrated
formerly scatered data, enabling one to come to a beter
understandingofspeciesdistribution.
4.3 Habitats and faunal distribution: the lavrado
All those geomorphological formations comprised in the
lavrado,sucashills,rocoutcrops,lakes,smallpatcesof
forest, scrubs and the gallery forests along the rivers, with
thebac-swamps(vrzea)ofthemajorones,formthehabi-
tatsinhabitedbymanyorganisms.Identifyingthesehabitats
isthefrststeptocomprehendthebiologyofanyspeciesthat
live in the lavrado, in terms of adaptations and gene fow
amongindividualsandpopulations.Somegeomorphological
featurescanillustratethispointofview,sucasthegranite
and laterite extrusions, hogbacs, inselbergs and sparse or
groupedbouldersatvarioussizes(mataces)intheplainand
lowhillspresentinthelavrado(Ruellan1957).Inaddition
to the geomorphological interpretation, these formations
alsohavetheirecologicalidentity,formingcomplexmicro-
habitatsinhabitedbybirds,bats,rats,snakes,frogs,lizards
andmanyspeciesofinvertebrates(Vanzolini&Carvalho
1991;Carvalho2009;Nunes&Bobadilha1997;Rafaelet
al.1997).
Terocsaredistributedthroughouttheareaandaredi-
rectly exposed to the sunlight. Tese features led to many
relevant biological questions, suc as: How many species
of vertebrates and invertebrates are associated with these
Fig. 5: Lacustrine system (0337N, 6015W);
1 Surumu River; 2 Tacutu River.
Abb. 5: Lakustrines System (0337N, 6015W);
1 Surumu River; 2 Tacutu River.
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habitats?Howmanydietandreproductiveadaptationshave
thesespeciesundergonesoastobeabletosurviveinthese
geomorphological units? How can be genetically carac-
terized the populations of the same species inhabiting the
lavrado? Tere are any preferences of some particular spe-
cies in residing certain geomorphological features, suc as
graniteandlaterite?Howtheserocoutcropsaredistributed
(groupedordispersed)andhowtointerpretthedistribution
patern?
Aninterestingcaseofanimaldistributioninthesegranite
habitatscomefromthefrog Leptodactylusmyersi,aspecies
thatseemstobeendemictothelavrado,livingontherocs,
at least the main populations (Heyer 1995). Eac popula-
tionofthisfrogseemstobeseparatedbyseveralkilometers,
whicisthedistancebetweentheboulders.Qestionsbased
on this example may include: How are these frog popula-
tions distributed, taking into account they are directly as-
sociatedwiththebouldersdistribution?Howtocaracterize
theadaptationsofthisfrog,intermsofreproductionanddi-
et?Wheretheylaytheireggs,consideringtheextremeexpo-
suretothishabitattosunlightanddryenvironments?Tese
arequestionsbeingcurrentlystudied.
Anotherspeciesverycommonintherocformationsof
thelavradoisthelizardTropidurus hispidus(familyTropi-
duridae).Tebiologicalquestionsthatcanbeappliedtothe
populations of this lizard are associated with the habitats
wheretheylive,sucastheboulders,smalltrees,borderof
theforestandinthesmallpatcesofforest.Forexample:Do
alltheselizardshavethesamesetofadaptations?Isitpos-
sibletodeterminethepopulationsofthislizardpreciselyby
identifyingthehabitatsthroughgeoprocessingtecniques?
Amongmammalstherearesomeinterestingdistribution
in habitats composed by lacustrine system in general, low
hills and dissected relief, vegetation of the margins of riv-
ers(mata ciliar)andlinesofpalmtrees(buritizais),laterite
layers (lajeiros) and boulders. All these geomorphological
Fig. 6: A-B fuvial plains, lowlands (0301N, 6029W and 0236N, 6054W); C-D fuvial plains, highlands (0417N, 6032W and 0456N, 6114W).
1 abandoned canel lakes of food plain; 2 Lakes of fat plain. A Mouth of the Tacutu River in the Branco River; B Mucaja River; C Cotingo River
with structural control, non food plain; D meandriform river developed at structural control, small food plain with lacustrine systems (oxbows lakes).
Abb. 6: A-B Flussniederungen, Tiefand (0360N, 2901W und 0236N, 6054W); C-D Flussniederungen, Hocland (0417N, 6032W und 0456N,
6114W). 1 aufgegebene Kanalseen der Flussaue; 2 Seen der Tiefebene. A Zusammenfuss von Tacutu in den Brancoss; B Mucaja; C Cotingo,
nict zur Flussaue entwicelt; D mandernder Fluss, kleinfcige Flussaue mit lakustrinen Systemen (Altwasserseen).
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unitscomprisetheenvironmentwheremanymammalspe-
ciescanlive,sucasMyrmecophaga tridactyla(tamandu)
andTamandua tetradactyla(mambira),tworelatedspecies
ofthefamilyMyrmecophagidae(OrderPilosa)thatfeedon
termitesandants.Tesetwomammalspeciesalsohavethe
patcesofforestasrefugiaduringthenight.
Anotherspeciesthathaveitshabitatassociatedwiththe
geomorphologicalunitsoftheopenareasisthelitlemam-
malNasua nasua (quati)ofthefamilyProcyonidae(Order
Carnivora),aninhabitantofthebouldersoftheplainsand
hills.Duringthedayitiscommontoseethisanimalinthat
habitat, looking for food, mainly earthworms, insects and
some fruits. Te vegetation of this habitat is composed by
herbs,grasses,scrubsandisolatedtrees,whereN. nasuacan
befoundclimbedatnight.Again,geomorphologygivesthe
directionfordescribingthesehabitats.
Amongbirdswecanalsohavesomerepresentativespe-
cies currently endemic to Roraima, suc as Aratinga sol-
stitialis (jandaia-sol) of the family Psitacidae, that live in
habitats comprised by the gallery forests or on the forest
edge(approximately0352N,5937W).Tepreciselocaliza-
tion of these endangered species habitats can be obtained
bygeoprocessingtecniques,liketheotherendangeredspe-
cies Synallaxis kollari (joo-de-barba-grisalha) of the fam-
ily Furnariidae. Tis small bird can live in habitats formed
bylowhillsanddissectedrelief,scrubsandsmalltrees,up
to the right bank of theTacutu River, in Guyana territory.
SomepopulationsofthisbirdcanalsobefoundinRoraima,
ingalleryforest.
Tesamerationalcanbeappliedtothebotanicalspecies
presentinthelavrado.Forexample,thereisasmallandin-
teresting cactus genus Melocactus that occurs on the rocs
forming clusters. Te distribution of this cactacean can be
easilyestablishedthroughtheidentifcationoftherocex-
trusions.Anothercactaceanpresentinthelavrado,thedis-
tribution of whic can be ascertained through geoprocess-
ing tecniques, is the Brazilian popular mandacaru genus
Cereus,whosemaindistributionmaybeassociatedwiththe
soil,aswellwithclustersoftermitenestsgenusCornitermes
(approximately0352N,5937W).
Itisalsoveryusefulandinformativetoapplythegeopro-
cessingtecniquesforunderstandingthelavradovegetation.
Tesefeaturesofthelandscapeinthisareaaremadeupby
acomplexnetofsmallmoreorlessroundedforestpatces
(island forests) some 0.5 ha or less, palms trees (linear or
almostrounded),describedhavingthefocusonthehabitat
ofanimals.Butwecanalsofocusthequestionwithanother
lens.Howtheforestpatcesofthelavradoaredistributed?Is
thereanypaternaccountingforforestpatcesdistribution
andsoil?Terelevanceofthesequestionsisnotrestricted
tothepresent,butimplyinconsiderationssucashowthe
landscape cange and what would be the implications for
thefaunaandfora.
Tese questions lead us to look at the lavrado vegeta-
tion under another focus, whic is the pulsation of open
and closed vegetal formations under climate canges. It is
quite possible that the expansion and retraction of the for-
estduringthePleistocenehaveinfuencedthegenefowof
manyspecieslivingtodayinthesekindsofvegetation,con-
nectingorinterruptingdefnitelyortemporarilythepatces
offorest.Howthevariousspeciesofthelavradoterrestrial
vertebrates,forexample,werelocallyafectedbytheevents
during the dry and wet paleoclimate periods?What to say
abouttheforestpulsationandclimatecangethatmightbe
undergoingatpresent?
Recognizingevidenceofpulsesinthelavradovegetation,
throughgeoprocessingdataassociatedwiththelocaldistri-
butionofspecies,mightcertainlyelucidateseveralofthese
questions. Tis is the case, for instance, of three sympatric
species of lizards of the genus Gymnophthalmus (family
Gymnophthalmidae)thatoccurintheopenareasofRorai-
maandintheforestedge,incontactwiththe lavrado.Te
speciesareG.leucomystaxassociatedwithtermitenests,G.
vanzoi in the contact forest open areas, and G. underwodii
inthecontinuousforest(Vanzolini&Carvalho1991;Car-
valho 1999). In a 1.5 kilometer transect, we can fnd these
three lizard species, eac one in its specifc habitat. Tese
threespeciesaresotightlytaxonomicallyrelated,thatitis
difculttorecognizethematafrstlook,andwecanimagine
how many geomorphological events might have occurred
forthespeciationofthesethreelizardsspecies.Wecanmap
thedistributionoftheselizardsthroughgeoprocessingtec-
niques.
Lookingagaintothelandscapeofthelavrado anditsasso-
ciatedfauna,anotherexampleofbiogeomorphologyapplied
tothe biologicaldistributionofpopulationscomesfromthe
termites. At least two species of these social insects of the
familyTermitidaebuildtheirnestsontheground(epigeous
nests): Nasutitermes minimus and the Cornitermes ovatus
(Bandeira1988).Bothspeciesoftermitesconstructnestsin
diferentpartsofthelavrado,maybeduetosoilfactors,veg-
etationcoverorbothfeaturestogether.TenestofN.minus
isrounded onthetop,around 3040centimetershigh, and
the base is 2030 centimeters in diameter, are constructed
mainlyoverthehills(approximately0320N,6124W).Te
Fig. 7: A Venezuela-Roraima border, transition of the forest to lavrado
grassland with tall shrubs and small trees (0402N, 6103W); B Venezu-
elan open areas, patces of forest with well developed rills and structural
control (450N, 6057W); C Serra da Memria, shrubs and small trees,
vegetation slope with tors and blocs (0410N, 6057W); D island vegeta-
tion with small lakes at fat plain (312N, 6057W).
Abb. 7: A Grenze Venezuela Roraima, bergang von Wald zu lavrado
Grasland mit hohen Bscen und niedrigen Bumen (42N, 613W);
B Venezuelanisce Ofenlandscaf mit gut entwicelten Bcen (450N,
6057W); C Serra da Memria, Strucer und niedrige Bume, bewac-
sene Hnge mit Blcen (410N, 6057W); D inselartige Vegetation mit
kleinen Seen in einer facen Ebene (0312N, 6057W).
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nest of C.ovatus is pointed on the top; the construction is
veryhard,around2.0metershigh,andthebase1.01.5me-
tersindiameter,mainlyconstructedontheplains(approxi-
mately 0352N, 5937W), at the same region of the cacta-
ceanCereus.
Terearemanyanimalsassociatedtothenestsofbothof
thesetermitespecies.TeratlesnakeCrotalus ruruima,the
lizards Tropidurus hispidus (FamilyTropiduridae), Cnemi-
dophorus lemniscatus(FamilyTeiidae)andthegekkoHemi-
dactyulus mabouia(FamilyGekkonidae)aretenantsofthese
nests. Also some species of rats and opossuns, spiders and
manyinvertebratespeciesliveinthosenests.Terearein-
teresting biological questions associated with the distribu-
tion of those termite species.With the help of geoprocess-
ing tecniques so as to identify the areas of occurrence of
both,nestsandsoil,anyapproacrelatedtothesetermites
becomesmorepractical.
Te distribution of rare or endemic species that occur
inRoraimacanbeillustratedonmapsusinggeoprocessing
tecniques, exemplifying species distributed in the lavrado
and surrounding areas of this open vegetation ecosystem
(Fig.8,9,10).
5 Conclusions
Examples exposed in the present discussion can guide the
focusofthebiogeomorphologyapproacintwodirections:
i)ataregionalscaleorii)atasub-continentallevel,within
oramonglargevegetalformations.Eitherway,thequestions
regardingspeciesandhabitatsdistributionshouldbemade
involvinggeomorphologyasabacdropofthewholescen-
ery.
Atasub-continentallevel,consideringlargevegetalfor-
mations, the questions leads to problems related to specia-
tionanditsprocess.Terecognitionofthegeographicunits
of the species been studied the morphoclimatic domains
isfundamentalforthatapproac,becausethewholedis-
tributionareaofasinglespeciesorgroupsofspecieswillbe
compared through biological aspects, whic may vary sig-
nifcantlyornot.Temainquestionsthatariseatthislevel
may include: How many vegetal formation can be recog-
nizedinsidethedomain(ordomains)beenstudied?Howare
thesoil,topographyandhydrographycaracteristicsineac
studiedregion?Arethesegeomorphicfeaturesactingasbar-
riersforgenefowamongpopulations?
Ataregionalscale,sucasthatofthelavradoarea,be-
foretheformulationofspecifcbiologicalquestionsitisalso
imperative to locate the geographic insertion of the region
withinthemainecosystem.Oncerecognizedthegeographic
context of the study site, we turn the eyes to the diversity
and composition of the regional geomorphological units,
sucastheboulders,plains,hills,montains,lacustrinesys-
tem,drainageandregionalvegetalformations,whiccanbe
doneapplyingremotesensingandgeoprocessingtecniques.
Tegeomorphologicalfeatureswillthencaracterizethe
habitats.Takingthesefeaturesascriteriaforcategorizethe
compartmentsoftheregion,wecanfocusonthequestions
tobeworked,whiccanbedirectedtoanalyzespeciesric-
ness,regionaldistributionofagroupofspeciesordistribu-
tionofasinglespecies,habitatcangeandmodifcationof
Fig. 8: A-A Uraricoera River (lef photo); B Grande River; C Serra
do Tabaio. Region of the endemic lizards Gymnophthalmus vanzoi and
G. leucomystax (family Gymnophthalmidae). Forest and lavrado contact,
with small patces of forest (right photo). Transition of denudational and
aggradational relief, with isolated hills, drained by a not well development
fuvial plain.
Abb. 8: A-A Uraricoera (Foto links); B Grande River; C Serra do
Tabaio. Region mit den endemiscen Eidecsen Gymnophthalmus vanzoi
und G. leucomystax (Familie Gymnophthalmidae). Wald und lavrado-Kon-
takt mit kleinen Waldinseln (Foto rects). bergang von Abtragungs- zu
Aufsctungsrelief mit isolierten Hgeln, die Entwsserung erfolgt ber
eine sclect entwicelte Flussniederung.
Fig. 9: Brazil-Venezuela border. A Tepequm tepuy (right photo); B
Parima River, hills; C Surumu River (lef photo), type locality of the
amphibian Elacistocleis surumu. Not well developed fuvial plains (Su-
rumu River), with temporary lakes. Litholic soils with boulders, tors and
scrub-herbs vegetation.
Abb. 9: Grenze Brasilien-Venezuela. A Tepequm tepuy (Foto rects);
B Parima, Hgel; C Surumu (Foto links), Typuslokalitt der Amphibie
Elacistocleis surumu. Sclect entwicelte Flussniederungen (Surumu)
mit temporren Seen. Litholic-Bden mit Felsblcen, strauc- und kraut-
reice Vegetation.
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thelandscape,populationecologyandconservation.Weget
these data mainly through inventories, whic should start
someplace.
Ifanexhaustivefaunalsurveyisahardtask,becauseof
itshighcostsandneedofexperiencedpersonalinvolvement,
areliablealternativeistoselecthabitatsamplesbymapping
theregionalmorphoclimaticunits.Tiscanbedoneapply-
ingremotesensingandgeoprocessingtecniques.Whereto
startwilldependonthequestion.Agoodsetofsuggestions
canbefoundinHeyeratal.(1994)andCarvalho(2009)for
the lavradoarea.

