Welding Inspection Procedures

Welding is the practice of joining two materials by melting the material at the point you want to join them and forming one object as the melted materials cool together. Materials that are welded are usually metals or thermoplastics. Welds must be inspected to determine if they are satisfactory and will uphold under pressure. To do that, there are several different inspection procedures.

Visual Inspection

A procedure for inspecting welds that is sometimes overlooked, but very effective, is simply looking at the weld. Any cracks, overlap or incomplete penetration can compromise the integrity of the weld. If a weld doesn't pass a visual inspection, it likely won't pass any of the other inspections either.

Liquid Penetrant

A liquid penetrant that is colored with dye is put over the clean surface of the welded object. If there are holes or thin spots in the weld, the dye exposes it once the excess penetrant is wiped away.

Leak Test

A leak test is used on welded objects that were designed to hold or contain something. When a substance is placed within the object and the object is pressurized, you can make an informed decision as to whether or not the weld is a good one by observing or testing if the weld leaks the substance.

X-Ray

To inspect a weld using x-rays, place a radiographic film towards one side of the weld and a radiograhic source (such as an x-ray tube) towards the opposite side for a predetermined amount of time. After the period of time is up, the radiographic film will contain information about the weld that will help you make a decision about the integrity of the weld.

Ultrasonic

Using piezoelectrical transducers and a computer with special software, you can use high frequency sound waves to check the integrity of a weld. When using transducers, signal reflections will be displayed on a computer screen and by referencing standard reflections for objects of similar shape and material, any inappropriate echo or reflection can be noted and used to determine if the weld is satisfactory.

Types of Welding Tests

There are many different types of welding tests to determine the strength and integrity of welded pieces and materials. Many welded tools are also important safety materials, such as truck axles. Ensuring a high-quality item through the proper testing of strength and integrity helps in maintaining safe and functional products that many people use each day.

Bend Tests

One of the most frequently used weld tests is the bend test because you can quickly perform it with simple tools. It tests the skill of the welder and the integrity of his welds.

The theory of the bend test is that two pieces of metal welded together at the top should withstand a certain amount of bending and pressure before the item fractures or breaks. There are many different versions of the bend test such as the guided bend test that uses a jig, the free bend and back bend test.

Nick Break Test

A nick break test requires breaking a weld joint to examine the fractured pieces. By examining the interior of the pieces, defects such as porosity, degree of fusion and gas pockets are visible. To perform this test, the welding test piece of a welded butt joint is put between two supports with applied pressure. A quick blow from a hammer or a press causes the piece to fracture. You can then examine the test piece for defects such as gas pockets and slag inclusions.

Nondestructive Weld Testing

Unlike other weld test types, nondestructive weld testing does not destroy the projects it tests. The American Society for Nondestructive Testing websites states that nondestructive testing investigates the material integrity of the test object. Nondestructive weld testing encompasses a large range of scientific techniques to test the weld, material strength and integrity. By not destroying the test pieces, this type of weld testing can save welding companies both money and time. Some of the welding tests used with nondestructive testing are radiography, sonograms, visual tests, liquid penetrant inspection and magnetic particle testing.

Acid Etch Test

The acid etch weld test determines the actual soundness of a weld by cutting a cross section of a welded joint. The cut test piece is put into an etching solution such as nitric acid or iodine and potassium iodide. This acid will react with the welding material and will visually show the boundary between the base metal and the weld metal. This will cause any imperfections in the weld such as gas pockets to appear.

Different Types of Welding Tests

Welding tests not only examine the ability of the welder, but also the quality of the metal used and the strength of the welded joint. Some of these tests will physically destroy the welder's project in order to obtain this information, while other tests can determine the welder's skills and the metal's quality without harming the project.

X-ray Test

The x-ray test will uncover any internal imperfection within the weld such as cracks, slag and blowholes without harming your project. Place an x-ray tube on one side of the welded plate and an x-ray film equipped with special sensitive emulsion on the other side of the welded plate. When you develop the film, any defects or impression will be represented by dark spots on the film.

