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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO WELDING
Welding is recognized all over the world, today, as a remarkably versatile means of metal fabrication. A large number of welding processes have come into industrial use in the last 30 years. Variations & extensions of these processes are being developed and put into practical use from time to time. Thus the metal joining technology is in a constant state of flux. The wide range & variety of these processes enable the modern engineer to join almost all commercial metal and alloys in many different shapes & sizes and in thicknesses ranging from a fraction of a millimeter to over 500mm. Modern industrial products such as automobiles, railway rolling stock, transmission pipelines, pressure vessels, storage tanks, power generation equipment, oil refineries etc. owe their development and efficient performance to welding. The technique of joining metal pieces by welding apparently originated more than 1500 years ago. Welding receive special impetus during world war 2, when the urgency of providing large fleets of ships, tanks, trucks and aircrafts at the short notice led to the large scale replacement of riveting by welding. Having briefly touched upon the history of welding let us, revert to the present day welding processes. These can be conveniently grouped under following main headings: Fusion welding Electric resistance welding Solid Phase welding

Plasma arc welding

FUSION WELDING PROCESSES

These processes involved fusion of the base metal to complete the weld. Fusion welds ordinarily do not require the application of pressure and they may be completed with or without addition of filler metal. Fusion weld made without the addition of filler metal is called autogenous weld. In most cases welding involves the use of filler metal.

METAL ARC WELDING


This is the group of processes in which the heat required for fusion is generated by the electric arc formed between a metal electrode and the base metal. The electrode is consumed in the arc and provides the filler metal for the joint. The electric arc is an ideal source of welding heat. The extremely high arc temperature of over 5000 C permits it to supply a large amount of heat to a small area. Hence the welding speed is very high. It is the manual process, and hence depends on the skill and experience of the welder. It makes use of flux coated electrode having a core of solid metallic wire (diameter 6.32 to 16mm, length 250 to 450mm). It needs a power source, either a transformer supplying AC or rectifier supplying DC. The process is suitable for the entire range of thickness and for almost all commercial metals and alloys. It can be used in all welding positions and it is well suited for site welding.

SUBMERGED ARC WELDING


This is mostly use as a fully automatic process and sometimes as a semi automatic process. The electrode is a continuous metallic wire (solid or flux cored) in the form of a spool or a coil. It is fed automatically into the arc at a const. speed. The arc is covered with a layer of dry granular flux which performs the same function as the coating of manual electrode. The power source can be a transformer (AC) or a rectifier (DC). It is generally of high capacity; say 750 or even up to 3000 amps.

In semiautomatic welding, operator guides the flexible welding head along the seam. In doing so he controls speed of travel & line of travel. In fully automatic version, the welding head is mounted on a trolley which travels along the joint. This process gives very high productivity & excellent weld quality. Generally applied on mild steel, high tensile steel, low alloy & stainless steels.

MIG WELDING
MIG welding is an abbreviation of metal inert gas welding. It is also known as GMAW which stands for gas metal arc welding. In this process coalescence is achieved by an arc formed between the work piece and a consumable solid wire electrode which is fed through a gun at controlled speeds. Inert argon gas flows through the gun & forms a blanket over the weld puddle to protect it from atmospheric contamination.

The power source is a rectifier or a DC generator. Reverse polarity is used, as it gives a better melting, deeper penetration and a better cleaning action. Three distinct techniques are possible in MIG welding, depending on electrode size, shielding gas & welding current.

SPRAY MODE OF METAL TRANSFER: This technique uses heavy wires, large currents & preferably argon- oxygen mixture. This gives high heat input, high deposition rate and deep penetration.

GLOBULAR MODE OF METAL TRANSFER: When current is low, metal transfer occurs in large globules. The result is poor arc stability, shallow penetration and excessive spatter.

SHORT CIRCUITING: This technique is most practical at current below 200amps. It permits welding thinner section with ease and is extremely practical for all welding positions.

MIG is versatile process, and is gradually replacing manual metal arc welding. Most metals like aluminum carbon steel, stainless steel, nickel can be welded.

