HYDROLOGICAL PROCESSES

Hvdro/. Process. 16. 2781-2790 (2002)

Published online 2I May 2002 in Wiley InterSciencc (ww\V .interscience. wiley.com I. 001: IO.1002Ibyp. 1070
Hydrology of stockpiled industrial coal exposed to rainfall
K. J. Curran, I I. G. Dropp02* and K. N. Irvine'
; Dt"jJllrlmellll!f Geogmphr. lv/eMa.ller Ullil'ersitl, HOll1iIWIl, Oil/a rio, Call1lt/a, LHS -IK I
2 NaliO/wl Wain Re,lettrch lIlSlif/lle. Elll'irolllllelll COllaria, P.O. Box 5050, BllrlillglOll. O,l/II rio, COllado, L7R 4AfJ
, De{JarlllJeIIi (If Geogmphr alld Plallllillg, College (1/ Buttilio, 1300 EiIlBl'(!od Aw.. Bllfla/o, NY 14222, USA
Abstract:
The movement of water and particulate matter through a simulated coal pile using a rainfall-coal-pile stmulator is
investigated. In conjunction with coal-pile management practice" this study indicates that coal-pile sy,telm change
their internal and ,;urficial structure with successive rainstorm evenh. This change in coal-pile structure alters the
proportions. rates and suspended solid concentrations within flIno/T and infiltration during subsequent storm
Results demonstrate the need to determine the optimal coal-pile slope that minimizes water contact time. but
at the same time minimizes the potential for mass wasting and rill erosion. Promotion of a compacted surface is
beneficial for the minimization of solids removal. and a stormwatcr detention pond with f10cculant additive
i, "uggested w. a viable remedial measure for the containment and treatment of coal-pile runoff. Copyright [) 20()2
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
KEY WORDS coal pile: runoff; infiltration: suspendcd solids: rainfall simulator
INTRODUCTION
Coal, as a raw material. is used primarily for power generation and in the production of steel. Typically coal is
stockpiled in large volumes and exposed to the environment. For the steel industries located within Hamilton
Harbour alone. 25 million metric tons of coal were delivered in 1995 (Statistics Canada. 1997). Coal as a
carbon based material has the potential to be a significant source of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
through particulate removal and leaching to receiving water hodies during storm events (Stahl et al.. 1984;
Fendinger et aI., 1989; Curran et al., 20(0), Several studies have documented the potential negative impacts
of PAHs on receiving water bodies (Black. 1983; Fabacher et al .. 1988; Krantzberg and Boyd, 1992; Catallo
et al., 1995). The degree to which PAHs derived from coal-pile runoff are bioavailable. however, needs to be
investigated further (Bender et al .. 1987: Chapman et aI., 1996; Curran et al . 2(00). Coal piles also can he a
strong source of trace metal (Anderson and Youngstrom, 1976; Davis and Boegly, 1981; Curran et al., 2000;
Karayigit et (II,. 2(00) and suspended sediment (Cox et al., 1977; Stahl et al., 1984; Curran et al., 20(0),
each with their own potential detrimental effects on the aquatic environment (Wong et al., 1978; Scull ion and
Edwards. 1980, Canadian Council of Resource and Environment Ministers, 1993; Waters, 1995), In general,
berms are used to contain coal pile surface runoff and tile drains are used to route the runoff and inliltration
to a collection system for treatment. However, many existing coal-pile containment/treatment systems are
outdated, requiring new management strategies to minimize the delivery and effect of contaminants derived
from direct coal-pile runoff.
Coal-pile runoff is dependent upon the stockpile conliguration, coal particle size, amount and intensity
of rainfall, and internal moisture content of the stored coal (Davis and Boegly. 1981; Curran et al., 2000).
