You are on page 1of 47

Apuntes de

ELECTRICIDAD
ELECTROSTTICA, ELECTROMAGNETISMO Y CORRIENTE ELCTRICA

Ing. Jorge M. BUCCELLA


4 Edicin

Universidad Nacional de Cuyo Escuela de Comercio "Martn Zapata" Polimodal: Produccin de Bienes y Servicios

Mendoza, mayo de 2003


(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF   

$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

PRLOGO (1 edicin)
Estos breves "Apuntes de Electricidad" estn orientados a los alumnos de los Polimodales que no han tenido un curso completo de Fsica que abarque los temas de electricidad y magnetismo. En l se vuelcan los conceptos bsicos sin desarrollos matemticos ni justificaciones rigurosas, slo se pretende que aquel que deba trabajar con electricidad en forma lateral pueda resolver problemas simples o entenderse con el especialista a quin recurra para los problemas ms complejos. Un estudio ms detallado del comportamiento de los circuitos elctricos puede verse en el libro "Teora de los Circuitos I" del mismo autor que est disponible para su fotocopiado en la Facultad Regional Mendoza de la U.T.N. La fundamentacin de la electrosttica, la electrodinmica y del magnetismo puede verse en cualquiera en los innumerables textos de Fsica. Si resulta til para alguien me sentir retribuido, si me hacen llegar comentarios para corregirlo y/o mejorarlo sin profundizar el enfoque sern muy bienvenidos. Gracias.

PRLOGO (3 edicin)
La tercera edicin contiene correcciones tipogrficas y, creo y espero, mejoras en algunas explicaciones. Adems se han agregado problemas resueltos y explicados que tratan de mejorar la comprensin de los temas. Reitero mi gratitud a aquellos alumnos que me hicieron notar las deficiencias de la edicin anterior. Godoy Cruz, Mendoza 20 de Septiembre de 2002 Ing. Jorge Mara BUCCELLA e_mail: jmbuccella@ciudad.com.ar

(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

TEMARIO
1 - ELECTROSTTICA 1-A Estructura del tomo 1-B Fuerzas interatmicas 1-C Electrizacin por contacto 1-D Conductores y aisladores 1-E Cantidad de electricidad. Ley de Coulomb 1-F Campo elctrico 1-G Lneas de fuerza 1-H Rigidez dielctrica 1-I Potencial elctrico 1-J Condensadores 1-K Ejemplos de clculos 2 - ELECTROMAGNETISMO 2-A Imanes y magnetismo 2-B Magnetismo y carga elctrica 2-C Ley de Faraday 2-D Ejemplos de clculos 3 - CORRIENTE ELCTRICA 3-A Intensidad 3-B Circuito completo. Ley de Ohm 3-C Ley de Joule 3-D Circuitos elctricos 3-E La corriente alterna 3-F Los conceptos de impedancia y de admitancia 3-G La potencia en corriente alternada 3-H Ejemplos de clculos 3-I Problemas prcticos Apndice A A-1 Nociones bsicas elementales de corriente elctrica 5 5 5 5 6 6 7 8 8 9 9 10 15 15 16 19 19 21 21 22 23 24 26 29 30 30 34

$8VRGHLQVWUXPHQWRVGHPHGLFLyQ 

37



(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

NOTAS Y COMENTARIOS

(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

1 - ELECTROSTTICA
1-A) Estructura del tomo

 3DUDSRGHUHQWHQGHUORVIHQyPHQRVHOpFWULFRVGHEHPRVFRQRFHUFyPR HVWiFRPSXHVWDODPDWHULD/DSDUWtFXODPiVSHTXHxDGHHOODHVODPROpFXOD TXHFRQVHUYDWRGDVVXVFDUDFWHUtVWLFDVVLQHPEDUJRQRHVLQGLYLVLEOHDXQTXH VXGLYLVLyQVLPRGLILFDODVFDUDFWHUtVWLFDVSURSLDV  /DPROpFXODHVWiFRQVWLWXLGDSRUXQRRPiViWRPRVTXHSXHGHQVHUGH LJXDO HOHPHQWRVSXURV RGHGLVWLQWDFRQIRUPDFLyQ FRPSXHVWRV (OiWRPR HVWiFRPSXHVWRSRUXQQ~FOHRTXHSUiFWLFDPHQWHFRQFHQWUDODPDVDWRWDO URGHDGRSRUXQDRFDVLXQFHQWHQDUGHSDUWtFXODVTXHJLUDQDVXDOUHGHGRU OODPDGDV HOHFWURQHV (O Q~FOHR HVWi FRPSXHVWR GHVGH XQD SDUWtFXOD KDVWD FLHQWRVGHHOODVODVSULQFLSDOHV\PiVFRQRFLGDVDXQTXHQRODV~QLFDVVRQ ORVSURWRQHV\QHXWURQHV  (OGLiPHWURGHOQ~FOHRHVGHORUGHQGH PHWURV\HOGHODVyUELWDV GH ORV HOHFWURQHV TXH GHILQHQ HO WDPDxR WRWDO GHO iWRPR GH  D     PHWURV  /DV PDVDV GH SURWRQHV \ QHXWURQHV VRQ DSUR[LPDGDPHQWH ODV PLVPDV\XQDVYHFHVPD\RUHVDODGHORVHOHFWURQHV  3RUHMHPSORHOiWRPRPiVVLPSOHHVHOGH+LGUyJHQR\HVWiFRQVWLWXLGR SRUXQSURWyQHQHOQ~FOHR HVHO~QLFRTXHQRWLHQHQHXWURQHV \XQHOHFWUyQ HQ yUELWD /D PROpFXODJUDPR GH KLGUyJHQR PRQRDWyPLFR FRQVWD GH   SDUWtFXODV Q~PHURGH$YRJDGUR \VXPDVDHVGHJUDPRVSRU FRQVLJXLHQWHODPDVDGHXQiWRPRHVGH  NLORJUDPRVODGHXQ HOHFWUyQ YHFHVPHQRV HVGH  NLORJUDPRVFRQORTXHVHSXHGH GHFLUTXHODPDVDGHOSURWyQHVLJXDODODGHOiWRPR(OiWRPRPiVFRPSOHMR TXH VH HQFXHQWUD HQ HVWDGR QDWXUDO HV HO GH 8UDQLR TXH FRQWLHQH  HOHFWURQHVJLUDQGRDOUHGHGRUGHXQQ~FOHRFRQSURWRQHV\QHXWURQHV  1-B) Fuerzas interatmicas  6H KD GHWHUPLQDGR TXH HQWUH HOHFWURQHV \ SURWRQHV H[LVWHQ IXHU]DV PXWXDVDGHPiVGHODVJUDYLWDWRULDVGHELGDVDVXVPDVDVTXHVHH[SOLFDQ DGMXGLFiQGROHVXQDSURSLHGDGOODPDGDFDUJDHOpFWULFDRHOHFWULFLGDGFRQXQD GLIHUHQFLD IXQGDPHQWDO \D TXH ODV IXHU]DV JUDYLWDWRULDV VRQ VRODPHQWH DWUDFWLYDVPLHQWUDVTXHODVHOpFWULFDVSXHGHQVHUDWUDFWLYDVRUHSXOVLYDV  /RVSURWRQHVVHUHSHOHQHQWUHVtDOLJXDOTXHORVHOHFWURQHVSHURORV SURWRQHV\HOHFWURQHVVHDWUDHQHQWUHHOORV(VWRGLROXJDUDODGHVLJQDFLyQGH GRV FODVHV GH FDUJD HOpFWULFD SRVLWLYD DVLJQDGD DUELWUDULDPHQWH D ORV SURWRQHV  \ QHJDWLYD D ORV HOHFWURQHV  7RGRV ORV SURWRQHV WLHQHQ H[DFWDPHQWHODPLVPDFDUJDSRVLWLYD\WRGRVORVHOHFWURQHVODPLVPDFDUJD QHJDWLYD\FRPRWRGRiWRPRQRUPDOTXHWLHQHHOPLVPRQ~PHURGHSURWRQHV TXHGHHOHFWURQHVQRSUHVHQWDFDUJDVHQH[FHVRODVFDUJDVVRQGHOPLVPR YDORUDXQTXHGHVLJQRFRQWUDULR  1RKDELpQGRVHGHWHFWDGRFDUJDVLQIHULRUHVDODVGHXQHOHFWUyQRSURWyQ VHGHGXFHTXHHVWDVHUtDODXQLGDGQDWXUDORIXQGDPHQWDOGHFDUJDHOpFWULFD  $GHPiVGHHVWDVIXHU]DVJUDYLWDWRULDV\HOpFWULFDVTXHGHSHQGHQGHOD GLVWDQFLD HQWUH ODV SDUWtFXODV KD\ RWUDV TXH GHSHQGHQ GHO PRYLPLHQWR UHODWLYR\GDQOXJDUDHIHFWRVPDJQpWLFRV 










(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

 'DGR TXH ORV iWRPRV WLHQHQ LJXDO Q~PHUR GH HOHFWURQHV TXH GH SURWRQHVODPDWHULDQRSUHVHQWDQRUPDOPHQWHHIHFWRVHOpFWULFRV6LDOWHUDPRV HVWHHTXLOLEULRHVGHFLUTXHWLHQHGHIHFWRRH[FHVRGHHOHFWURQHVGHFLPRV TXHHVWiFDUJDGD+D\PXFKRVPHGLRVSDUDORJUDUHVWHGHVHTXLOLEULRVLHQGRHO PiVDQWLJXRHOGHIURWDPLHQWRDXQTXHHQUHDOLGDGHVPiVFRUUHFWRGHFLUSRU FRQWDFWR  3RUHMHPSORHQWUHXQDEDUUDGHHERQLWD\XQDSLHOODSULPHUDDGTXLHUH HOHFWURQHV \ TXHGD FDUJDGD QHJDWLYDPHQWH \ OD SLHO FRQVHFXHQWHPHQWH SRVLWLYDPHQWH8QDEDUUDGHYLGULRFRQXQWUDSRGHVHGDUHVXOWDHQODEDUUD SRVLWLYDPHQWH\HOWUDSRQHJDWLYDPHQWHFDUJDGR(QWRGRVORVFDVRVVHKD YHULILFDGRTXHODFDQWLGDGGHFDUJDORJUDGDSRUXQHOHPHQWRHVH[DFWDPHQWH LJXDO\GHVLJQRFRQWUDULRDOREWHQLGRSRUHORWURQRKD\FUHDFLyQRSpUGLGD VyORWUDQVPLVLyQ  (VWDVFDUJDVSXHGHQWUDQVIHULUVHDRWURVFXHUSRVWDPELpQSRUFRQWDFWR REVHUYiQGRVHTXHKD\UHSXOVLyQHQWUHDTXHOORVTXHKDQVLGRFDUJDGRVFRQOD PLVPDFDUJD\KD\DWUDFFLyQHQWUHORVGHFDUJDGLVWLQWD   (QUHDOLGDGHVWHIHQyPHQRGHFDUJDSRUFRQWDFWRVHSURGXFHHQPHQRU R PD\RUJUDGR HQWUHGRV VXEVWDQFLDVGLVWLQWDV/DGLIHUHQFLDHVWULEDHQHO KHFKRTXHDOJXQRVPDWHULDOHVSHUPLWHQPHMRUTXHRWURVODGLVWULEXFLyQGHODV FDUJDV (VWR GD OXJDU D XQD FODVLILFDFLyQ GH PDWHULDOHV FRQGXFWRUHV TXH SURYHHQ XQD IiFLO FLUFXODFLyQ GH ODV FDUJDV \ DLVODGRUHV TXH LPSLGHQ VX GHVSOD]DPLHQWR  /RV PHWDOHV GH HOHFWURYDOHQFLD SRVLWLYD \ TXH HQ GLVROXFLyQ IRUPDQ LRQHVSRVLWLYRVWLHQHQODIDFLOLGDGGHGHVSUHQGHUVHGHVXVHOHFWURQHVGHODV yUELWDV H[WHULRUHV JHQHUDQGR ORV OODPDGRV HOHFWURQHV OLEUHV TXH SXHGHQ PRYHUVH OLEUHPHQWH SRU HO PDWHULDO (O Q~FOHR \ HO UHVWR GH ORV HOHFWURQHV TXHGDQ HQ SRVLFLyQ ILMD (Q ORV DLVODGRUHV QR KD\ R KD\ PX\ SRFRV HOHFWURQHVOLEUHVIDOWDQGRHQFRQVHFXHQFLDORVSRUWDGRUHVGHFDUJD
' &RQGXFWRUHV\DLVODGRUHV 

1-C) Electrizacin por contacto

 8Q FXHUSR FDUJDGR HV DTXHO TXH WLHQH FLHUWR Q~PHUR GH SURWRQHV R HOHFWURQHV HQ H[FHVR \ ODFDUJDQHWDTXHGDGHILQLGDSRUHVWHQ~PHUR6LQ HPEDUJR HQ OD SUiFWLFD OD FDUJD VH H[SUHVD HQ XQD XQLGDG PXFKR PD\RU 8WLOL]DPRVODOHWUD4 PD\~VFXODRPLQ~VFXOD SDUDLQGLFDUHVWDFDUJD  (Q&KDUOHV$&RXORPEHVWDEOHFLyTXHODIXHU]DGHDWUDFFLyQR UHSXOVLyQ HQWUH GRV FDUJDV HOpFWULFDV HUD LQYHUVDPHQWH SURSRUFLRQDO DO FXDGUDGRGHODGLVWDQFLDHQWUHHOODV3RVWHULRUPHQWHVHGHPRVWUyTXHSDUD XQDVHSDUDFLyQGDGDHVWDIXHU]DGHSHQGtDGLUHFWDPHQWHGHOSURGXFWRGHODV FDUJDV LQGLYLGXDOHV (VWDV UHODFLRQHV SXHGHQ FRQYHUWLUVH HQ XQD LJXDOGDG HVWDEOHFLHQGRXQDFRQVWDQWHGHSURSRUFLRQDOLGDG FRQORTXHVHREWLHQHOD /H\GH&RXORPE        (O YDORU GH OD FRQVWDQWH  GHSHQGH GH ODV XQLGDGHV TXH H[SUHVHQ OD IXHU]DODFDUJD\ODGLVWDQFLD(VWDIRUPDTXHGDHQJHQHUDOUHVWULQJLGDD FDUJDV SXQWXDOHV HV GHFLU GH GLPHQVLRQHV GHVSUHFLDEOHV UHVSHFWR D OD
( &DQWLGDGGHHOHFWULFLGDG/H\GH&RXORPE N ) N TT U 


