HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT FACTORS OF DEVELOPMENT Heredity - the transmission of traits from parents to offspring through the

e genes Environment An individual at any given stage of development is the product of interaction between heredity and environment. Transcendence Traits Most Influenced by Heredity: physical features body built, eye color, hair texture and color predisposition to certain diseases intelligence sensory acuity mental disorders other fundamental abilities and capacities Parenting A Two-Dimensional Framework for Parenting Styles adapted from the work of Slater (1962)/ Diana Baumrind Restrictive Demanding Authoritarian Abusive Warm Democratic Indulgent Permissive Protective Nonconformist Authoritative Cold ALFRED ADLER Striving for perfection motivating force Inferiority complex overwhelmed by the forces of inferiority Superiority complex covering up your inferiority Striving for superiority the will to power the basic motive of human life Striving through social interest social concern (both inborn and unlearned) Three Basic Childhood Situations that Most Contribute to a Faulty Lifestyle: organ inferiorities as well as early childhood diseases -> overburdened - remain focused on themselves - inferiority -> superiority complex - encouragement of loved one pampering children are taught, by the actions of others that they can take without giving fails in two ways: a. doesnt learn to do for himself and discovers later that he is truly inferior b. doesnt learn any other way to deal with others than the giving of commands societys response hatred neglect/ abuse -> inferiority because they are told and shown that they are of no value -> selfishness because they are taught to trust no one Permissive Indifferent Neglectful

Birth order heuristic only child lives in a world of adults - more likely than others to be pampered first child begins life as an only child - second child dethrones the first - may battle for lost position or act like a baby second child has the first child as sort of pace-setter - tends to be quite competitive or submissive middle child most discouraged, what number 1 isnt youngest child most pampered in a family with more than one child - may feel incredible inferiority with everyone older and superior Functions and Characteristics of Healthy Families (Callaghan, 1987) clearly identified hierarchy well-defined parental roles flexibility and adaptability consistent, clear rules and expectations consistent affection consistent limit-setting bi-directional, open-communication increased degree of support nurturance and acceptance of family members Characteristics of Dysfunctional Families (Minuchian, 1978) rigidity lack of individuation extreme detachment scape-goating triangulation faulty-problem-solving skills conflict avoidance inconsistent application of affection/ discipline low levels of support/ nurturance/ acceptance increased degree of expressed hostility towards each other Categories of Family Dysfunction (Johnson, K., 1989) inadequate families: lack physical or psychological resources for coping with normal stressors anti-social families: values encourage dishonesty or deceit discordant and disturbed families: have poor interpersonal contracts and disturbance disrupted families: inadequate adjustment to loss by death, divorce, or separation patterns of parental influence in children showing emotional disturbance: o rejection o overprotection o unrealistic demands o overpermissiveness o faulty discipline o inadequate and irrational communication o undesirable parental modeling o materialism o quantity time without quality or no time at all

THEORIES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT MATURATIONAL MODEL ARNOLD GESELL (1880-1961) - was the best-known Baby doctor in the early 1940s, until Spock (partly influenced by Gesell) published his famous book in 1945 the environment may temporarily affect the rate at which a child develops, but individual biological factors ultimately control development Basic Principles of Development 1. Principle of Developmental Direction development is not random; it proceeds in an ordered fashion. a. cephalocaudal (or head-to-tail) trend b. proximo-distal (or near-to-far) trend 2. Principle of Reciprocal Interweaving - the development process by which two tendencies gradually reach an effective organization Example: in the development of handedness, includes visual behavior, crawling, and walking Personality integrating introverted and extroverted tendencies - cycle begins in infancy and continue at least until age 16 - the organism temporarily loses its equilibrium as it expands into new inner and outer realms, but it organizes 3. Principle of Functional Asymmetry behaviors go through periods of asymmetric (unbalanced) development that allow the organism to achieve a measure of maturity at later stages - seen in tonic neck reflex (dominant during the first three months after birth), a reflex which Gesell discovered in humans 4. Principle of Individuating Maturation maturation is a process controlled by endogenous or internal factors; it cannot be influenced on a basic level by exogenous or external factors 5. Principle of Self-Regulatory Fluctuation every stage of disequilibrium or imbalance in development is followed by a stage of equilibrium - organism can regulate its own development - babies an regulate their cycles of feeding, sleep, and wakefulness - to preserve integrity and balance Importance of Individual Differences 1. motor behavior (locomotion, coordination, specific motor skills) 2. adaptive behavior (alertness, intelligence, different forms of exploration) 3. language behavior (all forms of communication) 4. personal-social behavior (reactions to persons and to the environment) Co-Twin Control Research Method - early training, before a child is physically mature enough to make significant gains in given behaviors, is of little consequence to the ultimate outcome Skeels and Dye - sleeper effects (effects that show up much later in an individuals life) - too many elements of the research were not well controlled Applications of Gesells Theory of Human Development 1. Children who are not learning are simply not ready to learn. Attempts to intervene before the child is ready will be fruitless and frustrating and can create disharmony among parent, teacher, and child. 2. Ames and Ilg a childs school readiness is best indicated by the childs developmental or behavioral age rather than chronological age alone