This study analyses the movement of water and particulate matter within a simulated coal-pile system. A
Correspondence to: l. G. Droppo. National Water Research Institute. Environment Canada. P.O. Box 5050. BurlingLOn. Ontario. Canada,
L7R 4A6. E-mail: ian.droppo@cciw.ca
Received 10 July 200]
Copyright 2002 John Wiley & Sons. Ltd. Accepted 22 October 2001
2782 K. 1. CURRAN. I. G. DROPPO AND K. N. IRVINE
rainfall-coal-pile simulator was used to determine the runoff characteristics associated with the different flow
paths within the pile studied (i.e. surface runoff volume, infiltrationlbaseflow volume and internal moisture
storage). The objectives are (i) to determine the relative proportions of rain water and particulate matter
associated with coal-pile surface runoff, infiltration and internal storage; (ii) to determine coal-pile runoff
rates associated with surface runoff and infiltration; and (iii) to determine the size and structural properties
of particulate matter removed from the coal-pile system. A better understanding of coal-pile hydrology and
particle dynamics will be effective in determining and modelling the fate and effect of contaminants derived
from this source, in addition to assisting in the development of new and effective remedial measures for the
control and treatment of coal-pile runofI
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Rainfall of varying intensity and duration was generated using the rainfall simulator (Figure I) described
by Luk and Morgan (1986). A I-m-square stainless steel basin with sloping containment walls was used to
simulate the coal pile at various slope angles (Figure I). A stainless steel 058 mm diameter mesh screen was
placed at a 25 cm depth within the basin to hold the coal. This size of mesh permitted suspended solids within
the coal pile runoff to pass through while larger particles were retained within the coal pile. A stainless steel
... rainfall simulator
Coal
rain gauge
Surface Runoff
Coal Pile
Collection Trough
Simulator
Coal Pile
Support Mesh
Infiltration collection funnel
:;. pressure gauge
pressure regulator
-
Figure I. Coal-pile-rainfall "imulalnr of l\\O rain o\er a I x I m "lainlc"" "teei u..,cu to ..,illlulak L"oal
at ..,Iope:..
Copyright :C 2()02 Johll Wile\ & SOil'. Ltd. Hnlml. Pr{!(I'1I. 16. 27XI-27'!O 12()()2)

a downsl
mesh scr
mayeroc
basin in (
Twent)
I to 6 we
Appalach
mixture 0
bituminoL
energy ou
the two c(
used Wert
each slOPe
coal-pile c
seal (seal)
more c1eal
Three. =
and after'
mi ned tall(
cores was.
Discrete
suspended
volume. C
Instrument!
solid conce
Millipore ti
to determin
component
uses plankt(
computer in
(d)()) by COl
No meas
hydrodynarr
in order to (
Newly bedd
composed 01
a rai nfall sir
simulation b(
on the coal-t
like compoU!
saturated Whl
In an overrq
moisture con
slopes retaine
relative to SL
Copyright f 200:
2783
d
n
:1
e coal
20(2)
HYDROLOGY OF STOCKPILED I;\DLSTRIAL COAL
discharge spout under the coal pile basin (80 C111 off the ground) allowed for the collection of infiltrate. and
a downslope collection trough was used to collect surface runoff samples (Figure I). A 058 mm diameter
mesh screen was placed over the surface runoff collection trough to prevent clogging by large particles that
may erode off the coal bed surface (e.g. mass wasting). Four rain gauges were placed around the coal-pile
basin in order to determine the rainfall intensity and to ensure even rainfall distribution.
Twenty-one simulations were performed between 7 August 1996 and 18 August 1997 (Table I). Sil1lulations
I to 6 were performed on a flat coal surface 10 C1l1 in depth using a high volatile A. low sulphur. bituminous.
Appalachian coal. Simulations 7 to 21 were performed on a sloped (6. 25 and 35) coal surface using a
mixture of a high volatile A. low sulphur. bituminous. Appalachian coal and a high volatile B. low sulphur.
bitunlinous. Appalachian coal. These two coal types are constantly used and mixed by industry. Although the
energy output (Btu content) is different. no significant hydrological differences are believed to exist between
the two coal types (J. Cogan. U.S. Geological Survey. personal communication, 200 I ). The simulated slopes
used were determined from the dominant slope angles observed at an active industrial coal field site. For
each slope only one coal bed was used and allowed to be modified by the rainfall and raking. Three differellt
coal-pile conditions were simulated at each slope; a new coal pile (new), a compacted coal pile with surface
seal (seal). and compacted coal pile with the surface seal raked off (raked). These conditions are outlined
more clearly in the results as the surface seal condition is a result of the prior rain event.