(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





GLVWDQFLD TXH ODV VHSDUD 7DPELpQ GHEH WHQHUVH HQ FXHQWD TXH ODV FDUJDV LQGXFLGDVHQODVPROpFXODVGHOPHGLRTXHODVURGHDPRGLILFDQHVWDIXHU]D(O YDFtRHVHOPHGLRLGHDOSHURHODLUHVyORPRGLILFDHQXQSRUPLO GHXQLGDGHVODVIXHU]DVVHH[SUHVDQHQ  (QHO ODVGLVWDQFLDVHQ \ODXQLGDGGHFDUJDVHHOLJHSDUDTXH HO YDORU GH  VHD XQLWDULR &RQVHFXHQWHPHQWH OD XQLGDG HOHFWURVWiWLFD GH FDUJDHOpFWULFDSXHGHGHILQLUVHFRPR  (VWD XQLGDG HV OODPDGD SRU DOJXQRV  R TXH VH LQGLFD FRPR /DVGLPHQVLRQHVGH VRQHQWRQFHVGLQDV FP XHVT   (QHO ODXQLGDGGHFDUJDHVHO R SHUR QR VH GHILQH SRU HVWD OH\ VLQR HQ IXQFLyQ GH OD XQLGDG GH LQWHQVLGDG GH FRUULHQWHHO \VHGHILQHFRPR (O HVPX\DSUR[LPDGDPHQWHLJXDOD     <DTXHODVXQLGDGHVGHFDUJDIXHU]D\GLVWDQFLDHQHOVLVWHPDPNVVH KDQ GHILQLGR HQ IRUPD LQGHSHQGLHQWH GH OD OH\ GH &RXORPE HO YDORU GH OD FRQVWDQWHNGHEHGHWHUPLQDUVHH[SHULPHQWDOPHQWHHOYDORUGHHOODHV  \D TXH OD XQLGDG GH IXHU]D HV HO \ODGHGLVWDQFLDHO    /DFDUJDGHXQHOHFWUyQHVSDUDHVWHVLVWHPD  &RQHOREMHWRGHHYLWDUODDSDULFLyQGHOIDFWRUHQRWUDVHFXDFLRQHVVH GHILQHRWUDFRQVWDQWH WDOTXH   FRQORTXHOD/H\GH&RXORPE TXHGDH[SUHVDGDFRPR  HVSDUDHOVLVWHPD  /DFRQVWDQWH OODPDGD PNV    1-F) Campo elctrico  6LHQXQPHGLRGRQGHH[LVWHXQDFDUJDHOpFWULFDFRORFDPRVRWUDDFLHUWD GLVWDQFLDKHPRVYLVWRTXHVXIULUiXQDDWUDFFLyQRUHSXOVLyQ(VWDIXHU]DHV FRPRODJUDYLWDWRULDHMHUFLGDDGLVWDQFLDSRUORTXHSRGHPRVDVXPLUTXHOD FDUJDDVLPLOLWXGFRQODPDVDJHQHUDXQFDPSRHOpFWULFR(VGHFLUTXHVX SUHVHQFLDPRGLILFDODVFXDOLGDGHVGHOPHGLR&RQHVWRSRGHPRVGHFLUTXHOD IXHU]D TXH VH HMHUFH VREUH OD VHJXQGD FDUJD HV SURYRFDGD SRU HO FDPSR JHQHUDGRSRUODSULPHUD\SRUVXSXHVWRUHFtSURFDPHQWH    <D TXH OD IXHU]D HV XQD PDJQLWXG YHFWRULDO HO FDPSR WDPELpQ WLHQH GLUHFFLyQVHQWLGR\PyGXOR 
VLVWHPD HOHFWURVWiWLFR N GLQDV FHQWtPHWURV

$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

OD FDUJD TXH UHSHOH D RWUD LJXDO \ GHO


VWDWRFROXPELR


PLVPR VLJQR VLWXDGD D OD GLVWDQFLD GH XQ FHQWtPHWUR FRQ OD IXHU]D GH XQD GLQD
XHVT N


VLVWHPDPNV DPSHULR

&RXORPE

FXORPELR

OD FDQWLGDG GH FDUJD TXH DWUDYLHVD

SRUVHJXQGRODVHFFLyQGHXQFRQGXFWRUSRUHOFXDOFLUFXODXQDFRUULHQWHGHXQ
FXORPELR XHVT

DPSHULR

 N

  QHZWRQPHWUR FRXO QHZWRQ PHWUR

H





FRXO





)

 

  TT U

SHUPLWLYLGDG HOpFWULFD
  



FRXO 1P

6HGLFHTXHH[LVWHXQ FDPSRHOpFWULFRHQXQSXQWRVLVREUHXQFXHUSR

FDUJDGRFRORFDGRHQGLFKRSXQWRVHHMHUFHXQDIXHU]DGHRULJHQHOpFWULFR

(O YDORU GHO FDPSR HQ FXDOTXLHU SXQWR UHSUHVHQWDGR SRU ( VH GHILQH

FRPR HO FRFLHQWH REWHQLGR GH GLYLGLU OD IXHU]D ) HMHUFLGD VREUH XQ FXHUSR GH SUXHED

SUXHED FRORFDGR HQ HO SXQWR SRU OD FDQWLGDG GH FDUJD T GHO FXHUSR GH



(

)T

(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





 (OFDPSRHOpFWULFRHVODIXHU]DSRUXQLGDGGHFDUJDFRQVHFXHQWHPHQWH HQHOVLVWHPDPNVODLQWHQVLGDGGHFDPSRHOpFWULFRHVHOQHZWRQFXORPELR/D H[SUHVLyQDQWHULRUSXHGHSRQHUVHFRPR  (V GHFLU TXH OD IXHU]D HMHUFLGD VREUH XQD FDUJD  HQ XQ SXQWR GHO FDPSR HVWi GDGD SRU HO SURGXFWR GH OD FDUJD SRU OD LQWHQVLGDG GH FDPSR HOpFWULFR  /DOH\GH&RXORPEGLFHTXHODIXHU]DVREUHODFDUJDGHSUXHEDHV  \SRUFRQVLJXLHQWHODLQWHQVLGDGGHOFDPSRHQHOSXQWRUHVXOWD   \HOVHQWLGRHVWDOTXHVHDOHMDGHODFDUJD VL HVGHOPLVPRVLJQRRVH DFHUFDVLHVGHGLVWLQWRVLJQR  (QHOFDVRTXHHOFDPSRHVWpIRUPDGRSRUYDULDVFDUJDVSXQWXDOHVD GLVWLQWDVGLVWDQFLDVGHOSXQWRODLQWHQVLGDGGHFDPSRHVODUHVXOWDQWHGHOD VXPD YHFWRULDO R JHRPpWULFD  GHO SURGXFLGR SRU FDGD XQD GH HOODV HQ HO SXQWR   (Q OD SUiFWLFD ORV FDPSRV VRQ FUHDGRV SRU GLVWULEXFLRQHV GH FDUJDV VREUH FRQGXFWRUHVILQLWRVHQHVWHFDVRVHFRQVLGHUDQFDUJDVLQILQLWHVLPDOHV \OD VXPDVHFRQYLHUWHHQODLQWHJUDO    6H FRPSUXHED TXH OD OH\ GH &RXORPE HV SUHFLVDPHQWH GH OD PLVPD IRUPD TXH OD OH\ GH 1HZWRQ SDUD OD IXHU]D JUDYLWDWRULD HQWUH PDVDV SXQWXDOHV3RUHOORODVGHILQLFLRQHVGHLQWHQVLGDGGHFDPSRHOpFWULFRVRQODV PLVPDV TXH ODV GH FDPSR JUDYLWDWRULR \ SDUHFHUtD GHGXFLUVH TXH DPERV SUREOHPDV REHGHFHQ DO PLVPR SULQFLSLR VLQ HPEDUJR KD\ GLIHUHQFLDV LPSRUWDQWHVTXHKDFHQODGHILQLFLyQGHFDPSRHOpFWULFRFRPRODUD]yQGHOD IXHU]DDODFDUJDSUHIHULEOHDOD~OWLPDH[SUHVLyQ/DGLIHUHQFLDSURFHGHGHO KHFKR GH TXH ORV HIHFWRV JUDYLWDWRULRV SDUHFHQ SURSDJDUVH FRQ YHORFLGDG LQILQLWD QR RFXUUH OR PLVPR FRQ ORV IHQyPHQRV HOpFWULFRV R PiV FRUUHFWDPHQWHHOHFWURPDJQpWLFRV/DYHORFLGDGGHSURSDJDFLyQHQHOYDFtRHV ODPLVPDTXHODYHORFLGDGGHODOX]  PVHJ  6LTXHUHPRVGHILQLUODLQWHQVLGDGGHFDPSRFRPR GHEHPRV SRVWXODU TXH D  ODV FDUJDV TXH FUHDQ HO FDPSR QR VH GHVSOD]DQ SRU OD SUHVHQFLDGHODFDUJDGHSUXHEDRE GHEHXWLOL]DUVHXQDFDUJDGHSUXHED LQILQLWHVLPDO TXH SURGXFH XQD DOWHUDFLyQ GHVSUHFLDEOH HQ OD GLVWULEXFLyQ GH FDUJDVLQLFLDO  OD  6L HQ FDPELR VH GHILQH SRU OD HFXDFLyQ  GLILFXOWDGDQWHULRUQRVHSODQWHDSRUQRXWLOL]DUVHODFDUJDGHSUXHED  1-G) Lneas de fuerza  (OFRQFHSWRGHOtQHDVGHIXHU]DIXHLQWURGXFLGRSRU)DUDGD\FRPRXQ PHGLRDX[LOLDUSDUDUHSUHVHQWDUFDPSRVHOpFWULFRVRPDJQpWLFRV
) T( T )  
 TT U 

$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

(

)T

 

 TU

(



 

 TU

GT

(



 

GTU

(

 )  T

(



 

 GT  U

8QDOtQHDGH

IXHU]D HVXQD OtQHD LPDJLQDULD WUD]DGDGH IRUPDWDOTXHVXGLUHFFLyQHQFDGD

SXQWR OD GLUHFFLyQGHVX WDQJHQWH  VHD OD PLVPDTXH OD GLUHFFLyQGHOFDPSR


(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF  

$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

6LVHTXLVLHVHSRGUtDGLEXMDUVHXQDOtQHDSRUFDGDSXQWRGHOSODQROR TXH VLJQLILFDUtD QR SRGHU GLVWLQJXLU XQD GH OD RWUD 3DUD TXH D OD YH] GH LQGLFDUQRVODGLUHFFLyQ\VHQWLGRSXHGDQUHSUHVHQWDUODLQWHQVLGDGGHFDPSR VHGLEXMDQGHPRGRWDOTXH   1-H) Rigidez dielctrica  8QDLVODGRURGLHOpFWULFRHVXQDVXEVWDQFLDTXHQRWLHQHRWLHQHPX\ SRFRVSRUWDGRUHVGHFDUJDFDSDFHVGHPRYHUVHEDMRHOHIHFWRGHXQFDPSR HOpFWULFR6LQHPEDUJRH[LVWHSDUDFDGDXQDXQFLHUWROtPLWHGHODLQWHQVLGDG GH FDPSR SRU HQFLPD GH OD FXDO VH FRQYLHUWH HQ FRQGXFWRUD /D Pi[LPD LQWHQVLGDGGHFDPSRHOpFWULFRTXHXQDVXEVWDQFLDSXHGHVRSRUWDUVLQURWXUD GH GHQRPLQD ULJLGH] GLHOpFWULFD 3RU HMHPSOR SDUD HO DLUH D SUHVLyQ DWPRVIpULFDHVGH  QHZWRQFRXO\SDUDHOYLGULRGRVRWUHVYHFHVPD\RU
HQ HVH SXQWR ODV IOHFKDV TXH VH LQGLFDQ VREUH HOOD VHxDODQ HO VHQWLGR GHO FDPSR HO Q~PHUR GH ODV TXH DWUDYLHVDQ OD XQLGDG GH VXSHUILFLHSHUSHQGLFXODUDODGLUHFFLyQGHOFDPSRVHDLJXDOHQFDGDSXQWRDO
SRUODLQWHQVLGDGGHFDPSRHOpFWULFRHQHVHSXQWR

SURGXFWRGH

 5HDOPHQWHODVFRQGLFLRQHVEDMRODVFXDOHVSXHGHVDOWDUXQDFKLVSDHQHO DLUHGHVGHXQFRQGXFWRUDRWURVRQPXFKRPiVFRPSOLFDGDVGHORTXHUHVXOWD GH HVWDEOHFHU OR DQWHULRU HO WHPD GHEH HVWXGLDUVH FRQVXOWDQGR VREUH OD FRQGXFWLYLGDGHOpFWULFDHQORVJDVHV  1-I) Potencial elctrico 
(OSRWHQFLDOHQXQSXQWRHVHOWUDEDMRQHFHVDULRSDUDWUDVODGDUODXQLGDG GH FDUJD SRVLWLYD GHVGH HO LQILQLWR KDVWD HO SXQWR HQ FRQWUD GH ODV IXHU]DV QHFHVDULRSDUDWUDVODGDUODFDUJDSRVLWLYDXQLWDULDGHVGHXQSXQWRDORWUR

En funcin de estos datos puede calcularse la carga mxima por unidad de superficie de un conductor situado en el aire como:  (      FRXOP

  (O SRWHQFLDO HOpFWULFR HV HQ SULQFLSLR XQD PDJQLWXG HVFDODU \ VXV GLPHQVLRQHVVRQODVGHXQWUDEDMRSRUXQLGDGGHFDUJD6HPLGHHQ HOYROWLRHVHOWUDEDMRGHXQMXOLRVREUHODFDUJDGHXQFXORPELRHVGHFLU   6LUHFRUGDPRVTXHHOWUDEDMRSXHGHFDOFXODUVHSRUHOSURGXFWRHQWUHOD IXHU]D\HOFDPLQRUHFRUULGRHQFRQWUDGHHVDIXHU]D : ) U HOSRWHQFLDO  HQ XQ SXQWR H[SUHVDGR HQ YROWLRV GHELGR D OD FDUJD HOpFWULFD  HQ FXORPELRVDXQDGLVWDQFLD HQPHWURVSXHGHFDOFXODUVHFRPR   (OWUDEDMR UHDOL]DGRSDUDWUDVODGDUXQDFDUJD GHXQSXQWR D RWUR FX\DGLIHUHQFLDGHSRWHQFLDOHV   YDOH   6LHOFDPSRHOpFWULFRHVXQLIRUPH HQGRQGH HVOD IXHU]DVREUHODFDUJD \ HVODGLVWDQFLDHQWUHORVSXQWRV3RUFRQVLJXLHQWH RELHQ HVGHFLUTXHHQXQFDPSRHOpFWULFR XQLIRUPH OD LQWHQVLGDG  HQ 1HZWRQFXORPELR  HV LJXDO DO   HQYROWLRVPHWUR FDPELDGRGHVLJQR(QJHQHUDOSRGHPRV GHFLUTXH
HOpFWULFDVGHOFDPSR/DGLIHUHQFLDGHSRWHQFLDOHQWUHGRVSXQWRVHVHOWUDEDMR
YROWLRV 9 9 -&RXO 9 T U 9 N TU :DE T D E 9DE 9D9E :DE MXOLRV  T FXORPELRV 9DE YROWLRV :   T 9  ) U ) T U 9  U   )  T 9  U   ( ( JUDGLHQWH GH SRWHQFLDO 9  U