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E&G
Quaternary Science Journal
Volume 61 / number 2 / 2012 / 156167 / DOi 10.3285/eg.61.2.04
www.quaternary-science.net
Quaternary Geology and Geomorphology of terna river basin in
West Central india
Mohammad babar, radhakrishna Chunchekar, Madhusudan G. Yadava, bhagwan Ghute
how to cite: Babar,Md.,Chunchekar,R.V.,Yadava,M.G.,Ghute,B.B.(2012):QaternaryGeologyandGeomorphologyofTernaRiverBasin
inWestCentralIndia.E&GQaternaryScienceJournal,61(2):159168.DOI:10.3285/eg.61.2.04
Abstract: Tispaperpresentsthemorphostratigraphy,lithostratigraphyandsedimentarystructuresofTernaRiverbasinintheDeccanBa-
salticProvince(DBP)ofWestCentralIndia.TeseQaternarydepositshavebeendividedintothreeinformalformations(i)dark
greysiltformationLateHolocene,(ii)LightgreysiltformationsEarlyHolocene,(iii)DarkgrayishbrownsiltformationLate
PleistocenewiththeolderQaternaryAlluvialdepositsofUpperPleistoceneage.Tefneclayandsiltformationsinthelower
reacesrefectthatthestreamsareoflowgradientandmoresinuous.Terivershowsevidencesofcannelmovementbyavulsion,
largelycontrolledbylineaments.Palaeo-levees,intheform45mhighridgesexistalongtheTernaRiverfoodplain,specifcallyin
theTer,Killari,Sastur,DhutaandMaknivillages.SeverallineamentsoccuralongNE-SW,NW-SE,E-WandWNW-ESEdirections,
whiccontrolthebasementstructureinthestudyarea.TevaluesoftheTopographicSinuosityIndex(TSI)indicaterejuvenation
ofthearealeadingtothedominanceoftopographyonthesinuosityoftherivercannels.Tebreakinslopeinthelongprofleis
alsoindicationoftheQaternarytectonicuplifofthearea.Radiocarbondatingofsomecarcoalfragmentscollectedfromfolded
beddingsindicatesthatpaleoseismicactivitymighthavetakenplacealongthebasinbetweenAD120andAD1671.

Quartrgeologie und Geomorphologie des terna beckens im westlichen Zentralindien


Kurzfassung: ImvorgelegtenArtikelwerdendieMorphostratigraphie,LithostratigraphiesowiedieSedimentstrukturendesTernaBecensinder
DeccanBasalticProvince(DBP)imwestlicenZentralindienvorgestellt.DieQartrablagerungenknnenindreigroeEinheiten
unterteiltwerden(i)dunkelgraueSclufablagerungenSptesHolozn,(ii)hellgraueSclufablagerungenFrhesHolozn,(iii)
dunkelgrau-brauneSclufablagerungenSptpleistoznmitaltquartrenalluvialenAbstzenmitoberpleistoznenAltern.Die
feinentonig-sclufgenAblagerungenimUnterlaufdesFlussesdeutenaufruhigeAblagerungsbedingungenundeinensinusarti-
genAbfusshin.DerFlusszeigtTendenzenzuabscwemmungsbedingtenGerinneverlagerungen,diewiederumdurcvorhandene
Brucliniengesteuertwurden.EntlangdesTerna-FlusseskonntenweiterhinPalouferrceninFormvon45mhohenRcen
nacgewiesen werden, hier vor allem im Bereic der OrtscafenTer, Killari, Sastur, Dhuta und Makni. Einige nacgewiesene
BruclinientretenvoralleminNE-SE,NW-SE,E-WundWNW-ESE-RictungaufundbestimmendieStrukturdesGrundgebirges
im Untersucungsgebiet. DieTSI-Werte (Topographic Sinousity Index) verdeutlicen einen Erosionswecsel im Untersucungs-
gebietmiteinerVerstrkungdestopographiscenEinfussesaufdieAusformungderAbfussbahnen.DieimProflsictbareGe-
lndekantezeugtweiterhinvoneinertektoniscenHebungdesGebietesimQartr.Radiokohlenstofdatierungen,dieaneinigen
Holzkohlefragmentendurcgefhrtwurden,dieausgefaltetenAblagerungenentnommenwurden,deutendaraufhin,dasseine
seismisceAktivittinderZeitspannezwiscen1201671n.Chr.statgefundenhabenkann.
Keywords: Qaternary Geology, Lithologs of Qaternary sediments, morphostratigraphy, Geomorphology, Terna River
Addresses of authors:Md. Babar
1
, R.V. Chuncekar
1
, M.G. Yadava
2
and B.B. Ghute
1
DepartmentofGeology,DnyanopasakCollege,Parbhani-431401
(M.S.)India,
2
PhysicalResearcLaboratory,Ahmedabad-380009,GujratIndia,E-mail:md-babar@hotmail.com
1 introduction
TePeninsularIndiawasconsideredtobetectonicallysta-
ble,untiltheKillari-Laturearthquakein1993(Fig.1),whic
was followed by another event at Jabalpur in 1997 (Fig. 1)
andcontinuedepisodesofreservoirinducedearthquakesat
Koyna(MaharashtraIndia)since1967(Fig.1).Teepicenter
ofthedevastatingKillari-Laturearthquake(mb=6.3)ofSep-
tember30,1993islocatedintheTernadrainagebasin(Fig.2).
Tiseventisoneoftherareoccurrencesofanearthquakein
shieldareaandbroughtintofocusseveralunresolvedques-
tionsregardingtheintracratonicearthquakes.Teseismicity
recorded in this region in the last few decades apparently
contradictedthetraditionalnotionofthetectonicstabilityof
theDeccanVolcanicProvince(DVP).Teseearthquakesalso
demonstrated the catastrophic efects and the risk of anni-
hilatingearthquakesoccurringintheDVPinPeninsularIn-
diainresponsetoongoingneotectonicactivityintheregion.
Te observed seismicity has so far remained unexplained
withinaneotectonicframeworkintheabsenceofsucstud-
iesintheregion.Nostudyhasbeenatemptedtosofaron
documentationofneotectonicevidencesanditsinfuenceon
GEOzOn SCiEnCE MEDiA
iSSn 0424-7116
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theshapingofthelandscapeintherecentgeologicpast.Te
QaternarydepositsoccurringintheTernabasinhavealso
remaineduninvestigatedsofar,whicarepotentialarcives
fordelineatingpastneotectonicandseismiceventsandLate
Qaternaryevolutionaryhistory.
TeearthquakenearKillari-LaturalongTernaRiverdem-
onstrated the need for detailed neotectonic reappraisal of
the DVP, whic consists primarily of a thic pile of trap-
peanlavafowsandnarrowfringeofQaternarysediments.
Although, the lava fows have been studied extensively in
termsoftheirpetrologicalcaracteristicsandgeocemistry
butstudiesontheirstructuralaspects,geomorphologicaland
neotectonicevolutionarevirtuallysporadic.Tealluvialde-
positsinwesternuplandsofMaharashtrahavebeenstudied
withrespecttoNeogeneuplifofPeninsularIndiaandQa-
ternarypaleoclimaticcanges(Radhakrishna1993;Rajag-
uruetal.1993;Rajaguru&Kale1985).Testudiescarried
outsofar(Babaretal.2000)indicateacontrolofstructure
and neotectonics on the geomorphic set up and drainage
confguration of theTerna basin. Lineament and fault con-
trolleddrainagepatern,entrencedmeanders,incisedclifs
ofQaternarysedimentsandbedrocandarejuvenatedto-
pographypointstoadominantcontrolofneotectonicactiv-
ityonthelandscapeevolutionofthearea.
Te paper represents the Qaternary Geology and geo-
morphologyofTernaRiverbasinintheDVPofWestcentral
India.TelocationofsitesisgiveninFig.2.TeQaternary
geological mapping was carried out in the area in order to
generate the data on morphostratigraphy and lithostratig-
raphy. Te lineaments occurs along NE-SW, NW-SE, E-W
andWNW-ESEdirections(Fig.3),whichasinfuencedthe
drainagenetworkoftheareaandthetributariesoftheTerna
River.
2 Geology of the area
Geologically,theentirestudyareabelongstoDVPofPenin-
sularIndia(Fig.4).Deccanvolcanismisconsideredtobea
manifestation of original tectonic regime developed within
thecontinentallithosphericplate(Chandrasekharam1985;
Cox1989;Cox1991;Bose1996).Testressconditionsinthe
Indianpeninsulainitiatedformationoffssureswarmsand
with increasing intensity and developed miniature Conti-
nentalrifing.TeKillari-Latur1993earthquakerejuvenated
thedebateovertheexistenceofrifvalleysunderneaththe
DVP(Valdiya1993;Kailasam1993).
Te Deccan Traps, whic cover an area of more than
600,000 sq km of this region, consist of a number of fows
ranging in thic ness from a few meters up to about 100 m
withthesuccessivefowsbeingseparatedbyredboleorIn-
ter-trappean beds and are caracterized by compact basalt
at the botom part succeeded by a vesicular zone (Gupta
&Dwivedy1996).TeDeccantrapsequence,ingeneral,is
classifed into stratigraphic units on the basis of cemical
compositionofvariousfows(e.g.Mitchell&Widdowson
1991).TesouthernpartofDeccanvolcanicprovinceinthe
easternMaharashtraiscomposedofPoladpurandAmbenali
FormationsoftheWaisubgroup(Mitchell&Widdowson
1991;Bilgrami1999).
Te Deccan basalt fows, in general, are broadly hori-
zontalindispositionandexhibitsgentlegradients.Tegra-
dient is towards ENE and SE. Drilling at Killari (Gupta &
Dwivedy 1996; Gupta et al. 1998) indicates that the total
thicnessofbasalticlayersisabout338mwithabout1215
fows. Te lava fows are underlained by 8 m thic infra-
trappean sequence comprising 12 m oxidized shale fol-
lowedbyaconglomeraticgrit-sandstone.Tislayeroverlies
thePrecambriangraniticbasement(biotite-graniticgneisses
topinkgranite).Inthepresentstudyareatherearenineba-
salticlavafowsasgiveninTable1.
Closely spaced gravity survey and modeling along the
two profles (Mishra et al. 1998) across the epicentral area
of1993Killari-Laturearthquakesuggestsomehighandlow
densitybodiesofshalloworiginindicatinghighlyheteroge-
neous basement. Under these circumstances the most con-
vincingevidenceofpaleoseismicityaswellastectonicactiv-
ity,whicmayhaveoccurredinthisregion,ismostlikelyto
comefromthesediments,whichavebeenpreservedalong
therivers.
3 methodology
3.1 satellite data
ForthepresentstudytheIRSP6LISSIII2010satellitedata
was used to delineate Qaternary litho units of theTerna
River.Activecannelsandfoodplainfeaturesweremapped.
Te digital data format from Indian remote sensing satel-
lite (IRS P6) of LISS-III 2010 with 24 m spatial resolution
withfourspectralbandswasusedtomeettherequirement
ofareaunderstudy.Teimagetakenwasfalsecolourcom-
posite(FCC)on1:50,000scale,havingbandcombinationof
4:3:2:1(NIR:red:green).TeSOItoposheetsanddigitalsat-
ellite data were geometrically rectifed and geo-referenced
andmergedusingArcGIS9.3.
Fig 1. Scematic views of Indian Tectonics and historic Earthquakes map
of India (Modifed afer Bilham 2004). Te values in bracet indicate the
number of casualties because of the earthquake. Shading indicates fexure
of India: a 4 km deep trough near the Himalaya and an inferred minor (40
m) trough in south central India are separated by a bulge that rises ap-
proximately 450 m.
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3.2 field Work
Tegeomorphicstudycarriedoutwasbasedonthesatellite
data,SurveyofIndia(SOI)topographicmapsandextensive
feldsurvey.Teheightofterracesurfaceswasdetermined
using the data acquired through toposheets and hand-held
global positioning systems (GPS). Te data presented are
basedonthefeldobservationonseveraloutcrops,wherea
representativesectionhasbeendiscussedindetail.Temor-
phologicaldetailsarepresentedafercarefulexaminationof
SOI topographic maps and observations made in the feld.
Sections were logged and sedimentary structures were de-
scribedinthefelditself.Tefeldworkisundertakendur-
ing200910.
Te river shows the evidences of cannel movement
by avulsion and the lineaments largely control these. Old-
er palaeo-levees exist in the form of ridges 45 m high at
Ter,Killari,SasturandMaknivillagesalongtheTernaRiver
foodplain.Teabnormallygreaterthicnessofsedimentsis
recordedatTervillage,consistingofmoundsof12to15m
heightfromthebedleveloftheTernaRiver(Rajendranet
al. 1996; Sukhija et al. 2006). In the feld these are marked
byacurvilineardepositionofPaleolithicsitesonthesiltyor
sandy over bank deposits. Tey occur as irregular patces
and can be related to the older course of the river. Several
lineamentsrunNE-SW,NW-SE,E-WandWNW-ESEdirec-
tions (Fig. 3), whic control the basement structure in the
study area. Te lineament map is prepared using the basin
mappreparedinArcGIS9.3andthelineamentsareincor-
poratedfromthelineamentmapsofAryaetal.(1995)and
Srivastavaetal.(1997).Tegeologyofareaisillustratedin
Fig. 4, litho-sections were logged (Fig. 5) and sedimentary
structuresweredescribed.
3.3 radiocarbon Analysis
For the present study seven carcoal samples were collect-
edfromdiferentlocationsincludingtwosamplesfromTer
area, one eac from Duta and Makhani and three samples
fromKillarivillageslocations,depthandageswithFigures
referred are given in Table 4. Ages of carcoal fragments
were estimated by radiocarbon dating method following
liquid scintillation spectrometry (Yadava & Ramesh 1999).
Benzene was synthesized from sample carbon in three ra-
diocemicalsteps:1)underdynamicvacuumsamplecarbon
wasfrstcombustedtocarbondioxide2)itwasreactedwith
lithium metal to get acetylene 3) fnally benzene was cata-
lytically synthesized from acetylene. Residual radiocarbon
activityofthesamplebenzenewasmeasuredbyliquidscin-
tillationcounter(LKB-QUANTULUS).Alltheestimatedag-
esreportedherewascalibratedusingonlineversion(htp://
www.calib.qub.ac.uk)oftheprogrammeCalib6.1(Stuiver
Fig. 2: Location map of study area for sites of lithologs along the Terna
River Basin.
Tab. 1: Lava fows in the Terna River basin (Modifed afer GSDA, 197374).
Sr. No. Flow No. Lithology of the fow Altitude range (m)
1 ix Highly jointed compact basalt fow (fne grained massive and moderately
weathered)
746.00 to 722.00
2 viii Jointed compact basalt fow (fne grained massive and moderately
weathered)
722.00 to 685.00
3 vii Highly weathered vesicular amygdaloidal basalt fow 685.00 to 675.00
4 vi Jointed compact basalt fow (fne grained massive, grey to dark grey
coloured and poorly weathered)
675.00 to 643.00
5 -- red bole bed 643.00 to 642.00
6 v Compact basalt fow (fne grained massive and moderately weathered) 642.00 to 634.00
7 -- red bole bed 634.00 to 633.00
8 iv Highly weathered vesicular amygdaloidal basalt fow 633.00 to 621.00
9 iii Jointed compact basalt fow (fne grained massive, dark grey coloured
and highly to moderately weathered)
621.00 to 580.00
10 ii poorly weathered vesicular amygdaloidal basalt fow 580.00 to 569.00
11 i Jointed compact basalt fow (fne grained massive, dark brownish
coloured and poorly weathered)
569.00 to 551.00
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&Reimer1993).Inmostofthecasesestimatedradiocarbon
ages when calibrated results into several age ranges with
varying relative area (or probability). For simplifying the
discussion,hereweconsideronlythoserangeswhichave
highcorrespondingrelativearea(>0.89,givenincolumn5,
Tab. 4). For further details on the procedure refer the Stu-
iver&Reimer(1993).
4 results
4.1 Quaternary sediments
IntheDeccanPeninsularIndiaQaternarydepositsarepri-
marilyfuvial.Teyareconfnedtoverynarrowbeltsalong
rivers with not muc recognizable landscape features, ex-
ceptforthesedimentsrecognizedalongTapiandPurnariv-
ers(Ghatak&Ghatak2008;Tiwarietal.1996;Tiwari&
Bhai1997b;Tiwari&Bhai1998;Tiwari1999;Tiwari2001;
Tiwarietal.2010).Tesedepositsareofendiscontinuous,
generally unfossiliferous and lac suitable material for ra-
diometricdating,furthermore;thedepositslacproperpres-
ervationofpollenandpropersedimentologicalrecord.
Telithologyof theTerna valley of older alluviumcon-
sistsofdarkgreysandandsiltswithgreybrownclayandat
someplacesdevelopmentofcalcretessuggeststhattheOlder
Qaternary Alluvial deposits are of Upper Pleistocene age.
LithostratigraphicallytheQaternarydepositsoftheTerna
River basin have been divided into three informal forma-
tionsincluding(i)darkgreysiltformationLateHolocene,
(ii) Light grey silt formations Early Holocene, (iii) Dark
grayish brown silt formation Late Pleistocene. Tere are
two formations of Holocene age including early and late
Holocene, whic are equivalent of the Ramnagar and Bau-
rasformationsofNarmadaalluvium(Tiwari&Bhai1997).