GRAVITY WELDING
This is a semi automatic version of manual metal arc welding. The bare end of a specially designed heavy coated manual welding electrode is clamped in a holder which is fixed on one of the legs of tripod. When the arc is struck, the electrode begins to consume and the arc length is automatically maintained due to the sleeve formation at the burning end. At the same time, the holder slides down by gravity. The fillet size (throat thickness) ranges between 3.5 to 5.5mm. The length of the weld per electrode is in the range of 600 to 1000mm. This process is fairly popular in ship building and under water welding.

TIG WELDING
TIG is the abbreviation of tungsten inert gas. This process is also termed as gas tungsten arc welding GTAW. In this process an arc is struck between a non consumable tungsten electrode and the base metal. The arc is shielded by inert argon or helium or argonhelium mixture. A filler wire may or may not be used. The welder also has to control the arc length and arc travel speed. An AC power source is used for welding aluminum and its alloys, while a DC source is used for all other metals. This is an ideal process for welding non ferrous metal and stainless steel in limited thickness.

GAS WELDING
In this process, the melting of the base metal is achieved by means of gas flame which derives its intense heat from the combustion of fuel with oxygen. The most commonly used fuel is acetylene, though mapp gas and hydrogen are sometimes used. So it is sometimes called oxyfuel or oxyacetylene welding. The oxyacetylene process depends on the chemical reaction which occurs in two stages.

Gas welding has limited application for industrial production purposes because it is much slower than arc welding processes.

ELECTRON BEAM WELDING


In this process fusion is achieved by focusing high power density beam of electron on the area to be joined. Upon striking the metal the KE of the high velocity electron changes to thermal energy causing the metal to melt and fuse. The electrons are emitted from a tungsten filament heated to approximately 2000 C. The unit as well as focusing devices and work piece is placed in vacuum. The major advantages of electron beam welding are:

Its ability to produce deeper and narrower weld with total heat input much lower than in arc welding.

Good control over weld penetration and weld dimension. High purity weld free from oxides and nitrides. Very high welding speed and production rate.

Electron beam welding can join materials ranging from thin foils to sheets of 50mm thickness. It is particularly suited for welding of refractory metal such as tungsten, molybdenum, tantalum and metals which oxidize such as titanium, beryllium and zirconium. An electron beam welder is very expensive but its use is justified for critical application like metal cuttings saws, aircraft engine etc.

LASER WELDING
In this process fusion is achieved by directing a highly concentrated beam to a spot about the diameter of human hair. A laser beam has high energy concentration than even electron beam. Since the heat input to the work piece is extremely small, the size of the heat affected zone (HAZ) and the thermal damage to adjacent part is negligible Laser welding can be used to join dissimilar metals and other difficult to weld metals like copper, nickel, tungsten and columbium. Laser welding is largely used in aerospace and electronic industries. Its major limitations are shallow penetration.

ELECTRIC RESISTANCE WELDING PROCESS


In these processes, the coalescence is achieved by passing electric current through the metallic part by inserting them into a circuit. The electric resistance produces heat at the junction of parts.

SPOT WELDING
In this process, a spot of weld is made between overlapping sheets by means of two cylindrical copper alloy electrodes one on top and other at bottom, which carry a high current. The electrodes also clamp the work and applying pressure when the metal at the joint gets sufficiently heated by electrical resistance.

A tiny button of fused metal results at the sheet interface which is called nugget. The process is used on a large scale in automotive production, and in sheet metal fabrication.

STITCH WELDING

This is an extension of spot welding, in which a series of overlapping spot welds are made in the same manner as stitching clothes. Stitch welding can be performed with a normal spot welding machine or a specially designed one.

SEAM WELDING
Seam welding is similar to the spot welding, except that the copper alloy electrodes are in form of circular rollers. The overlapping sheets are held under a const pressure between the roller electrodes, which rotate at constant speed and carry current.

A common application of seam welding is in the manufacture of steel drums.

SOLID PHASE WELDING


In these processes coalescence is produced essentially below the melting point of the base metals being joined, without the addition of filler metal. In some of them pressure is used. Various solid phases welding are as follows: Forge welding Gas pressure welding Ultrasonic welding

FORGE WELDING
This is the age old process used by blacksmith. It consists of heating the surfaces to be joined, placing these surfaces in contact, and hammering them together to form a weld. The surfaces are heated below the melting point, so that they are in plastic state. The welding can be done also by using dies and rollers.