OD FRPSRQHQWH GH OD LQWHQVLGDG GHO FDPSR HOpFWULFR HQ FXDOTXLHU

(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

  'HFtDPRVTXHHQSULQFLSLRHOSRWHQFLDOHVXQDPDJQLWXGHVFDODUSHUR ODGHILQLFLyQLPSOLFDTXHHOWUDEDMRSDUDWUDVODGDUODFDUJDGHXQSXQWRDRWUR GHSHQGHGHOVHQWLGRGHHVHWUDVODGR\VLODVFDUJDV ODWUDVODGDGD\ODTXH JHQHUD HO FDPSR  VRQ GH LJXDO VLJQR R QR (V GHFLU TXH VL JDVWDPRV XQ WUDEDMRSDUDOOHYDUODFDUJDGHOSXQWRDDOEYDPRVDUHFXSHUDUORWUD\HQGR OD FDUJD GHO E DO D (VWR OR SRGHPRV LQGLFDU FRQ XQD SRODULGDG GH HVD GLIHUHQFLDGHSRWHQFLDOVHxDODQGRFRPRSRVLWLYRHOSXQWRGHPD\RUSRWHQFLDO FRQORTXHODGLIHUHQFLDGHSRWHQFLDOVHFRQYHUWLUtDHQXQYHFWRUHVSHFLDOFRQ XQD ~QLFD GLUHFFLyQ SRVLEOH SHUR ORV GRV VHQWLGRV /D LPSRUWDQFLD GH HVWDEOHFHUHVWRODYHUHPRVDOHVWXGLDUODOH\GH2KP   6HGLFHTXHHOSXQWR HVWiDXQSRWHQFLDOVXSHULRUDOGHOSXQWR VLVH UHDOL]D WUDEDMR FRQWUD ODV IXHU]DV HOpFWULFDV SDUD PRYHU XQD FDUJD SRVLWLYD GHVGH KDVWD (VWRHV HVWiDXQSRWHQFLDOVXSHULRUDOGH VLODHQHUJtD SRWHQFLDO GHXQDFDUJDSRVLWLYDHVPD\RUHQ TXHHQ /DGLIHUHQFLDGH \ SRWHQFLDOHQWUHGRVSXQWRV \ SRGHPRVLQGLFDUODFRPR FRQVHFXHQWHPHQWH   1-J) Condensadores  8Q FRQGHQVDGRU R FDSDFLWRU HVWi FRQVWLWXLGR SRU GRV FRQGXFWRUHV VHSDUDGRVSRUXQGLHOpFWULFRRDLVODQWHLJXDOPHQWHFDUJDGRVGHHOHFWULFLGDG GHVLJQRFRQWUDULR  (Q HOVLVWHPDPNVODFDSDFLGDGVHH[SUHVDHQ HQFRQVHFXHQFLDUHVXOWD TXH  &RPRHVWDXQLGDGHVPX\JUDQGHVHXWLOL]DQQRUPDOPHQWHORVVXEP~OWLSORV  /D FDSDFLGDG GH XQ FDSDFLWRU SODQRIRUPDGR SRUSODFDVSDUDOHODV GH LJXDO VXSHUILFLH  HQ PHWURV FXDGUDGRV  VHSDUDGDV D XQD GLVWDQFLD  HQ PHWURV YLHQHGDGDSRUODIyUPXOD 6LHQGR  DGLPHQVLRQDO  OD  R  GHOPHGLRDLVODQWH\  YDORU\DFRQRFLGR6LHOPHGLRHVHOYDFtR    /DFDSDFLGDGHTXLYDOHQWHGHXQFRQMXQWRGHFDSDFLWRUHVFRQHFWDGRVHQ SDUDOHORHVLJXDODODVXPDGHVXVFDSDFLGDGHVLQGLYLGXDOHV(OUHFtSURFRGHOD FDSDFLGDG HTXLYDOHQWH GH FDSDFLWRUHV HQ VHULH HV LJXDO D OD VXPD GH ORV UHFtSURFRVGHODVFDSDFLGDGHVLQGLYLGXDOHV  (QXQFRQGHQVDGRUODGLIHUHQFLDGHSRWHQFLDOHQWUHVXVFRQGXFWRUHVHV GLUHFWDPHQWHSURSRUFLRQDODODFDUJDTXHDGTXLHUHQ(QHOSURFHVRGHFDUJDHO HOHPHQWRFRPLHQ]DGHVFDUJDGR\DGTXLHUHDOILQDOXQDFDUJD 3RUWDQWROD GLIHUHQFLDGHSRWHQFLDOYDUtDGHFHURDOYDORU ILQDO\VXYDORUPHGLRHV  (OWUDEDMRSDUDWUDVODGDUODFDUJDTDWUDYpVGHXQDGLIHUHQFLDGHSRWHQFLDO PHGLDSHURFRQVWDQWH 9HV 3RUFRQVLJXLHQWHODHQHUJtD HOpFWULFD DOPDFHQDGDHQODFDUJDGHXQFRQGHQVDGRUYLHQHGDGDSRU
GLUHFFLyQ HV LJXDO DO JUDGLHQWH GH SRWHQFLDO HQ HVD GLUHFFLyQ FDPELDGR GH VLJQR
E D D E E D E D D E 9DE  9D  9E 9DE 9ED

/D FDSDFLGDG &GH XQ FRQGHQVDGRU HVWiGHILQLGD FRPRODUHODFLyQ GHOD


)DUDGLRV

FDUJDVREUHXQRGHORVFRQGXFWRUHVDODGLIHUHQFLDGHSRWHQFLDOHQWUHHOORV

& IDUDGLRV 

T FXORPELRV 9 YROWLRV

&

.

 $G 

FRQVWDQWH GLHOpFWULFD UHODWLYD




FDSDFLGDG
 

LQGXFWLYD HVSHFtILFD

 



 FRXO 1P

9

:

T  9

(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





     WHQLHQGR HQ FXHQWD TXH   GRQGH  VH PLGH HQ MXOLRV -   HQ FXORPELRV &RXO  HQYROWLRV 9 \ HQIDUDGLRV ) 
: T9 &9  :


$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$ 

T &

T

 & 9

&

  (QFRQWUDU OD PDJQLWXG GH OD IXHU]D TXH H[LVWH HQWUH XQD FDUJD HOpFWULFD SRVLWLYD GH  FXORPELRV \ RWUD QHJDWLYD GH  FXORPELRV FXDQGR VH KDOODQ D OD GLVWDQFLD GH  FHQWtPHWURV 4Xp WLSR GH IXHU]D HV DWUDFWLYDRUHSXOVLYD" 6ROXFLyQ /RVGDWRVGHOSUREOHPDPHSHUPLWHQHQFRQWUDUODVROXFLyQDSOLFDQGROD/H\GH &RXORPESHURSDUDHOORGHEHPRVH[SUHVDUODGLVWDQFLDHQPHWURV8WLOL]DQGR ODQRWDFLyQFLHQWtILFDSDUDVLPSOLILFDUODVRSHUDFLRQHVSRGHPRVHVWDEOHFHU  >QHZWRQ PHWUR FRXO @    >FRXO@   >FRXO@     >PHWURV@ OXHJR   >        @     <DTXHODVFDUJDVVRQGHVLJQRFRQWUDULRHOSDUGHIXHU]DVTXHDFW~DHVGH DWUDFFLyQ  (QFRQWUDUODPDJQLWXG\HOVHQWLGRGHODIXHU]DTXHH[LVWHHQWUHGRV FDUJDVSRVLWLYDVGHFXORPELRVVLHVWiQXELFDGDVHQHOSODQRVREUHXQD UHFWDDUHVSHFWRDOHMH[\VHSDUDGDVXQDGLVWDQFLDGHPLOtPHWURV 6ROXFLyQ 3DUDHVWHSUREOHPDVHDSOLFDODPLVPDIyUPXODTXH SDUDHODQWHULRU'HEHPRVUHFRUGDUTXHODGLVWDQFLD  GHEHH[SUHVDUVHHQPHWURV     FRXO\   P   $SOLFDQGRODIyUPXODUHVXOWD   6LODVFDUJDVHVWiQVREUHXQDUHFWDDGHOSODQR  ODVIXHU]DV WHQGUiQHVD GLUHFFLyQ(O iQJXORGHOD XELFDGD PiV DUULED HQ HO SODQR WHQGUi HO VHQWLGR TXH OD DOHMD GH OD RWUD VX iQJXOR VHUi GH  /D RWUD WHQGUi HO VHQWLGR FRQWUDULRSRUHOORHOiQJXORHVGH &RQORTXHHOUHVXOWDGR HV \   'HWHUPLQDUODIXHU]DH[LVWHQWHHQWUHXQHOHFWUyQ\XQSURWyQFXDQGR VHKDOODQVHSDUDGRVSRU  PHWURV 6ROXFLyQ 3DUDHVWHSUREOHPDVHDSOLFDODPLVPDIyUPXODTXHSDUDHODQWHULRU'HEHPRV UHFRUGDUTXH ODV FDUJDV HOpFWULFDVGHOSURWyQ\GHOHOHFWUyQVRQLJXDOHVHQ PDJQLWXGSHURSRVLWLYDSDUDHOSURWyQ\QHJDWLYDSDUDHOHOHFWUyQ    FRXO   FRXO\    P $SOLFDQGRODIyUPXODUHVXOWD
. (MHPSORVGHFiOFXORV   N T


























QHZWRQV



)

T

T





U

T

) 

)





)

T

QHZWRQV

) 

 



QHZWRQV

)





QHZWRQV



TH



TS





(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





   8QDFDUJDGHFRXOVHHQFXHQWUDHQODVFRRUGHQDGDV  HQ FHQWtPHWURV GHO SODQR [\ 2WUD GH  FRXO HQ   +DOODU OD IXHU]D UHVXOWDQWHHQPDJQLWXG\VHQWLGRTXHHMHUFHQVREUHXQDWHUFHUDFDUJDGH FRXOXELFDGDHQ   6ROXFLyQ (QHVWHFDVRGHEHPRVFDOFXODUODIXHU]DTXHFDGDXQDGHODVGRVSULPHUDV HMHUFHQ VREUH OD WHUFHUD \ OXHJR VXPDUODV YHFWRULDOPHQWH SDUD REWHQHU OD UHVXOWDQWH$GHPiVGHEHPRVSULPHURFDOFXODUODVGLVWDQFLDVHQWUHODVFDUJDV D SDUWLU GH ORV GDWRV TXH QRV GDQ VX XELFDFLyQ &RQYLHQH SUHVHQWDUOR JUiILFDPHQWHSDUDYHUORPiVFODUR 3DUDODGLVWDQFLDHQWUHT \T  TXHSRGHPRVLQGLFDUFRPRU   DSOLFDPRVHOWHRUHPDGH3LWi>FP@ JRUDV U   [ [  \ \   T U           FP  T   T +DFLHQGRORSURSLRFRQOD RWUDGLVWDQFLDHQFRQWUDUH PRVTXHHVODPLVPD  $KRUDSRGHPRVDSOLFDUOD    >FP@ IyUPXODGH&RXORPE\REWHQHUTXH \VXiQJXOR   \VXiQJXOR 3DUD KDOODU OD UHVXOWDQWH GHEHPRV REWHQHU OD IRUPD SROLQyPLFD GH ORV GRV YHFWRUHV)\UHDOL]DUVXVXPDYHFWRULDOGDGRTXHHVWDPRVHQXQSODQR )  FRV  VHQ             )  FRV  VHQ             6XPDQGRVHREWLHQH     RELpQ   
) 


$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

QHZWRQV



\

)5

)





)











U 

 



P







U 

 



P



) 

 1W


1



) 

 1W

2



) 

L

M

) 

L

M

)5

)5

  




1W

(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





 6LGHVHRTXHVHHMHU]DXQDIXHU]DGHDWUDFFLyQGHQHZWRQHQWUH GRV FDUJDV GH PDJQLWXG  FRXO \ VLJQR FRQWUDULR $ TXp GLVWDQFLD GHER FRORFDUODV" 6ROXFLyQ 'HERHQFRQWUDUODGLVWDQFLDHQWUHGRVFDUJDVFRQRFLGDVSDUDREWHQHUODIXHU]D UHTXHULGD /XHJRUHVXOWDUi > N T  T  )@  >         @         &XiO HV OD LQWHQVLGDG GH FDPSR HOpFWULFR TXH VH JHQHUD D XQD GLVWDQFLDGHFPGHXQDFDUJDHOpFWULFDGHFRXO" 6ROXFLyQ /DIyUPXODGHODLQWHQVLGDGGHFDPSRHOpFWULFRHV    TU  N TU          4Xp FDUJD GHER FRORFDU SDUD REWHQHU XQ FDPSR HOpFWULFR GH  QHZWRQFRXODXQDGLVWDQFLDGHFP" 6ROXFLyQ 8VDQGR OD IyUPXOD GHO SUREOHPD DQWHULRU SRGHPRV GHVSHMDU OD FDUJD UHTXHULGD    U  (  N  U  ( >    @       4XpFDUJDGHERFRORFDUDFPGHXQSXQWRSDUDFDQFHODUHOFDPSR HOpFWULFRJHQHUDGRHQpOSRUXQDFDUJDGHFRXOTXHHVWiXELFDGDDFP GHOSXQWR"(QTXpGLUHFFLyQGHERFRORFDUOD" 6ROXFLyQ 3ULPHURGHERGHWHUPLQDUHOFDPSRH[LVWHQWHSDUDOXHJRSRGHUFDQFHODUOR N TU              1FRXO 3DUD FDQFHODUOR GHER FUHDU XQ FDPSR GH LJXDO LQWHQVLGDG SHUR GH VHQWLGR FRQWUDULR VL XELFR D OD FDUJD VREUH OD UHFWD GHWHUPLQDGD SRU OD FDUJD H[LVWHQWH\HOSXQWRHQWUHODFDUJD\HOSXQWR  N  U  ( >      @         2WDPELpQXQFDPSRLJXDOGHLJXDOVLJQRVLODXELFRGHMDQGRDOSXQWRHQWUH DPEDVFDUJDVHVGHFLUTXH    &XiOHVHOSRWHQFLDOHOpFWULFRGHXQSXQWRXELFDGRDFPGHXQD FDUJDGHFRXO" 6ROXFLyQ /DIyUPXODGHOSRWHQFLDOHOpFWULFRHV    TU  N TU        
 U 


$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

 

 



 



PHWURV

(













1FRXO



T















FRXO



(







 



T



 





FRXO

T 

T 

3



FP

T

FRXO

T 

3

T 



FP



9 











YROWLRV

(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





&XiOHVODGLIHUHQFLDGHSRWHQFLDOHQWUHGRVSXQWRVHO$XELFDGRD FP\HORWUR%DFPGHXQDFDUJDGHFRXO"&XiOHVHOSXQWRTXH WLHQH PD\RU SRWHQFLDO" &XiO VHUtD OD UHVSXHVWD VL OD FDUJD IXHUD GH LJXDO PDJQLWXGSHURGHVLJQRFRQWUDULR" 6ROXFLyQ /DIyUPXODGHOSRWHQFLDOHOpFWULFRHV N TU          N TU           /DGLIHUHQFLDGHSRWHQFLDOHV  9 9      /XHJRUHVXOWDTXH HVPD\RUTXH  3DUDHOVHJXQGRFDVRFDPELDHOVLJQRGHORVSRWHQFLDOHVSHURQRVXPDJQLWXG 5HVXOWDUiORFRQWUDULR  \ HVPHQRUTXH   D &XiOHVODFDSDFLGDGGHXQFRQGHQVDGRUSODQRIRUPDGRSRUGRV SODFDVUHFWDQJXODUHVSDUDOHODVGHXQDVXSHUILFLHGHFP VHSDUDGDVSRU PPGHDLUH" E &XiOHVODFDUJDHOpFWULFDDFXPXODGDFXDQGRVHHVWDEOHFHXQDGLIHUHQFLD GHSRWHQFLDOHQWUHSODFDVGHYROWLRV" 6ROXFLyQ /DVORQJLWXGHVGHEHQGDUVHHQPHWURVOXHJRORVGDWRVSDUDHOFiOFXORVHUiQ    FRXO 1 P   P    P .    $G            <ODFDUJDSRGHPRVFDOFXODUODWHQLHQGRHQFXHQWDTXH& T9SRUHOOR & 9   
  9 $
$

