OP AMP

Figure 1 Simplified Depiction Symbol of Op Amp

The op amp looks as depicted and is designed to perform mathematical operations of additions, subtraction, multiplication, division, differentiation and integration. An op amp is designed to sense the difference between its two input terminals. By itself the operation is straightforward. Conversely if V+ > V- then the output voltage saturates towards +Vcc.

As you can see above the input voltage is similar in shape to the output voltage. The output voltage saturates towards Vs (or VCC)
1

If the voltage applied to the inverting terminal Vis more positive than the voltage applied to the non inverting terminal V, the output saturates toward the negative supply voltage Vcc.

As you can see above that the output voltage is the mirror opposite of the input voltage (in shape of waveform). The following illustration goes over what an op amp really looks like and the various pins that come with it.

Practical electronics for Inventors

Figure 2 What an Op Amp looks like and the pins

In other words the output voltage saturates towards the positive or negative supply voltage depending on the input. With the slightest difference in input voltages the output saturates.

Figure 3

As in the figure above: if both the positive supply (+Vcc in pin 7) and negative supply voltage (-Vcc in pin 4) are given the same voltage (say +5V for +Vcc pin 7 and -5V for Vcc for pins 4) then by KCL2: Now we see that there is a relationship between the output voltage and the input voltages (V+input and V-input): Voutput = A{ (V+input) - (V-input) } (Equation 1) From the above we see that the output voltage is related by a variable A called the gain of an op amp. A is called the open loop voltage gain when there is no connection between the output voltage and the input voltages (between pin 6 and either of pins 2 or 3) or there is no external feedback from output to input. When there is a path from output voltage to input voltage, A is called the closed loop voltage gain3 when there is a connection between the output voltage and the input voltages (between pin 6 and either of pins 2 or 3). A practical property of the op amp is that its output voltage (Voutput) cannot exceed |Vs| (or Vcc dc power supply as in figure3 above going into pins 7 and 4). In other words the output voltage is dependent on and is limited by the power supply voltage. If we say that the difference between the inverting and non inverting input voltage is Vd then this voltage difference is:

Vd = V+ - VWe may plot this difference in V+ and V- (or V+input and V-input in pins 2 and 3) versus the output voltage (out of pin 6). In the plot we see the Voutput (or Vo) max/min out at Vcc. If we attempt to increase Vd (x axis) beyond +Vcc/A then Vo becomes saturated and enters the positive saturation region. If we attempt to
2 3

Fundamentals of Electronics Alexander, Sidiku Fundamentals of Electric Circuits Charles Alexander, Mathew Sidiku 3 rd Edition 4 Schaums outline of Electric Circuits 4th edition

decrease Vd beyond -Vcc/A then Vo becomes saturated and enters the negativee saturation region. When Vd (x axis) is between +Vcc/A and -Vcc/A the region is called the Linear region. In the linear region the open loop gain A is generally very high (from 105 to several millions). Vo saturates in the extremes of +Vcc and Vcc whenever the input voltage difference (Vd= V+ - V-) exceeds the range of (Vcc/A). Vcc is generally between 5 and 18 volts.
Figure 4 Negative Feedback

To summarize the op amp switches from one maximum output state to another whenever there is a voltage difference between its input.

Ideal Op Amp: The inside of an op Amp looks so :

Open loop voltage gain Ao (or A) is infinite Input impedance is infinite (Rin is infinite) Rout is zero The input terminals draw no current

Ao (or A) is finite between 104 and 106 Rin is finite typically between 106 and 1012 Rout is typically between 10 1000 Ohms The input terminals draw small pico to nano amps.

An op amp is ideal if it has the following characteristics: 1. Infinite open-loop gain, A=. 2. Infinite input resistance, Ri =. 3. Zero output resistance, Ro = 0. 1. The currents into both input terminals are zero:
i1 = 0, i2 = 0 (5.5)

This is due to infinite input resistance. An infinite resistance between the input terminals implies that an open circuit exists there and current cannot enter the op amp. 2. The voltage across the input terminals is negligibly small; i.e., vd = v2 v1 = 0 (5.6) or v1 = v2 (5.7) Thus, an ideal op amp has zero current into its two input terminals and negligibly small voltage between the two input terminals. Equations (5.5) and (5.7) are extremely important and should be regarded as the key handles to analyzing op amp circuits. We will see their application in understanding the inverting amplifier. Inverting Amplifier: More interesting applications emerge when we have negative feedback : when voltage is fed back from the output terminal to the inverting terminal.

When voltage is fed back from the output terminal to the inverting terminal this is referred to as negative feedback. The gain of the op amp (with feedback) can be controlled: the op amps output is prevented from saturating. For example, a feedback resistor RF placed between the output and the input as shown in the figure titled Negative Feedback conveys the state of the output back to the input. This feedback information basically tells the op amp to readjust its output voltage to a value determined by the resistance of the feedback resistor RF. The circuit in titled Negative Feedback is called an inverting amplifier, and has an output equal to Vin/(RF/Rin). The negative sign means that the output is inverted relative to the inputa result of the inverting input. The gain (Vout/Vin)is then simply the output voltage divided by the input voltage, or RF/Rin (the negative sign indicates that the output is inverted relative to the input). Here we see that if we increase the value of the feedback resistor R F we end up increasing the gain (Vout/Vin). On the other hand if you decrease the resistance of the feedback resistor you decrease the gain. How did we get this value of gain? Let us observe the internals of the Op amp in more detail. In this circuit, the non inverting input is grounded, vi is connected to the inverting input through R1, and the feedback resistor Rf is connected between the inverting input and output. Our goal is to obtain the relationship between the input voltage vi and the output voltage vo. Applying KCL at node 1, i1 = i2 (vi v1) / R1 = (v1 vo )/ Rf We know that v1 and v2 are zero for an ideal op amp , since the non inverting terminal is grounded. So Vi/R1 = -Vo/Rf and thus Vo= - (Rf /R1)Vi So we see that the inverting amplifier reverses the polarity of the input signal while amplifying it.