In die welding, the parts heated in the furnace and the pressure is applied by means of dies. The also form the work while it is hot.

In roll welding the pressure on heated parts is applied by means of rollers. Roll welding is mainly used for the manufacture of clad steel plates and sheets.

GAS PRESSURE WELDING


This is another modern adaptation of forge welding, in which the joint, held in compression, is locally heated by oxy-acetylene flames to a temperature below the melting point. When the joint is held for a sufficient length of time under pressure, welding takes place. This welding has been successfully adapted for the welding of rail ends.

ULTRASONIC WELDING

It is a solid state process for joining similar or dissimilar metals by application of a high frequency vibratory energy to work pieces held together under moderate static pressure. The process has proved to be economical as it welds fast, uses less power, and usually requires lower capital investment.

The vibrations break up and disperse oxides, surface films and some types of insulations at the joint surface to permit bare metal contact. Inter atomic diffusion occurs across the facing surfaces and results in a metallurgical bond without the application of heat. The joint so produced possess electrical resistance and mechanical strength similar to parent metal.

The equipment consists of a frequency converter which changes 60 cycle power to the high frequency (15 to 60 KHz) required by the ultrasonic head. The head incorporates the piezoelectric transducer, which converts the high frequency electrical output into vibratory mechanical motion. The process has been successfully used in electrical equipment production.

PLASMA PROCESSES
Plasma is considered the fourth state of matter, the other three being solid, liquid and gas. Plasma is a superheated gas which has dissociated into positive ions, neutral atoms and negative electrons. Plasma is formed when an electrical discharge takes place in a gas, and also in an electric arc. In normal arc welding process plasma is easily blown away by moving gas streams. But in plasma processes, the plasma is contained and used effectively.

The plasma arc is of two types: Transferred and Non Transferred arc. In the former, the arc is formed between the electrode and the work piece, in the latter; the arc is formed between the electrode and the constricting orifice inside the torch.

PLASMA WELDING
Plasma welding is an extension of TIG welding. The main difference as explained above is the constriction of arc column, resulting in much higher heat transfer rate. The torch is further modified to provide an outer sheath of cool gas around the central plasma core. Plasma welding makes use of keyhole technique. When the plasma jet strikes the metal it cuts or keyholes entirely through the work piece producing a small hole, which is carried along the weld seam. During this cutting action the molten metal in front of arc flows around the arc column, then gets drawn together immediately behind the hole by surface tension forces and reforms as weld bead. The process can weld carbon steels, stainless steels, copper, brass, aluminium etc.

PLASMA MIG WELDING


This is an extension of plasma arc welding in which the non consumable tungsten electrode is replaced by a consumable continuously fed metallic electrode.

CHAPTER 3
CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRODES

E6010 High Cellulose Sodium


E6010 electrodes are characterized by a deeply penetrating, forceful, spray type arc and readily removable, thin friable slag, which may not seem to completely cover the deposit. Fillet welds are usually relatively flat in profile and have a rather coarse, unevenly spaced ripple. The coverings are high in cellulose usually exceeding 30% by weight. The other materials used in covering are titanium dioxide, metallic deoxidizers such as ferromanganese, types of aluminium silicates etc. these electrodes are recommended for all position work, particularly on multiple pass applications in vertical and overhead positions and where welds of radiographic soundness are required. These electrodes work with DC current, reverse polarity.

E6011 High cellulose Potassium


E6011 electrodes are designed to duplicate the usability characteristics and mechanical properties of E6010 classification, using AC. Although also usable with Dc, reverse polarity a slight decrease in penetration will be noted when compared to the E6010 electrodes. Penetration, arc action, slag and fillet weld appearance are similar to those of E6010. The coverings are also high in cellulose and are designed as high cellulose potassium type. Small quantities of calcium and potassium compounds are usually present. High amperage results in spatter loss.

E6012 High Titania Sodium


E6012 electrodes are characterized by medium penetration and dense slag which completely covers the bead. The coverings are high in rutile, usually exceeding 35% by weight. The coverings generally contain small quantities if cellulose and ferromanganese along with sodium silicate and certain calcium compounds as binder. Generally used with DC, straight polarity. Fillet welds tend to convex in profile with a smooth, even ripple in horizontal position and a widely spaced ripple in vertical position. Their ease of handling, good fillet weld profile and bridge gaps under condition of poor fit up and to withstand high amperages make them well suited to this type of work.