$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$











YROWLRV

9 %











YROWLRV

9$%







YROWLRV

9 %

9$

9$%





YROWLRV

9% 

9$





$





G



.DLUH

0







&







)DUDGLRV

T

FRXO

(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

127$6<&20(17$5,26


,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

  'HQRPLQDPRV DFXDOTXLHUFXHUSRTXHWLHQHODIDFXOWDGGHDWUDHU WUR]RVGHKLHUUR\VHOODPD DODSURSLHGDGHQYLUWXGGHODFXDO VHSURGXFHHVDDWUDFFLyQ  6LLQWURGXFLPRVXQLPiQHQOLPDGXUDVGHKLHUUR\ORUHWLUDPRVYHUHPRV TXHODVOLPDGXUDVVHDGKLHUHQIXQGDPHQWDOPHQWHHQORVH[WUHPRVSRUHOOR GHQRPLQDPRV DORVH[WUHPRVGHOLPiQ$XQTXHDPERVSRORVDWUDHQODV OLPDGXUDV QR VRQ LJXDOHV 6L WRPDPRV GRV EDUUDV PDJQpWLFDV FRQ SRORV ORFDOL]DGRVHQORVH[WUHPRV\ODVVXVSHQGHPRVDGLVWDQFLDFRQVLGHUDEOHXQD GHODRWUD\GHFXDOTXLHURWURLPiQRFXHUSRGHKLHUURGHIRUPDTXHSXHGDQ JLUDUOLEUHPHQWHHQXQSODQRKRUL]RQWDOREVHUYDUHPRVTXHODVGRVVHXELFDQ VLJXLHQGRODRULHQWDFLyQ1RUWH6XU WDOFRPRORKDUtDODDJXMDGHXQDEU~MXOD  6LDKRUDODVDSUR[LPDPRVYHUHPRVTXHORVSRORVTXHDSXQWDEDQDO1RUWHVH UHSHOHQHQWUHVt\ORPLVPRRFXUUHFRQORVTXHDSXQWDEDQDO6XUSHURVH DWUDHQHOSRORTXHDSXQWDEDDO1RUWHGHXQDFRQHOTXHDSXQWDEDDO6XUGHOD RWUD   $OSRORTXHVHxDODEDDO1RUWHVHGHQRPLQD GHOLPiQ\DO RWUR GHOLPiQ/D7LHUUDHVXQLPiQFRQORVSRORVVLWXDGRVGHQWURGH ORV&tUFXORV3RODUHVUWLFR\$QWiUWLFRSHURQRFRLQFLGLHQGRFRQORVH[WUHPRV GHO HMH GH URWDFLyQ SRU HVR KDEODPRV GH SRORV JHRJUiILFRV \ SRORV PDJQpWLFRVGHOD7LHUUD KD\TXHDFODUDUTXHHOSROR1RUWHGHOD7LHUUDHV HVWULFWDPHQWHXQSRORVXUVLODFRQVLGHUDPRVXQLPiQ  /DVIXHU]DVGHDWUDFFLyQ\UHSXOVLyQPDJQpWLFDVVRQWDQIXQGDPHQWDOHV FRPRODVGHDWUDFFLyQ\UHSXOVLyQHQWUHFDUJDVHOpFWULFDV\ODVGHDWUDFFLyQGH OD JUDYHGDG FRQRFHPRV VXV OH\HV \ ODV XWLOL]DPRV LQGHSHQGLHQWH GH VX QDWXUDOH]D3RGHPRVVtDGHODQWDUTXHH[LVWHXQDPDUFDGDVLPLOLWXGHQWUHODV IXHU]DVHOpFWULFDV\ODVPDJQpWLFDV\ODGLIHUHQFLDHQWUHDPERVHVSDFLRVHV TXHSRGHPRVWHQHUFDUJDVHOpFWULFDVLQGLYLGXDOHVSRVLWLYDV\RQHJDWLYDVSHUR ORVLPDQHVDSDUHFHQVLHPSUHFRPRSDUHVIRUPDQGR  (OHVSDFLRTXHURGHDDOLPiQ\D WUDYpV GHO FXDO HMHUFH VX LQIOXHQFLD VH OODPD FDPSR PDJQpWLFRGHOLPiQ7HyULFDPHQWH VHH[WLHQGHKDVWDHOLQILQLWRSHUR HQ OD SUiFWLFD VHFRQVLGHUDKDVWD GRQGH VH GHWHFWD VX LQIOXHQFLD \ HOORGHSHQGHGHODVHQVLELOLGDGGHO LQVWUXPHQWR TXH XVHPRV /R PLVPR TXH HO FDPSR HOpFWULFR JHQHUDGRSRUXQDFDUJDHOpFWULFD  8QSRORQRUWHPDJQpWLFRFRORFDGR HQ XQ SXQWR GHO FDPSR HVWi VRPHWLGRDXQDIXHU]DTXHWLHQGH D PRYHUOR HQ XQ VHQWLGR GHWHUPLQDGRXQSRORVXUFRORFDGR HQHOPLVPRSXQWRHVWiVRPHWLGR DXQDIXHU]DTXHWLHQGHDPRYHUOR HQ VHQWLGR FRQWUDULR (Q FRQVHFXHQFLD VL FRORFDPRV XQD SHTXHxD DJXMD LPDQWDGD HQ HO
$ ,PDQHV\PDJQHWLVPR LPiQ PDJQHWLVPR SRORV

 (/(&7520$*1(7,602


,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

/RVSRORVLJXDOHVVHUHSHOHQ

SROR QRUWH

SRORVXU

GLSRORVPDJQpWLFRV

(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

 GH XQD EDUUD PDJQpWLFD DLVODGD VH FRORFDUi HQ OD GLUHFFLyQ GHO FDPSR VHxDODQGRVXSRORQRUWHHQHOVHQWLGRHQTXHVHPRYHUtDXQSRORQRUWHOLEUH\ VXSRORVXUHQHOTXHVHPRYHUtDXQSRORVXULJXDOPHQWHOLEUH6LPRYHPRV HQWRQFHVODDJXMDVLJXLHQGRVLHPSUHHOVHQWLGRHQHOFXDOHVWiDSXQWDQGRVX SRORQRUWHVXWUD\HFWRULDVHUiXQDFXUYDSODQDTXHWHUPLQDHQHOSRORVXUGH ODEDUUD/DFXUYDSXHGHFRPSOHWDUVHOOHYDQGRODDJXMDDODSRVLFLyQLQLFLDO\ GHVSOD]iQGROD HQ HO VHQWLGR TXH VHxDOD HO SROR VXU (Q HVWH FDVR VH HQFRQWUDUiTXHODWUD\HFWRULDWHUPLQDHQHOSRORQRUWHGHODEDUUD8QDOtQHD WUD]DGD GH HVWH PRGR GH SROR D SROR VH GHQRPLQD   SDUD GLVWLQJXLUOD GH OD REWHQLGD HQ XQ FDPSRHOpFWULFR 5HSLWLHQGRHVWHSURFHVRSDUDGLVWLQWDVSRVLFLRQHVLQLFLDOHV GHODDJXMDLPDQWDGDSXHGHGLEXMDUVHHOFDPSRPDJQpWLFRGHXQLPiQ/DV OtQHDVUHSUHVHQWDQHQFDGDSXQWRHOVHQWLGRGHOFDPSRPDJQpWLFR\QRKD\ OtPLWHSDUDHOQ~PHURGHOtQHDVTXHSXHGHQGLEXMDUVHVLQHPEDUJRHQFLHUWRV FDVRVVHXWLOL]DHOQ~PHURGHOtQHDVSRUXQLGDGGHiUHD FHQWtPHWURFXDGUDGR SRUHMHPSOR SDUDUHSUHVHQWDUODLQWHQVLGDGGHOFDPSRHQFDGDSXQWR  &RPRREVHUYDPRVHQHOJUiILFRDQWHULRUKD\XQDGLIHUHQFLDLPSRUWDQWH HQODVOtQHDVGHLQGXFFLyQFRQUHVSHFWRDODVGHIXHU]DGHXQFDPSRHOpFWULFR HQODVGHLQGXFFLyQYHPRVTXHQRSDUWHQGHXQ~QLFRSXQWRDXQTXHKD\XQD PD\RU FRQFHQWUDFLyQ HQ ORV SRORV OD UD]yQ HV VLPSOH QR KD\ SRORV PDJQpWLFRVOLEUHVVLHPSUHHQFRQWUDPRVGLSRORVPDJQpWLFRV  ,GHDOPHQWH VH KD LQWURGXFLGR HO SROR PDJQpWLFR XQLGDG FRPR XQ PDQDQWLDOSXQWXDOGHOFXDOSDUWHQOtQHDVUHFWDVUDGLDOHVGHIXHU]DPDJQpWLFD XQLIRUPHPHQWHUHSDUWLGDVVXYDORUVHKDILMDGRSDUDTXHGRVSRORVXQLGDG LGpQWLFRVVHSDUDGRVDODGLVWDQFLDGHXQFHQWtPHWURVHUHSHODQFRQODIXHU]D GHXQDGLQD6HUHLWHUDHVXQHOHPHQWRLGHDO  /DLQWHQVLGDGGHXQFDPSRPDJQpWLFRHQFXDOTXLHUSXQWRGHOHVSDFLRVH GHILQH FRPR OD IXHU]D HQ GLQDV TXH HO FDPSR HMHUFHUtD VREUH HO SROR PDJQpWLFRXQLGDGFRORFDGRHQGLFKRSXQWRHOVtPERORXWLOL]DGRSDUDLQGLFDUOD LQWHQVLGDGGHFDPSRPDJQpWLFRHVODOHWUD 3DUDHOVLVWHPDFJVODXQLGDGGH FDPSRHVHO 
OtQHD GH IXHU]D PDJQpWLFD R OtQHD GH LQGXFFLyQ + 2HUVWHG
(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF  

 &XDQGRGHGHVHDUHSUHVHQWDUWDQWRHOVHQWLGRFRPRODLQWHQVLGDGGHXQ FDPSRPDJQpWLFRODOtQHDUHFLEHXQVLJQLILFDGRFXDQWLWDWLYR\HOQ~PHURGH HOODV GLEXMDGDV R LPDJLQDGDV SRU FHQWtPHWUR FXDGUDGR GH VXSHUILFLH SHUSHQGLFXODUDOFDPSRVHKDFHLJXDODODLQWHQVLGDGGHFDPSR$KRUDELpQ FRPRHOiUHDGHODVXSHUILFLHGHXQDHVIHUDGHXQFHQWtPHWURGHUDGLRHVGH FP VHGHGXFHTXHHOQ~PHURWRWDOGHOtQHDVGHLQGXFFLyQTXHSDUWHQGH XQSRORPDJQpWLFRXQLGDGHVGH  3XHGHIDEULFDUVHXQLPiQKDFLHQGRFLUFXODUXQDFRUULHQWHHOpFWULFDSRU XQ FRQGXFWRU DLVODGR HQUROODGR DOUHGHGRU GH XQ FXHUSR GH KLHUUR 6L HO PDWHULDO HV XQ DFHUR GXOFH UHFRFLGR VHUi IiFLO PDJQHWL]DUOR SHUR SHUGHUi UiSLGDPHQWH HVD SURSLHGDG FXDQGR GHMHPRV GH KDFHU FLUFXODU OD FRUULHQWH WHQGUtDPRVDVtXQ TXHSRGHPRVJREHUQDU  (Q FDPELR VL XWLOL]DPRV FLHUWRV DFHURV GXURV VHUi PiV GLItFLO VX LPDQWDFLyQ SHUR OD FRQVHUYDUiQ PXFKR WLHPSR REWHQLHQGR GHP~OWLSOHVXVRV   (Q2HUVWHGGHVFXEULyTXHODFLUFXODFLyQGHXQDFRUULHQWHSRUXQ FRQGXFWRU HV GHFLU OD FLUFXODFLyQ GH FDUJDV HOpFWULFDV SURGXFtDQ HIHFWRV PDJQpWLFRVODFRUULHQWHGHVSOD]DEDODDJXMDPDJQHWL]DGDWDOFRPRORKDFtD XQLPiQ  ([WHQGHUHPRVHQWRQFHVHOFRQFHSWRGHFDPSRPDJQpWLFRDOFDPSRHQ OD SUR[LPLGDGHV GH XQ LPiQ R GH XQ FRQGXFWRU SRU GRQGH FLUFXOD XQD FRUULHQWH HOpFWULFD (O YHFWRU GH FDPSR PDJQpWLFR IXQGDPHQWDO VH OODPD VHLQGLFDFRQ \VHSXHGHUHSUHVHQWDUSRUPHGLRGH ODVOtQHDVGHLQGXFFLyQ


$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

HOHFWURLPiQ

LPDQHV

SHUPDQHQWHV

% 0DJQHWLVPR\FDUJDHOpFWULFD

LQGXFFLyQPDJQpWLFD

$ HVWH YHFWRU OR GHILQLUHPRV SRU PHGLR GH XQDFDUJD

HOpFWULFDGHSUXHEDGLVSDUDGDFRQXQDYHORFLGDGDUELWUDULDYSRUHOSXQWR36L REUDVREUHHOODXQDIXHU]D)TXHODGHVYtHODWHUDOPHQWHDILUPDPRVTXHH[LVWH XQFDPSRPDJQpWLFRHQ3


Y

  6LYDULDPRVODGLUHFFLyQGHODYHORFLGDG SRUHOSXQWR3VLQYDULDUVX PDJQLWXG REVHUYDUHPRV TXH DXQTXH VH PDQWLHQH SHUSHQGLFXODU D  OD IXHU]D  YDUtD VX PDJQLWXG 3DUD XQD FLHUWD GLUHFFLyQ \ VHQWLGR GH  \ WDPELpQ HO VHQWLGR RSXHVWR  OD IXHU]D  VH DQXOD 'HILQLUHPRV D HVD GLUHFFLyQFRPRODGLUHFFLyQGH   (QFRQWUDGDODGLUHFFLyQGH SRGHPRVRULHQWDUODYHORFLGDGGHODFDUJD GHSUXHEDGHIRUPDTXHVHDSHUSHQGLFXODUD FRQHVWRODIXHU]DVHUiOD Pi[LPD<DKRUDHVWDPRVHQFRQGLFLRQHVGHGHILQLUODPDJQLWXGGHOFDPSR  SRUODUHODFLyQ GRQGHT HVODFDUJDHOpFWULFDGHODFDUJDGHSUXHED HVODIXHU]DPi[LPD SHUSHQGLFXODU D OD WUD\HFWRULD \  HV OD PDJQLWXG GH OD YHORFLGDG GH OD FDUJDGHSUXHED  (QORVGRVSiUUDIRVDQWHULRUHVKHPRVGHILQLGRODGLUHFFLyQ\ODPDJQLWXG GH DKRUDODGHILQLUHPRVFRPSOHWDPHQWH  
Y ) Y Y % ) % % % _%_ _)Pi[ _ T_Y_ 