Hydrostatic Test

The hydrostatic test will not destroy your project as it verifies the quality of the welds on pressure vessels, tanks and other sealed containers. To perform this test, fill the sealed container with water then apply pressure to the container. The applied pressure must be greater than the working pressure of the sealed container. If the welds on the container

can stand up to the pressure, you have created quality welds. You can also perform this test without applying pressure to find leaks in your welds.

Acid Etch Test

The acid etch test is performed on the cross section of a joint to determine the dependability of the weld. When you pour the acid on the metal, it reacts with the edges of any cracks in the base metal or the welding metal of your project, revealing the welding flaws. The acid also emphasizes where the base metal and weld mental intersect. Acid solutions used for the etch test include: hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, ammonium per sulfate and iodine and potassium iodide. This test will destroy your project.

Guided Bend Test

The most common performance and procedure welding test, the guided bend test determines the malleability and reliability of a welded joint by bending the joint to a specific bend radius. You can bend the joint by using a plunger test machine or wraparound bend test jigs. This destructive test will find any liner fusion flaws in the weld. It also allows you to evaluate a welder's skills and methods.

OSHA Requirements for Weld Testing

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration ( OSHA) regulates the safety of people who work in weld testing. There is gas welding or arc welding. Gas welding uses a combination of a fuel gas and oxygen; arc welding uses electricity. As the two types of welding use different power sources, each of which has different associated dangers, OSHA has safety requirements specific to each type of welding in addition to general safety requirements.

General Safety Requirements

Both gas and arc welding can cause fire, therefore OSHA requires that combustible materials be kept a certain distance away from the welding area. Less-combustible materials may be closer than 35 feet away, but easily ignited materials must be kept more than 35 feet away. This requirement is for materials on either side of walls or barriers, as heat or electric currents can travel through walls and ignite materials that are too close. As fire is a concern, having suitable fire-extinguishing materials is also required. This equipment can be a fire extinguisher, but also buckets of water or sand, hoses or other specific fire extinguishing materials will do. Safety requirements for gas and arc welding also include proper eye and hand safety equipment. Eye shielding is especially important as the intense light created during welding can be harmful to the eye over long periods of time.

Gas Welding Requirements

Gas welding requires compressed gas to be used as a fuel, so the transportation and safety of the cylinders of gas are primary concerns to OSHA. As the weight of the cylinders can be high, moving them requires safety valves to be in place, and the cylinders must be rolled on the bottom edge. The cylinders must not be completely lifted off the floor unless they are secured on a cradle, sling board or pallet. Dropping a cylinder can cause an explosion or scattering of toxic or flammable materials, so they can be lifted only when secure. Because of the design of the cylinders, each should be stored standing upright, and transported on their side only for short periods of time. Oxygen

and fuel cylinders must also be stored at least 20 feet apart, as it is the combination of fuel and oxygen that causes the greatest combustion.

Arc Welding Requirements

All the cables must be flexible and completely insulated to maximum voltage used in welding. The maximum voltage will vary from one project to another, so the proper amount should be considered. Flexible insulation is required because welders move about, and stiff insulation can crack and break, defeating the purpose of having the insulation in the first place. As electricity is used in arc welding, the equipment must be grounded, and while pipelines are often used for grounding because they are metal and often run into the ground, no pipes that contain gases or flammable liquids may be used. The most common occurrence of this type of infraction is when a welder mistakenly uses natural gas pipes to ground his weld. When the weld is left unattended, the electrodes must be removed. Electrodes carry electrical currents even after use, so completely removing them from a power supply is necessary. Arc shielding is to be used whenever possible to protect nearby workers from the rays of the arc. The welder usually must be too close to the arc to be fully protected, but other nearby workers should be fully protected by arc screens.