E6013 High Titania Potassium


E6013 electrodes, although very similar to the E6012 electrodes, have distinct differences. Their slag system promotes better slag removal and a smoother arc transfer than E69012 electrodes. E6013 electrodes were specially designed for light sheet metal work. However large diameters are used on many of the same applications as E6012 electrodes and provide similar penetration. Coverings of E6013 electrodes contain rutile, cellulose, ferromanganese, potassium silicate as a binder, and other silicious materials. The potassium compounds allow the electrodes to operate with AC at low amperage and low open circuit voltages. These are all position electrodes and are similar to the E6012 electrodes in operating characteristics and bead appearance. In addition the weld metal is definitely freer of slag and oxide inclusions than E6012 weld metal and gives better radiographic soundness.

E7014 Iron Powder Titania


E7014 electrode coverings are similar to those of E6012 and e6013 electrodes, but with the addition of iron powder for obtaining higher deposition rates. The covering thickness and the amount of iron powder on it are less than for E7024 electrodes. The iron powder also permits the use of higher amperages than are used for E6012 and E6013 electrodes. The amount and character of the slag permit these electrodes to be used in all positions. Typical weld beads are smooth with fine ripples. Penetration is approximately the same as with E6012 electrodes. The profile of fillet welds tends to be flat to slightly convex. The slag is easily removed and in many cases it removes itself.

E7015 Low Hydrogen Sodium


E7015 electrodes are used with DC, reverse polarity. There slag is chemically basic. E7015 electrodes are commonly used for making small welds on heavy sections, since they are less susceptible to cracking. They are also used for welding high sulphur and enameling steel. The arc of these electrodes is moderately penetrating. The slag is heavy, friable and easy to remove. The weld beads are convex although fillet welds may be flat. These electrodes are used in all positions up to 4mm size. Amperages for E7015 electrodes are higher than those used with E6010 electrodes of the same diameter. The shortest possible are should be maintained for best results. This reduces the risk of porosity. The necessity for pre heat is reduced therefore, better welding conditions are provided.

E7016 Low Hydrogen Potassium


These electrodes have all the characteristics of E7015 electrodes plus the ability to operate on AC. The core wire and coverings are similar to those of E7015, except for the use of a potassium silicate binder or other potassium salts in the coverings to facilitate their use with AC. Most of heating operating characteristics of E7015 electrodes apply equally well to the E7016 electrodes.

E7018 Low Hydrogen Potassium, Iron powder


E7018 electrodes coverings are similar to E7015 coverings except for the addition of a high percentage of iron powder. The coverings on these electrodes are slightly thicker than those of E7015 and E7016 electrodes. The iron powder in the coverings usually amounts to between 25 and 40%. These electrodes can be used with either AC or DC, reverse polarity. They are designed for the same application as the E7015 electrodes. These electrodes are used for dissimilar joints involving high strength. The fillet welds in horizontal and flat positions are slightly convex, with smooth rippled surface. These electrodes have smooth, quite arc, very low spatter adequate penetration and high travel speed. They are intended for use in situations requiring a lower transition temperature.

E7048 Low Hydrogen Potassium, Iron powder


Electrodes of the E7048 have same usability, composition and design characteristics as E7018 electrodes, except that E7048 electrodes are specifically designed for exceptionally good vertical down welding.

E6020 E6022 High Iron Oxide


E6020 electrodes have high iron oxide coverings. They produce flat or slightly horizontal fillet welds with either Ac or DC, straight polarity. Medium penetration will be obtained with normal amperages. However, at high amperages these electrodes will penetrate deeply. E6020 electrodes are considered best for deep penetration weld. These electrodes contained manganese compound and silica in their coverings, along with large amount of iron oxide. Fillet welds tends to have flat or concave profile and a smooth or even ripple. These electrodes are recommended for horizontal fillet and flat welds where radiographic soundness is important. These electrodes are not usually used on thin sections because of the higher amperages. Electrodes of E6022 classification are recommended for single pass, high speed, high current flat and horizontal lap and fillet welds in sheet metals. The weld beads profile tends to be more convex and uniform.