_Y_

6LXQDFDUJDHOpFWULFDSRVLWLYDGHSUXHEDT VHGLVSDUDFRQODYHORFLGDG

YSRU XQ SXQWR 3 \VLREUDVREUHHOODXQDIXHU]DODWHUDO )KD\XQDLQGXFFLyQ

PDJQpWLFD%HQHOSXQWR3VLHQGR%HOYHFWRUTXHVDWLVIDFHODUHODFLyQ
)
(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF

TY[%
 

 GRQGH \ VRQFDQWLGDGHVYHFWRULDOHV  T HVHVFDODUWRGDVVHPLGHQ\ LQGLFD  HOSURGXFWRYHFWRULDO  'HO GLEXMR GHGXFLPRV TXH  VHUi  VLHPSUHSHUSHQGLFXODUDODWUD\HFWRULDGH  ODFDUJDGHSUXHED SRVLWLYD ODFRUULHQWH  HOpFWULFD  \ D OD LQGXFFLyQ PDJQpWLFD   (VD IXHU]D VH DQXOD FXDQGR  \  VRQ  SDUDOHODVRDQWLSDUDOHODV\UHVXOWDPi[LPD  FXDQGRVRQSHUSHQGLFXODUHV/DXQLGDGGH  LQGXFFLyQPDJQpWLFDTXHVHGHGXFHGHODV  H[SUHVLRQHV DQWHULRUHV HV  GLPHQVLRQDOPHQWH QHZWRQFXORPELR  GLYLGLGRPHWURVHJXQGR\VHOHKDGDGR  HOQRPEUHGH R 1 newton
) Y


$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

]

 \  ! ; 

[

  2WUDXQLGDGPiVDQWLJXDHVHOJDXVVTXHVHUHODFLRQDFRQHOZHEHUP  SRUODUHODFLyQZHEHUP   JDXVV  $KRUD HVWDPRV HQ FRQGLFLRQHV GH FDOFXODU HO HIHFWR GH OD DFFLyQ FRQMXQWDGHORVFDPSRVHOpFWULFR\PDJQpWLFRVREUHXQDFDUJDHOpFWULFD  T T  [  IyUPXODTXHVHODFRQRFHFRPRUHODFLyQGH/RUHQW]  8QDFRUULHQWHHVXQFRQMXQWRGHFDUJDVHQPRYLPLHQWRFRQVHFXHQWHVH HMHUFHUi XQD IXHU]D ODWHUDO VREUH XQ DODPEUH TXH OOHYH FRUULHQWH VL VH HQFXHQWUDHQXQFDPSRPDJQpWLFR/DFRUULHQWHVHGHILQHSRUODFDQWLGDGGH FDUJD TXH DWUDYLHVD XQD VHFFLyQ GHOFRQGXFWRUHQ OD XQLGDGGHWLHPSRHV GHFLU q  i = t 'RQGH  VH H[SUHVD HQ  VL OD FDQWLGDG GH FDUJD  HVWi GDGD HQ \HOWLHPSRHQVHJXQGRV  8QPHWDOFRQGXFHODFRUULHQWHSRUPHGLRGHORVHOHFWURQHVOLEUHVVLHQGR ODFDQWLGDGGHHOORVSRUXQLGDGGHYROXPHQGHODODPEUHSRUHMHPSORSDUD HO FREUH SXHGH GHFLUVH TXH KD\    HOHFWURQHV OLEUHV SRU FHQWtPHWUR F~ELFR \ OD FDUJD HOpFWULFD HV  3RU HOOR VH SXHGH HVFULELUTXH q = n e l A GRQGH HVODGLVWDQFLDSURPHGLRUHFRUULGDHQXQVHJXQGRSRUORVHOHFWURQHV \ HVHOiUHDGHODVHFFLyQGHOFRQGXFWRUFRQORTXHVXSURGXFWRQRVGDHO YROXPHQGHFRQGXFWRU  /XHJRSRGHPRVHVFULELUTXH i = n e v A GRQGH HVODYHORFLGDGGHDUUDVWUHGDGDSRU >PHWURV@ >VHJXQGR@  /DPDJQLWXGGHODIXHU]DVREUHFDGDHOHFWUyQHVWiGDGDSRUODUHODFLyQ TXH\DYLPRVDVXPLHQGRTXHODGLUHFFLyQGHODFRUULHQWHHVSHUSHQGLFXODUDO YHFWRU FRQORTXH WHQGUHPRVTXH
1 weber/m
2

WHVOD

ZHEHUP

coulombio ( metro/segundo )
 

1 newton amper metro

(

DPSHULRV

FXORPELRV Q

 

H

 

 

 FRXO

YG

O

W

(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





    F' = q v B sen  = e v B   /DORQJLWXG GHODODPEUHWLHQHXQDFDQWLGDGGHHOHFWURQHVLJXDODQ$O VLHQGR $O HO YROXPHQ GHO DODPEUH 3RU OR WDQWR OD IXHU]D WRWDO VREUH HO DODPEUHVHUi     F = (n A l) F' = (n A l) e v B  GRQGHSRGHPRVLQWURGXFLUODFRUULHQWHGDGDSRU QRVTXHGD TXHODIXHU]DODWHUDOVREUHHODODPEUHHV _ _  RSDUDFXDOTXLHUiQJXOR  L [    __  $HVWDH[SUHVLyQVHSXHGHOOHJDUWRPDQGRHQFXHQWDTXHODGHQVLGDGGH FRUULHQWHHQODVHFFLyQGHOFRQGXFWRUHVWiGDGDSRU  FRQORTXHODYHORFLGDGGHDUUDVWUHUHVXOWDLJXDOD &RQHOOROD IXHU]DVREUHFDGDHOHFWUyQHV j jB  F' = e B = n e n \ODIXHU]DWRWDO j B  F = (n A l) F' = (n A l) n  ,QWURGXFLHQGRODLQWHQVLGDGGHFRUULHQWH TXHGD   __ _ _  RSDUDFXDOTXLHUiQJXOR  L [  GRQGHOD[LQGLFDHOSURGXFWRYHFWRULDO&RQHOORODIXHU]D HVXQYHFWRUFX\D PDJQLWXGHV _ _ ODGLUHFFLyQHVSHUSHQGLFXODUDOSODQR GHILQLGR SRU HO YHFWRU ORQJLWXG  \ HO YHFWRU LQGXFFLyQ PDJQpWLFD  \ HO VHQWLGRHVHOGHDYDQFHGHXQWRUQLOORURVFDGHUHFKDTXHJLUHHQHOVHQWLGRGH KDFLD VLJXLHQGRHOPHQRUiQJXOR  (VWD IXHU]D HV OD TXH FRQVWLWX\H HO SULQFLSLR GH IXQFLRQDPLHQWR GHO PRWRUHOpFWULFRGHORVLQVWUXPHQWRVGHPHGLFLyQDDJXMD\GHORVURWDWLYRV FRPRORVPHGLGRUHVGHHQHUJtD3HURWDPELpQWLHQHOXJDUHOHIHFWRFRQWUDULR VLPRYHPRVXQFRQGXFWRUHQXQFDPSRPDJQpWLFR RYDULDPRVpVWH KDUHPRV FLUFXODUXQDFRUULHQWHFRPRYHUHPRVHQHOSXQWRVLJXLHQWH  (V LPSRUWDQWH HVWDEOHFHU RWUR FRQFHSWR D SDUWLU GH OD LQGXFFLyQ PDJQpWLFD HVHOFRQFHSWRGH DWUDYpVGHXQDVXSHUILFLH SHUSHQGLFXODUDODGLUHFFLyQGH HVWHIOXMRLQGLFDGRSRUODOHWUDJULHJDSKL HVWiGDGRSRUHOSURGXFWRGHODLQGXFFLyQSRUHOiUHDFRQVLGHUDGD      /DXQLGDGGHHVWHSDUiPHWURHVHO 
0 d

$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

L

QHYG $

) 

LO %

-

 L  $

 Q  H  YG

YG 

M QH

L

M$

) 

LO %

_)_

 L  O  %

VHQ O

IOXMR PDJQpWLFR

%$

ZHEHU

(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

 3RGHPRVUHDOL]DUHOH[SHULPHQWRGHFRQHFWDUXQDPSHUtPHWURVHQVLEOHD ORV ERUQHV GH XQD ERELQD VLQ FRORFDU QLQJXQD IXHQWH GH HQHUJtD (Q HVDV FLUFXQVWDQFLDVQRSRGHPRVHVSHUDUTXHFLUFXOHXQDFRUULHQWHSRUHOFLUFXLWR 6LQ HPEDUJR VL DFHUFDPRV XQ LPiQ D OD ERELQD FRQ OR TXH HO FDPSR PDJQpWLFR HQ OD ERELQD FDPELDUi  QRWDUHPRV TXH HO LQVWUXPHQWR DFXVD HO SDVR GH XQD FRUULHQWH PLHQWUDV HVWHPRV PRYLHQGR HO LPiQ HO VHQWLGR GHO PRYLPLHQWRDOHMiQGRVHRDFHUFiQGRVHKDUiFLUFXODUODFRUULHQWHHQVHQWLGRV RSXHVWRV /DFRUULHQWHFLUFXODQWHHVXQD SRUXQD   2WURH[SHULPHQWRHVFRORFDUHOGLVSRVLWLYRDQWHULRUFRQHOLQVWUXPHQWR\ FHUFD GH OD ERELQD FRORFDU RWUR FLUFXLWR FRQ XQD ERELQD VLPLODU SHUR DOLPHQWDGDSRUXQDEDWHUtDFRQXQLQWHUUXSWRU6LORVGRVFRQMXQWRVHVWiQHQ UHSRVR HQWUH Vt QRWDUHPRV HQ HO SULPHU FLUFXLWR OD FLUFXODFLyQ EUHYH GH FRUULHQWH VyOR HQ HO PRPHQWR HQ TXH HQ HO VHJXQGR FLUFXLWR FHUUDPRV R DEULPRVHOLQWHUUXSWRU\QRFXDQGRORPDQWHQHPRVDELHUWRRFHUUDGR  )DUDGD\VHGLRFXHQWDTXHKDEUiIXHU]DHOHFWURPRWUL]LQGXFLGDVLHPSUH TXH FDPELH OD FRUULHQWH GH OD VHJXQGD ERELQD \ HVWD IXHU]D HOHFWURPRWUL] GHSHQGH GH OD YHORFLGDG GH FDPELR \ QR GH OD PDJQLWXG GH OD FRUULHQWH )DUDGD\HVWDEOHFLyVXOH\GLFLHQGRTXH  /D IXHU]D HOHFWURPRWUL] LQGXFLGD  HQ XQ FLUFXLWR HV LJXDO DO YDORU QHJDWLYRGHODUDSLGH]FRQODFXDOHVWiFDPELDQGRHOIOXMRTXHDWUDYLHVDHO FLUFXLWR     3DUDHOFDVRGH1HVSLUDVVHUi    GRQGHGLQGLFDODIXQFLyQGLIHUHQFLDO    8QDFDUJDHOpFWULFDGHFRXOVHPXHYHKRUL]RQWDOPHQWHKDFLDOD GHUHFKDFRQXQDYHORFLGDGXQLIRUPHGHFPVHQXQFDPSRPDJQpWLFR XQLIRUPHYHUWLFDOKDFLDDEDMRGHXQDLQGXFFLyQPDJQpWLFDGHWHVODVFXiO HVODPDJQLWXGGLUHFFLyQ\VHQWLGRGHODIXHU]DTXHVHHMHUFHVREUHHOOD" 6ROXFLyQ )XHU]D /DHFXDFLyQTXHUHVXHOYHHOSUREOHPDHV T [ ODPDJQLWXGGHODIXHU]DHV _) _ T _Y_ _%_VHQHVLJXDOD 9HORFLGD            G /DGLUHFFLyQGHODIXHU]DHVSHUSHQGLFX ODUDOSODQRGHOSDSHO6XVHQWLGRHVWi ,QGXFFLy GDGRSRUODUHJODGHOWRUQLOORJLUDQGRGHO VHQWLGRGHODYHORFLGDGDOGHODLQGXFFLyQ Q (OVHQWLGRHVKDFLDDGHQWURSHUSHQGLFXODU DOSODQRGHILQLGRSRUODYHORFLGDG\ODLQGXFFLyQWDOFRPRORLQGLFDHOVLJQRGH ODIXHU]DUHVXOWDQWH
& /H\GH)DUDGD\

/RTXHLPSRUWDHVHOPRYLPLHQWRUHODWLYRHQWUHODERELQD\HOLPiQ
IXHU]DHOHFWURPRWUL]LQGXFLGD

QRLPSRUWDFXDOVHPXHYDRVLDPERVORKDFHQ
FRUULHQWHLQGXFLGD



 W

1 

 W 

G 1

GW

' (MHPSORVGHFiOFXORV 

)0

_)0_



1

(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





 6L HQ HO HMHPSOR DQWHULRU H[LVWH DGHPiV XQ FDPSR HOpFWULFR XQLIRUPHYHUWLFDOKDFLDDUULEDGH1FRXOFXiOHVODIXHU]DUHVXOWDQWHVREUH ODFDUJD" 6ROXFLyQ $OUHVXOWDGRDQWHULRUGHEHPRVVXPDUOHYHFWRULDOPHQWHODIXHU]DTXHHMHUFHHO FDPSRHOpFWULFRFX\DGLUHFFLyQ\VHQWLGRHVODPLVPDGHOFDPSRSRUVHUOD FDUJD SRVLWLYD (VWR SRGHPRV LQGLFDUOR FRPR TXH HV YHUWLFDO KDFLD DUULED FRQWUDULRDOGHODLQGXFFLyQHQHOJUiILFR  T _(_      /DPDJQLWXGGHODIXHU]DHV 3DUD REWHQHU OD VXPD GHEHPRV FRQVLGHUDU TXH ODV GRV IXHU]DV HVWiQ HQ FXDGUDWXUD D   \ SRGHPRV H[SUHVDUODV FRPR YHFWRUHV GH XQD VROD FRPSRQHQWH)  >1@\ )   >1@ODVXPDGHDPEDVGDFRPRUHVXOWDGR HQIRUPDSRODUVHUtD_) _ 1\ORV iQJXORVVRQ   
\ 