TeQaternarysedimentsobservedintheareaarepresent
foodplain(To),olderfoodplain(T1)andpediplain(T2).Te
fneclayandsiltformationsinthelowerreacesrefectthat
thestreamsareoflowgradientandmoresinuosity.Inthis
areamonsoonisthemostdominatingparametercontrolling
thebehavioroftheriver.Tehighlyseasonalrainfallresults
inthehighlyseasonaldiscargeintheriver.Mostofthegeo-
morphicworkisdoneduringthefoodeventsthatoccurred
duringindividualstormattheendofmonsoon.Alargepart
ofthealluvialrecordisthereforeproducedduringfoodand
thisiswellillustratedbythefnenessinthesediments(Bull
1991; Nanson &Tooth 1999; Schumm 1978; Mishra et al.
2003).
4.2 morphostratigraphy of terna river sediments
Alluvial plain of theTerna River shows 3 terraces namely,
T0,T1,T2 in increasing order of elevations (Tab. 2). Tese
terraces were described as suggested by Tiwari & Bhai
(1997b)andBabaretal.2010withreferencetothesoiltypes
andsoilcaracteristics.
Telithostratigraphicformationshavebeenidentifedon
thebasisofnatureofsediments,sedimentarystructuresand
pedogenic caracters. Tus we have four lithostratigraphic
formations.
Te dark grey sand and silt with grew brown clay for-
mationiscorrelatedwithupperHirdepurformationoflate
(upper)Pleistoceneage(13kato25ka).TeGraySandand
Siltformationanddarkgreysiltformationiscorrelatedwith
theRamnagarformationoflateHoloceneage(2kato5ka)
(Tiwari1999).
4.3 Lithologs of sediments exposed along terna river
TelithologsoftheQaternarysedimentsarestudiedfrom
thesourceareaoftheTernaRiveratTerkhedatotheconfu-
ence with Manjra river at Aurad Shahjani. Te important
localities of the litholog studied areYermala, Rui,Ter, Bor-
gaon,Ujni,Makhni,Duta,Sastur,Sawari,Gunjarga,Aurad
ShahjaniandWanjarkheda(Fig.5).
AtYermala highly jointed compact basalt (aa type) lava
fowisexposedontherightbank,whileonlefbankthereis
exposureof6mthicsedimentconsistingofthegreyclayey
soilfollowedbypebblygravel,sandysiltandsandygravel
(Fig.5a).Telitholog(Fig.5b)atRuiis5.7mthicandcon-
sistofgreyclayeysoilfollowedbysandysilt,clay,sandysilt
andpebblygravelalongwithcompactbasaltatbotom.Te
surprisingelementintheTernaRiverbasinisthethicness
ofabout15mofQaternarysedimentatTer.Teriverbluf
Fig. 4: Geological Map of the Terna River Basin.
Fig. 3: Lineament map of the study area showing lineaments occurring
along NE-SW, NW-SE, E-W and WNW-ESE directions (Modifed afer
Arya et al. 1995 and Srivastava et al 1997). TKL Terna-Killari Linea-
ment, SKL Sastur-Killari Lineament, AOL Ausa-Osmanabad Line-
ament, JKL Jawalganala-Killari Lineament, KUL Kallam-Umarga
Lineament, GBL Ghod-Bhima Lineament.
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atTervillage(Fig.5c)inLaturDistrictisoccurringonthe
westernbankoftheTernaRiver.
Te Qaternary sediments section occurring along the
rightbankofTernavalleyatBorgaon(Fig.5d)is6.8mthic.
Tesectionshowsthesiltyclayatthebaserestingoverthe
presentlevelofthefoodplainfollowedbygrayishblacpeb-
blygravel,lightgreysandysilt,darkgreysandygravelfol-
lowedbygreysandysiltandgreysiltyclayintercalatedwith
thin clay layers and grey clayey soil at the top (Fig. 5 d).
Tere is less thicness of sediment on the lef bank of the
TernaRiveri.e.3.2mconsistingoftopmostgreyclayeysoil
followedbygreysiltyclaywithcalcretesandjointedcom-
pactbasaltatthebase(Fig.5e).
Te Qaternary sediment found along theTerna valley
atUjni(Fig.5f)is6.4mthic.Tesectionshowssandysilt
atthebasefollowedbyalternatelayersofsiltandclay,peb-
bly gravel layer, grey blac clay, sandy gravel, sandy silt,
clayandmajorsandysiltlayersinupwardsuccession.Te
topmostlayeristheblacclayeysoil.Temajorsequenceof
thissectionisthethicmassivegreysandysilt.
Telitho-sectionalonglefbankoftheTernaRiverisoc-
curringatMakni village (Fig.5g)andhavingtotalthicness
of2.4m.Tesectionconsistsofsiltyclayatthebase,whic
is followed by the dark sandy layer, silty clay, grey brown
clayey soil, light grey silty clay in upward succession with
topmostgreyblacsiltyclaywithpebbles.
TetwoexposuresofLitho-sectionatDhutaarefoundat
lefbank(Fig.5h)andrightbank(Fig.5i).Telefbanksec-
tion(6mthic,Fig.5h)showssandysilt(0.60m)atthebase
followed by alternate layers of clay (0.20 m), sandy gravel
layer(1.50m),andsiltyclaywithpebble(2.50m)asamajor
layer in upward succession. Te topmost layer is the blac
clayeysoil(1.20m).Tesedimentarysectionobservedalong
therightbankofTernavalleyatDhutavillage(Fig.5i)is6.8
m thic. Tis section is developed as the compact basalt at
thebasefollowedbypebblygravel(0.85m)grayishbrown
clay(0.40),sandygravel(0.82m),alternatinglayersofsilty
clayandlightgreyclayandblacclayeysoil(0.24m)atthe
top.
Te Qaternary sediments alongTerna valley at Sastur
(old)village(Fig.5j)is6.8mthic.Tissectionisdeveloped
asthegreybrownsandysiltatthebasefollowedbygrayish
brownclaybed,greybrownsandysiltlayer,sandygravel,
whicisoverlainbyGreyclayeysoil.Aboveclayeysoilbed
thereisalayerofSandysiltshowingcrossbeddingstructure
followedbylightgreyclayey,silt,lightgreyclayeyandblac
clayeysoil.
Telitho-sectionalonglefbankoftheTernaRiverisoc-
curring at Sawari village (Fig. 5 k) and having total thic-
nessof2.0mwith0.4mjointedcompactbasaltexposedat
the base. Te Qaternary sediment (1.6 m thic) exposed
consistsofgravelatthebase,whicisfollowedbythesilty
clay with gravel, sandy gravel, silty clay and blac clayey
soilatthetop.TesimilarsectionisalsovisibleatGunjarga
(Fig.5l)withjointedcompactbasaltatthebaseandQater-
narysedimentsof2.5mthicness.
Te sedimentary sections at Aurad Shahjani (2 m thic,
Fig.5m)andWanjarkheda(2.2mthic,Fig.5n)nearcon-
fuenceofTernaRiverwiththeManjrariver,showthesimi-
larity in the Qaternary sediment suc as the blac clayey
soil at the top followed by silt and then sandy gravel with
jointed compact basalt at the base. Te exposure of basalt
fows show diferences in these two areas. At Aurad Shah-
janithereisexposureofAmygdaloidalbasaltatthebasefol-
lowedbyjointedcompactbasaltfow,volcanicbrecciaand
jointed compact basalt, whereas atWanjarkheda there are
two lava fows including Amygdaloidal basalt fow at the
base followed by jointed compact basalt fow and both are
separatedbyredbolebed.
Fig. 5: Lithologs of the sediments observed along the Terna Valley. a to n indicates the exposed lithologs at diferent localities.
Fig. 6: Geomorphic surfaces of Terna River Basin.
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5 Geomorphic Characteristics
TeTernaRiverbasinhasbeendividedintosixgeomorphic
surfaces:presentfoodplain,olderalluvialplain,pediplains,
highlydissectedplateau,denudationalhillsandlateriticup-
land(Fig.6)basedonthetopographicfeatures,morphologi-
calcaracteristicsandIRSP6LISS-IIIsatelliteimagery.To-
wardsthesourceofthebasin,i.e.inwesternandnorthwest-
ern part, the area is caracterised by the moderately steep
gradient, rocy upland with deep and narrow valleys and
moderatelysteeplongitudinalprofle.Sucfeaturesaredue
toQaternarytectonicuplifasfoundinuplandMaharash-
tra(Powar1993;Radhakrishna1993;Rajaguruetal.1993).
Teuplifedterrace,escarpment,deepgrooves,dissectedcol-
luviumandageneralyouthfultopographyarebelievedtobe
indicativeoftectonicuplifduringtheQaternary.
Temiddlezoneofthebasincorrespondstoshallowand
gentlyslopingpediplain.TeQaternarysedimentsdirectly
overlieDeccanBasaltinthepediplainzone.Tethirdzone
towardstheconfuencewithManjraRiverincludesthearea
ofPleistocene-Holocenealluvialdeposits.Tedevelopment
ofgulliesandbadlandsinthiszonesuggestsactivedenuda-
tion processes, whic may be atributed to the Qaternary
tectonicuplif.
Based on geomorphic caracteristics ofTerna River and
locations of arcaeological sites, complex surface deforma-
tional features and the shallow focal depth consideration,
itissuggestedthatblocrotationtectonicsabouttheverti-
calaxisseemstohaveplayedacrucialroleincausingsuc
a deadly earthquake of magnitude 6.3 (Chetty 2006). Te
bloc structure of the basalts also shows considerable in-
fuenceonthebehaviourofseismicwavesacrossthebloc
boundaries.Teseismicenergymighthavebeencannelled
alongtheboundariesandinterfacesamongstdiferentcom-
positionalfows.Itisinferredthattheblocrotationmodel
forthebasementtectonicscouldberesponsibleforthecon-
tinued tectonic activity in Eastern Dharwar Craton (EDC)
and in turn the inherited structural fabric and reactivation
tectonicsintheoverlyingDeccantraps.
TwomajorsetsoflineamentstrendingNW-SEandENE-
WSWareinferredfromsatellitedata(Chetty&Rao1994)
revealingawell-developedmosaicofblocstructure(Fig.3),
similartothatdescribedintheEDC.Orientationofstructur-
alandlineamentfabricsintheLaturregionmimicsthoseof
theadjacentpre-Deccanbasementregions.Itismostprob-
ablytherefectionofstructuralinheritanceofthebasement.
Temecanismforthistransmissionisprobablyrelatedto
movements along the reactivated ancient structures in the
basement exerting profound control in generating frac-
turesandsmall-scaledisplacementsintheoverlyingbasalts.
Whilesomeoftheinferredlineamentsterminateagainstthe
east-fowingTernaRivercourse,sinistralstrike-slipdisplace-
mentscouldbeseenalongtheENEWSWlineaments.Grav-
itymaps(Mishraetal.1998)exhibitmanylocalizedgrav-
ity highs and lows of 35 mgal coinciding with the major
NWSE striking lineaments in the region. Te geomorphic
featuresassociatedwithTernaRiver(Chetty&Rao1994)
indicatethatitfollowsatectonicallyactivelineament.Fur-
ther,severalarcaeologicalsitesalongNWSEtrendinglin-
eamentarealsoobservedalongtheTernaRiver.Rajendran
& Rajendran (1998) inferred that one ancient earthquake
ofAD450hadoccurredaroundonesucarcaeologicalsite
nearTer.
Examination of theTerna basin and its morphology re-
vealstheshifandmigrationoftherivercourseinanalter-
natingcangingfashion(Fig.7).Migrationoftherivercourse
isinferredbasedontheimaginarymidlinedrawnontheba-
sisofthesymmetryoftheriverbasin.Inthenorthwestern
part, the river course is east-west, and the migration is to-
wardssouth.Temigrationdirectioncangesinaccordance
with the cange in direction of the river course. Further, it
is also evident that the lineament fabric patern infuenced
therivercourse(Fig.3).Interestingly,thelocationofthear-
caeologicalsiteatTer,liesattheintersectionoftwomajor
lineaments. Te topographic profle along the Terna River
(Fig. 8) shows steep gradient until the river takes an east-
warddirection,10kmwestofKillari.Tegradientbecomes
zeronearKillariandfurthereast.Tereisagradualcange
notonlyinthegradient,butalsointheregionaltopography
from~700minthenorthwestto560mintheeast.Temain
shoc and afershoc activities are restricted to the region
oflowerelevation.Considerableinfuenceofthelineament
fabriconthetopography,drainagepaternaswellasonthe
rivergradientisevident.
Anytectonicdeformationthatcangestheslopeofariver
valley will result in corresponding canges in sinuosity so
astomaintainanequilibriumcannelslope(Keller&Pin-
Terrace Origin Soil Type Soil Characteristics Av. Elevation m amsl
t0 Depositional Entisol (i) Dark Gray sand and silt 574.0
t1 Erosional inceptisol (ii) Gray sand and silt 582.5
t2 Depositional vertisol (iii) Dark Gray sand and silt with Gray
Brown Clay
591.0
Fig. 7: Drainage morphology of Terna River basin showing the migration of
river course (afer Chetty 2006).
Tab. 2: Morphostratigraphy of Terna Alluvium.
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ter1996).Tussinuosityparameterscanbeusedtodeduce
the role of tectonism development of cannel morphology
(eg.Gomez&Marron1991;Rhea1993;RachnaRajetal.
1999).Tesinuosityofameanderingstreamistheresultof
topography and hydraulic factors, whic can be expressed
byaratiocalledtheindexofsinuosity(Muller1968).Te
rivercannelisdividedintonumberofsegments(Fig.9)as
suggestedbyMuller(1968)andFriend&Sinha(1988)for
determinationofsinuosityparameter.Temeasurementsof
cannellength(CL),valleylength(VL)andtheshortestdis-
tancebetweenthesourceandthemouthoftheriver(AL),i.e.
airlengthsareusedforcalculationofcannelindex,CI=CL/
ALandvalleyindexVI=VL/AL.Testandardsinuosityin-
dex is calculated using SSI= CL/VL, hydrological sinuosity
index HIS=% equivalence of CI-VI/CI-1 and topographical
sinuosityindexTSI=%equivalentofVI-1/CI-1.Testandard
sinuosityindex(SSI)fortheTernaRivercannelvariesfrom
1.002to1.76(Tab.3).TeincreaseinSSIinthelowerreaces
of the basin is accompanied by lower values of Hydraulic
SinuosityIndex(HSI),whicsuggeststhatthehydraulicfac-
torisnotresponsibleforincreaseinSSIinthelowerreaces.
TevaluesofHSIvaryfrom2.13to85.58(Tab.3).
LowvaluesofHSIandcorrespondinglyhighervaluesof
Topographic sinuosity index (TSI) in the upland areas and
pediment zone suggests that the meandering streams do
notbelongtotheinitialdenudationcycle(Friend&Sinha
1988), but the present area has been rejuvenated there by
indicating the role of tectonism. As the river progresses in
thecycleoferosion,theroleofhydraulicsincreasesandthe
roleoftopographydecrease(RachanaRajetal.1999).Tis
isobservedinthelowerreacesofthearea;wherethereis
arelativeincreaseoccursinHSIthoughitremainssubstan-
tiallylowerthanTSI(Tab.3).
6 discussion
Te Peninsular Shield of India was supposed to be seismi-
callystable,butthe1993Laturearthquakeindicatedtheseis-
micvulnerabilityofthearea.TedeepdrillingintheDeccan
VolcanicProvinceinbasaltfows,onbothsideof1993rup-
turezoneprovidedtheevidenceofafaultanddisplacement
ofabout6m,atadepthof220m(Guptaetal.1998).Down
dip slicenlines on the steep dipping slicenside surface in
the drill cores confrm dip slip nature of the fault. Howev-
er the observed displacement is too muc to account for a
singleearthquakeofMw6.1,hencetheysuggestedrepeated
seismicityinthearea.Rajendran&Rajendran(1999)sug-
gestedthereactivationofthepre-existingfaultandevidence
ofearlierseismicityintheareabytrencingintherupture
zone of 1993 earthquake near Killari.While Sukhija et al.
(2006) fnd the wide spread geological evidence of a large
paleoseismic event near the Meizoseismal area of the 1993
LaturearthquakeatTeronTernaRiverandHalkiandShiv-
ooronManjrariver.
Te deformational structures in the sediments observed
are fexures, warps, bucle folds and vertical ofset in the
sediments (Fig. 10). Tese structures are earlier studied by
Rajendran (1997), Rajendran & Rajendran (1999) and
Sukhijaetal.(2006).Tevariationintheindividuallayers
that belong to the same deforming mass can be explained
by strain partitioning, whic depends on the bulk proper-
ties of the roc (Hatcher 1995). Because of partitioning of
mecanicalbehaviour,thestiferandmorecompetentrocs
areexpectedtoshowvariationisshapesandwavelengthof
folds. From the style of deposition it is clear that bucling
of the sediment strata has formed the structures in section
atTer. Here the bucling must have been accompanied by
fexuralslipbetweenthelayers(Fig.11).
Teverticalofsetofmarkerhorizonsatthenorthernpart
ofthesection(Fig.12)indicatesadisplacementof1015cm.
Te up thrown bloc is on the southern side of the ofset
plane.Tesefeaturesareobservedinthe1520cmthicin-
terlayersofwhitishclayinblacishclay.