E7024 Iron Powder, Titania


E7024 electrodes coverings contain large amount of iron powder in combination with ingredients similar to those used in E6012 and E6013 electrodes. The coverings of these electrodes are very heavy and usually amount to 50% of weight of the electrodes. These electrodes are well suited for making fillet weld. The welds are slightly convex to flat in profile, with smooth surface and fine ripple. These electrodes have smooth quite arc, very low spatter and low penetration. They can be used with AC or DC, either polarity, and high travel speed.

E6027 High Iron Oxide, Iron Powder


These electrodes coverings contain large amount of irons powder in combination with ingredients similar to those in E6020 electrodes. The coverings on E6027 electrodes are also very heavy. E6027 electrodes are designed for fillet and groove welds in flat positions with AC or DC, either polarity and will produce flat or slightly concave horizontal fillets with either AC or DC, straight polarity. These have a spray type arc. They operate at high travel speeds. Penetration is medium and spatter loss is very low. They produce a heavy slag which is friable and easy to remove. Welds produce have a flat to slightly concave profile with the smooth, fine ripple and good wash up the sides of the joints. High amperages can be used since a considerable portion of the electrical energy passing through the electrodes used to melt the coverings and the iron powder contain. These electrodes are well suited for fairly heavy sections.

E7027 - High iron Oxide, Iron powder


E7027 electrodes have the same usability and design characteristics as E6027 electrodes except that they are intended for use in situations requiring slightly higher tensile and yield strengths than are obtained with E6027 electrodes. In other respects, all operating characteristics of the E6027 electrodes also apply to E7027 electrodes.

E7028 Low Hydrogen Potassium, Iron Powder


E7028 electrodes are very much alike the E7018 electrodes. They differ as follows; the slag system is similar to that of E7016 electrodes. E7028 electrodes are suitable for horizontal fillet and flat welding only, where as e7018 electrodes are suitable for all positions. E7028 electrode coverings are much thicker. The iron content of these electrodes is also higher. Consequently on horizontal fillet and flat positions welds, E7028 welds give higher deposition rate than the E7018 electrodes for any given size of electrode.

CHAPTER 4
WELDING DEFECTS
In welding the main objective is to obtain sound, defect free welded joints, but this is not always easy to maintain. It has to be admitted perfect welds are rarely obtained. Such small imperfections, which cause some variation in the normal average properties of the weld metal, are called discontinuities. When a discontinuity is large enough to affect the function of the joint, it is termed a defect. Defects are caused by substandard welding consumables, faulty welding procedures, inefficient workmanship, lack of cleanliness etc.

The following paragraphs describe typical defects which can occur in arc welds.

INCOMPLETE PENETRATION
This defect occurs at the root of the joint when the weld metal fails to fuse completely with the root faces of the joint. As a result, a void remains at the root zone, which may contain lag inclusions. In a fillet weld, poor penetration at the root zone can give rise to cracking. Incomplete penetration is caused by incorrect size of electrode in relation to the form of the joint, low welding current or inaccurate joint preparation and fit up. It occurs more often in vertical and overhead positions. Rectification of this defect is a very costly proposition, because it requires removal of the entire thickness of the weld and rewelding. Care must be taken that after

removing the defective metal, sufficiently wide groove remains, in which the electrode can be correctly manipulated.

LACK OF FUSION
Lack of fusion is defined as a condition where boundaries of unfused metal exist between the weld metal and base metal or between adjacent layers of weld metal. This defect is caused by the presence of scale, dirt, oxide, slag & other non metallic substances, which prevent the underlying metal from reaching the melting temperatures. It is also caused by improper deslagging of a weld pass, before an adjacent or overlapping pass is deposited. When individual passes are badly placed or their surfaces are rough, thorough deslagging becomes difficult. In such cases, the weld should be chipped before next pass. To prevent the occurrence of this defect, following steps should be taken: Keep joint surfaces clean. Use adequate welding current.

Deslag each weld pass thoroughly.

Place weld passes correctly next to each other.