 _)(_


D

$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

1

0

N



(



M

)5

   L  M   N  >1@

)5    



1HZWRQV

\



)5

                   8QD FDUJD HOpFWULFD GH  FRXO HV ODQ]DGD FRQ XQD YHORFLGDG UHFWLOtQHD\XQLIRUPHGDGDSRU    PVHQXQFDPSRPDJQpWLFR XQLIRUPHFX\DLQGXFFLyQPDJQpWLFDHVWiGDGDSRU    ZP  $GHPiVHVWiHQXQFDPSRHOpFWULFRGHLQWHQVLGDGGDGDSRU     1FRXO'HWHUPLQDUODIXHU]DHMHUFLGDVREUHODFDUJD 6ROXFLyQ /DUHODFLyQGH/RUHQW]QRVLQGLFDTXH T  T  [  T    [     >        [    @    >    
)( )0 Y [ ] %  L M N L M N


)5

Y L





(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





N QHZWRQV

    @                 


L M N
 

$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

  L  M 

(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

&255,(17((/e&75,&$


,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

 (Q ORV SUREOHPDV HOHFWURVWiWLFRV WUDWDPRV ODV IXHU]DV HMHUFLGDV HQWUH FDUJDVHOHVWDGRILQDOHVWDFLRQDULRGHODGLVWULEXFLyQGHFDUJDVSURGXFLGRSRU HVWDVIXHU]DV\HOPRYLPLHQWRGHSDUWtFXODVFDUJDGDVHQHOYDFtR9DPRVD WUDWDU DKRUD HO PRYLPLHQWR GH FDUJDV GHQWUR GH XQ FRQGXFWRU FXDQGR VH PDQWLHQHXQFDPSRHOpFWULFRGHQWURGHOPLVPR(VWHPRYLPLHQWRFRQVWLWX\H XQD   8QFRQGXFWRUIXHGHILQLGRFRPRXQFXHUSRHQFX\RLQWHULRUKD\FDUJDV OLEUHV TXH VH PXHYHQ SRU OD IXHU]D HMHUFLGD VREUH HOODV SRU XQ FDPSR HOpFWULFR/DVFDUJDVOLEUHVHQXQPHWDOVRQORVHOHFWURQHVQHJDWLYRVHQXQ HOHFWUROLWR VRQ LRQHV SRVLWLYRV R QHJDWLYRV \ HQ XQ JDV HQ FRQGLFLRQHV DGHFXDGDVLRQHVSRVLWLYRV\QHJDWLYRV\HOHFWURQHV  &XDQGR FRORFDPRV XQ FRQGXFWRU DLVODGR HQ XQ FDPSR HOpFWULFR ODV FDUJDVVHUHDJUXSDQGHIRUPDGHTXHHOLQWHULRUGHOFRQGXFWRUVHDXQDUHJLyQ OLEUHGHFDPSR(VWHPRYLPLHQWRGHFDUJDVFRQVWLWX\HWDPELpQXQDFRUULHQWH GH FRUWD GXUDFLyQ OODPDGD WUDQVLWRULD 6L GHVHDPRV TXH XQD FRUULHQWH FRQWLQ~H IOX\HQGR GHEHPRV PDQWHQHU HO FDPSR R JUDGLHQWH GH SRWHQFLDO GHQWURGHpO6LHOFDPSRWLHQHVLHPSUHHOPLVPRVHQWLGRDXQTXHYDUtHVX LQWHQVLGDGREWHQHPRVXQDFRUULHQWHFRQWLQ~DVLFDPELDGHVHQWLGRGXUDQWH HO LQWHUYDOR FRQVLGHUDGR GHFLPRV TXH OD FRUULHQWH HV DOWHUQDGD (VWD FODVLILFDFLyQHVLQGHSHQGLHQWHGHODOH\GHYDULDFLyQTXHWHQJD  9DPRVDFRQVLGHUDUHQSULPHUDLQVWDQFLDFDPSRVFRQWLQXRVFRQVWDQWHV HVGHFLUDTXHOORVTXHPDQWLHQHQFRQVWDQWHVVXLQWHQVLGDG  6LDSOLFDPRVXQDGLIHUHQFLDGHSRWHQFLDOGHYROWLRV\HODODPEUHHV XQLIRUPHGHPHWURVGHODUJRODLQWHQVLGDGGHFDPSRVHUiGHYROWLRVPHWUR HQFXDOTXLHUSXQWR(VWHFDPSRDFWXDUiVREUHORVHOHFWURQHVOLEUHV\OHVGDUi XQ PRYLPLHQWR QHWR HQ OD GLUHFFLyQ  'HFLPRV HQWRQFHV TXH VH KD HVWDEOHFLGRXQDFRUULHQWHHOpFWULFD VLSDVDXQDFDUJDQHWD SRUXQDVHFFLyQ WUDQVYHUVDO FXDOTXLHUD GHO FRQGXFWRU HQHO WLHPSR  ODFRUULHQWH VXSXHVWD FRQVWDQWHHV       /DV XQLGDGHVPNV LQWHUQDFLRQDOHV VRQ  SDUD ODFRUULHQWH  SDUD OD FDUJD \  SDUD HO WLHPSR FRQ OR TXH VH GHVSUHQGH TXH ODV GLPHQVLRQHV GHO DPSHU R DPSHULR VRQ FXORPELR SRU VHJXQGR  +D\ TXH QRWDU TXH QR KD\ H[FHVR GH FDUJDV HQ XQ FRQGXFWRU TXH WUDQVSRUWD FRUULHQWH SRU VHU LJXDOHV ODV FDUJDV SRVLWLYDV \ QHJDWLYDV SRU XQLGDGGHYROXPHQ  /D GHQVLGDG GH FRUULHQWH HQ HO FRQGXFWRU LQGLFDGD FRQ  VH GHILQH FRPRODUHODFLyQHQWUHODLQWHQVLGDGGHODFRUULHQWHDODVHFFLyQWUDQVYHUVDO       /DFDQWLGDGGHFDUJD TXHVHDWUDYLHVDODVHFFLyQ GHOFRQGXFWRU HQXQWLHPSRGDGR SXHGHFDOFXODUVHFRPRHOSURGXFWRGHODFDQWLGDGGH SRUWDGRUHVOLEUHVSRUXQLGDGGHYROXPHQ ODFDUJDGHFDGDXQRGHHOORV
FRUULHQWH
( L T W L TW DPSHULRV FXORPELRV VHJXQGRV - L$ T $ W Q
(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF  

3-A) Intensidad

 \ SRU VX YHORFLGDG PHGLD  YHORFLGDG GH DUUDVWUH  HV GHFLU VL VXSRQHPRVFRQGLFLRQHVXQLIRUPHV       3RUORWDQWR       <        3RGHPRVFDOFXODUODYHORFLGDGPHGLDGHORVHOHFWURQHVHQXQFRQGXFWRU GHFREUHGHXQFHQWtPHWURGHGLiPHWURDWUDYHVDGRSRUXQDFRUULHQWHGH DPSHUHV3DUDHOORGHEHPRVWHQHUHQFXHQWDTXHHQHOFREUHKD\DOUHGHGRU GH  HOHFWURQHVOLEUHVSRUFP    - L$ >    @   $P    Y  -QH            PVHJ  (VGHFLUXQDYHORFLGDGPX\SHTXHxDTXHQRGHEHFRQIXQGLUVHFRQOD YHORFLGDGGHSURSDJDFLyQGHODVRQGDVHOHFWURPDJQpWLFDVTXHHVVLPLODUDOD GHODOX]  3RGUtDPRV DVLJQDUOH D OD FRUULHQWH HO VHQWLGR TXH WLHQH HO GHVSOD]DPLHQWRGHORVSRUWDGRUHVGHFDUJDHOpFWULFDSHURFRQODH[FHSFLyQ GHORVFRQGXFWRUHVPHWiOLFRVSXURVHQORVFXDOHVORV~QLFRVSRUWDGRUHVVRQORV HOHFWURQHVOLEUHVVLHPSUHH[LVWHQSRUWDGRUHVSRVLWLYRV\QHJDWLYRV'HKHFKR HOUHVXOWDGRGHSRUWDGRUHVGHFDUJDQHJDWLYDTXHVHPXHYHQGHL]TXLHUGDD GHUHFKDSRUHMHPSORHVHOPLVPRTXHHOSURGXFLGRSRUSRUWDGRUHVGHLJXDO FDUJDSHURQHJDWLYDTXHVHPXHYHQHQHOVHQWLGRFRQWUDULR  &RPRORVSULPHURVHVWXGLRVIXHURQUHDOL]DGRVXWLOL]DQGRHOHFWUROLWRV   3-B) Circuito completo. Ley de Ohm.  &XDQGR VH FRQHFWDQ ORV H[WUHPRV GHXQKLORFRQGXFWRUDGRVSXQWRV PDQWHQLGRVDSRWHQFLDOHVILMRVSHURGLVWLQWRVSRUHMHPSORORVERUQHVGHXQD SLODRJHQHUDGRUVHHVWDEOHFHUiXQDFRUULHQWHHQHOKLORSHURHOSRWHQFLDOGH FDGDSXQWRGHOPLVPRSHUPDQHFHFRQVWDQWHHQHOWLHPSR6LFRQVLGHUDPRVXQ HOHPHQWRGHOKLOROLPLWDGRSRUGRVSODQRVWUDQVYHUVDOHV\VXSRQHPRVTXHORV HOHFWURQHVVHPXHYHQGHL]TXLHUGDDGHUHFKDHVWDUiHQWUDQGRFDUJDQHJDWLYD DO HOHPHQWR SRU VX FDUD L]TXLHUGD \ VDOLHQGR SRU VX FDUD GHUHFKD 6L OD FDQWLGDGGHFDUJDTXHHQWUDDOHOHPHQWRQRIXHUDLJXDODODTXHVDOHKDEUtD YDULDFLyQ GH FDUJD HQ FRPR FRQVHFXHQFLD YDULDUtD HO SRWHQFLDO 'H OR DQWHGLFKR VH GHGXFH TXH OD LQWHQVLGDG GH FRUULHQWH GHEH VHU OD PLVPD HQ DPEDVFDUDVGHOHOHPHQWR\SRUH[WHQVLyQHQWRGRHOKLORFRQGXFWRU  6L OD VHFFLyQ GHO KLOR QR IXHUD FRQVWDQWH FDPELDUtD OD GHQVLGDG GH FRUULHQWH SHURQRVXLQWHQVLGDG  (O KLOR \ OD SLOD D OD TXH HVWiQ FRQHFWDGRV VXV H[WUHPRV IRUPDQ XQ  R FRPSOHWR 6yOR SXHGH KDEHU FRUULHQWH VL HO FLUFXLWR SHUPDQHFH FHUUDGR FDVR FRQWUDULR WHQGUHPRV XQ  VLQ FRUULHQWH  3DUD PDQWHQHU XQD FRUULHQWH HQ XQ FRQGXFWRU DGHPiV GH HVWDU HO FLUFXLWR FHUUDGR GHEH PDQWHQHUVH XQ FDPSR HOpFWULFR R JUDGLHQWH GH
H YG T QHYG$W L QHYG$ - QHYG
  

$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$







VH

DVLJQy FRPR VHQWLGR GH OD FRUULHQWH DO TXH WHQGUtDQ ORV SRUWDGRUHV SRVLWLYRV SDUDGHVSOD]DUODPLVPDFDUJD

FLUFXLWR FHUUDGR

FLUFXLWR DELHUWR

(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





SRWHQFLDO GHQWUR GH pO /RV PDWHULDOHV GLILHUHQ HQWUH Vt HQ HO YDORU GH OD GHQVLGDGGHFRUULHQWHHVWDEOHFLGDSRUXQFDPSRHOpFWULFRGDGR/DUD]yQGHOD GHQVLGDG GH FRUULHQWH HOpFWULFD D OD LQWHQVLGDG GH FDPSR HOpFWULFR VH GHQRPLQD \VHUHSUHVHQWDSRU VLJPD  RELHQ   6LUHHPSOD]DPRV SRU \ SRU VHWLHQHTXH RVHDTXH  (VWD H[SUHVLyQ HV GH OD PLVPD IRUPD TXH OD HFXDFLyQ GH OD FRQGXFWLELOLGDGFDORUtILFDHVWDFLRQDULD (VWD DQDORJtDHVGHELGD DOKHFKR TXHORVHOHFWURQHVOLEUHVGHVHPSHxDQXQ SDSHOLPSRUWDQWHHQODFRQGXFFLyQGHOFDORU  $XQTXH HVODUHODFLyQIXQGDPHQWDOGHODFRQGXFFLyQHOpFWULFD HV PiV FyPRGR WUDEDMDU FRQ LQWHQVLGDGHV GH FRUULHQWH \ GLIHUHQFLDV GH SRWHQFLDO VRQPiVIiFLOPHQWHPHGLEOHV TXHFRQGHQVLGDGHVGHFRUULHQWHH LQWHQVLGDGHVGHFDPSR  3DUWLUHPRVGHODH[SUHVLyQ FRQVLGHUDUHPRVXQ FRQGXFWRU GH ORQJLWXG  \ VHFFLyQ FRQVWDQWH  SRU HO FXDO FLUFXOD XQD LQWHQVLGDGGHFRUULHQWH \TXHVHDQ \ ORVSRWHQFLDOHVHQVXVH[WUHPRV 9DPRVDUHVWULQJLUHOHVWXGLRDOFDVRHQTXHODFRQGXFWLYLGDGGHOPDWHULDOHV LQGHSHQGLHQWH GH OD GHQVLGDG GH FRUULHQWH \ TXH OD WHPSHUDWXUD \ GHPiV FRQGLFLRQHV TXH LQIOX\HQ VREUH  VH PDQWLHQHQ FRQVWDQWHV (Q WDOHV FRQGLFLRQHVVHPDQWLHQHQFRQVWDQWHV  \ \SRGHPRVH[WHQGHU LQWHJUDU  ODH[SUHVLyQDWRGDODORQJLWXGGHOFRQGXFWRUTXHGDQGR     (VWD HV OD UHODFLyQ GHVHDGD HQWUH OD LQWHQVLGDG GH OD FRUULHQWH HQ HO FRQGXFWRU\ODGLIHUHQFLDGHSRWHQFLDOHQVXVH[WUHPRV(OIDFWRU  VHGHQRPLQD GHOKLORFRQGXFWRU$PD\RUFRQGXFWDQFLDPD\RU LQWHQVLGDGGHFRUULHQWHSDUDXQDGLIHUHQFLDGHSRWHQFLDOGDGD/DLQYHUVDGH  OD FRQGXFWDQFLD HV GHQRPLQDGD  FRUUHVSRQGLHQWHPHQWH OD LQYHUVD GH OD FRQGXFWLYLGDG VH GHQRPLQD  FRQORTXHODUHVLVWHQFLDVHH[SUHVDFRPR   3RGHPRVDKRUDFDOFXODUODLQWHQVLGDGGHODFRUULHQWHFRPR    6yORVL HVLQGHSHQGLHQWHGH ODUHVLVWHQFLDHVLQGHSHQGLHQWHGH \ ODGLIHUHQFLDGHSRWHQFLDOHQWUHORVERUQHVHVIXQFLyQOLQHDOGHODFRUULHQWH (VWDSURSRUFLRQDOLGDGGHGHQRPLQD RUHODFLyQYROWDPSHUH  /DXQLGDGPNVGHODUHVLVWHQFLDGHULYDGDGHOD~OWLPDH[SUHVLyQHVHO YROWLR SRU DPSHULR \ VH GHQRPLQD  X RKP  \ VH LQGLFD FRQ  /D UHFtSURFDOD TXHVHLQGLFDFRQODOHWUD VHH[SUHVDHQ R  R   8QFLUFXLWRHOpFWULFRHVWDUiHQWRQFHVFRQVWLWXLGRSRUXQDRPiVIXHQWHV GHHQHUJtDTXHDSDUHFHUiQFRPRJHQHUDGRUHVGHWHQVLyQRGHFRUULHQWH\GH UHVLVWHQFLDVFRQHFWDGRVHQWUHVtSRUFRQGXFWRUHVTXHVXSRQGUHPRVQRWLHQHQ UHVLVWHQFLD/RVVtPERORVSXHGHQVHUYDULRVXQDGHODVIRUPDVSXHGHVHU
FRQGXFWLELOLGDGHOpFWULFD
 ( -(  -  (  9 [ L$ L$   9 [  L  $ 9 [  + .$ W [  -  ( L     $ 9  $ [ / L 9D 9E L  $ L [  $ 9 L/  $ 9D 9E   L   $/  9D 9E *  $/