Three. 2-cm-deep moisture content syringe core samples were taken randomly fro1l1 the coal bed. prior to.
and after simulations in order to determine coal-pile internal moisture content. Moisture content was deter
mined following the methods described in Canadian Society of Soil Science (1993). The moisture content of the
cores was averaged to obtain a mean internal moisture content. prior to. and following each simulation event.
Discrete surface runoff and infiltration water samples collected during simulations were processed for
suspended solid concentration. pH. conductivity. mean aggregated and disaggregated grain size. and flow
volume. Conductivity and pH were measured immediately after a sample was collected using a Hanna
Instruments HI 8633 Conductivity meter and Cole-Parmer Model 5985-80 Digi-Sense pH meter. Suspended
solid concentrations were determined by filtering a known volume of water on to a pre-weighed OA5-l.Im
Millipore filter. After filtration. the filter was dried at 104C for I h to remove moisture and then reweighed
to determine the suspended solid concentration. Optical image analysis for particle structure (aggregate and
component particles) determination was performed following the method of Droppo et al. (1997). This method
uses plankton settling chambers for particle sampling, settling and analysis, using an inverted microscope and a
computer image analysis system. Sediment data were recorded as mean aggregated particle spherical diameter
(d
50
) by count and mean disaggregated particle spherical diameter by count.
No measurements were taken for run 6, which was used for qualitative observations of coal-pile
hydrodynamics. In this case a pit was dug into the coal immediately following the cessation of rainfall
in order to examine flow structure within the coal pile.
RESULTS
Newly bedded coal was loosely consolidated and consisted of large aggregates up to 4 cm in diameter
composed of a broad distribution of finer particle sizes (minimum absolute particle size of 3 I.Im). Following
a rainfall simulation these aggregates were broken down resulting in compaction of the coal pile (00 slope
simulation bed compacted from 10 to 83 cm on average). During each simulation an oil-water mixture ponded
on the coal-bed surface, forming a glossy. crust-like surface seal when dry. Ponding of this hydrophobic oil
like compound impeded the downward movement of water through the coal, leaving the upper 05 to I cm
saturated while the underlying coal remained almost completely dry. The 2-cm-deep cores therefore resulted
in an overrepresentation of this saturated upper zone within the coal bed. This resulted in elevated internal
moisture content values. Acknowledging this shortcoming in the data, the new coal pile beds for 0 and 25
slopes retained the greatest moisture (> IO'k) following rainfall simulation (simulation I and 10 respectively)
relative to successive rainfall simulations, where the internal moisture content ranged from 10 to 99';(
Copyright ~ ; 2002 John Wiley & Son,. Ltll. HYllrol. Pmcn.l. 16. 27R 1- n90 (2002)
n N
-J
.g
00
'<

::1,
'lO
%


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::l
Table I. Mean runoff rates and runoff
$
'<
1r
Simulation Drying time Slope and SL RI 1M IFR Calculated Estimated SRFR' Calculated Estimated
i<." number (days) surface type (min) (mm/h) ('lr ) (Limin) IP ('lr) Ipa l) (Lill1in) SRP" SN.P" (%)
(fJ
c
7 () ()Q new 35 1116 15-4 '
a.
r
2 2 0' scaled 40 81 0112 *72"
9 ()" raked 25 1002 41 0128 '76
h
'"
:
4 0' sealed 16 56-4 5,3 0319
(')
c
5 22 0' scaled 35 348 99 ()025
;>:l
6" 14 0 sealed
;>:l
>
7 0 6" new 30 327 21
().\7I 43-11 024 441 562
:z
,
8 10 6 raked 30 38 37 n074 118 185 0314 499 815 0
9 3 6" sealed 3D 66 29 O(l97 88 214 O32X 29X 786
;>:l
0
21 6" sealed 26 501 42 0046 53 62 007 XO9 938 0
16 0 6" new 25 408 34 0132 19-4 224 045) 667 776
"'0
lO 0 2,'i" new 30 44 II 0032 44 106 018 247 X94 "'0
0
7 0 25" new 25 456 20 (lOK I 129 114 0614 77 XK6
>
II 12 2Y raked 40 32K 21 0071 129 162 648 H,'i4 z
0
12 4 25' sealed 60 347 70 0052 8H 101 (J42X 72-5 9()7
20 2Y sealed 27 482 40 0044 53 63 0654 7X3 937 '"
z
3 0 35' new 40 56 I 10 006 64 0723 77-3 9'27
8 0 3Y new 30 426 ::16 ()06X 10 ()69 I 94J 90 I
14 ::15 raked 40 452 38 (J02K ::17 39 0656 H71 961 Z
m
5 6 ::15' sealed 40 449 63 0027 ::16 ::IH 0671 897 962
.3: 9 35' seaJed 27 39-9 44 0044 5H 64 0598 797 936

"'" indicates data not recorded.