UNDERCUT
This defect occurs as a continuous groove at the toes of a weld pass and is located on the base metal or in the fusion face of a multipass weld. It occurs prominently on the edge of a fillet weld deposited in the horizontal position. It is usually caused by excessive welding current. It may also result from too high a speed of arc travel, wrong electrode angle or excessive side manipulation. In case of static load, the presence of small and intermittent undercutting can be neglected but not in the case where structure is dynamically loaded.

The defect is rectified by filling up the undercut groove with a weld pass. If undercut is deep and contains slag, it should be chipped away before rewelding.

SLAG INCLUSION
Non metallic of comparatively large size entrapped in the weld metal are termed as slag inclusion. The term should not be confused with non metallic inclusion. Slag inclusions are detected by the normal non destructive testing methods, while non metallic inclusions are observed in the weld microstructure at high magnification. Slag inclusions usually occur in multi pass welds due to imperfect cleaning of the slag between the depositions of the successive passes. It may also be caused by heavy mill scale, loose rust, grit and other substances present on the surface of the base metal. The strength of the welded joint may be reduced if large irregular inclusions or elongated lies of inclusions are present at the weld junction. To prevent the slag inclusion, take following steps: Use proper welding consumables. Avoid undercuts and gaps between deposited passes. Clean the slag thoroughly between weld passes.

To prevent this defect, the portions of weld metal which contain slag inclusions must be removed and then filled with sound weld metal.

POROSITY
The presence of a group of gas pores in a weld caused by the entrapment of gas during solidification is termed as porosity. The pores are in the form of small spherical cavities, either clustered locally or scattered throughout the weld deposit. Some times these cavities are termed as blowhole. The gases are evolved by the chemical reactions in the welding arc, which may have high solubility in the molten weld metal, but as the weld metal solidifies and cools, their solubility decreases rapidly and they are evolved from the metal. Sometimes if the weld metal solidification and cooling is too rapid, the gas gets entrapped in the form of porosity. Porosity is caused by: Chemically imperfect welding consumables, e.g. deficient in deoxidizers. Oil, grease, moisture and mill scale on the joint surface. Low welding current or too long an arc. Quick freezing of the weld deposit. Presence of excessive porosity or blowholes must be guarded as they can affect the static and even dynamic properties of welded joint.

FAULTY WELD SIZE AND PROFILE


A weld which is otherwise correctly deposited and formed is termed faulty when it is different in shape and size from that specified. A butt weld is considered faulty if it has lack of reinforcement or irregular profile. When the face of a weld lies below the parent plate surface, the weld is said to have lack of reinforcement. On the other hand when the weld metal is deposited in excess of reinforcement required, the weld is said having excessive reinforcement. All these faults arise from the use of an incorrect welding procedure and will not occur if the following factors are correctly specified and followed: Joint preparation and fit up. Electrode size and welding current. Number and location of runs. Welding speed or length of run per electrode. Both lack of reinforcement and excessive reinforcement will reduce fatigue strength. Lack of reinforcement in butt welds may also prevent the joint from developing the full strength of the parent plate under static loading.

SPATTER
During the deposition of a weld, small globules of metal from the electrode may be scattered over the surface of the weld and adjacent parent metal, and in most cases these globules adhere strongly to the surface on which they rest. They are termed as spatter. The main objection to excessive spatter is the waste of expensive weld metal and the cost of removal. Spatter is mainly caused by excessive welding current, although in some cases the welding characteristics of the electrode or dampness of the electrode covering may give rise to this condition. Arc blow also causes heavy spatter. Spatter has no measurable effect on the strength of a welded joint. The fault may be rectified by chipping and wire brushing the spatter deposit from the surface of the plate.

TUNGSTEN INCLUSIONS
In manual TIG welding, the occasional and accidental touching of the tungsten electrode to the work piece or to the molten weld metal results in the transfer of tungsten particles into the deposit. These tungsten inclusions constitute a defect, and for critical work a limit on the size and number of these inclusions is specified.

Generally they are beneath the weld surface and can be detected during radioactive inspection as the inclusions whiter and clearer on the film in contrast to slag inclusions or porosity. This defect can be minimized by using thoriated tungsten or zirconiated tungsten electrodes in preference to pure tungsten electrodes. The use of superimposed high frequency current for arc starting can eliminate tungsten inclusions at the start of the weld.

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