Detailed assessment of morphological and morphomet-
ric caracteristics have confrmed the role of neotectonism
intheevolutionofTernaRiverbasin.Terelativedegreeof
tectonicactivityisalsomanifestedbytheanomalousbehav-
iourofthestreamssucasrightangledturnofthestreams,
convergence and divergence of stream, streams fowing
paralleltomainriverforaconsiderabledistanceandofset
drainage(Babaretal.2000).Alltheparametersingeneral,
suggestanincreasingdegreeoftectonicactivityfromlower
reacestowardstheuplandsourceregion.Tealignmentsof
the signifcant morphological features and stream orienta-
tionshaveprovidedinformationaboutthelineartectonicel-
ements.Teanomalousbehaviourofstreamsindicatesthat
subsurfacefaultingmaybecontrollingthedrainagepaterns
ofthebasin(Kaplayetal.2004).
Te orientations of the stream cannels in the upland
zoneandinthemiddlereacesoftheTernaRiverbasinhave
been guided by lineaments, whic are the indicators of re-
cent tectonic activity. Higher order stream cannels refect
thegeneralNW-SEandE-Wtrend.Tesetrendshavebeen
reactivated in recent times as shown by displaced Qater-
nary deposits (Rajendran & Rajendran 1999). Te ofset
Fig. 8: Topographic profle along Terna River showing steep gradient
before becoming fat (afer Chetty 2006).
Fig. 9: Map showing segments studied for sinuosity.
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tionsoftwoshallowcrustalfaults.However,Chetty(2006),
proposedanalternativeexplanationintermsofblocrota-
tiontectonicsasaplausiblemecanismfortheLaturearth-
quake.Accordingtohimbasedonthestructuralfabricinthe
EDC,asderivedfromsatellitedataaswellasaerialphotos,
andtheunusualshapes,sizesandgeometryofmafcdykes
and distinct fault systems, bloc rotation tectonics with
clocwise rotations were inferred from the deformational
system of the EDC. Bloc rotation is a signifcant mode of
deformationintheearthscrust(Freund1970;Kissel&Laj
1989; McKenzie & Jackson 1986). Te Latur region lies in
theproximityoftheKurudwadilineament,earlierdescribed
byBrahmam&Negi(1973)asasubtrappeanrifontheba-
sis of gravity anomalies. Based on geomorphic studies us-
ingsatellitedataandaerialphotos,Peshwa&Kale(1997)
concludedthatthisisaPrecambriandeepcrustal-scaleshear
zonecomprisinganarrayofNW-SWtrendingfaultsalong
whic dextral sense of movements have taken place, even
duringtheQaternaryperiod.Tisisevidentfromthepar-
allelismofthedrainagenetworkwiththeKurudwadilinea-
ment,suggestingthecontrolofbasementstructuresintheir
development. Tese movements based on the presence of
shearedsegmentsoftheArceangneisseswerealsorespon-
sible for the secondary development of east-west trending
faultsidentifedbygravitystudies.Structuralarcitectureof
theLaturearthquakeregionpresentedinthisstudyfavours
the bloc rotation model, whic could be a part of dextral
senseofshearalongtheNW-SEtrendinglineaments(Chet-
ty2006).
TeseismicityassociatedwiththeKillarisourceiscom-
parable to those in other cratons, suc as Australia. Inter-
estingly, location of historic earthquakes during AD 1201
1960(GeologicalSurveyofIndia)appearstobemostlycon-
fnedtoa400-km-longNWcorridorpassingthroughKillari
(Fig.1).Spatialcorrelationofthiscorridorofactivitywitha
structureinferredfromavarietyofdataaswellasthefault
planesolutionofthemaineventsuggestedreactivationofa
NW-orientedfault(Rajendran&Rajendran1999).Searc
for palaeoearthquakes in the vicinity of Killari led to the
identifcation a deformation event dating to AD 350450,
at a location known asTer, about 40 km northwest of Kil-
lari(Rajendran1999).Tedataonagedatingofthecar-
coal samples varies from AD 120 to AD 1671 and is given
inTable4.Inthepresentstudythecalendaragesofthede-
formedsectionatTerisfoundtobebetweenAD1151toAD
Fig. 10: Qaternary Sediments at Ter showing folding in upward section
and faulting (f f) in the middle part. Te upper layer is marked with the
potery layer showing the warping (Location is given in Fig. 2). Arrows
indicate the direction of compression for folding and horizontal shortening.
Fig. 11: Photograph showing the fexure and horizontal shortening in the
sediment at Ter village.
Fig. 12: Close-view of ofset in
middle of the section at Ter
shown in Fig. 10.
inthesedimentarysectionatTer(Fig.10,11and12)refects
onlyafractionofmovementinthebasementfaultbelowthe
basaltfows.Onthebasisofseismogenicfeaturesexposedin
the sedimentary sections including fexures, warps, bucle
foldandverticalofsets.Rajendran(1997)markedthesig-
natures of pre-existing earthquake (~1500 year ago). Tese
deformational features may be the result of reactivation of
NW-SE trending fault. Tese older tectonic directions, al-
though active until very recent times, had conditioned the
drainagenetworkinanearlierperiod.TeTSIvaluesindi-
caterejuvenationofthearealeadingtothedominatingef-
fect of topography on the sinuosity of the river cannels.
Te break in slope in the long profle is also indication of
the Qaternary tectonic uplif of the area. Additional sup-
portfortheneotectonicactivityintheuplandzoneandmid-
dlezoneoftheTernaRiverbasinisprovidedbyvalleyfoor
ratios and longitudinal profle. Morphometric analysis has
thusbeenusefulindelineatingareaswithdiferinglevelsof
tectonicactivityinthebasin(Babaretal.2009).
Tereactivationofpre-existingbasementstructureswas
proposed by Chetty & Rao (1994), while Kayal (2000)
opined that the Latur earthquake could be due to interac-
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353,whileforthedeformedsectionsatDhutaandMakhni
the corresponding calendar ages are between AD 650 and
AD1183.Similarly,thedeformedstructureatKillari(Fig.14)
indicatesthedatesarebetweenAD1256andAD1454.
TelithologofQaternarysedimentsoccurringalongthe
lefbankofTernavalleyatDhuta(Fig.5h)is6.0mthic.Te
sectionshowsthesiltatthebaserestingoverthepresentlev-
elofthefoodplainfollowedbygrayishblacpebblygrav-
el,lightgreysandysilt,darkgreysandygravelfollowedby
clay,greysandygravelandthicgreysiltyclaywithpebble
and blac clayey soil at the top. Te carcoal sample from
thissediment(Fig.13b)hasbeendatedandfoundtheage
of1010110yearB.P.(Tab.4).Tesedimentarysectionon
therightbankoftheTernaRiveratDhutais4.4mthicand
quite diferent than the lef bank section. It consists of top
mostblacclayeysoilfollowedbyalternatelayersofsandy
siltandclay,whicissucceededbysandygravel,clayand
pebbly gravel (with subangular pebbles) and jointed com-
pactbasaltoccursatthebase(Fig.5i).
TeepicenterofLatur1993earthquakeoldKillarivillage
is located on the lef bank of the Terna River and has an
approximately 08 m thic layer of alluvium topped by the
anthropogenicdump.Tedepositisintheformofamound
occurringbelowtheruinsoftheKillari-Laturearthquakeof
1993. Te trenc is developed in this region because of the
factthatthelocalpeopleareexcavatingthesoilforthepur-
posetouseitasafertilizer.Tealluviumishighlydissected
and now represented by irregular excavated mounds. Old
Killarivillagewasspreadoverthesemounds,nownothing
lefexcepttheNilkantheshwarTempleandremainsofearth-
quakeafecteddump.
Te blufs in general show evidences of deposition by
riversurgesandaremarkedbyalternatinglayersofcoarse
sands with cobbles and silty clay. Te courser layers may
have been deposited during the foods and fne sediments
during the leaner seasons.Texturally the sediments can be
classifedasclayloam,sandyclayandsiltyclayloam.Tese
typesofsedimentshavebeennotedformajorriversinMa-
harashtra and are categorized as food loams or diluvium
(Rajaguru&Kale1985).Teseriversarenotedforhighly
fuctuatingdiscargeandactivecannelmigration(Rajag-
uruetal.1993).IntheTervillagesection,inapitatthebase
ofbluf,itisfoundthatthealluviumextends>2mbelowthe
presentriverbed.Tisprobablysuggeststhatfuvialprocess-
esatTer(Rajendran1997)musthavestartedmucearlier,
analoguestootherriversinMaharashtraandthesameisthe
caseoftheKillariarea.
Te well-exposed vertical section of the mound along
thelef(southern)bankoftheTernaRiver,wasselectedfor
paleoseismic investigation, this 8 m thic section (Fig. 10)
extends in E-W trending arc measuring about 35 m long.
Tissectionmainlyconsistofdumpedmateriallikebroken
brics, potery, boulders etc for the top 1.5 m, followed by
gray clays inter-bedded with varied mixtures of sand, silt
andashintheformofeitherthinlayersorelongatedlens-
es and wedges. Te bedding is imperfect and is commonly
markedbycolourvariationsinindividuallayers.Tefuvial/
fuvio-lacustrinenatureofbotomlayersatthedepthof7.5
misevidencedbythepresenceofloadcastandscourandfll
structuresdepositedinahigh-energyenvironment.Pebble/
stonebeddingsatthatdepth.
Te site has been modifed by human activity and arti-
factslikepotery,beads,idols,humanbonesandevenlarge
objects like earthen pots and a number of in situ wooden
Fig. 13: (a) Sediment section at Makni showing deformation in silty clay formation, (b) Sediment section at Dhuta along
the lef bank of Terna valley.
Fig. 14: Sediment section at Killari showing Fault at a depth of 6.20 m.
165
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postsusedforconstructionofvariousstructuresarepresent
inthesection.Tereisasmallwedgeshapedburntlayerof
10cmthicnessisfoundinthesectionatthedepthof5.7m
fromthegroundsurface.
Te structural feature observed in this section is the
northwest dipping normal fault trending N-S (Fig. 14). Te
observedfaultappearstobeasecondarymanifestationofa
deep-seated disturbance in the area. Surface faults are not
reportedintheregion.Ancientfaultsarelikelytobepresent
belowtheDeccantrapvolcaniccoveranddonothaveany
direct expression on the surface. Hence, it becomes neces-
sarythatgeomorphicevidencesindicatingtectonicactivity
havetobelinkedwithseismicityviadrainagepatern,sof
sediment deformation in alluvial and colluvial sediments
(Chetty&Rao1994).Tusintheabsenceofsurfaceexpres-
sionoffaultandinviewofthepresenceofseveralinferred
faultsintheregion,itisthoughtreasonablytoconcludethat
featuresobservedinthissectioncouldthesurfacemanifesta-
tionofadeepseateddisturbanceintheregion.
Tefaultinthesectionisobservedinthevariegatedclay/
silty clay beds separated by feature less horizon of 3.5 m
thic silty clay. Te fault is about 6.2 m below the ground
surfaceandtheobserveddisplacementisabout4045cmof
thesiltyclaybed.Telayersabovethesefaultedsediments
areundisturbed,whiletheclayhorizonatthelowerportion
of the fault shows the severity of frictional and compres-
sionalforcesactingsimultaneouslyonit.Itisatributedby
thepresentstudythatthedisplacementalongthefaultand
slicensidedsurfacesoftheclayblocsasthesurfacemani-
festation of the tectonic disturbance.To assess the possible
timeofthefaultinganumberofcarcoalsampleswerecol-
lectedaroundthefaultaswellasfromtherestofthesection.
Tewell-exposedverticalSectionofthemoundalongthe
lefbankoftheTernaRiveris3.5mthicsection(Fig.15a)
extendsinaNE-SWtrendingarcmeasuringabout25mlong.
Tissectionmainlyconsistofdumpedmateriallikebroken
brics,potery,bouldersetcforthetop0.35m,followedby
gray clays inter-bedded with varied mixtures of sand, silt
andashintheformofeitherthinlayersorelongatedlens-
es and wedges. Te bedding is imperfect and is commonly
markedbycolourvariationsinindividuallayers.Tesedi-
mentaryunitobservedinthesectiononthewholehasbeen
warpedatdiferentscales.Onalargescale,theentiresection
appeared to have been folded. Individually, the structures
presentinthesectioncanbebroadlycategorizedasfexures,
warpsandbuclefold(Fig.15a).Teburnlayerinthesame
sectionshowsthefolding(Fig.15b).Testructuresinclud-
ingwarpingandlowamplitudefoldingofnearsurfacebeds
ofalternatingclayandcohesionlesssedimenthavebeenre-
portedfromtheotherearthquakeproneareas(Audemard&
deSantis1991).ItwasobservedthatthestructuresatKillari
are beter developed on more competent layers suc as the
layerscontainingceramicsandpebblefoundationsmadeby
setlers, although weak traces of folds can be discerned on
theargillaceouslayersaswell,onclusterlook.Variationin
intensity of deformation observed in individual layers that
belong to the same deforming mass can be explained by
strainpartitioning,whicdependsonthebulkpropertiesof
theroc(Hatcher1995).Fromthestyleofthedeformation,
itisclearthatthestructureinthesectionatKillarihavebeen
formedbybuclingofthesedimentstrata.
Tab. 3: Sinuosity variation in Terna River cannel.
Segment No. CL
(Km)
VL
(Km)
AL
(Km)
CI VI SSI HSI TSI
1 8.60 8.52 8.36 1.033 1.020 1.014 39.39 60.61
2 9.72 9.70 8.52 1.141 1.138 1.002 2. 13 97.87
3 6.48 6.35 5.76 1.125 1.102 1.020 18.40 81.60
4 5.28 5.04 4.68 1.128 1.077 1.048 39.84 60.16
5 7.32 6.97 6.25 1.171 1.115 1.050 32.75 67.25
6 6.49 6.44 5.76 1.127 1.118 1.008 56.52 43.48
7 5.76 5.54 5.08 1.134 1.091 1.040 32.75 67.25
8 6.00 5.78 5.40 1.111 1.087 1.022 21.62 78.38
9 5.64 5.62 5.40 1.044 1.041 1.004 6.82 93. 18
10 7.49 6.94 6.25 1.198 1.110 1.079 44.44 55.56
11 9.72 9.24 8.43 1.153 1.096 1.052 37.25 62.75
12 8.88 8.16 8.04 1.104 1.015 1.088 85.58 14.42
13 7.08 6.27 6.09 1.163 1.030 1.129 81.60 18.40
14 6.24 5.48 4.08 1.529 1.343 1.138 35. 16 64.84
15 8.16 7.23 6.25 1.306 1.157 1.129 48.69 51.31
16 6.61 5.66 5.16 1.281 1.097 1.168 65.48 34.52
17 6.27 5.60 5.25 1.194 1.067 1.119 65.45 34.55
18 7.32 6.25 5.52 1.326 1.132 1.171 59.51 40.49
19 5.28 4.49 4.20 1.255 1.069 1.176 69.33 30.67
20 4.44 3.79 3.46 1.284 1.094 1.174 66.90 33. 10
Cl Channel length, vl valley length, al air length, Ci Channel index, vi valley index, ssi standard sinuosity index,
Hsi Hydraulic sinuosity index, tsi topographic sinuosity index
166
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7 Conclusion
TestudyoflithologsandthedescriptionofQaternarysed-
imentsofTernaRiverbasinindicatethatthereissignifcant
amountofthecoarsegravellydepositsalongwithsiltyde-
posits.Tesedepositsareindicatorofcangesinthehydrau-
licconditionswhicareinducedbyclimateortectonics.Te
lithologyoftheTernavalleyalluviumsuggeststhattheOlder
Qaternary Alluvial deposits are of Upper Pleistocene age.
LithostratigraphicallytheQaternarydepositsoftheTerna
River basin have been divided into three informal forma-
tionsincluding(i)darkgreysiltformationLateHolocene,
(ii) Light grey silt formations Early Holocene, (iii) Dark
grayish brown silt formation Late Pleistocene. Te basin
areahasbeendividedintosixQaternarygeomorphicunits
includingpresentfoodplain,olderalluvialplain,pediplains,
highlydissectedplateau,denudationalhillsandlateriticup-
land.TelineamentsoccuralongNE-SW,NW-SE,E-Wand
WNW-ESEdirections,whiccontrolthebasementstructure
inthestudyarea.TeTSIvaluesindicaterejuvenationofthe
arealeadingtothedominatingefectoftopographyonthe
sinuosityoftherivercannels.Tebreakinslopeinthelong
profleisalsoindicationoftheQaternarytectonicuplifof
the area. Te radiocarbon dating of carcoal samples indi-
catethattheeventofpalaeoseismicactivitymighthadtaken
placealongtheTernavalleyfromAD971toAD1183andat
TeritmaybeAD1151toAD353.