Different Types of Welding Test Positions

A variety of welding test positions exist to accommodate updates to building codes and to meet various methods of construction, according to Go Welding. Certified welders must often pass plate and pipe welding tests to ensure they possess the skill to carry out all professional construction needs. Some weld positions are more common than others, but all welding specialists are often certified by the American Welding Society or American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

Flat Plate Welding

Flat plate welding is possible in both horizontal and vertical positioning, according to Go Welding. Horizontal flat welding is the most basic form of testing and requires a minimum amount of skill because it covers soldering of only basic filets and grooves. Alternatively, vertical welding requires positioning the plate straight up and demands more precision. A welder who passes a vertical plate test is automatically certified to weld flat horizontal plates. A welder who passes the horizontal plate alone must successfully complete a vertical test to meet certification standards.

Beveled Plate Welding

Beveled plate welding is more advanced than flat plate testing, according to Go Welding. Beveled welding requires welders to solder plates with curves and in odd positions. A beveled, vertical position, for example, usually requires a welder to solder from a bottom-up direction and/or top-down position. Bottom-up welding means beginning at the base of the plate and welding upward; meanwhile, the reverse is true for top-down welding. Additionally, overhead soldering is one of the most advanced types of welding and passing this test results in receiving an advanced certification.

Pipe Welding

Pipe welding positions are identical to plate welding in many ways, according to Go Welding. Pipe welding includes horizontal and vertical soldering and requires bottom-up or top-down technique. 45-degree angle welding is specific to pipe welding and is considered the most advanced of all plate and pipe positions. Welding a pipe at 45 degrees is made especially difficult depending upon the technique that is used and whether the welder welds with the left or right hand. Because of this -- in addition to the fixed position and angle associated with this weld -- half of the test will be harder to accomplish than the other. Certification for 45-degree angle pipe welding indicates a special expertise and -- in professional situations -- often means a pay increase.

How Many Types of Welding Are There?

Metal welding is the process of permanently joining two pieces of metal or plastic together. Several methods of welding exist for different purposes. Most use extreme heat to melt the the two materials together. Some use alternative means such as solid-state welding on materials, which don't handle heat very well. Most welding processes are relatively new, developing during the industrial revolution and after the common usage of electricity.

Arc Welding

This type of welding uses a welding power supply to create an electric arc between the welder's electrode and the metal being welded. The electric arc heats the metal to melting point. Arc welding is very popular for its low costs. Many types of arc welding exist, including shielded metal arc, MIG welding, flux-cored, tungsten inert gas and submerged arc welding. These are the most commonly used.

Energy Welding

Energy welding, also known as laser or electron beam welding, is a very new process. This welding process is fast and is easy to automate, making it useful for high-speed manufacturing. Electron or laser beam welding make use of a highly focused laser or electron beam. Energy welding has a high start-up cost, which is the major drawback for this type of welding. It's also prone to thermal cracking, which occurs when the metal is later exposed to extreme temperature changes.

Gas Welding

Gas welding, also known as oxyacetylene welding, is one of the oldest types of welding and used to be very common. Gas welding makes use of an open flame fed by acetylene gas through the welding torch. It is used for many industrial applications and is fairly cheap. Arc welding has replaced gas in popularity for industrial and manufacturing processes. One major drawback to gas is that it takes longer for the weld to cool.

Resistance Welding

Resistance welding, or spot welding, as it's sometimes called, involves the application of an electrical current between two pieces of metal. The current melts a very small section or spot of the two metals to the melting point, sealing them together. Resistance welding is less dangerous than gas or arc welding, and easier to use and automate for simple

manufacturing processes. Resistance welding is limited in application and can really only join two overlapping pieces of metal together. Initial equipment costs are also high.

Solid State Welding

Solid-state welding is interesting because it joins two pieces of metal via pressure and vibration. No heat is used to melt the metals. Instead, the immense pressure and vibration causes the metals to exchange atoms via diffusion, joining the two pieces as one. Several types of solid-state welding exist, including ultrasonic, explosion welding, friction, roll welding, electromagnetic pulse, co-extrusion, cold welding, diffusion, exothermic, high -frequency welding, hot pressure and induction welding. Thorough preparation of the metal surface is required before solid-state welding can begin. The equipment is also rather expensive.