$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$



FRQGXFWDQFLD

UHVLVWHQFLD

5

/



UHVLVWLYLGDG

 

5

 /

L

 9D

9E 5

L

9DE5

9DE

L5

/H\GH2KP RKPLR

FRQGXFWDQFLD 6

*

PKR

VLHPHQV

(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





  R       *HQHUDGRU *HQHUDGRU 5HVLVWHQFLDR  GHWHQVLyQ GHFRUULHQWH &RQGXFWDQFL  D   3-C) Ley de Joule  $XQTXHKHPRVFRQVLGHUDGRODFRUULHQWHFRPRVLWRGRVORVSRUWDGRUHVVH PRYLHUDQDYHORFLGDGFRQVWDQWHODUHDOLGDGHVTXHORVHOHFWURQHVVHGHVSOD]DQ FRQ PRYLPLHQWRV DFHOHUDGRV TXH WHUPLQDQ HQ FKRTXHV FRQWUD XQD GH ODV SDUWtFXODVILMDVGHOFRQGXFWRU/RVHOHFWURQHVJDQDQHQHUJtDFLQpWLFDGXUDQWH VXGHVSOD]DPLHQWR\ODFHGHQHQHOFKRTXHVXEVLJXLHQWH/DHQHUJtDDGTXLULGD SRU ODV SDUWtFXODVILMDV ILMDV SRU VX SRVLFLyQ PHGLD VRODPHQWH DXPHQWDOD DPSOLWXGGHVXYLEUDFLyQRVHDVHFRQYLHUWHHQFDORU  6XSRQJDPRV XQD SDUWH GH XQ FLUFXLWR HQ HO FXDO KD\ XQD FRUULHQWH FRQYHQFLRQDOLTXHFLUFXODGHL]TXLHUGDDGHUHFKD9 \9 VRQORVSRWHQFLDOHV HQ ORV ERUQHV D \ E /D QDWXUDOH]D GHO FLUFXLWR FRPSUHQGLGR SXHGH VHU FXDOTXLHUD(QXQLQWHUYDORGHWLHPSRWHQWUDSRUHOERUQHD\VDOHSRUHOE XQDFDQWLGDGGHFDUJDT LW/DHQHUJtDFHGLGDSRUODFDUJDHV: T 9 9  LW9 \ODSRWHQFLDVXPLQLVWUDGDHV  /DSRWHQFLDHVLJXDODOSURGXFWRGHODLQWHQVLGDGGHODFRUULHQWHSRUOD GLIHUHQFLD GH SRWHQFLDO 6L OD FRUULHQWH VH H[SUHVD HQ DPSHULRV FXORPELRVVHJXQGR \ODGLIHUHQFLDGHSRWHQFLDOHQYROWLRV MXOLRVFXORPELRV  ODSRWHQFLDUHVXOWDPHGLGDHQMXOLRVVHJXQGRRYDWLRV  (QHOFDVRGHXQDUHVLVWHQFLDSXUD5WRGDODHQHUJtDVHFRQYLHUWHHQ FDORU\UHVXOWDTXH  3RGHPRVSRQHUVLHQGR+ODFDQWLGDGGHFDORUSURGXFLGDHQHOWLHPSR WTXH  6LHOFRQGXFWRUHVOLQHDO5HVLQGHSHQGLHQWHGHLODFDQWLGDGGHFDORU SURGXFLGD SRU VHJXQGR HV GLUHFWDPHQWH SURSRUFLRQDO DO FXDGUDGR GH OD LQWHQVLGDG GH FRUULHQWH (VWR HV HO HQXQFLDGR GH OD /H\ GH -RXOH 8QD VXEVWDQFLDTXHREHGHFHDODOH\GH2KPREHGHFHQHFHVDULDPHQWHDODOH\GH -RXOH \ HVWDV GRV OH\HV QR VRQ LQGHSHQGLHQWHV /D FDQWLGDG GH FDORU GHVDUUROODGDSXHGHH[SUHVDUVHHQFDORUtDVSRUODUHODFLyQFDORUtD  MXOLRV  3-D) Circuitos elctricos  &RQVLGHUHPRV XQ FLUFXLWR FRQ XQD UHVLVWHQFLD FRQHFWDGD PHGLDQWH FRQGXFWRUHV GH UHVLVWHQFLD GHVSUHFLDEOH D XQ JHQHUDGRU FX\D IXHU]D HOHFWURPRWUL]HV \VHDLODFRUULHQWHFLUFXODQWH&XDQGRVHFRQHFWDFLHUWR Q~PHUR GH HOHPHQWRV HQ XQ FLUFXLWR IRUPDQGR XQD VROD WUD\HFWRULD FRQGXFWRUDVHGLFHTXHHVWiQHQVHULH
, 5 * 9
D E D E DE

$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

3

 : W

L9DE

9DE

L5

3

L9DE

L 5

+ W

L 5

(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





  D E    L     6LHOVHQWLGRGHODFRUULHQWHHQODUHVLVWHQFLDHVGHDKDFLDEHOSRWHQFLDO 9 HVPD\RUTXHHOSRWHQFLDO9 HLQGLFDPRVHVWDFLUFXQVWDQFLDFRORFDQGRXQ VLJQRHQHOWHUPLQDOD\XQVLJQRHQHOWHUPLQDOE $XQTXHHQULJRUOD IXHU]D HOHFWURPRWUL] \ OD GLIHUHQFLD GH SRWHQFLDO QR VRQ YHFWRULDOHV HV ~WLO DVLJQDUOHXQVHQWLGRRSRODULGDG 'HQWURGHOJHQHUDGRUODFRUULHQWHFLUFXODUi GHD  (QODUHVLVWHQFLDH[WHULRUVHSURGXFHFDORUDUD]yQGH+W L 5 XQLGDGHVSRUVHJXQGR7RGRJHQHUDGRUUHDOWLHQHUHVLVWHQFLDOODPDGDLQWHUQD TXHLQGLFDPRVSRUU(QHOODWDPELpQKD\SURGXFFLyQGHFDORUFXDQWLILFDEOH FRPR L  U /DVXPD GH HVWDV GRV HQHUJtDV FHGLGDVSRU ODFDUJDFLUFXODQWH GHEHVHUSURYLVWDSRUHOJHQHUDGRUSRUORWDQWR  (O SULQFLSLR GH FRQVHUYDFLyQ GH OD HQHUJtD QRV SHUPLWH HVFULELU OD HFXDFLyQ GHO FLUFXLWR (Q ORV PRGHORV FLUFXLWDOHV VH GHVFRPSRQHQ ORV JHQHUDGRUHV FRPR XQ JHQHUDGRU LGHDO VLQ UHVLVWHQFLD LQWHUQD HQ VHULH FXDQGRQRVHODGHVSUHFLDFRQXQDUHVLVWHQFLDTXHPRGHODODLQWHUQD   D  E   L      3RGHPRVH[WHQGHUODHFXDFLyQGHOFLUFXLWRSDUDXQFDVRPiVFRPSOHMR FRQGLVWLQWRVJHQHUDGRUHV\UHVLVWHQFLDVFRQHFWDGDVHQVHULH\DTXHOD~OWLPD H[SUHVLyQSXHGHSRQHUVH  /DVXPDGHODVIXHU]DVHOHFWURPRWULFHVHVLJXDODODVXPDGHODVFDLGDV GHSRWHQFLDOHQWRGRFLUFXLWRHQVHULHFHUUDGR/DHYDOXDFLyQDOJHEUiLFDSXHGH VLPSOLILFDUVHFRQVLGHUDQGR TXHFRPRHQUHDOLGDGRFXUUHQRKD\GLIHUHQFLD IXQFLRQDO HQWUH XQD GLIHUHQFLD GH SRWHQFLDO GHELGD D XQD IXHQWH \ RWUD SURGXFLGDSRUODFLUFXODFLyQGHXQDFRUULHQWHSRUXQDUHVLVWHQFLD/DIRUPD KDELWXDO HV FRQVLGHUDU XQ VHQWLGR GH FLUFXODFLyQ SRU HO FLUFXLWR TXH SXHGH FRLQFLGLUFRQHOVHQWLGRGHODFRUULHQWHHVWDEOHFLGDSDUDHOPLVPR\SDUWLHQGR GHXQSXQWRFXDOTXLHUDVXPDUODVWHQVLRQHVVREUHORVHOHPHQWRVDVLJQiQGROH VLJQRSRVLWLYRFXDQGRHQFRQWUDPRVSULPHURODSRODULGDGSRVLWLYDRQHJDWLYRVL RFXUUHORFRQWUDULRKDVWDOOHJDUDOSXQWRLQLFLDO(VDVXPDGHEHVHULJXDOD FHURVLHOVLVWHPDHVFRQVHUYDFLRQDO  3RGHPRVJHQHUDOL]DUHVWRGLFLHQGRTXHVLHOVLVWHPDHVFRQVHUYDFLRQDO
5
D E  

$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

L

L 5L U

L

  5U 

U

5

L 5U 

L 5U 

 

  L5



ODVXPDDOJHEUiLFDGHODVWHQVLRQHVDORODUJRGHXQFLUFXLWRFHUUDGRGHEHVHU

(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

LJXDO D FHUR

 OR TXH FRQVWLWX\H OD  R OH\ GH ODV WHQVLRQHVROH\GHODVPDOODV  /DV HVWUXFWXUDV GH ORV FLUFXLWRV TXH YLPRV HVWDEDQ IRUPDGDV SRU HOHPHQWRVFRQHFWDGRVHQVHULHHVGHFLUXQRDFRQWLQXDFLyQGHRWURGHIRUPD WDOTXHHUDQUHFRUULGRVSRUODPLVPDFRUULHQWHVLHOFLUFXLWRHUDFHUUDGR(VWD IRUPD GH FRQH[LyQ QR HV OD ~QLFD \D TXH SXHGHQ FRORFDUVH ORV HOHPHQWRV HQWUHGRVSXQWRVGHIRUPDWDOTXHHVWpQVRPHWLGRVDODPLVPDGLIHUHQFLDGH SRWHQFLDOHVWDFRQH[LyQVHGHQRPLQDHQSDUDOHORSRUVXHVTXHPDJUiILFR  (VWD FRQH[LyQ HV OD JHQHUDOL]DGD SDUD WRGDV ODV LQVWDODFLRQHV /RV GLVSRVLWLYRVHVWiQGLVHxDGRVSDUDIXQFLRQDUFRQXQDWHQVLyQGHWHUPLQDGDOD GHODUHG\HVWDFRQGLFLyQQRVHGDVLORVFRQHFWDPRVHQVHULH   L L L  D     E     /D FRQH[LyQ HQ SDUDOHOR LPSOLFD HQWRQFHV \D TXH ODV GLIHUHQFLDV GH SRWHQFLDO GHEHQ VHU ODV PLVPDV SDUD WRGRV ORV HOHPHQWRV ODV FRUULHQWHV VHUiQHQJHQHUDOGLVWLQWDVSDUDDMXVWDUVHDHVWR5HFRUGHPRVTXHFRQIRUPH DODOH\GH2KPODUHVLVWHQFLDGHOFLUFXLWRQRHVGHSHQGLHQWHGHODWHQVLyQ DSOLFDGDQLGHODFRUULHQWHTXHODDWUDYLHVDSHURVtHVWDEOHFHODUHODFLyQHQWUH HOODV  6L VXSRQHPRV GRV UHVLVWHQFLDV 5  \ 5  FRQHFWDGDV DPEDV HQWUH ORV ERUQHVD\EGHOFLUFXLWR\DWUDYHVDGDVSRUODVFRUULHQWHVL HL WHQGUHPRV TXH  3RUFRQVLJXLHQWH  /D UHODFLyQ HQWUH ODV FRUULHQWHV VREUH UHVLVWHQFLDV HQ SDUDOHOR HV LQYHUVDPHQWHSURSRUFLRQDODODUHODFLyQHQWUHODVUHVLVWHQFLDV  (QHOSiUUDIR% GLMLPRVTXHODFDQWLGDGGHFDUJDTXHHQWUDSRUXQ HOHPHQWR GHO FLUFXLWR GHEHVHU LJXDO DOD TXHVDOH SRUTXHVLQR IXHUDDVt KDEUtDYDULDFLyQHQHOSRWHQFLDO/RTXHFDPELDUtDHVODGHQVLGDGGHFRUULHQWH VLVHPRGLILFDUDODVHFFLyQGHOFRQGXFWRU(VWRORSRGHPRVDSOLFDUDOERUQHD GHO FLUFXLWR UHFLpQ YLVWR RDO E  \DVXPLUTXH ODDSHUWXUDHQ GRV FDPLQRV HTXLYDOH D TXH VH PRGLILFD OD VHFFLyQ GHO FRQGXFWRU HVWR QRV SHUPLWLUi DVHJXUDUTXHODFDQWLGDGGHFDUJDHOpFWULFDTXHHQWUDDOERUQHGHEHVHULJXDO D OD TXH VDOH GHO PLVPR \ TXH FRQVHFXHQWHPHQWH OD FRUULHQWH WRWDO TXH GHEHVHUSURYLVWDSRUHOJHQHUDGRU\TXHHQWUDDOERUQHVHUiLJXDODODVXPD GHODVFRUULHQWHVTXHDWUDYLHVDQORVHOHPHQWRVVDOLHQGRGHOPLVPR  3RGHPRVJHQHUDOL]DUHVWRGLFLHQGRTXHVLHOVLVWHPDHVFRQVHUYDFLRQDO ORTXHFRQVWLWX\HOD ROH\GHODV FRUULHQWHVROH\GHORVQRGRV
6HJXQGD /H\ GH .LUFKKRII
  