Acknowledgement
Teauthorsgratefullyacnowledgethefnancialsupportby
DST,NewDelhi,undertheprojectF.No.SR/S4/ES-198/2006,
dated05.06.2007.WearealsoindebtedtoourCollegePrinci-
pal,Dr.P.L.More,forencouragementandconstantsupport
forresearc.WearealsoverymucgratefultoDr.D.V.Red-
dy for the Radio Carbon dating of Charcoal samples from
KillariareaKL1andKL2.
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E&G
Quaternary Science Journal
Volume 61 / number 2 / 2012 / 169183 / DOi 10.3285/eg.61.2.05
www.quaternary-science.net
reconstructing 2500 years of land use history on the Kemel
heath (Kemeler heide), southern rhenish massif, Germany
Christian Stolz, Sebastian bhnke, Jrg Grunert
how to cite: Stolz,Ch.,Bhnke,S.,Grunert,J.(2012):Reconstructing2500yearsoflandusehistoryontheKemelHeath(KemelerHeide),
southernRhenishMassif,Germany.E&GQaternaryScienceJournal,61(2):169184.DOI:10.3285/eg.61.2.05
Abstract: TeKemelHeath(KemelerHeide)intheLowerTaunusMts.wasusedasaheathuntiltheearly19
th
century.Today,itisthemost
denselywoodedareaoftheGermanstateHesse(about60%).Tehistoryoftheregionallandscapeandtheland-usepaternsof
thisareainthelast2500yearswillbereconstructedbydiferentmethodsandconsideringrelicts,whichavebeenpreservedinthe
forest.
Forreconstructingtheformersituation,threedesertedagricultureareaswithwellrecognizablefeldbalksunderforestwereinves-
tigatedforthefrsttimeby
14
CandOSLdating,sedimentanalysisandmapping.Furthermore,pointsofinterestwerethetracesof
EarlyModerncarcoalburning.Forthispurpose,wereconstructedthespectraoftree-speciesoftheburnedwoodanddateditby
14
C.Inaddition,wedatedtheformationoftwoformerslagheaps,ofamedievalrefugecastle,andcalculatedthesedimentationrate
ofasmallcolluvialfllingofaslopedepressionthatwasdepositedsincetheRomantimes.
Regarding the results, there are clear traces of land use during the Iron Age and Roman Period, and strong impacts during the
MiddleAgesandtheEarlyModernPeriod.Tus,itislikely,thatthedeforestationintheinvestigatedareawasmuchigherduring
theseperiodsthanpreviouslybelieved.MostofthefeldbalksoriginatefromtheHighMiddleAges.Incontrast,duringtheEarly
ModernPeriod,thelandscapewaspredominantlypastureland.

die rekonstruktion der Landnutzungsgeschichte whrend der letzten 2500 Jahre auf der Kemeler heide im sdlichen
rheinisches schiefergebirge
Kurzfassung: DieKemelerHeideimwestlicenHintertaunusistheuteTeildesgrtenzusammenhngendenWaldgebietesinHessenmiteiner
Waldbedecung von rund 60 %. Bis ins frhe 19. Jahrhundert wurde sie jedoc als Heide genutzt. Mit der vorliegenden Studie
wirdversuct,dieregionaleLandnutzungsgescicteaufderKemelerHeidemithilfeversciedenartigermethodiscerAnstzezu
rekonstruieren.EinebesondereBercsictigungerfahrendabeihistorisceRelikte,diesicimWalderhaltenhaben.
ZurRekonstruktionfrhererLandnutzungssystemewurdenhocmitelalterliceAcerraineindreiversciedenenWstungsfuren
kartiertundimHinblicaufihreSedimentzusammensetzungundihrAlteruntersuct.DieDatierungderartigerAcerkolluvien
erfolgteerstmalsmitmehreren
14
C-undeinerOSL-Datierung.EinweitererScwerpunktderUntersucungenwarenfrhneuzeit-
liceHolzkohlemeilerpltze,anhanddererdieArtenzusammensetzungderfrhneuzeitlicenWlderrekonstruiertwerdenkonnte.
ZustzlicwurdenauczweiversciedeneSclacenhaldenalsHinterlassenscafenhocmitelalterlicerEisenverhtungdatiert
unddieErgebnissemitdenSedimentationsrateneinerkolluvialenDellenfllungverglicen.
Dabeikonntenacgewiesenwerden,dassdieanthropogeneLandnutzungaufderKemelerHeidesptestenswhrendderEisenzeit
begann.DiestrkstenEinfsseerfolgtenjedocerstwhrenddeshohenMitelaltersundderfrhenNeuzeit.BesondersimHoc-
mitelalterfhrteausgedehnterAcerbaudazu,dassderWaldanteilweitauskleinerwaralsheute.DiemeistenAcerrainestammen
daherausdieserPeriode.WhrendderNeuzeitwurdedagegenvermehrtHeidewirtscafbetrieben.
Keywords: Field balks, carcoal burning, iron slag, deforestation, sedimentation rate, Rhenish Massif, Taunus Mts.
Addresses of authors:Ch. Stolz,UniversityofFlensburg,DepartmentofGeographyanditsDidactics,AufdemCampus1,D-24943Flensburg,E-Mail:
cristian.stolz@uni-fensburg.de, S. Bhnke, J. Grunert, Johannes Gutenberg-University of Mainz, Department of Geography,
D-55099Mainz
GEOzOn SCiEnCE MEDiA
iSSn 0424-7116
1 introduction
1.1 open questions
TeKemelHeath(Kemeler Heide;Fig.1)isahistoricareaof
around 60 km in the LowerTaunus Mts. caracterized by
wide spread etcplains and deeply incised valleys at their
edges(Hser1972).Today,about60%oftheformerheath
area is forested (forest area of the community of Heiden-
rod;HessischesStatistischesLandesamt2008).However,
historical reports confrm a large deforestation in the past
(Ehmke2003).Sofar,verylitleisknownabouttherealpro-
portionofthedeforestedareaandlanduseintensityduring
diferentprehistoricandhistoricperiodsinthisarea.
In at least half of the wooded area of the Lower Tau-
nusMts.,remainsofformeragriculture,sucasfeldbalks
(Fig.4)andclearancecairnsarevisible,whicgiveevidence
ofanenhancedcroplandareainthepast.Inmostcases,the
ageoftheserelictsisquiteunknown.Inaddition,thereare
frequentlyfoundkilnsitesasrelictsofformercarcoalpro-
ductionforthelocalironindustry.
169
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Te special aim of this study is to create a cronologi-
cal order of these remains for reconstructing the land-use
distribution during specifc periods and for comparing this
withhistoricaldata:How old are thefeld balksandclear-
ance cairns at selected locations, how are they structured
and,inwhicwayisitpossibletodatetheconcerningcol-
luvialsediments?Inwhicperiodsagriculturalactivitiescan
beprovenontheKemelHeath?Furthermore,whenthekiln
siteswerebeingusedandwhicwasthecompositionofthe
forests?Moreover,thisstudyfocusesontheconsequencesof
former land-use. Tis was done by the investigation of the
fllingofasmallvalleythecronologyofwhicwasusedto
identify local soil erosion phases. Te diferent sedimenta-
tionratesofthevalleyfllingaregiveninmm/a.
Weusedasmallvalleyfllingforthecronologicalclassi-
fcationoflocalsoilerosionphases(listedinmm/a),respec-
tivelybyheavyrainfallsandastrengthenedsusceptibilityon
soilerosionbyland-use.
Altogether,weinvestigated7forestedlocationsin3dif-
ferentpartsoftheKemelHeathbypedologicalanalysesof
selectedsoilproflesinsideoffeldbalks,datingsoforganic
remainsbyAMS-
14
C,onedatingofHolocenecolluviumby
OpticalStimulatedLuminescence(OSL)andbytheanthra-
cologicanalysesofcarcoalsfromkilnsites(Fig.1):
a) 3 former feld locations: In the Pfafenwald forest
(thetermmeansforestofpastors,inthepastitwasprob-
ably owned by the curc), district of Heidenrod-Zorn (N
50108.61, E 75534.3); in the Ohren-Forest (the term
Ohren means the former presence of maple trees), district
ofHeidenrod-Niedermeilingen(N50.1742,E7.9458);inthe
Struthforest,districtofAarbergen-Ketenbacattheoutside
rimoftheKemelHeath(N50.257,E8.065).
b)2carcoalkilnsites:InthePfafenwaldForest,district
of Heidenrod-Obermeilingen (N 50.167, E 7.919) and in
theReibrhlforest,districtofHeidenrod-Zorn(N50.169,
E7.930;botharelocatedonnorth-facingslopeswhicim-
provescomparability).
c)2slagheaps:InthedistrictofZorn,fveslag-heapsin
theforestswerefound.Mostofthemarenotlocatedcloseto
fowingwaters,whicmaybeahintofarelativelyhighage
(14
th
centuryandearlier;Geisthardt1954).Tefrstonewe
investigatedislocatedafewmetersbesidetherefugecastle
(seebelow).Anotheroneislocatedintheuppercourseofthe
smallstreamRdelbacnearZorn(N50.15829,E7.93905).
d)1refugecastleinthedistrictofHeidenrod-Zorn:Te
refugecastleAlte Scanz(N50.1538,E7.9145)isan18m
broadand1.5-3mhigh,roundearthworkintheStruthhec
forestwithamoataround.VonCohausen(1879)assumed
ittobeapartoftransitionphasefromEarlytoHighMid-
dleAges.
e) Te sediment sequence of the alluvial fan of a small
valley near the village of Kemel, whic included a Roman
waterwell(N50.1650,E8.0147).
2 regional setting and state of research
2.1 Physical conditions
Te Kemel Heath belongs to the northern foreland of the
Taunus mountain range. Te altitudes range from 350 to
540ma.s.l.Itsbedrocconsistsalmostexclusivelyofmostly
clayeyPaleozoicmetamorphs,whicarecompletelyweath-
ered on the higher etcplain levels (Felix-Henningsen
1990).Tebedrocontheslopesiscomprehensivelycovered
byloess-containingperiglacialcoverbedsontheslopestypi-
callyofatleastthreediferentsolifuctionlayers.Tispro-
flecanbetypicallydividedbytheGermanconceptofper-
iglacialslopedepositsintoatleasttwo,however,moreofen
intothreediferentsolifuctionlayers(Semmel1968,Kleber
1997,Vlkeletal.2002,Stolz&Grunert2010,Semmel&
Terhorst2010).IntheKemelregion,thecover-bedsmostly
consistofaloesscontainingupperlayerandoneorseveral
basal layers, ric in debris. Additionally, at protected loca-
tionsthereareoneorseveralloesscontainingintermediate
layers.Commonsoiltypesonthesesedimentsarecambisols,
cambisol-luvisols, luvisols and podsolic cambisols. Due to
theclayeyweatheredbedroc,severaloftheseproflesshow
stagnic conditions. Te annual precipitation rate is approx.
750 mm and the annual temperature is 8 (data from the
climatestationofWaldems-Steinfscbac,measuringperi-
od1961-1990;DLR-RLP2012).
Fig. 1: Regional seting of
the investigation area.
Abb. 1: Lage der Unter-
sucungsgebiete.
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2.2 Cultural history
Principally, the German Uplands can be divided into older
and younger setled areas. Te frst ones, setled from pre-
historicperiodstotheEarlyMiddleAges,aretheloess-ric
forelands of the mountain ranges, the tectonic depressions
andthevalleysofthelargerivers,sucastheRhine(Born
1989).AnexceptionisthevillageofKemel.Itsnamewith-
out a sufx, respectively with the former sufx -aha, is of
prehistoric age and probably of Celtic origin (Bach 1927).
Te setlement was located at the importantHoheStrae
(High Street;connectionbetweentheoldcitiesofMainzand
Koblenz) on the watershed between the Lahn and Rhine
catcments.Alongthisprobablyprehistoricroad,thereare
hundredsofgravemoundsfromtheIronAge.Duetotheir
special construction some of them must be of Bronze Age.
OneexamplewasbeenfoundinthedistrictofLaufenselden
(6 km S of Kemel; Kubach 1984). Basically, most of these
grave mounds in the Lower Taunus are located along
paths on the watersheds and typically arranged like cem-
eteries(Herrmann&Jockenhvel1990,Behaghel1949).
However, prehistoric setlements are unknown in this area
(Schwind1984).Kubach(1984)believesthatthereisafnd-
inggapintheTaunusMts.Evidencesofsetlementactivities
for this period are located in the Rhine-Main lowland, the
BasinofNeuwiedandtheadjacentearlysetledareasout-
sideoftheTaunusMts.
Furthermore, the Romans had setled in the region be-
tween10and260ADandbuiltuptheUpperGerman-Rae-
tianLimes.Itswesternpartwasprobablyconstructedsince
85 AD and crossed the prehistoricHohe Strae near the
villageofKemel(Baatz&Herrmann2002).Romanfortson
theKemelHeathwerelocatedinKemelandHolzhausenan
derHaide.Severalvillae rusticaewereonlyknownfromthe
southernRhine-Mainarea.
From the Early Middle Ages (Merovingian Period) only
somefndingsareknownfromtheBasinofNastten(Neu-
mayer1993).
Attheendofthe10
th
centuryAD,theregionwasruledby
thearcbishopsofMainz,whostartedacolonizationphase.
InmanyuplandregionsofwesternGermany,thecoloniza-
tionoftheHighMiddleAges(Hocmitelalterlicer Landes-
ausbau) started at the same time (Born 1989). Numerous
setlementswiththesufxes-roth,-sciedand-hainarein-
dicativeofthisperiodontheKemelHeath(Bach1927).In
agriculture,theshifingcultivationincludinggrasslandand
cropland phases (Feld-Gras-Wecselwirtscaf) was widely
disseminated(Ehmke2003,cf.Born1989).
Borketal.(1998)describeacangefromthebread-eat-
ingtomeat-eatingpeopleinCentralEuropesincetheLate
Middle Ages. Terefore, the termheath can be explained
byapredominantuseofpastureland,mostlyforsheepina
sparselywoodedareaduringtheEarlyModernPeriod(since
approx.1500AD;cf.Born1989)uptothebeginningofthe
19
th
century. Te main part of the heath was an area with
common grazing rights for everyones animals (Allmende).
Inmostvillages,thereweremanymoresheepthaninhabit-
antsduringtheEarlyModernPeriod(Stolz2008).
TesmalltownofNasttenattherimoftheKemelHeath
was a center of wool weaving and textile fabrication since
the 16
th
century, whic was already mentioned in the 13
th

century(Spielmann1926).Duringthe15
th
and16
th
century,
towelsfromKemelheathandfromthesurroundingNassau
andHesseterritorieswereeventradedbythepowerfulmer-
cantfamily,Fugger,inAugsburg,Bavaria(Orth1953).
Atthesametime,theregionwasalsoacenterofironpro-
ductionwithahighconsumptionofcarcoal.
Tecarcoalwhicwasprimarilyneededforiron-smelt-
ing was produced in numerous carcoal kilns. For produc-
tion,smallroundorovalleveledplacesonslopesoronpla-
teauswerepreparedbythecarcoal-burners.Ontheseplac-
es, the wood brances were staced and covered by grass
andearthmaterial.Asaresult,insideofthekilnwasalac
of oxygen, whic prohibited quic burning.Only the vola-
tilewoodgasesburned,whicresultedthewoodtobecome
transformedintopurecarbon.Bytheintroductionoffossil
coalafer1850AD,carcoalburningwasstronglydeclining;
inthe20
th
centurytheprofessionbecameextinct(cf.Kortz-
fleisch2008).
TemainconsumerofthecarcoalfromtheKemelHeath
wastheironmeltofMicelbac(10kmNNEofKemel).It
has beenrunningsince1656.Charcoal hasnotbeenin use
since 1856 (Stolz 2008,Geisthardt 1957). Maybe also the
meltofGeroldsteinintheWispervalley(12kmSWofKem-
el,workedfrom1589to1634AD)andthemeltofKatzenel-
nbogen(14kmNofKemel,workedfrom1736to1840AD;
Geisthardt1957,Herold1974,Ehmke2003)wereconsum-
ersofthecarcoalfromtheKemelHeath.By1677,themelt
of Micelbac was forced to get its carcoal from the for-
estsonthequartzitemountainrangeoftheTaunusbecause
ofaseverelacofcarcoalinitssurroundings.In1780,the
iron melts of the Nassau-Idstein county employed 300400
peopleonlyforthepurposeofcarcoalandwoodtransport
(Geisthardt 1957: 169). Te melt of Katzenelnbogen was
temporarilyshutdownaround1810becauseoftheabsence
ofcarcoal(Herold1974).
Te few remaining forests were of great importance to
the people. Harsh punishments were the consequences for
thethefofwood,grass,greenbrancesforcatlefeed,leaf
liter,carcoal,oakbarkfortannery,andvenison(Roedler
1910). Te consequence of this overexploitation was in the
neighbored Aar valley near Micelbac the formation and
furtherdevelopmentofmorethan200gullysystems(Stolz
&Grunert2006,Stolz2008).Similarsituationsareknown
fromotherpartsoftheRhine-Mainarea(Moldenhaueret
al.2010,Semmel1995,Bauer1993).