Forge Welding

The oldest type of welding is the forge welding practiced by blacksmiths. In forge welding two pieces of low carbon steel are heated to 1,800 degrees Fahrenheit and hammered together. Forge welding is versatile and used in manufacturing a range of products. Unfortunately, this type of welding holds a number of drawbacks. It takes a long time to weld the metal. Only low carbon steel can be welded in this manner. The weld is sometimes compromised by the coal used in heating the furnace. Blacksmiths require a high level of skill to forge metal.

Different Types of Welding Joints

Welding is the fusing of two metal parts together such that they become one.The function of welding joints is to join metal parts together so they function as one. While many specific procedures exist for welding that use a multitude of different types of equipment, only five different types of welding joints exist. The joint type is more a function of location and purpose rather than technique or strength as in the case of wood joints. The five different types of welding joints are edge, lap, butt, corner and "T."

Butt Joint

Butt joints are used when two pieces of metal of the same thickness are joined along their length so that each is the extension of the other. Examples would be two flat bars 1 inch wide welded together to form a single bar just over 2 inches wide. Another example would be two sections of pipe joined into one longer section.

Edge Joint

Edge joints are generally used on thinner metals, most commonly sheet metal less than 1/4-inch thick. The edges are welded together so that the two pieces remain parallel or nearly parallel but do not exceed 45 degrees.

Lap Joint

A lap joint is used to fuse different thicknesses of metal together by overlapping them. This type of welding joint is strongest because it increases the thickness of the material. A rule of thumb is that the lap should be at least three times the thickness of the thinnest member of the joint. When welded on either surface, this type of joint yields a piece of metal as thick as the sum of the two pieces it joins. In cases of extreme load, a lap joint may be used in addition to a butt joint to increase the overall strength of the section.

Corner and T Joints

Corner and T joints are nearly identical except for placement. These types of welding joints are used to connect pieces at right angles. The corner welding joint is used to join two plates at their edges that result in the shape of an "L." The T welding joint is used when one piece must join another away from the edge, thus forming a joint in the shape of its namesake letter.

Pipe Welding Process

Welding

Welding is a common--yet complex--process that is used to join two materials together. The joint between two materials is heated and melted, and another material is added to the molten metal by the welding tool. As the molten metal pool (usually referred to as the weld pool) cools in the air, it becomes a single, solid object that is firmly held together. Welding is often used to join pipes together, creating a single tube that can carry liquid or gas at high pressure. However, there are different methods of welding and different welding tools available for specific types of welding jobs.

Gas Metal Arc Welding

Gas metal arc welding (or GMAW) is a process that was discovered during the 1940s. In this process, a continuous, solid wire (which is referred to as an electrode) is passed through an electrically hot contact tip. This creates an arc between the wire and the weld pool mentioned above. The solid wire that's used in this process is added to the weld, and it is surrounded by a protective gas that will stop the weld pool from being oxidized during the welding process. It isn't until the arc is ended and the material is allowed to cool that the weld will be complete.

Flux Core Arc Welding

A process that is nearly identical to gas metal arc welding is flux core arc welding (sometimes called FCAW). Instead of a solid wire, flux core arc welding uses powdered flux materials. An arc is created between the flux materials and the weld pool, and as the arc is maintained the flux materials are deposited into the weld pool to help strengthen the bond. When this type of weld cools, there will be a slag cover over the welded seam. Also like GMAW, FCAW uses a shield of inert gases to protect the weld pool during the welding process.

How to Calculate for Pipe Welding

If you don't know the weld volume and weight of a pipe welding job, you cannot price it accurately. Determining the cost of a job is crucial if a contractor is to make a profit and stay in business. Also, understanding the cost of different welding techniques and methods will help you reduce costs, which will further improve your company's profitability and competitiveness. The main factors that determine the cost of a weld job are the amount of welding consumables you need and the time you or your employees spend on each joint. Both of these factors are directly related to the weld volume and weld weight of a weld.