runoff proportions do not equal lorn a, water remained ponded and inliitrated/e\apOraled ",'er ,everal hour, preventing colkelion of an accurate net inlihratinn
'"
'"
runoff proportion. SL. simulation length: RL rainfall intensity: 1M. internal moisture storage: IFR. infiltration flow raIl': IP. intlilration proportion: SRFR. surface runoff flow rail':

SRP. surface runoff proportion .
.....
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....... :r. -r" :E.
2785 HYDROLOGY OF STOCKPILE:D COAL
(Tahle I). of slope. empirical observation;;, suggest that the internal moisture content decreases
with a sealed coal pile surface.
Ohservations of the flow dynamics within the coal pile in simulation 6 revealed that the movement of water
and particles through the dry lOne of the coal was accomplished hy preferential flow through macropores in
the sediment. No adsorhellts of this flow outside of the pore channel was evident. As such. the'.e pores were
observed to be direct routing conduits to the bottom of the coal pile.
Table I provides the measured mean infiltration and surface runoff flow rates and flow proportions for all
simulation runs. Collected runoff sample volumes for each simulation were compared with the known rainfall
volume. and internal moisture. surface runoff and infiltration proportions computed. This technique was
to compute 'calculated runoff flow proportions' observed for each simulation. However. owing to low internal
moisture content values. internal moisture content was considered negligible for simulations 7 to 21. This per
mitted a direct comparison of collected inhltration and surface runolT sample volumes. This technique was used
to compute 'estimated runoff flow proportions'. It was observed that the proportion and rates of <,urfacc runoff
increased and infiltration decreased as the coal pile slope increased and the coal hecame compacted and surface
scaled, The compaction and <.;ealing of the coal bed was observed to increase the response time of surface runoff
discharged from the simulated coal pile, Significant change;. in response time;.. ponding and slumping. resulted
in dilTerent simulation duration. During simulation 7 (6'. new). it was ohserved that as the rainwater impacted
the coal bed line dust was expelled from the hase of the simulator. sugge;.ting the presence of a downward
gradient caused hy rain inliltration, Inspection of the coal surface during simulations and with depth
following simulations minimal to no edge effech in the form of increased inhltratioll or runoff.
Extensive slumping occurred for the newly bedded coal at a slope (simulation 13). making the
measurement of surface runoff suspended solid concentration dinicult. In this case the large mass of eroded
(slumped) sediment was not incorporated into the suspended solid" analysis owing to the improbability
that such heavy sediment would he transported far from the coal pile and reach receiving waters, Strong
variability in surface runoff suspended ;.olids concentration to slope angle prohibit any trend identification
with slope. Strong trend". however. were apparent with the infiltrated where concentrations decrease
with increased slope (Tahle II). It was observed that surface type had a strong control over suspended
solid concentratioll. with the highest surfact: concentrations occurring when the coal pile consisted of new.
loosely consolidated coal. and/or at the heginning of the simulation event (i.e. first flush). followed by the
raked simulation:" The lowest surface runoff suspended solid concentrations occurred when the coal surface
became compacted and sealed. Generally. "imilar relationships were found for tht: infiltration solid
concentrations through the simulated coal pile. with the exception that the solid concentrations were
much less than the surface runoff. No relationship hetween pH/conductivity and change in coal pile slope
wa" observed for all simulation events (Tahle 11). allhough. conductivity was four to live times higher for
inliltration samples collected from the flat (0) slope,
Investigation of particle characteristics for infiltration (simulations I to 5) and surface runotf (simulation"
16 to 21) samples (Tahle II I) revealed a minimal difference between the aggregated particle d 50 and of the
disaggregated d.'io (by numher). Mean aggregate 1'0 size for the intiltration samples was observed to he
4,96 11m, wherea<., the mean d
50
disaggregated size was 360 Runoff samples revealed mean d
SIl
of
386 and 3-42 for the aggregated and disaggregated particles respectively. When 95<1c confidence intervals
were placed around the mean particle size observed in individual simulation events. two of the hve events
sampled for infiltration runoff particle structure demonstrated no difference in particle size between
the aggregated and disaggregated samples. Five of the six events sampled for surface runoff particle structure
also demonstrated no signihcant difference in particle size (Figure 2).