Already in the beginning of the 18
th
century, landlords
triedtodrawaclearborderbetweenfeldsandforestsbythe
enacting of special laws (Ehmke 2003, Kaltwasser 1991).
Since1815,thelocalEarlsofNassau(Herzge von Nassau)
started a reforestation campaign led by the forest scientist,
LudwigHartig(Kuls1951).InforestdistrictofBadScwal-
bac(Kemelregion)theforestsincreasedfrombetween1816
and1866of1670ha(Kaltwasser1991).By1926,onlyafew
remainsoftheheathexisted(Roedler1926).
Sofar,therearenopollendatafromtheKemelheath,but
fromtheUsaValley(40kmintheNE)andfromtheLower
WesterwaldMts.(40kmintheNW).Schmenkel(2001)evi-
dencedintheUsaValleyafrstsignifcantincreaseofnon-
treepollenduringtheironagebutsinkingbacintheRo-
manPeriod.However,cerealpollencouldbefrstevidenced
sinceEarlyMiddleAges.Telargestproportionofnon-tree
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pollen is proven for the High Middle Ages. Hildebrandt
etal.(2001)confrmintheWesterwaldalowlevelofbeec
pollen(Fagus sylvatica)and amoderateriseofgrasspollen
(Poaceae)duringtheHighMiddleAges.Tiswasfollowed
byareforestation phase during the Late Medievaldestruc-
tion period from about 1320 AD, whic afected especially
the uplands in Central Europe (Hildebrandt 2004; Abel
1976).WhilethistimethevaluesofbeecpollenintheWest-
erwald aremorethantripled.
Concerning the intensity of soil erosion, Becker (2011)
assumedatotalrateofsoilerosionsincetheRomanperiod
ofalmost1m,provenbythedepthofaninvestigatedLimes-
ditc in the village of Kemel. Furthermore, three carcoal
particlesfromthefllingoftheditcweredatedby
14
Ctoa
periodbetween3
rd
and6
th
centuryADasindicationforhu-
manactivitiesandfreevents.
IntheneighboringuppercourseoftheAarvalley,thereis,
however,noevidenceofprehistoricorRomanfoodplainde-
posits,althoughtheLimescrossestheAarvalleyinthisarea.
First sedimentation could not have been proven until 1000
AD.InthelowercourseoftheAartheoverbankfnesareof
earliestBronzeage,butthemainpartwasdepositednotuntil
EarlyModernperiod(Stolz2011a;Stolz&Grunert2008).
3 results from other mountain areas
Increased soil erosion in Central Europe is primarily trig-
gered by anthropogenic land-use or by climate (cf. Dikau
et al. 2005; Bork et al. 1998). First anthropogenic triggered
erosioneventsareknownfortheNeolithicPeriodintheear-
ly setled parts of Germany (Lang 2003; Dreibrodt 2010).
However, the sedimentation of Holocene colluvia started
duringquitediferentperiods,justlikethetemporalpeaksof
soilerosionandredepositarevaried(cf.Leopold&Vlkel
2007, Wunderlich 2000, Dreibrodt & Bork 2005, Dot-
terweichetal.2003,Borketal.1998,Semmel1993,Bibus
1989).IncludingtheresultsofHoloceneGermanriveractiv-
ity, summarized by Hoffmann et al. (2008), the sediment
fuxesuntil2250BCaremainlycoupledtoclimate.Sincea
geomorphologic activity phase 1320820 BC, the infuence
cannotclearlyberelatedtoclimatebutrathertoanthropo-
genicinfuence.
Incontrast,Mckeletal.(2009)describeaveryearlybe-
ginningofanthropogenicinfuencesonthelandscapeinlow
mountain ranges of the Central Blac Forest and the Kai-
serstuhl Mt. (Southwestern Germany; 250 km S of Kemel).
By sedimentological investigations and pollen analyses, an
anthropogenicinfuencedsedimentationofloamyriversedi-
ments and slope colluvia could be proven since Neolithic,
even for the river valleys of the Blac Forest. Te highest
sedimentation values in these valleys were detected dur-
ing Iron Age and Late Middle Ages. Tese results become
confrmed by Rsch &Tserendorj (2011) who detected a
shrunkenforestcovertolessthan70%intheNorthernBlac
Forest Mts. in the Iron Age. During the Roman period and
thefollowingMigrationPeriodtheforestcoverrisesagain.
For the High Middle Ages Wolters (2007) described a
clear rising of Poaceae pollen and a moderate shrinking of
arborealpollenfortwospringmiresnearJohanniskreuzin
thePalatinateForest(95kmSSWofKemel),ayoungsetled
regionofSW-GermanyintheBunterSandstone.Borketal.
(1998)assumethatthebiggestproportionofforestdistribu-
tion in Germany within the last 1000 years is during this
period.Mckeletal.(2009)detectedagapinsedimentation
withinproflesoftheBlacForestatthetransitionbetween
EarlyandHighMiddleAgesfollowedbystrongsedimenta-
tion of particular alluvial sediments from the Upper Rhine
RiftothewatershedoftheBlacForest.
However, very litle is known about the real proportion
of deforested areas and land use intensity during diferent
periodsinCentralEurope.Inmanycases,thereareindices
for a stronger utilization of woods and forests during sev-
eralhistoricalperiods(cf.Ludemann&Nelle2002,Kster
2008). Another method reconstructing former forests is the
anthracologicanalysisofformerkilnsites.Duetotheirin-
vestigations of carcoal samples from the Palatinate Forest
Hildebrandt et al. (2007) described a strong overexploita-
tion of the forests as consequence of carcoal burning and
harvestingespeciallyduringthe18
th
century.Inthecentral
Blac Forest, Ludemann (2008) indicated a main period of
carcoalburninginthe16
th
and17
th
century.Similarresults
are known from the Harz Mts. (northern Germany; Hille-
brecht1982).
Evidencesindicatingformercroppingarefeldbalksand
clearance cairns known from diferent European mountain
areas. In most cases, the age of these relicts is quite un-
known.ForsomeexamplesaformationduringHighMiddle
Agesisassumed(cf.Born1961;Scharlau1961).
4 materials and methods
Many of the studied sites pits had to be dug with the help
ofanexcavator.Severalprofleswereinvestigatedaccording
to the rules set by the German Bodenkundlice Kartieran-
leitung (Ad-hoc AG Boden 2005) and International Union
ofSoilSciences(2006).Laboratoryanalyseswereconducted
according to Blume (2000). Te parameters analyzed were
grainsize,pH,carbonatecontent,organicmaterandheavy
mineral content. Te determination of heavy minerals was
madebyM.Guddat-Seipel,BadNauheim.
TepresenceofLaacerSeetephrainthefeldwasprov-
enbyrapidtesting,whicisamethodthatwasemployedby
Sauer&Felix-Henningsen(2006):bringingthesampleinto
contactwithflterpaperimpregnatedwitha0.1%solutionof
phenolphtaleineinethanolanda5%aqueousNaFsolution.
Dateablefragmentsofcarcoalwereseparatedfromcol-
luvial sediments by an arcaeobotanical elutriation proce-
dureoffveliterssedimentpersample(c.f.Jacomet&Kreuz
1999).Tesesampleswerenottakeninregularintervals,but
ratherwithregardtogeneticlayersandsoilhorizons.
Anotherpossibilitytoreconstructformerland-useisof-
feredbytheanalysisofcarcoalkilnsites.Bythismethod
it is possible to indicate the used and, in consequence, the
availability of wood species in the surroundings of a kiln.
Te carcoals from two diferent kiln sites were taken by
sievewithameshsizeof10mm.Toavoidanycontamina-
tion while sampling, the individual layers of carcoal con-
tainingsoilsedimentwereremovedinthinlayersbyasmall
spade and a spatula (Fig. 8). Because of the low sediment-
thicness on the investigated kiln sites, the samples of at
least100carcoalfragmentsweretakeninonlytwodiferent
depthsoftheStbbewall(Fig.7).Afurthersamplewastaken
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on the surface in the center of the kiln site. Tereafer, the
carcoalswereidentifedunderarefectedlightmicroscope
withamagnifcationrangeof100to400x(Schweingruber
1990;cf.Hillebrecht1982,Manske1997,Hildebrandtet
al.2001,Ludemann&Nelle2002,Hildebrandtetal.2007,
Kortzfleisch 2008, Ludemann 2008). For identifcation,
it is necessary to look at the carcoal in radial, longitudi-
nal and tangential sections. Te relevant caracteristics of
woodanatomyarethedistributionandthesizeofthepores,
thevascularraysthepresenceofspiralthiceningsandthe
pitsinsideofthepores.Inmostcases,itisonlypossibleto
identify the genus and not the precise tree species (Nelle
& Schmidgall 2003). Afer the identifcation procedure,
the fragments of every genus were counted to identify the
numberofunits(thecarcoalswerenotweighted;therefore,
G/N values for the individual samples could not be calcu-
lated;cf.Nelle&Schmidgall2003).Otherparameterslike
theformerdiameterofthewoodwerenotmeasured.Some
ofthecarcoalfragmentsorwoodswerecosenforradio-
carbon-datingattheRadiocarbonLaboratoriesofErlangen
University(Germany),PoznanUniversity(Poland)andBe-
ta Analytics (USA).With regard to these results, it should
be noted that there are possible error sources. Fundamen-
tally, carcoal fragments can be muc older as the time of
sedimentproduction.Tus,ithastobeconsideredthat
14
C-
datingsgiveonlyminimumages(terminus post quem).Fur-
thermore, disturbances and a vertical displacement by past
land-use or bioturbation are possible. However, the deeper
thesedimentistakenbeneaththesurface,thepossibilityof
thiserrorbecomessmaller.
Additionally,oneOSL(OpticalStimulatedLuminescence)
sample was dated at the Department of Geography of the
Humboldt-UniversityofBerlin.Withintheinterpretationsof
theresults,itmustbeobservedthat
14
CandOSLagesarenot
exactlyequivalentwithhistoricdatabutratheronlyastatis-
ticalprobability(cf.Geyh2008).
5 results
5.1 former feld balks in forests
Fieldbalksonslopesandaccumulationsconsistingofgath-
eredstonesandcolluviumonfatground(insomepartsof
GermanysucsmalllandformsarecalledAcerberge;Fig.4)
occurfrequentlyintheforestsoftheKemelHeath.Atthree
diferent locations, we opened pits by an excavator to a
depthof300cm.
F
o
rm
e
r su
rfa
ce
o
f th
e
slo
p
e
1.
2.
B
w
M
II fE
II fB
tg
III C
g
IV C
V R
1 x
x
x
3
2
OSL
x
4
x
N
S
Accumulation Erosion
1
3
2
cal.
14
C samples (charcoal)
(379-245 BC), displaced
1044-1136 AD
1351-1219 BC
OSL: 110 230 BC
0,5
1 2 m 0
0
1 m
s
c
a
l
e
horizontal
v
e
r
t
i
c
a
l
Draft: C. Stolz.
Cartography:
S. Bhnke.
Dept. of Geography,
Mainz University
(2010).
Soil formation
Holocene
colluvium
Upper layer
(E)
Basal layer
intermediate
layers
Upper layer (B
tg
)
Saprolite
Legend
x
4 1210-1280 AD
Gathered stones
Fig. 2: Longitudinal section through the investigated feld balk in the Pfafenwald forest.
Abb. 2: Lngsprofl durc den untersucten Acerrain im Pfafenwald.
173
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5.1.1 deserted felds in Pfafenwald forest near the
village of Zorn (n 50108.61, E 75534.3)
InthePfafenwaldforest(Fig.5),therearetwowellvisible,
aswellassomeindistinctfeldbalks,forminglong-striped
feld terraces on a north-exposed, 49 inclined slope. Te
recentforestconsistsoftall,160yearoldbeeces.
Inoneofthebalks,apitwasdugandanotherone10m
upwardsonthefeldterrace,inwhicastonecluster(slates
andquartzites)becamevisiblewithinthebalk(Fig.2).Down
toadepthof100cm,aHolocenecolluviumhasbeenaccumu-
latedbyformeragriculture.Itstextureisveryhomogenous
and clayey, because of its origin as an eroded soil (Tab. 1).
Teslightlybrightercoloroftheuppermost30cmlayerin-
dicatesaninitialsoilformation,whilethetextureandother
parameters are inconspicuous. Underneath, the clay con-
tentrisesandthesoilaggregatesarecoveredbywellvisible
clayflmsindicatinganerodedfossilBthorizon,33cmthic
(Tab. 1). Te typically high contents of the heavy minerals
augite,brownhornblendeandtitaniteindicatethepumiceof
theeventofLakeLaac.Tus,thislayerrepresentstheup-
perlayer,whicwasactivelatestduringYoungerDryas(cf.
Semmel2002;Tab.2).TeHolocenecolluviumalsocontains
theLakeLaacheavymineralsbecauseofitsoriginfromthe
erodedupperlayerupslope.
Below the upper layer, two individual intermediate lay-
ers are deposited, whic have a high content of skeleton
(stones)andloess-likesediments.Tetypicalheavyminer-
alsofloess-likegarnetandgreenhornblendearedetectable
(cf.Semmel2002).Tebasallayerbelowonlyconsistsoflo-
Horizon/layer Depth gS mS fS fS gU mU fU T
Skeleton
content
pH
Loss on
ignition
Color Charcoal
cm % % % % % % % % % % Munsell mg/l
1 Bw/M (colluvium) 10-30 11,45 6,37 4,43 3,63 18,05 17,46 12,18 26,42 26,73 3,97 3,75 2,5Y-4/4 4,53
1 M (colluvium) 30-83 6,86 6,99 4,97 3,79 19,28 18,53 12,22 27,36 34,28 3,97 2,72 2,5Y-4/4 463,57
1 M (colluvium) 83-100 7,00 7,21 5,32 3,98 18,47 17,78 11,56 28,67 25,52 3,91 2,77 5Y/r-4/6 42,87
2 fBtg
(upper layer)
100-125 3,80 8,43 6,12 4,07 17,94 16,55 11,59 31,51 9,89 3,88 2,86 5Y/r-4/6 23,40
1 fBtg
(upper layer)
125-133 6,86 6,79 3,45 3,19 21,07 20,08 11,77 26,79 18,84 3,85 2,39 10Yr-4/4 n.a.
3 Cg
(interm. layer)
133-175 20,87 11,30 3,84 4,74 14,12 11,97 10,27 22,89 55,08 3,85 2,62 10Yr-5/6 0,00
3 Cg
(interm. layer)
175-218 16,67 11,08 4,79 7,61 13,31 12,62 12,79 21,14 51,32 3,79 2,79 10Yr-5/6 n.a.
4 C
(basal layer)
218-244 23,48 14,85 5,05 4,81 10,32 10,87 12,92 17,71 42,14 3,79 2,99 10Yr-6/6 n.a.
5 r
(weathered slates)
244-280 22,17 14,63 5,18 5,52 11,73 11,56 13,81 15,39 62,61 4,04 2,63 10Yr-6/4 n.a.
M = Holocene colluvium, gs = course sand, ms = middle sand, fs = fne sand, fs = fnest sand, gu = course silt, mu = middle silt, fu = fne silt, t
= clay
Horizon/layer
Typical for
(semmel 2002)
Bw/M M II fBtg, UL II fBtg, UL III Cg, IL III Cg, IL
Depth [cm] 30-83 83-100 100-125 125-133 133-175 175-218
augite pumice 46 60 59 84 18 1
Epidote/zoisite 3 0 0 0 0 0
Garnet loess 0 1 0 0 1 0
Green hornblende loess 1 0 0 0 0 0
Brown hornblende pumice 127 145 155 121 26 2
titanite pumice 42 34 32 25 2 0
Zircon 15 12 14 10 5 0
suM 237 252 260 240 57 7
M = Holocene colluvium, ul = upper layer, il = intermediate layer, Bl = basal layer; analysis: M. Guddat-seipel, Bad nauheim.
Tab. 1: Sedimentological data of the feld balk profle in the Pfafenwald forest.
Tab. 1: Sedimentologisce Daten zum Profl innerhalb des Acerrains im Pfafenwald.
Tab. 2: Heavy mineral content of the feld balk profle in the Pfafenwald forest. (M = Holocene colluvium, UL = upper
layer, IL = intermediate layer, BL = basal layer).
Tab. 2: Scwermineralgehalt des Acerrain-Profls im Pfafenwald (M = Kolluvium, UL = Hauptlage, IL = Mitellage, BL =
Basislage).
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cal debris. At a depth of 244 cm, the weathered Devonian
bedrocisreaced.
Tecolluviumwasdatedbythreecarcoals(
14
C)andone
OSLsampletothefollowingages(Tab.5):20cmdeep(cal.
379245 BC, LaTne Period, Poz-36328), 53 cm depth (cal.
10441136AD,HighMiddleAges,Poz-36337),83cm(OSL:
110230BC,LaTnePeriod,HUB-0095)and112.5cm(cal.