Instructions
o

1
Determine the area of the weld; this will depend on the shape and size of the weld. For instance, if you choose to use a basic 45-degree fillet weld, which has the shape of an isosceles triangle, you must multiply the base of the weld by its height and divide by two. To illustrate, if you have a 2-inch by 2-inch fillet-weld, your weld area will be 2 square inches.

2
Multiply the area of your weld by its length. For example if you have 30-inch length of a 2-by-2-inch fillet weld, your weld volume will be 60 cubic inches.

3
Factor in the type of alloy you will use for the weld and its density. Alloys vary in density, which is directly related to the weld weight. For example, the density, in grams per cubic centimeter, of iron is 7.87, while for nickel it is 8.90.

4
Multiply the volume of the weld by the density of the alloy you are using. This will give you the total weight of the weld.

5
Multiply your weld volume and weight by your company's waste ratio. This ratio will depend on the size of the consumables you buy, the welding methods you use and the skill of your workers. Calculate this ratio by dividing the total amount of consumables used in previous projects by the amount of weld you estimated you would need. For instance, if your waste ratio is 20%, multiply your weld volume, for example 60 cubic inches, by 1.2, to get 72 cubic inches.

How to Estimate Pipe Welding

Professional pipe welding estimation software can cost nearly $500. However, a simple rough estimate for your pipe welding project can be quickly and cheaply calculated for any type of application. Simple welding estimates, for any welds including pipe welding, are estimated based on cost per unit welded, cost per length of the weld, or cost per weight of the weld material. The per-unit estimate applies to repeated welds on a series of similar pieces. The perlength estimate works best on long line-welds. The per-weight estimate is most accurate for welds with a high amount of filler material. The best method will depend on your specific pipe welding project.

Instructions

1. Cost Per Unit

o

1
Determine the total production time to produce a single unit. Determine how much of this time is spent with the "arc on" during the actual welding. For example, a pipe fixture takes three minutes to produce, but the actual welding time is only 45 seconds.

2
Multiply the speed of the wire feed by the welding time per unit. Multiply again by the electrode per inch. Multiply by the cost of the electrode per pound. This value is the total cost of the filler metal per unit produced.

3
Multiply the flow rate of the shielding gas by the welding time and gas cost per cubic foot. This is the total cost of the shielding gas per unit.

4
Multiply the total production time by the labor rate to determine the total labor cost per unit.

5
Add the filler metal cost, shield gas cost and labor cost to find the total cost per unit.

2. Cost Per Length

o

6
Determine the average travel speed of welding in feet per unit of time.

7
Determine the total time spent welding in a day. Divide the welding time by the total hours worked to calculate the operating factor.

8
Multiply the wire feed speed by the weight of the electrode per inch and by the cost of the electrode per pound. Divide by the travel speed of the weld. This value is the total filler metal cost per length.

9
Multiply the gas flow rate by the cost of the gas per cubic foot. Divide by the travel speed to determine the cost of the shielding gas per length.

10
Divide the labor rate by the travel speed. Multiply by the operating factor to determine the labor cost per length.

11
Add the filler metal cost, shield gas cost and labor cost to determine the total cost per length of the weld.

3. Cost Per Weight

o

12
Determine the amount of deposit in pounds per hour. This value is known as the deposition rate.

13
Determine the total time spent welding in a day. Divide the welding time by the total hours worked to calculate the operating factor.

14
Divide the cost of the filler metal per pound by the electrode efficiency to calculate the filler metal cost per pound.

15
Multiply the shield gas flow rate by the cost of the gas per cubic foot. Divide by the deposition rate to determine the shield cost per pound.

16
Divide the labor rate by the deposition rate and multiply by the operating factor to determine the labor cost per pound.

17
Add the filler metal cost, shielding gas cost and labor cost to find the total cost per pound of weld.

The AWS Pipe Welding Procedures

Welding modern alloy-steel industrial piping requires a high degree of proficiency in the welding procedures. These methods are dictated by the unique characteristics of steel alloyed with nickel, chromium, molybdenum, cobalt and copper. According to the American Welding Society, these alloys transfer heat less efficiently and their molten weld pools are less fluid than traditional carbon steel. But if a welder follows the procedures suggested by the AWS, he should be successful in welding alloy steel pipes.