DISCCSSION
The results of this study indicate that coal-pile systems are dynamic hetween rainstorms. changing their
internal and surhcial structure. thus. modifying the proportions of internal storage. infiltration. and
) (2002)
Copyright 2002 John Wiley & Son>, Ltd. Hrdrol. Process. 16. 27lll-n'JO (2002)
2786 K. J. Cl'RRAN, I. G. DROPPO AND K, N. IRVINE
Table II. Mean suspended solid concentrations, pH and conductivity"
Simulation Slope and I Suspended solid I pH SR Suspended SR SR Sin
number surface type concelllration (mgtL) Conductivity solid concentration pH Conductivity nu
(mS) (mgtL) (mS)
0 ncw 6572-8
2 OC sealed 263
3 0" raked 2861 6,17 368
4 0' sealed 2486,5 635 451
5 0 sealed 14785 7,14 426
6 o scaled
7 6 new 4077-2 367 H6 384-+,1\ 3,6 81
16 6 new 4817 1951,H 61 422
8 6' raked -+52 56X 44 3518,4 6,04 2H
9 6 sealed 2303 667 58 2451 631 60
21 6 scaled 1255 153H 6-+ ,U4
10 25 new 2455 715 55 83932 735 46
17 25' new 3114 2X72-3 6,5 45-4
II 25 raked 3071 727 69 35622 717 XI
12 25 sealed 11-+9 771 92 134V) 761 80
2() 25 scaled 1356
9S(i,{)
70 293 I
13 35 ncw XO 7'oH 46 2098,7 7,32 39 2
IH 35 new 186, I 16HIH 69 1077 I
14 35 raked 4-+ 5194 7,32 3 , ~
1
15 35 sealed 3X1 25611 7-+H 33 I
19 35 scaled 2174 1167,0 67 413 I
1
" Space imJicalcs dala not recorded. I. inliltralion; SR. surf,,,:e runoff.
., Italic,
contider
runoff during subsequent rainstorm events, Rainfall intensity (in the range examined) appeared to have minimal
effect on the hydrological properties of the coal compared with the evolution of physical state as described
herein, The initiaL loosely consolidated nature of the coal appeared to permit good internal transmission of
rainwater through multiple pathways (increased pore spaces), However, compaction of the coal and breakdown
of aggregates into finer grains during rainfall exposure resulted in clogging and reduction of pore space
within the coal bed, This reduced water infiltration through the coal pile and increased surface runoff during
subsequent storm events. In industrial coal piles, gravimetric and hydraulic compaction of the coal is greater
owing to compaction by large equipment used for coal-pile management and by the substantially greater
mass of the coal pile itself. Thus, compaction also would reduce coal pile porosity, inhibiting infiltration and
increasing surface runoff. At an industrial coal tield site where the coal piles often are piled on compacted
surfaces (i,e, soil or concrete), the formation of a pressure gradient within the coal pile system also may
inhibit rainwater infiltration, The underlying compacted surface may inhibit the expulsion of air from the
coal pile, preventing development of a downward pressure gradient. causing the air tilled pore spaces to
resist rainwater intrusion. It also is believed that the hydrophobic nature of coal impeded water movement
through micropores within the coal bed as hydrogen bonding repels water (Son and Radke, 1984). Thus. the
hydrophobic effect may prevent water movement through small pore spaces within the coal pile. This effect
may be enhanced where coal piles are sprayed with oils to control dust. Large suspended particles observed
in coal-pile inllitration discharge also may inhibit water movement through coal micropores, as they can act
as plugs, sealing pore spaces in which water normally would be transmitted.