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT gradual, orderly changes by which mental processes become more complex and sophisticated JEAN PIAGET Play is childs work schema the primary unit of mental organization and the structure through which a person adapts to the environment o reflexes schemes oparating at birth o quickly replaced with constructed schemes through the processes of organization and adaptation adaptation the individuals adjustment to the environment, takes place simultaneously with organization intelligence how an organism adapts to its environment two processes used by the individual in its attempt to adapt o assimilation the individual incorporates new experiences into already existing schemata, or structures o accommodation modifying existing schemata to satisfy the requirements of new experiences JEAN PIAGET JEROME BRUNER LEV SEMYONOVITCH Stages of Cognitive VYGOTSKY (1896-1934) 1. sensorimotor stage 1. enactive stage dominant (infancy birth to 2 years) during infancy motor activity motor responses object permanence 2. pre-operational stage 2. iconic stage 2-3 years 1. social speech (or external (toddler and early childhood old speech) 3 years old 2 to 7 years) visual images use of symbols egocentrism 3. concrete operational 3. symbolic stage 7 years 2. egocentric speech 3-7 stage (elementary and old years old early adolescence 7 to 11 abstract reasoning private speech years) 7 types of conservation: number, length, liquid, mass, weight area, volume, and reversibility decentration 4. formal operational stage 3. inner speech older (adolescence and children and adults adulthood 11 years to logical memory adulthood) abstract Constructivism Discovery learning Scaffolding The Importance of Social Interaction actual development level all functions and activities that a child can perform on his own, independently without the help of anyone else zone of proximal development (zpd) level of development immediate above a persons present level

Dilemma: Dr. Johnson makes decisions about which patients have access to a kidney machine. Patients who do not get access will die. There are far more people who need the machine than can be accommodated by it, so there is a waiting list for those not yet on it. Dr. Johnson's young daughter is injured in a car accident and has kidney damage. She needs access to the machine to live. Should Dr. Johnson take another patient off the machine to put his daughter on? Why or why not? MORAL DEVELOPMENT Lawrence Carol Gilligans Robert Selmans Eisenbergs Martin Hoffmans Kohlbergs Stages Stages of Ethic of Levels of Levels of Development of of Moral Care Perspective Prosocial Empathy Reasoning Taking * Behavior * Level One: Preconventional Morality (7-10 years old) Stage 1: PunishmentObedience Orientation Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation Level 1: Preconventional goal is individual survival * transition is from selfishness to responsibility to others Level 0: Egocentric perspective taking (most pre-school and a few early elementary students) Level 1: Subjective perspective taking (most early and middle elementary students) Level 1: Selfish and self-centered orientation (most preschool and many early elementary students) Level 2: Superficial needs of others orientation (some preschool and many elementary school students) Level 3: Approval and stereotypic good boy/ girl orientation (some elementary and secondary school students) Level 4: Empathic orientation (a few elementary and many secondary students) 3. Empathy for anothers feelings 1. Global empathy 2. Egocentric empathy

Level Two: Conventional Morality (10-13 years old) Stage 3: Good Boy- Nice Girl Orientation Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation

Level 2: Conventional or social selfsacrifice is goodness * transition is from goodness to truth that she is a person too

Level 2: Secondperson, reciprocal perspective taking (many upper elementary school students)

Level 3: Thirdperson, mutual perspective taking (many middle school and junior high school students) Level 3: Postconventional or principled principle of nonviolence; do not hurt others or self Level 4: Societal, symbolic perspective taking (some junior high and many high school students) act as they do.