13511219BC,BronzeAge,Poz-36338).
Apieceofcarcoalfromthefeldterraceabovethebalk
was dated to: 2850 cm, cal. 12101280 AD (Beta-294174;
Fig.2).
5.1.2 deserted felds in the ohren forest near the village
of niedermeilingen (n 50.1742, E 7.9458)
Likewise, in the Ohren forest traces of former agriculture
werefound.Telocationisrelativelyisolatedattherimof
anoldetcplain.Tereareseveralelongatedlowearthworks
(Acerberge,Fig.4)withclearancecairnspartlycorrespond-
ingwitheacotherbytherightangle.Teyareformedby
soilmaterialfallenoutduringtheturningoftheploughat
thisplaceandalsoformedbyclearancecairns.
Apitof3mdepth,dugbyanexcavator,revealedastruc-
ture consisting of gathered stones and a 71 cm thic layer
oftarnishedcoloredloess-likeHolocenecolluviumwithan
initialsoilformationintheuppermost30cm(Fig.3).Under-
neathfollowsthe29cmthicremainoftheupperlayerwith
strong stagnic conditions and iron stains. Te Btg horizon
ofaluvisolwithvisibleclayflmsonthesoilaggregateshas
been formed in both the upper and the intermediate layer
(clay content 2729 %). Te colluvium consists of former
materialoftheerodedupperlayer.Bothlayersarecontain-
ingtypicalheavymineralsofLakeLaacpumice(Tab.4).In
contrast, the only 25 cm thic intermediate layer below is
nearlyfreeoftheseminerals.Tesandybasallayer(48cm
thic)ispoorinskeleton(stonecontent)duetothebedroc
ofstronglyweatheredslates.
Tecolluviumonlycontainscarcoalfragments(Tab.3)
whicweredatedattwodiferentdepths:731cm(cal.919
999AD,transitionfromEarlytoHighMiddleAges,Qercus
spec.,Poz-36339)and5071cm(cal.779AD,earlyRoman
Period,Qercus spec., Poz-36340).Tus,theresultsaresimi-
lartothoseofPfafenwaldforest(capter3.1).
5.1.3 deserted felds in the struth forest near the
village of Kettenbach (n 50.257, E 8.065)
Eighteenkmawayfromthetwopreviouslypresentedloca-
tions near Zorn, we investigated another wooded area at
the rim of the Kemel Heath with deserted felds near the
villagesofKetenbacandHausenberAar.Terearetwo
well visible feld balks running parallel on a slightly in-
clinedupperslope(39;inwesternexposition;265ma.s.l.).
Apitinthelowermostonerevealeda60cmthicHolocene
colluviumwithaninitialsoilformationandcarcoalcon-
tent (Fig. 6). A covered luvisol had developed underneath.
ItsE-horizonlocatedintheupperlayerhasbeenshortened
byerosion.TeBtg-horizonhasbeengeneratedwithinthe
intermediatelayer(claycontent33%).Tewholeprofleis
ricinloessandpoorinskeleton(014%).Partly,theskel-
eton content consists of Oligocene-Miocene gravel (Aren-
berger Fazies;Mller1973),whicoccursontheadjacent
plateauabove.
Acarcoalfragmenttakenfromadepthof45cm,whic
wasabovethelowermostthirdofthecolluvium,wasdated
atcal.361272BC(LaTnePeriod;Erl-7539).
Fig. 3: Te profle of Ohren forest with datings.
Abb. 3: Das Profl in der Waldabteilung Ohren mit Datierungen.
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5.2 Charcoal kiln sites
Forthedetailedinvestigationofkilnsitesthecompletefor-
estedareaofZornwasmapped(40kilnsites;0.11sites/ha).
Toinvestigatetheinfuencesofhistoricalcarcoalburn-
ing,wecosetwodiferentkilnsites,oneinthePfafenwald
andanotheroneinthenearbyReibrhlforest.Fromeac
of them, we took 83-130 pieces of carcoal by sieving top-
downatdiferentdepthsbelowtheplaneofthekiln(Meil-
erplate;seeFig.7)andfromtheborderingrim(Stbbewall).
Tedeterminationoftreespeciesresultedonlythreedif-
ferenttypes(Fagus sylvatica,Qercus spec.andBetula pen-
dula;Fig.9)butinseveralcompositions.Fivecarcoalswere
radiocarbondated.
5.2.1 dating and determination of tree species
Te frst investigated kiln site (N 50.167, E 7.919; 430 m
a.s.l.)isactuallylocatedonthelowinclined,NNWexposed
slopeofasmallvalleyinanearlypure,oldbeecforest(Gal-
io odorati Fagetum; cf.Ellenberg1996,Ludemann&Nelle
2002).Teinvestigatedonebelongstoagroupof4kilnsites
in an area 130 m wide. Due to the hillside location of the
kiln, it is plausible that the used wood originates from the
forestedupperslope.Itisplausiblethattheoriginationarea
ofthewoodiswiderontheslopeabovethekiln,becauseit
waseasiertocarrythewooddownslope(cf.Hildebrandt
et al. 2007). Afer 100 m, the slope is bounded by the edge
to the open felds. It is furthermore noticeable in this for-
estthatthereareseveralformerfeldbalksaroundthekiln
sites. Tese belong to the investigated former farmland of
the Pfafenwald forest. Te investigated kiln site is located
exactlyononeoftheseformerfeldterraces.
Tespectraofspeciesatdiferentdepthsofthekilnsite-
sediment are very homogenous and show nearly the same
resultastoday(90%beecand10%oak).Te3datingsare
Horizon/layer Depth gS mS fS fS gU mU fU T
Skeleton
content
pH
Loss on
ignition
Colour Charcoal
cm % % % % % % % % % % Munsell mg/l
1 Bw/M
(colluvium)
10-30 7,56 5,58 4,81 3,43 20,17 19,34 12,47 26,65 26,76 3,94 4,60
10Yr-
3/24
255,03
1 M
(colluvium)
30-83 6,73 6,29 4,85 3,67 20,96 18,21 12,34 26,96 18,46 3,97 3,04 10Yr-5/6 369,93
2 fBwtg
(upper layer)
83-100 10,46 5,76 4,36 3,48 18,14 19,28 12,70 25,82 24,12 3,94 3,23 10Yr-5/8 0,00
3 fBtg
(interm. layer)
100-125 12,66 5,49 1,88 2,60 22,05 17,98 10,30 27,04 32,18 3,76 2,79 10Yr-6/4 n.a.
3 fBtg
(interm. layer)
125-133 7,79 5,21 1,86 2,71 26,11 17,26 9,58 29,47 15,55 3,77 2,56 10Yr-5/6 0,00
4 C
(basal layer)
133-175 19,41 9,02 4,14 8,24 16,76 13,44 11,75 17,25 2,30 3,66 2,13 10Yr-4/6 n.a.
5 r
(weathered slates)
175-218 37,04 16,21 5,35 6,38 11,01 6,44 4,69 12,89 71,97 3,81 2,64 10Yr-4/4 n.a.
5 r
(weathered slates)
218-244 37,11 18,00 5,69 6,97 9,19 7,06 5,31 10,69 72,21 3,70 3,16 10Yr-2/1 n.a.
M = Holocene colluvium, gs = course sand, ms = middle sand, fs = fne sand, fs = fnest sand, gu = course silt, mu = middle silt, fu = fne silt, t
= clay
Horizon/layer Typical for M M II fBwtg
UL
III fBtg
IL
Depth [cm] 31-50 50-71 71-100 100-115
augite pumice 77 88 38 4
Epidote/zoisite
0 1 4 12
Garnet loess 0 0 1 2
Green hornblende loess
0 1 2 4
Brown hornblende pumice
130 159 75 8
titanite pumice 49 50 16 1
Zircon
12 18 8 4
suM 268 317 144 35
M = Holocene colluvium, ul = upper layer, il = intermediate layer, Bl = basal layer;
analysis: M. Guddat-seipel, Bad nauheim.
Table 3: Sedimentological data of the feld balk-profle in Ohren forest.
Tab. 3: Sedimentologisce Daten zum Profl innerhalb des Acerberges in der Waldabteilung Ohren.
Tab. 4: Heavy mineral content of the feld balk profle in Ohren
forest. (M = Holocene colluvium, UL = upper layer, IL = inter-
mediate layer, BL = basal layer).
Tab. 4: Scwermineralgehalt des Acerrain-Profls im Pfafen-
wald (M = Kolluvium, UL = Hauptlage, IL = Mitellage, BL =
Basislage).
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indicative of the Early Modern Period: cal. 17121906 AD
(Fagus sylvatica, Poz-36326), cal. 16541794 AD (Qercus
spec., Poz-36322) and cal. 14761604 AD (Fagus sylvatica,
Poz-36321). However, the dated samples were not layered
stratigraphic, because the sediment cover was obviously
mixedbetweentheindividualburningsessionsofthekilnor
beyond.Tus,adetailedreportingabouttheforesthistoryin
thesurroundingofthekilnsiteisonlypossibletoalimited
extend.However,itcouldbedemonstratedthatthekilnwas
usedfromthe16
th
tothe19
th
century.
Tesecondone(N50.169,E7.930;427ma.s.l.)islocated
onamoderateinclined,NNEexposedlowerslopewithina
small,wetspring-depression,coveredbyaforestwithupto
160yearoldbeeces(resultofadendrocronologicalcount)
andsomeoaks.Inthesurroundingareaof450m,thereisno
further evidence of kiln sites. Te forested slope above the
kilniswithadistanceof500mtothetopofthehillmuc
larger. Eventually, the origin area of the used wood could
havebeenmuclarger,too.
Tespectraofspeciesinthesamplingdepthsof013cm
Fig. 4: Model of former feld balks on a slope and an earthwork of soil material and gathered stones (Acerberg) on a fat location under forest.
Abb. 4: Modell eines ehemaligen Acerrains und eines Acerberges, bestehend aus Bodenmaterial und Lesesteinen, in Hanglage.
Fig. 5: Map section of the Zorn district with former feld balks and carcoal kiln sites in forest.
Abb. 5: Kartenausscnit der Gemarkung Zorn mit Acerrainen und Meilerpltzen unter Wald.
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Fig. 5: Map section of the Zorn district with former feld balks and carcoal kiln sites in forest.
Abb. 5: Kartenausscnit der Gemarkung Zorn mit Acerrainen und Meilerpltzen unter Wald.
and1325cmoftheStbbewall werediferent(Fig.8).Te
lower spectrum is dominated by beec (82%), followed by
birc(13%,atreewhicneedsanexposuretothesunshine)
andoak(5%).Intheuppermostspectrum,beecisonly34%
andbircisfoundinhigherconcentration(19%).Oakisthe
predominant species (47%) in this layer. Although the kiln
site is located directly above the spring depression, there
couldnotbeprovenanyhydrophilicspecieslikewillowsor
alders.Tisindicatesanoriginoftheusedwoodexclusively
upslopeofthekiln.
Datingofcarcoalsamplesfromthetwopresumablydif-
ferentlayersgaveexactlythesameages:cal.16771921AD
(Fagus sylvatica,Poz-36323and36324).Itispossiblethatthe
kilnwasusedforonlyashortperiodattheendofthe18
th

and beginning of the 19


th
century. However, the spectra of
speciesinthediferentlayersarequitediferent.Terefore,
thelowercarcoalsamplecouldhavebeendisplacedbybio-
turbationorsimilarprocessesinthepast.
5.3 the medieval refuge castle of Zorn with a
neighboring slag heap
At the eastern rim of the castle (81 E), where it has been
damagedbyamodernstairway,wetookasmallportionof
soilmaterialfromthelowerpartoftherampart(thepermis-
sionfromthelocalpreservationauthoritywasgiven).Bythe
arcaeobotanicalelutriationprocedure,afragmentofcar-
coal was eliminated, whic was dated to cal. 900970 AD
(Poz-36343).
A carcoal sample of the slag heap, eliminated in the
sameway,wasdatedtocal.11031203AD(Poz-36341;High
Middle Ages). An analysis of the slag by x-ray difractom-
eterresultedinresidualironcontentsof3649%andsilicate
contentsof925%.
Apieceofcarcoaloftheotherslagheap,whicislocated
besidethesmallstreamRdelbacnearZorn(N50.15829,E
7.93905)wasdatedtothesimilarageofcal.11601260AD
(Beta-294172).
5.4 Calculation of sedimentation rates of a small
alluvial fan near Kemel (n 50.1650, E 8.0147)
Tocalculatethelocalsedimentationratefromasingleloca-
tionontheKemelHeath,weinvestigatedanarcaeological
site,whicincludedaRomanwaterwell,stabilizedbywood
beams. It was located close to the former Roman castle of
Kemeland,geomorphologically,onasmallandfatalluvial
fan, respectively a colluvial depression flling in the non-
perennial upper course of the Aulbac andWisper stream.
Te side walls of the well were supported by several sedi-
ment covered oak-wooden beams, whic were dated den-
drocronologically to 215 AD (information given by the
HessianOfceofMonumentPreservation).
Te site was dug 384 cm into a sandy-silty, uppermost
clayey, well-layered colluvial/alluvial sediment with a dis-
tinctcontentofskeleton(529%).Downwards316cminside
the well, the groundwater level was detected and the sedi-
mentisgrey-reduced.Around179cmdeep,itcontainscar-
coalfragments;underneath,therearenoorganicremains.A
carcoalfragmentof035cmdepthwasdatedtocal.1160-
1260AD(HighMiddleAges;Beta-294173),anotherpieceof
3555cmtocal.10801124AD(HighMiddleAges;Erl-8905)
andafurtherpieceof140163cmtocal.678773AD(Early
MiddleAges;Erl-8906).Belowthissamplethetopofthecov-
erofthewater-wellwasdetectedbyarcaeologists.
Te soil samples downwards to 383 cm were analyzed
concerningtheircontentofheavyminerals.Allsamplescon-
tain the minerals augite, brown hornblende, titanite, green
hornblendeandgarnetthusgivingevidenceofdistinctcon-
tentsofloessandthepumiceofLakeLaaceruptionofthe
Allerd Interstadial (cf. Stolz & Grunert 2006, Semmel
2002).
Summarized, the lower part of the profle (152384 cm
and deeper) had been already deposited when the Romans
builtthewellin215AD.Tiscanbeassumedbecauseofthe
lacoffndsandcarcoalsinthesesediments.
Fig. 6: Field balk in Struth forest, probably generated during Iron Age and later. For the parts of the profle marked with question marks there is no de-
tailed information.
Abb. 6: Ein Acerrain in der Waldabteilung Struth. Er geht vermutlic auf die Eisenzeit zurc. Fr die mit Fragezeicen gekennzeicneten Proflbereice
liegen keine detaillierten Informationen vor.
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Accordingtothe
14
C-datings,itispossibletocalculateap-
proximate sedimentation rates for diferent periods. Tere-
fore,ithastobeconsideredthattherearesomeuncertain-
ties of this analysis concerning a subsequent displacement
of carcoal samples: Between the 4
th
and 7
th
centuries AD,
no traces of deposition have been found. Afer this period,
thesecondpartoftheprofle(15245cmdepth)wasdepos-
itedbetweenapprox.725and1100AD.Tiscorrespondstoa
sedimentationrateof2.8mm/a(Fig.10).Tethirdpart(45
20cmdepth)wasdepositedbetweenapprox.1100and1210
(sedimentation rate of 2.3 mm/a). Te upper part (200 cm
depth)wasdepositedduringthetimeafer1210untiltoday,
correspondingwithamucsmallerrateofonly0.25mm/a.
6 discussion
Te16datingsofthisstudyinclude5ofPrehistoricandRo-
manperiods(until260AD;cf.BaatzandHerrmann2002),
1 of Early Middle Ages (approx. 4001000 AD), 5 of High
MiddleAges(approx.10001320AD)and5ofEarlyModern
Age(approx.14501850AD;cf.Born1989;Tab.5).Tepres-
enceofcarcoalparticlesinthesedimentarcivesconcludes
thatinmostcases,thereisacertainamountofhumaninfu-
enceonthelandscapeinthediferentperiods.Butithasto
beconsideredthat
14
C-datingsgiveonlyminimumages(ter-
minus post quem).Ifapieceofcarcoalistrappedwithina
sedimentlayer,thesedimentmusthavebeendisplacedafer
theformationtimeoftheorganiccarbonofthecarcoal.
6.1 Agriculture
Tisisprovenbytheuppermostsample(20cmdeep)within
the feld balk-profle in the Pfafenwald forest, whic was
dated to an earlier time (cal. 379245 BC, LaTne Period,
Poz-36328)comparedwiththesamplesbelow.Itcouldhave
been deposited for a long time (approx. 1300 years) on the
soilsurfaceupslopeorwithinacolluviumwhenitwasbur-
ied by the sediment. However, a vertical displacement by
bioturbationcouldbealsoplausible.Toclarifythis,wead-
ditively used one OSL dating whic confrmed the other
L
o
w
e
r

s
l
o
p
e
Charcoal kiln
Earthern wall/stuebbewall
(layered)
younger
older
Loam pit Loam
Artifial slope cut
Periglacial
coverbeds
Scheme of a charcoal kiln site in hillside location
Platform of kiln
Draft: C. Stolz.