Coal-pile systems do not exhibit basic Darcy (1865) infiltration flow properties in which water moves
through micropore spaces. Rather. as observed in simulation 6 (0', sealed), water moved preferentially through
the coal pile via maeropore spaces created between large coal particles, with no interact jon or saturation of
the coal itself. It was also observed that when the coal pile dried (several days without rainfall exposure) it
Copyright 2002 John Wiley & Sons. Ltd Hydml. Pmcns. 16,2781-2790 (2(X)2)
2787 HYDROLOGY OF STOCKPILED INDUSTRIAL COAL
Table III. Mean suspended solid particle diameter
Simulation Slope and Number of Aggregated Aggregated Disaggregated Disaggregated
number" surface type samples d
50
by 95'7r d
50
by number 95'7r
imaged number confidence confidence
interval interval
1 (t new 4 7.4(0.9) 0.88 3.8(0.5) 0.5
2 O' sealed 4 4.3(0.2) 0.2 4.0(0.2) 0.2
3 0' raked 4 3.1(0.7) 0.69 3.6(0.7) 0.69
4 O' sealed 2 4.7(-) 3.0(-)
5 0 sealed 3 5.3( 1.1) 0.1.24 3.7(0.1 ) O.II
6
O sealed
7 6' new
16 6 new 5 3.7(0.4) 0.35 2.9(0.2) 0.18
8 6' raked
9 6 sealed
21 6" sealed 5 3.9(0.4) 0.35 3.7(0.1 ) 0.88
10 25 new
17 25 new 5 3.9(0.6) 0.53 3.2(0.3) O.26
II 25 raked
12 25 sealed
20 25 sealed 5 4.0(0.4 ) 0.35 3.5(0.2) 0.18
13 35 new
18 35 new 5 3.7(0.5) 0.44 3.7(0.2) 0.18
14 35 raked
15 35 sealed
19 35 sealed 5 4.0(0.7) 0.61 3.5(0.4 ) 0.35
d Italic ..;imulation event nUlllhcTs inuicatc that the aggregated ami disaggrcgalL'd arc not JilTcn.'nt in (u ... ing l))(l(
cOllliJellce illtervals).
9
8
7
f
6
E
2=
0
"0
L[)
5
I
4
rn

!idu
3
2
3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21
Simulation Number
Figure 2. Median aggregated (circles) and particle diameter with <)5l!r confidence ....
Copyright CD 2002 John Wiley & Sons. Ltd. H\'drol. Process. 16.2781-27<)0 12()02)
2788 K. 1 CURRAN, L G DROPPO AND K. K IRVINE
formed fractures similar to those described by Bouwer (1991), These fractures are believed to assist \vater
transport within the pile and may account for the high infiltration flow proportions ohserved during simulation
4 (On. sealed) when the coal hed was not exposed to rainfall for one month. The higher conductivity for the
(l" slope simulations suggests that longer water-to-coal contact times result in increased leaching of ions out
of the coal pile system, Assuming a similar result with contaminants bcing leached into the dissolved phase.
managemcnt practices that minimize water contact time would be advisahle.
The predictive capahility of runotT quantity from coal storage facilities is limited (Andcrson and Youngstrom.
1976; Davis and Boegly. 198 L Zelmanowirz el al.. 1995 J. Attempts have heen made to quanti fy coal-pile
runoff (Brookman et al.. 1983). hut such estimates often are site-specific and not representative of other
coal-pile systems. In addition. the literature poorly characterizes coal-pile hydrodynamics through use of soil
properties. making it difficult to accurately parameterize coal-pile runoff models (Brookman ct al .. 1(83). This
study demonstrates that coal piles do not hehave like porous soils. Thus. the documented !low proportions
and rates (Tahle I) better descrihe coal-pile hydrodynamic, and should provide Illore accurate results if used
when modelling coal-pile drainage,
New coal appears to be less stable and exhibits a higher porosity. permitting an increased ability for the
loosely aggregated coal to hreakdowll and he removed from the pile as suspended solids, This particularly
is true ror sloped suri'aces. where the likelihood of an increase in suspended solids mass transport from
coal piles in surface runoff is greater. As '>uch. slope management should he a consideration in minimizing
suspended solid loads derived from coal piles hy surface runoff. As rainfall progressed. the "uspended solid
concentrations in the runoff generally decreased as available sediment (i.e. easily eroded) was exhausted. In
large coal-pile systems this point may take a long time to achieve. if it is reached at all. Although variahility
exists in the surface suspended solids concentration data. all samples (surface and infiltrated) exhihit levels
greater than the acceptahle water quality guideline level of 10 111g I I (when the ambient cOllcentration in the
receiving water is less than 100 mg I I). as outlined by the Canadian Council of Resource and Environment
Ministers (1993). This suggests that coal-pile runoff may he a major contributor of suspended solids to aquatic
ecosystems.