Level 3: Postconventional Morality Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle Orientation

Level 5: Internalized values orientation (a few high school students)

4. Empathy for anothers life conditions

Hoffmans Theory of Discipline Three Categories of Discipline Techniques 1. power assertion 2. love withdrawal 3. induction The Development of Perspective Taking and Prosocial Behavior Selmans Levels of Perspective Taking * Eisenbergs Levels of Prosocial Behavior * Level 0: Egocentric perspective taking Level 1: Selfish and self-centered orientation (most pre-school and a few early elementary students) (most preschool and many early elementary students) Students are incapable of taking anybody elses Students show little interest in helping others apart from perspective. They dont realize that others have thoughts serving their own interests. They exhibit prosocial and feelings different from their own. behavior primarily to benefit themselves Level 1: Subjective perspective taking Level 2: Superficial needs of others orientation (most early and middle elementary students) (some preschool and many elementary school students) Students realize that others have thoughts and feelings Students show some concern for anothers physical and different from their own but perceive these in a simplistic, emotional needs, but their concern is simplistic and lacks one-dimensional fashion. true understanding of the others situation. Level 2: Second-person, reciprocal perspective Level 3: Approval and stereotypic good boy/ girl taking orientation (many upper elementary school students) (some elementary and secondary school students) Students realize that others may have mixed and possibly Students advocate prosocial behavior on the grounds that contradictory feelings about a situation. They also its the right thing to do and that they will be liked or understand that people may feel differently from what appreciated if they help. They hold stereotypical views of their behaviors indicate and that they sometimes do what good boys and girls and bad boys and girls do. things they didnt intend to do. Level 3: Third-person, mutual perspective taking Level 4: Empathic orientation (many middle school and junior high school students) (a few elementary and many secondary students) Students not only see things from their own and anothers Students have true empathy for anothers situation and a perspective but also can take an outside perspective of desire to help a person in need. They seem genuinely the two-person relationship. They appreciate the need to concerned with the well-being of others. satisfy both oneself and another simultaneously and therefore understand the advantages of cooperation, compromise, and trust Level 4: Societal, symbolic perspective taking Level 5: Internalized values orientation (some junior high and many high school students) (a few high school students) Students recognize that people are a product of their Students have internalized values about helping other environment that past events and present people values that reflect a belief in the dignity, rights, circumstances contribute to personality and behavior. and equality of all human beings. They express a strong They begin to develop an understanding of the desire to help others in need and to improve the unconscious the idea that people are not always aware conditions of society as a whole. of why they act as they do.

Erik Erikson's 8 Stages of Psychosocial/ SocioEmotional Development

Maladaptation Psychosocial Psychosocial s& modalities virtues malignancies sensory I oral sensory trust vs to get, to give mother Feeding hope, faith distortion (0-1) -- infant mistrust in return withdrawal Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust. II muscular autonomy vs to hold on, to will, impulsivity -anal (2-3) -shame and parents Toilet training let go determination compulsion toddler doubt Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Success leads to feelings of autonomy, failure results in feelings of shame and doubt. III genital locomotor or initiative vs Exploration/ to go after, to purpose, ruthlessness -family play age (3-6) guilt Independence play courage inhibition -- preschooler Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt. IV latency (7to complete, narrow 12 or so) -industry vs neighborhood School to make things competence virtuosity -school-age inferiority and school together inertia child Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority. V (12-18 or to be oneself, ego-identity vs peer groups, Peer/ Social fanaticism -so) -to share fidelity, loyalty role-confusion role models relationships repudiation adolescence oneself Teens need to develop a sense of self in relationship to others and to own internal thoughts and desires (Later work has shown two substages: a social identity focusing on which group a person will identify with and a personal identity focusing on abilities, goals, possibilities, etc.) The teenager must achieve a sense of identity in occupation, sexroles, politics, and religion. To lose and VI (the 20s) -- intimacy vs partners, Love find oneself in promiscuity -love young adult isolation friends relationships a exclusivity another Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. generativity vs VII (40s to selfhousehold, Work and To make be, overextension 65s) -- middle care absorption/ workmates Parenthood to take care of -- rejectivity adult stagnation Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world. VIII maturity Reflection on To be, through (65s and Ego integrity mankind or and having been, presumption -wisdom beyond) -- old vs despair my kind acceptance of to face not despair adult one's life being Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair. Chart adapted from Erikson's 1959 Identity and the Life Cycle (Psychological Issues vol 1, #1) Stage (age) Psychosocial Significant crisis relations Important event