Cartography: S. Bhnke.
Dept. of Geography,
Mainz University (2011).
Legend
Soil formation
Vitrification by heat
Charcoal
Wood tar containing sediment
0 5 10 m
Fig. 7: Sceme of a carcoal kiln site
in hillside location with loam pit.
Abb. 7: Scema eines Hangmeiler-
platzes mit Lehmgrube zur Entnahme
der Stbbe, mit der der Meiler
verkleidet wird.
Fig. 8: Sampling of a carcoal kiln site in diferent
layers.
Abb. 8: Die Beprobung eines Hangmeilerplatzes
(Stbbewall) in versciedenen Tiefen.
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14
C-datings.Additionally,apieceofcarcoalfromthefeld
terrace above the balk (2850 cm deep) was dated to cal.
12101280 AD (Beta-294174). Unfortunately, arcaeological
fndings were missing, whic is typical for agrarian loca-
tionsawayfromsetlementsAswellaswithinthefeldbalk-
profles in Pfafenwald forest, in those ofOhren forest and
Struthforest,wedatedcarcoalstoprehistoricandRoman
Periods. In consequence, at these locations the agriculture
began before the arrival of the Romans (OSL: 340 BC-120
AD). Tus, the agriculture started during the Iron Age is
provenforonelocationanditislikelysofortheothertwo
locations. In addition, based on the datings of Pfafenwald
and Ohren forests, it is also plausible that Roman agricul-
tureexistedforlocalsupplyofthebordertroops.Basically,
weshouldknowthatfeldswerenotsowidespreadinthat
timeaswithinEarlyModernPeriodsortoday.However,as
non-favorableareas(Northfacedslopes)werecroppeddur-
ingthattimeandwhicarecurrentlywooded.Tus,wealso
havetoassumeprehistoricagricultureintheactualcropped
areas,too.Terefore,feldscouldhavebeenmoredistributed
than today.On the other hand, the forests must have been
smaller.Incontrast,prehistoricpeoplemighthavepreferred
otherlocationsthanmodernfarmers,forexamplelocations
on plateaus or smooth slopes far away from recent setle-
ments.
Withinthefeldbalks,datesfromEarlyMiddleAgesare
missing.Buttheagricultureonthesefeldscontinueduntil
theHighMiddleAges.Tecoveringoftheterraceitselfby
colluvialsedimentstookplacewithintheHighMiddleAg-
es.Maybeitwasreactivatedinthisperiod.Tepresenceof
gatheredstoneswithinthecolluvialsedimentsandtheOSL
agegiveasolidresult.AfertheHighMiddleAges,thereis
nofurtherevidenceofagricultureinthethreeinvestigated
formerfelddistricts.Furthermore,duetothesoilformation
(luvisol) within the colluvium, a resting phase since High
MiddleAgesseemsplausible(Fig.2).
6.2 Charcoal burning
In the forests of the Zorn district (374ha), we found and
mapped only 40 kiln sites (0.11 sites/ha). In a forest 15 km
away near to the ironworks of Micelbac, we calculated
0.380.58kilnsitesperhectare(Stolz2011b).Inthemining
regionofthesouthernHarzMts.vonKortzfleisch(2008)
mapped3.3sites/ha.Terefore,carcoalburningwasnotso
wide spread in the investigation area comparedwith other
districts. However, in the cleared areas, carcoal burning
wasafrequentactivity.Mostofthemappedkilnsiteshavea
diameterof1012m.Tisindicatesanoriginwithinthepe-
riodofmassivecarcoalburningofthe18
th
or19
th
centuryin
theTaunusMts.(cf.Stolz2011b,Hildebrandtetal.2001).
Basically,theinvestigatedfeldbalksinthePfafenwaldfor-
est must be older than the kiln sites, because kiln sites are
locatedontheformerfeldterracesusingtheleveledsurface.
Byphysicaldatingmethodswecouldsubstantiatecarcoal
burning in the investigated area from the 16
th
century and
increasinguntiltheendofthe18
th
century.
Te tree spectrum of the second investigated kiln site
(Reibrhl forest) taken from the lower layer of the car-
coalcontainingsedimentisdominatedbyQercus spec.and
Betula pendula (in total 66%). Betula is a typical pioneer
mm/a
3
2
1
0 1000 2000 AD
S
e
d
i
m
e
n
t
a
t
i
o
n

r
a
t
e
s
(
m
m
/
a
)
Time (years AD)
Fig. 9: Spectra of tree species at depths of 013 cm and 1325 cm (kiln site 2).
Abb. 9: Baumartenspektrum in 013 und in 1325 cm Tiefe (Meilerplatz 2).
Fig. 10: Sedimentation rates in a small valley flling near Kemel.
Abb. 10: Untersciedlice Sedimentationsraten im verfllten Unterlauf
eines Tlcens bei Kemel.
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tree species (Ludemann & Nelle 2002). Te species are an
indication for a bright, cleared forest with a high content
of Qercus spec., whic was an important kind of timber
(Ellenbergetal.1991).Whiledegradationprocesses,Qer-
cus spec.andCarpinus betuluscanbefavored(Ludemann
2008).Inthelayerabove,thecontentofQercusandBetula
hasfallen(18%)andFagus isthedominatingspecies;how-
ever,thecontentofbircisstill13%.Today,theregrowonly
few birces. However, the so-called Litle Ice Age (Glaser
2008)cannothaddirectinfuencestothedetectedcangesin
vegetation,becauseoaks(Qercus robur)are,incontrastto
the beeces, counted among the slightly more thermophile
deciduous trees (Ellenberg et al. 1991), however with a
widerecologicalrange.
An eventual wood selection by the carcoal burners
should not be considered. Ludemann (2008) demonstrated
thatcarcoalburnersduringtheEarlyModernPeriodinthe
BlacForestusedallavailablespeciesandallthicnessesof
wood.
6.3 refuge castle and iron smelting
TerefugecastleofZorn,theneighboringslagheapanda
further slag heap in the Rdelbac valley originate almost
simultaneouslyfromtheHighMiddleAges(10
th
to12
th
cen-
turyAD).Basedonthesefndings,wealsohavetoassume
a high wood consumption around these small melts. Fur-
thermore,therelativelyhighferrouscontentoftheslagsin-
dicates a low yield of iron due to a still primitive tecnol-
ogy of iron-smelting. Nearly the same age we detected for
theuseofthedesertedfelds.Teslagheaps,whicare2of
5 samples from within the Zorn district, the castle and the
feldterracesgiveevidenceofawidespread,decentralized,
agriculture,ironproductionandforestclearinginthedistrict
ofZornduringtheHighMiddleAges(cf.Stolz&Grunert
2008,Geisthardt1954).
Tedatingofacarcoalfragmentfrominsidetherampart
of the refuge castle has to be regarded as an approximate
valueforapossiblerealageoftherefugecastleAsthecar-
No. Type Site
Depth
[cm]
Material
14
C Age
[a BP]
Calibration or
OSL age [a BC/AD]
1 poz-36328
14
C pfafenwald forest 10-30
charcoal
(feld balk)
226035 379-245 BC
2 poz-36337
14
C pfafenwald forest 30-83
charcoal, hardwood
(feld balk)
94030 1044-1136 aD
3 HuB-0095 Osl pfafenwald forest 83
basal colluvium
(feld balk)
- 110230 BC
4 poz-36338
14
C pfafenwald forest 100-125
charcoal, Quercus
(feld balk)
301535 1351-1219 BC
5
Beta-
294174
14
C pfafenwald forest 28-55
charcoal, hardwood
(colluvium from
terraced feld)
79030 1210-1280 aD
6 poz-36339
14
C Ohren forest 7-31
charcoal, Quercus
(feld balk)
106530 918-999 aD
7 poz-36340
14
C Ohren forest 50-71
charcoal, Quercus
(feld balk)
195035 7-79 aD
8 Erl-7539
14
C
struth forest,
kettenbach
45
charcoal
(feld balk)
220556 361-272 BC
9 poz-36321
14
C kiln site 1, Zorn 0-8
charcoal, Fagus
(kiln site)
36030 1476-1604 aD
10 poz-36322
14
C kiln site 1, Zorn 8-17
charcoal, Quercus
(kiln site)
22030 1654-1794 aD
11 poz-36326
14
C kiln site 1, Zorn 30-48
charcoal, Fagus
(kiln site)
8530 1712-1906 aD
12 poz-36323
14
C kiln site 2 0-13
charcoal, Fagus
(kiln site)
18030 1677-1921 aD
13 poz-36324
14
C kiln site 2 13-25
charcoal, Fagus
(kiln site)
18030 1677-1921 aD
14 poz-36343
14
C
refuge castle alte
schanz
-
charcoal
(artifcial deposit)
110530 900-970 aD
15 poz-36341
14
C
slag heap near the
refuge castle
0-20
charcoal, Fagus
(slag heap)
86530 1103-1203 aD
16
Beta-
294172
14
C
slag heap near the
rtelbach stream
0-15
charcoal, hardwood
(slag heap)
85030 1160-1260 aD
17 Erl-8905
14
C
kemel, site with
roman water well
35-55
charcoal
(colluvium)
95337 1080-1125 aD
18
Beta-
294173
14
C
kemel, site with
roman water well
55-90
charcoal, half-ring
porous hardwood
(colluvium)
84030 1160-1260 aD
19 Erl-8906
14
C
kemel, site with
roman water well
140-163
charcoal
(colluvium)
127444 678-773 aD
Tab. 5:
14
C and OSL datings of this study.
Tab. 5: Aufstellung der in der vorliegenden Studie enthaltnen
14
C- und OSL-Datierungen.
181
E&G / vol. 61 / no. 2 / 2012 / 168183 / DOi 10.3285/eg.61.2.05 / authors / Creative Commons attribution license
coal was located inside the rampart, it must be older or of
thesameageasthecastle.Inconsequence,thecastlemust
originatefromthe10thcenturyorfromayoungerperiod.
6.4 sediment sequences of the alluvial fan of Kemel
Within the alluvial fan profle of Kemel we calculated the
highest sedimentation rate for the High Middle Ages, too.
Direct climatic infuences as a triggering factor are unlike-
ly; in the contrary, however the local infuence of anthro-
pogenictriggeredsoilerosioninthesmallcatcmentofthe
depressionwashigh(Thiemeyeretal.2005).Itmustbeex-
pectedthattheaccumulationofalluvialsedimentsprobably
wasdiscontinuous,whicmeansthatitcouldhaveprobably
happenedduringheavyprecipitationeventsinamoreorless
cleared landscape. Tus, the calculated sedimentation rates
havetobeconsideredaslimitedreferencevaluesforthesus-
ceptibilityofsoilerosionwithinthecatcment.
Te only dated carcoal from the Early Middle Ages
(7
th
/8
th
century)istakenfromthisalluvialfanwhicisanim-
portantfact.Tecarcoalhasbeendepositeddirectlyabove
the Roman well. Tus, soil erosion rates during the Migra-
tionPeriodmusthavebeenreduced.Otherwise,thefnding
ofEarlyMedievalcarcoalsupportstheopinionofBecker
(2011)concerninganincreasedhumaninfuenceinKemelin
thisperiod.Mostlikely,duringEarlyModerntimesthedis-
tributionoffeldsdidnotreactheleveloftheHighMiddle
Ages.Instead,heathlandsbecamepredominantintheland-
scape.Terefore,thesedimentationratewithinthefanpro-
fleofKemelwasshrinkingagain.
7 Conclusions
TeagricultureontheKemelHeathprobablystartedduring
the LaTne or Roman Period. Tis conforms to the results
ofregionalpalynologicinvestigations.Sincethistimein-
terrupted during the Migration Period to the High Mid-
dle Ages agriculture was intensifed and non-favorable ar-
easwerecultivated.Tespreadingoffeldsincreasedupto
13
th
centuryandwasshrinkingagaininfavorofpastureland
during the Early Modern Period. In the remaining cleared
forests, carcoal burning was widespread, especially from
16
th
to the end of the 18
th
century. Te consequences con-
cerning forest degradation and canges in the composition
oftreespeciescouldbeevidencedduetothecarcoalsfrom
twodiferentkilns.
OfnearlythesameageliketheHighMedievalagriculture
aretheslagrelictsofdecentralizedironmeltingand,prob-
ably,therefugecastleofZornnexttotheslags.
Although the sediment sequence of a small alluvial fan
nearKemelisofverylocalcaracter,weevidencedthehigh-
estdepositionrateinitscatcmentfortheHighMiddleAg-
es,too.
Withthisstudy,weevidencedthebeneftoftheapplica-
tionofseveraldiferentmethodstoreconstructformerland-
scapesofdiferentperiods:Futurestudieshavetoinvestigate
as muc single relicts to get more representative informa-
tion.Unfortunately,thiswasnotpossibleduetolimitedf-
nancialresources.
Acknowledgements
WearegratefultotheHessisces Ministerium fr Umwelt,
Energie, Landwirtscaf und Verbraucerscutz for fnan-
cial support.We also thank Mr. R. Scmidt of the Heimat-
verein Heidenrod and the students of the working group
Grunert/Stolzforsupportduringtheirfeldwork.
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references (examples)
Papers:
Schwarzbach,M.(1968):NeueEiszeithypothesen.Eiszei-
talterundGegenwart,19:250261.
Eissmann,L.&Mller,A.(1979):LeitlinienderQartren-
twiclung im norddeutscenTiefand. Zeitscrif fr Ge-
ologisceWissenscafen,7:451462.
Zagwijn,W.H.(1996):TeCromerianComplexStageofthe
NetherlandsandcorrelationwithotherareasinEurope.In:
Turner,C.(ed.):TeMiddlePleistoceneinEurope:145172;
Roterdam(Balkema).
Magny,M.&Haas,J.N.(2004):Amajorwidespreadclimat-
ic cange around 5300 cal. yr BP at the time of the Alpine
Iceman.JournalofQaternaryScience,19:423430.DOI:
10.1002/jqs.850
Books:
Ehlers,J.(1994):AllgemeineundhistorisceQartrgeolo-
gie.358S.;Stutgart(Enke).
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Schwarzbach,M.(1968):NeueEiszeithypothesen.Eiszeit-
alterundGegenwart,19:250261.
Eissmann, L. & Mller, A. (1979): Leitlinien der Qartr-
entwiclung im norddeutscen Tiefand. Zeitscrif fr
GeologisceWissenscafen,7:451462.
Zagwijn,W.H.(1996):TeCromerianComplexStageofthe
NetherlandsandcorrelationwithotherareasinEurope.In:
Turner,C.(ed.):TeMiddlePleistoceneinEurope:145172;
Roterdam(Balkema).
Magny,M.&Haas,J.N.(2004):Amajorwidespreadclima-
ticcangearound5300cal.yrBPatthetimeoftheAlpine
Iceman.JournalofQaternaryScience,19:423430.DOI:
10.1002/jqs.850
Monographisce Werke, Bcer:
Ehlers,J.(1994):AllgemeineundhistorisceQartrgeolo-
gie.358S.;Stutgart(Enke).
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E&G / vol. 61 / no. 2 / 2012 / 103132 / DOi 10.3285/eg.61.2.01 / authors / Creative Commons attribution license
DOi 10.3285/eg.61.2.01
Late Quaternary evolution of rivers, lakes and peatlands in northeast Germany refecting
past climatic and human impact an overview
Knut Kaiser, Sebastian Lorenz, Sonja Germer, Olaf Juschus, Mathias Kster, Judy Libra,
Oliver Bens, Reinhard F. Httl
DOi 10.3285/eg.61.2.02
younger middle terrace saalian pre-drenthe deposits overlying mis 7 nachtigall
interglacial strata near hxter/Weser, nW-Germany
Peter Rohde, Jochen Lepper, Wolfgang Thiem
DOi 10.3285/eg.61.2.03
interrelation of geomorphology and fauna of Lavrado region in roraima, brazil
suggestions for future studies
Thiago Morato de Carvalho, Celso Morato de Carvalho
DOi 10.3285/eg.61.2.04
Quaternary Geology and Geomorphology of terna river basin in West Central india
Mohammad Babar, Radhakrishna Chunchekar, Madhusudan G. Yadava, Bhagwan Ghute
DOi 10.3285/eg.61.2.05
reconstructing 2500 years of land use history on the Kemel heath (Kemeler heide),
southern rhenish massif, Germany
Christian Stolz, Sebastian Bhnke, Jrg Grunert
103
133
146
156
168
E&G
Quaternary Science Journal
volume 61 / number 2 / 2012 / issn 0424-7116 / DOi 10.3285/eg.61.2
www.quaternary-science.net
GEoZon sCiEnCE mEdiA
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