Work Slowly

The first rule in welding alloy steel pipes is to go slow. Moving too quickly will produce incomplete fusion of the metal. You cant compensate by boosting the welding current because youll burn the metal rather than welding it. Before welding, seal the ends of the pipes and keep the interior filled with an inert gas like argon or helium. You also must shield the welding arc with a stream of an inert gas from your welder. The inert gas inside and out will keep oxygen away from the weld. If oxygen contacts the molten weld metal it will form oxides that produce a weak joint. A device called a gas lens concentrates the shielding gas flow around the 1/8 inch alloy welding rod.

DC Welding

You weld alloy steels using a direct-current welder with the welding wire as the negative pole. Before you start welding, ensure the welding rod is cleaned with solvent and fully dry before use. Bevel the joint to form a wide-angle V groove and clean the joint surfaces with solvent to remove all traces of dirt, grease, oil and chemicals. A dirty joint will be weak. The space between the pipe sections should be just a tiny bit wider than the welding rod.

Get In Tight

When welding alloys, you must keep the arc as short as possible -- just slightly more than 1/8 inch -- to produce a well-defined pool of molten metal. An arc thats too long will cause heat to dissipate from the weld pool into the surrounding metal, weakening the joint. Welders often have to assume awkward positions to see the arc to maintain proper arc length.

Vertical Arc

As you weld the pipe joint, keep your welder nearly perpendicular to the joint, angling it only enough to see the weld. If you angle your welder more than about 15 degrees of arc, youll direct heat away from the weld and could preheat the welding rod to the point of melting the rod before it gets to the joint being welded. If youve done everything right, you will have a weld thats even, slightly convex and solidly fused to both sides of the joint. When done welding, break the arc but keep the shielding gas flowing over the weld for about 10 seconds until the weld cools.

Safety Procedures for Welding

When welding there are many safety procedures to consider such as proper equipment which meets safety regulations, secure surroundings and an efficient environment which includes lighting, temperature and easily accessed equipment and materials. Following procedures can reduce injuries and even save lives.

Safety Equipment and Clothing

Safety equipment is a must when welding. You should have welding gloves that are dry and water resistant with no holes or tears, a welding helmet and either a heavy cotton shirt or a jacket specific to welding. Wear heavy boots and make sure you have no loose or long pieces of clothing. You should prepare a large and heavy surface to weld your material on. When working with extremely hot metal, the welding table should not be at risk to tip over.

Secure Your Surrounding

Make sure your surroundings are safe and secure. Remove flammable material from work space, such as an paper, clothing, combustible items and liquids and make sure wires and electrical circuits are all functioning and are not damaged. Wires need to be checked frequently for damage. Turn off and disconnect all equipment when not in use, out of service or damaged. Read all instructions and manuals before operating welding equipment. To keep from tripping or falling, make sure the work area is clutter free and prohibit horse-play. Make sure all people welding are trained and qualified for the job.

Ergonomics

Convenience in the welding workplace should be a priority. Ergonomics is the science of specific design for efficiency. Consider the materials the worker will need and place them to be conveniently reached without bending, reaching far or overhead, and without having to lift heavy weight. The lighting, temperature and noise levels should also meet the needs of the workers. Discuss with the workers their needs in the workplace and design the work area with the workers help.

4G Welding Certification
Welding certification requires a welding procedure or a qualification test. Certification is offered by a variety of different organizations and the requirements will vary by the certifying body.

Identification

Welding certifications are identified by the numeral and the letter. The numeral refers to the position; 4 indicates the overhead position. The letter will either be an F, for fillet groove, or G for a groove weld.

Considerations

For a person to pass a 4G welding certification test the sample must meet a visual inspection as well as an X-ray or bend test to check for significant welding defects.