Suspended sediment samples \"'ere Ilot observed to be aggregated within surface rUlloff or infiltration, This
is supported by Hogg ( 1 9 ~ ( ) . who demonstrated that coal did not flocculate well and that tlocculants were
needed to induce coal particle aggregation in 'hlackwater' treatment. The non-aggregating nature or coalmakcs
modelling efforts of coal-derived particulate fate simpler as the complicating factor of !locculatiol1 does not
need to he taken into account when estimating transport. Aggregation alters the hydrodynamic properties of
suspended sediments that enter receiving waters by modifying the effective size. density and porosity of the
suspended particles (Tsai et al .. 1987: Droppo eI (/1 .. 1997. 1998. 2(00). As coal particles were not ohserved
to aggrcgate and because their relative density is low (12 to 1,8 gm cm-') (Weast and Astle. 1 9 ~ I). it is
believed that they may have a greater chance of dispersion via kinetic motions within the water column.
resulting in a wider geographical range of contamination (!low dependent). As sllch. a management strategy
that utilizes settling with possible chemical or biological flocculation prior to effluent discharge (for example.
controlled stormwater detention pond) would he a viahle hest management practice for control of coal pile
runoff.
CONCLUSION
Runoff from stockpiled coal has the potential to deliver significant quantities of sediments and pollutants to
receiving water hodics. Using a coal-pile rainfall simulator. this paper has examincd how the internal and
surficial structural characteristics of coal piles may intluence internal storage. infiltration and surface runoff.
Compaction of coal resulted from self-weighted consolidation and by hydraulic breakdown of loosely
aggregated coal with subsequent movement of particles down into void spaces, Typical coal tield management
\vill also result in compaction hecause of heavy machinery use. Such compaction resuits in a reduction of
l1n/ml. Pmcess. 16. 27XI -Dt)() !20(2)
2789 HYDROLOGY OF STOCKPILED INDUSTRIAL COAL
infiltration and an increase in surface runoff. Infiltration may be further impeded by the development of a
pressure gradient within the coal pile. Movement of water through the coal was restricted to the preferential
movement of infiltrated water through macropores or cracks within the coal pile. Surface runoff was further
increased owing to the development of a surface seal (upon surface drying). the hydrophobic nature of the
coal and oil compounds. and as slope angle increased.
Solids removal from the coal pile generally increased for surface runoff and decreased within infiltration
as coal-pile slope increased. Newly deposited coal with high slopes resulted in the greatest concentrations of
solids removed. whereas "ealed. low-angle slopes yielded the least solids. Retainment of solids within coal
piles owing to infiltration 'draw down' was minimal relati ve to the mass removed by surface runoff. The
particles removed from the coal pile were generally not flocculated. suggesting a possible longer range of
transport should such particles enter a receiving water system.
Given the potential for the delivery of contaminated sediments to the aquatic environment from coal piles.
this research suggests that the optimal slope for site-specific coal piles be determined that minimizes water
contact time. but at the same time, docs nOI allow for mass slumping and rill erosion to occur. Although
optimal contact time would have to be modelled based on the wars hydraulic properties and on the coal-pile
size and average rainfall intensity, our preliminary work would suggest that the optimal angle be below 25.
Allowing for the development of a 'sealed' surface is also a beneficial strategy for minimizing solids removal.
A storm water treatment system such as a detention pond \vith potential tlocculant additives is recommended
as a remedial measure for the containment and treatment of coal-pile-derived sediments.
;\('KNOWLEDGLMENTS
Special thanks to Brian Trapp, Christine Jaskot, of the f'.ialional Waler Research Institute (NWRI) and the
supporting indu:-.try for providing the necessary resources, simulation and laboratory support required.
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