PSYCHOSOCIAL MATURITY Some years ago Ellen Greenberger and A. Sorenson published a paper (Greenberger, E. & Sorenson, A.N. 1974. Toward a concept of psychosocial maturity. Journal of youth and adolescence, 3, 329-558) on the concept of psychosocial maturity Three Areas of Psychosocial Maturity 1. Individual Adequacy a. Self-reliance i. absence of excessive need for social validation ii. sense of control iii. initiative b. Identity i. clarity of self-concept ii. consideration of life goals iii. self-esteem iv. internalized values c. Work orientation i. standards of competence ii. pleasure in work iii. general work skills 2. Interpersonal Adequacy a. Communication skills i. ability to encode messages ii. ability to decode messages iii. empathy b. Enlightened trust i. rational dependence ii. rejection of simplistic view of human nature iii. awareness of constraints on trustworthiness c. Knowledge of major roles i. role-appropriate behavior ii. management of role conflict 3. Social Adequacy a. Social Commitment i. feelings of community ii. willingness to work for social goals iii. readiness to form alliances iv. interest in long-term social goals b. Openness to sociopolitical change i. general openness to change ii. recognition of costs of status quo iii. recognition of costs of change c. Tolerance of individual and cultural differences i. willingness to interact with people who differ from the norm ii. sensitivity to the rights of people who differ from the norm iii. awareness of costs and benefits of tolerance

SIGMUND FREUD The stages Sex drive - the most motivating force - the primary motivating force not only for adults but for children and even infants STAGE AGE FOCUS OF FAVORITE ACTIVITIES DIFFICULT PLEASURE STAGE 1. Oral Birth to Mouth Sucking and biting Weaning about Nursing - eating, as well insufficient and 18 as mouth movement, forceful feeding months including sucking, can result in gumming, biting and fixation in this swallowing. stage. 2. anal 18 months to 3 or 4 years old 3 or 4 to 5, 6, or 7 yrs old 5, 6, or 7 to puberty (12 yrs old) puberty Anus Holding it in and letting it go Potty training

FIXATION Oral-passive Oralaggressive

Anal expulsive/ aggressive Anal retentive Poor self worth Effeminism Vanity, selfcenteredness

3. phallic 4. latent

genitalia

Masturbation

Oedipal crisis Oedipus complex Electra complex

Sexual impulse is suppressed in the service of learning

5. genital

genitalia

Sexual intercourse

Difficulties at this stage are due to damages was done in earlier oral, anal, and phallic stages.

Dabrowskis Types of OE 1. psychomotor an excess of energy manifesting in rapid talk, restlessness, preference for violent games, sports, pressure for action, or delinquent behavior 2. sensual a heightened ability to experience sensory pleasure manifesting in an increased need to touch and be touched, hugged, kissed; early signs of sexual interest and development; interest in food and food preparation; aesthetic interests; drama; need for comfort and luxury; need for attention and company; dislike of loneliness 3. imaginational internal, image-base information processing with a relative exclusion of sensual, affective, and psychomotor spheres - association of images and impressions, inventiveness, use of image and metaphor in verbal expression, strong and sharp visualization 4. intellectual processing information and decision making are localized in the cognitive sphere; manifested as a drive to ask probing questions, quest for knowledge, theoretical thinking, reverence for logic, preoccupation with theoretical problems, etc.; most frequently associated with exceptional abilities children 5. emotional a function of experiencing emotional relationships; manifests strong attachment to persons, living things, or places; inhibition (timidity and shyness), excitation (enthusiasm), strong affective memory, concern with death, fears, anxieties, depressions, feelings of loneliness, need for security, concern for others, exclusive relationships, difficulties of adjustment in new environments