Significance

To perform certain welding jobs requires certain welding certifications, specific to the type of material, and the position and type of pipe. A certified welder will have demonstrated the ability to perform that type of weld to a prescribed level of professionalism and will therefore have better job opportunities and advancement potential within a company.

6G Welding Certificate Requirements

Pipe welders can be certified in a number of different specific skills or with certain materials. Certification in 6G welding is considered to be advantageous to the welder's career, as it is one of the more widely sought and more difficult to obtain certifications.

Significance

A 6G certification is preferred if only one certification is sought. It means a welder is qualified to weld in all positions.

Considerations

A 6G certification test is not a universal test. The requirements for the test will vary among testing organizations. Prior to taking the test, you should find out the specifications of the test being taken.

Features

In 6G, welding can be done in overhead, flat, vertical and horizontal positions, while 6G pipe welding can be done in horizontal rolled, horizontal fixed, inclined and vertical positions. The 6G position combines all structural and pipe welding positions, and includes the full transition between them as well as a hard and easy side, depending on left- or right-handed test takers. Since it integrates all the positions and is a demanding test, those seeking certification should master basic skills before attempting the 6G.

AWS Procedures
American Welding Society or AWS sets guidelines and standard procedures for welding in the United States. AWS submits standards to the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) for adoption, making them standards for all industries. AWS welding standards require a written procedure of how the items will be welded and qualification of the procedure before welding begins. Welders must also be qualified before they are allowed to weld.

Welding Certifications and Qualifications

AWS QC1 is the standard procedure for certifying welding inspectors. AWS QC13-2006 is the Standard for AWS Certification of Welding Supervisors. AWS D10.9-69 is the standard qualification of welding procedures and welders for piping and tubing. ANSI/AWS C2.16A is the guide for thermal spray operator qualification. This standard provides procedures and the necessary documentation for both thermal spraying operator qualification and equipment qualification. AWS B3.0-41 is the standard qualification procedure for welding processes. This procedure can be used to qualify new welding procedures, such as with new materials or new equipment.

Metal Groupings

AWS standard B2.1 is the "Base Metal Grouping for Welding Procedure and Performance Qualification". This standard lists the different base metal groups, the identification of material number groupings. AWS welding procedures are recommended for each base metal as determined in these metal groupings.

Welding Procedures

AWS A5.16 is the standard procedure for welding titanium. AWS D1.2 is the standard procedure for welding aluminum. According to "Aluminum Structures" by J. Randolph Kissell and Robert Ferry, "aluminum and steel welding differ significantly in that AWS D1.2 does not allow prequalified joint details and welding procedures for aluminum." AWS D1.4 gives the recommended procedures for welding reinforced steel. AWS D9.1 lists standard procedures for welding sheet metal. AWS B2.2 is the standard for brazing procedures and performance qualifications.

Safety Procedures

AWS A6.1 gives the recommended safe practices for gas-shielded arc welding. ANSI/AWS Z49.1 is the standard for safety in welding, cutting and allied processes. ANSI/AWS F1.4-97 determines the methods for analyzing airborne particles created by welding. ANSI/AWS F2.3M gives the specifications for the proper use and required performance for welding curtains and screens.

Welding Design Guidelines

AWS D8.4-61 gives the recommended practices for automotive welding design. AWS D1.1 is the structural welding code. AWS D1.5 is the bridge welding code. AWS C3.3 gives recommended design and inspection guidelines for brazed components.

Welding Inspection Guidelines

AWS guidelines provide instructions on how to visually inspect welds. Certified welding inspectors are trained in how to follow AWS inspection procedures. AWS C3.8 gives the recommended practices of using ultrasound to inspect brazed joints. AWS B1.10 is the guide for nondestructive examination of welds.

Protective Coatings

The American Welding Society also gives standards and recommended procedures for spray-on coatings to protect metal from corrosion. ANSI/AWS C2.18 states AWS guidelines for protecting steel with thermal sprayed coatings. ANSI/AWS C2.23 gives recommendations on how to apply thermal sprayed coatings.