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

9

5

5

5

9DE

L5

L5

LL

55

ODVXPDDOJHEUiLFDGHODVFRUULHQWHVTXHLQJUHVDQDXQSXQWRGHOFLUFXLWRGHEH 3ULPHUD /H\ GH .LUFKKRII

VHU LJXDO D FHUR

(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





 &RQ ODV OH\HV GH 2KP GH .LUFKKRII \ GH -RXOH DSOLFDGDV DGHFXDGDPHQWHSRGUHPRVUHVROYHUFXDOTXLHUSUREOHPDFLUFXLWDOHOpFWULFR   +HPRV VXSXHVWR KDVWD DKRUD TXH OD HQHUJtD SXHVWD HQ MXHJR HQ ORV FLUFXLWRVHUDSURGXFLGDSRUXQDWHQVLyQRXQDFRUULHQWHFRQWLQXDHVWRHVTXH SHUPDQHFtDFRQVWDQWHDORODUJRGHOWLHPSR(VODHQHUJtDGLVSRQLEOHDSDUWLU GHXQDSLODRGHXQDEDWHUtD&RPRFRQVHFXHQFLDGHHOORODVWHQVLRQHV\ODV FRUULHQWHVHQWRGRHOFLUFXLWRVRQGHOPLVPRWLSR\ORV~QLFRVHOHPHQWRVTXH ODVPRGLILFDQVRQODVUHVLVWHQFLDV  /DJHQHUDFLyQLQGXVWULDO\GHDOWDSRWHQFLDQRHVSURGXFWRGHUHDFFLRQHV ItVLFRTXtPLFDVVLQRGHSURFHVRVHOHFWURPHFiQLFRV%iVLFDPHQWHSRUODURWDFLyQ GHHVSLUDVGHFRQGXFWRUHVHQFDPSRVPDJQpWLFRVVHREWLHQHQWHQVLRQHVFX\D OH\GHYDULDFLyQHVODVHQRLGDOWDOFRPRHOPRYLPLHQWRGHXQSpQGXOR(VWD IRUPDGHYDULDFLyQHVFRQRFLGDFRPRDOWHUQDRDOWHUQDGDSRUHOKHFKRGH RVFLODUHQWUHGRVYDORUHVGHLJXDOPDJQLWXGSHURGHSRODULGDGHVRSXHVWDV  6LQ HQWUDU HQ GHWDOOHV \ MXVWLILFDFLRQHV TXH SXHGHQ REWHQHUVH GH ORV WH[WRVGH)tVLFDRGH(OHFWURPDJQHWLVPRGLUHPRVTXHHVWDYDULDFLyQGHOD HQHUJtD SURGXFH HIHFWRV GLVWLQWRV HQ RWURV GRV WLSRV GH HOHPHQWRV GH ORV FLUFXLWRV DGHPiV GH OD \D YLVWD UHVLVWHQFLD HQ OD ERELQD R LQGXFWDQFLD FRQGXFWRUDUUROODGRVREUHXQQ~FOHR \HQHOFRQGHQVDGRURFDSDFLWRU GRV SODFDVHQIUHQWDGDVVHSDUDGDVSRUXQDLVODQWH   )RUPDOPHQWH ODV H[SUHVLRQHV GH XQD WHQVLyQ \ GH XQD FRUULHQWH HQ IXQFLyQGHOWLHPSRHVWiQGDGDVSRU (QHVWDVH[SUHVLRQHVIUHSUHVHQWDOD GDGDHQFLFORVSRUVHJXQGR R +HUW] OD W HV OD YDULDEOH WLHPSR HQ VHJXQGRV  H   VRQ ODV  YDORUHV Pi[LPRV GH OD WHQVLyQ GDGD HQ YROWLRV \ GH OD FRUULHQWHRLQWHQVLGDGGDGDHQDPSHULRVODVOHWUDVJULHJDV  ILRSKL \  WLWD R WKHWD  LQGLFDQ XQ GHVSOD]DPLHQWR GHO DUJXPHQWR GH OD IXQFLyQ GHQRPLQDGR TXHHQJHQHUDOHVGLVWLQWRHQODWHQVLyQTXHHQ ODFRUULHQWH  ,JXDOPHQWH SRGUtDPRV KDEHU XWLOL]DGR OD IXQFLyQ VHQR HQ OXJDU GHO FRVHQR\DTXHOD~QLFDGLIHUHQFLDHQWUHDPEDVIXQFLRQHVWULJRQRPpWULFDVHV XQDIDVHGH GH   (OSURGXFWR UHSUHVHQWDOD R TXHVH LQGLFDQRUPDOPHQWHFRQODOHWUDJULHJDRPHJDPLQ~VFXOD \HVWiH[SUHVDGD HQUDGLDQHVSRUVHJXQGRRHQJUDGRVSRUVHJXQGRGHSHQGLHQGRGHFRPRVH H[SUHVHHOiQJXORGHIDVH$GHPiVODGLIHUHQFLDGHORViQJXORVGHIDVHHQWUH GRVWHQVLRQHVRGRVFRUULHQWHVRHQWUHXQDWHQVLyQ\XQDFRUULHQWHVLHPSUH TXH VHDQ GH OD PLVPD IUHFXHQFLD VH GHQRPLQD  R  \ VH H[SUHVD HQ ODV PLVPDV XQLGDGHV GH iQJXOR (O JUiILFR PXHVWUDXQDWHQVLyQDOWHUQDFRPRIXQFLyQGHOWLHPSRFRQXQDDPSOLWXGGH YROWLRVXQDIUHFXHQFLDLJXDODHTXLYDOHQWHDXQDSXOVDFLyQXQLWDULD \ XQ iQJXOR GH IDVH GH  H[SUHVDGR HQ UDGLDQHV HTXLYDOHQWH D  VH[DJHVLPDOHV 
( /DFRUULHQWHDOWHUQD Y W  9PD[FRVHQR  IW \ L W  ,PD[FRVHQR  IW  IUHFXHQFLD 9PD[ ,PD[ DPSOLWXGHV iQJXORGHIDVH  I IUHFXHQFLDDQJXODU SXOVDFLyQ GLIHUHQFLD GH IDVH GHVIDVDMH 
(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF  

$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

  voltios    Y W  FRV W         tiempo [s]            +DEtDPRV LQGLFDGR HQ HO SXQWR / TXH OD WHQVLyQ HQ XQD UHVLVWHQFLD GHELGRDOSDVRGHXQDFRUULHQWHSRUHOODHVWDEDGDGRSRUHOSURGXFWRGHOYDORU GH OD UHVLVWHQFLD SRU OD FRUULHQWH OD OODPDGD /H\ GH 2KP TXH SRGHPRV UHHVFULELUDKRUDFRPR Y W  5L W  RWDPELpQTXH L W  Y W 5  L W    Y W +    UHHPSOD]DQGRSDUDODWHQVLyQ Y W  5, FRV IW  9 FRV IW  \REVHUYDUHPRVTXHOD~QLFDGLIHUHQFLDHQWUHODIXQFLyQH[FLWDFLyQ\ODIXQFLyQ UHVSXHVWDHVWiHQODDPSOLWXG9  5, \DTXHODOH\GHYDULDFLyQQR FDPELD \ HO iQJXOR GH IDVH WDPSRFR /R PLVPR RFXUULUi VL FDOFXODPRV OD FRUULHQWH (VWR OR SRGHPRV H[SUHVDU GLFLHQGR TXH   3DUDORVFDVRVGHODLQGXFWDQFLD\GHOFDSDFLWRUODVFRVDVQRVRQWDQ VLPSOHVOD/H\GH2KPSDUDHOORVHVGLIHUHQWH6LLQGLFDPRVHOYDORUGHOD LQGXFWDQFLD FRQ OD OHWUD / \ OD H[SUHVDPRV HQ KHQULRVL OD OH\ GH 2KP VH W H[SUHVDFRPR   v (t ) = L didt(t ) = L d [I cosdt (  t +  )]  Y W +   <ODOHHPRVFRPR /DGHULYDGD HV XQD RSHUDFLyQ PDWHPiWLFD TXH REWLHQH OD SHQGLHQWH GH OD IXQFLyQ SDUD FDGDLQVWDQWH(OUHVXOWDGRGHHVDRSHUDFLyQHVTXH
20 15 10 5 0 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 -5 -10 -15 -20
5 5 5 5 5

$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

5

5PD[

5PD[

PD[

PD[

HO GHVIDVDMH HQWUH OD

WHQVLyQ\ODFRUULHQWHHQXQDUHVLVWHQFLDHVLJXDODFHUR

/

Lmax

ODWHQVLyQHQODLQGXFWDQFLDHVWiGDGDSRUHOSURGXFWRGHOD

LQGXFWDQFLDSRU OD GHULYDGDGH OD FRUULHQWHUHVSHFWRGHOWLHPSR

(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

LQGXFWLYD

  v (t ) = L didt(t ) = L & I cos ( & t +  + 2 ) TXHSRGHPRVOHHUFRPRTXH \TXHDGHPiV 6HGLFHTXH   (OSURGXFWRGHODLQGXFWDQFLDSRUODSXOVDFLyQVHGHQRPLQD VHLQGLFDFRQ; \VHH[SUHVDHQRKPLRVFRPRODUHVLVWHQFLD\D TXHODVGLPHQVLRQHVVRQODVPLVPDV   v (t ) = X I cos ( & t +  + 2 ) = V cos ( & t +  + 2 )  3DUD HO FDSDFLWRU R FRQGHQVDGRU OD UHODFLyQ GH OD WHQVLyQ FRQ OD FRUULHQWH HVWi GDGD VL & HV HO YDORU GH OD FDSDFLGDG GHO FRQGHQVDGRU H[SUHVDGRHQ SRU L W  1 1 v (t ) = i (t ) dt = I cos ( & t +  ) dt  Y W + C C   TXH OHHPRV  /D LQWHJUDO HV OD RSHUDFLyQ UHFtSURFD D OD GHULYDGD (O UHVXOWDGR GH HVD RSHUDFLyQHVTXH 1 1 1 v (t ) = i (t ) dt = C & I cos ( & t +  2 ) C TXHSRGHPRVOHHUFRPRTXH  \ TXH DGHPiV 6HGLFHTXH   /DUHFtSURFDGHOSURGXFWRGHODFDSDFLGDGSRUODSXOVDFLyQVHGHQRPLQD  VH LQGLFD FRQ ;  \ VH H[SUHVD HQ RKPLRV FRPR OD UHVLVWHQFLD\DTXHODVGLPHQVLRQHVVRQODVPLVPDV   v (t ) = X I cos ( & t +  2 ) = V cos ( & t +  2 )  (Q HO WUDEDMR QRUPDO VH XWLOL]D HO OODPDGR  TXH UHH[SUHVDODVHFXDFLRQHVPRVWUDGDVTXHHVWiQHQHO  HQ IXQFLyQ GHO WLHPSR  SRU H[SUHVLRQHV TXH HVWiQ HQ HO  VLHPSUH TXH VH WUDWH GH IXQFLRQHV GH OD PLVPD IUHFXHQFLD  7DOHVUHH[SUHVLRQHVQRFRQVWLWX\HQLJXDOGDGHVSHURQRVSHUPLWHQREWHQHUODV FDQWLGDGHVVLJQLILFDWLYDVSDUDXQDIXQFLyQVHQRLGDOTXHVRQODDPSOLWXG\HO iQJXOR GH IDVH (Q HVH FiOFXOR VLPEyOLFR VH VREUHHQWLHQGH TXH WRGDV ODV WHQVLRQHV\FRUULHQWHVVHWLHQHQFRPRIXQFLRQHVVHQRRFRVHQRDGHPiVGHVHU GHODPLVPDIUHFXHQFLD /DFRUUHVSRQGHQFLDVHHVWDEOHFHXWLOL]DQGRORVQ~PHURVFRPSOHMRV\WHQLHQGR HQFXHQWDTXHPXOWLSOLFDUXQQ~PHURSRUHORSHUDGRULPDJLQDULRM HQOXJDU GHLSDUDQRFRQIXQGLUVHFRQODLQWHQVLGDG HTXLYDOHDURWDUORXQiQJXORGH \TXHPXOWLSOLFDUORSRUM HTXLYDOHQWHDGLYLGLUORSRUM ORURWDHQ
L L Lmax

OD DPSOLWXG GH OD WHQVLyQ HQ OD LQGXFWDQFLD HVWi KD\XQGHVSOD]DPLHQWRGHODIDVHHQ

GDGD SRU HO SURGXFWR GHO YDORU GH OD LQGXFWDQFLD SRU OD SXOVDFLyQ \ SRU OD

DPSOLWXGGHODFRUULHQWH  

HQODLQGXFWDQFLDODWHQVLyQ DGHODQWDDODFRUULHQWHHQ 


UHDFWDQFLD

UDGLDQHV

Lmax

Lmax

IDUDGLRV

&

&

Cmax

&

OD WHQVLyQ HQ XQ FDSDFLWRU HVWi GDGD SRU HO SURGXFWR GH OD

UHFtSURFD GH OD FDSDFLGDG SRU OD LQWHJUDO GH ODFRUULHQWH UHVSHFWR GHO WLHPSR

Cmax

ODDPSOLWXGGHODWHQVLyQHQHOFRQGHQVDGRUHVWi KD\ XQ

GDGD SRU HO SURGXFWR GH OD UHFtSURFD GHO SURGXFWR GHO YDORU GH OD FDSDFLGDG SRU OD SXOVDFLyQ SRU OD DPSOLWXG GH OD FRUULHQWH GHVSOD]DPLHQWR GH OD IDVH HQ  

HQ OD FDSDFLGDG OD WHQVLyQ

DWUDVDDODFRUULHQWHHQ UDGLDQHV UHDFWDQFLD FDSDFLWLYD

&

Cmax

Cmax

FiOFXOR VLPEyOLFR

GRPLQLR GHO WLHPSR

GRPLQLR GH OD

IUHFXHQFLD

(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





 $VtSRGHPRVHVWDEOHFHUOD/H\GH2KPSDUDORVHOHPHQWRVHQHOFiOFXOR VLPEyOLFRFRPR 
5HVLVWHQFLD  95 5,5       ,5 955 9 / *95  M;/,/ M%/9/ M;&9&  ,QGXFWDQFLD   , / M/,/  M/ 9/ 9& M / 9/

$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

&DSDFLGDG   ,&

 M& ,& M%&9&

M & ,&

 $TXtHVWiQLQGLFDGDVODVUHFtSURFDVGHODUHVLVWHQFLDODFRQGXFWDQFLD* \ GH ODV UHDFWDQFLDV ODV  %  \ %  LQGXFWLYD \ FDSDFLWLYD UHVSHFWLYDPHQWH TXH DGHPiV GH VHU UHFtSURFDV HQ VXV YDORUHV HVWiQ DFRPSDxDGDVSRU XQ FDPELR GHVLJQRHQHORSHUDGRULPDJLQDULRM(VWROR SRGHPRV H[SOLFDU FRQFHSWXDOPHQWH GLFLHQGR TXH VL HQ XQD LQGXFWDQFLD OD WHQVLyQDGHODQWDUHVSHFWRGHODFRUULHQWHODFRUULHQWHDWUDVDUHVSHFWRGHOD WHQVLyQ<HQODFDSDFLGDGGRQGHODWHQVLyQDWUDVDUHVSHFWRGHODFRUULHQWHOD FRUULHQWHDGHODQWDUHVSHFWRGHODWHQVLyQ  $VtFRPRODFRQGXFWDQFLDVHLQGLFDHQVLHPHQVRHQPKRVORPLVPR RFXUUHFRQODVVXVFHSWDQFLDV
VXVFHSWDQFLDV
/ &

M&9&

 &RPRHVGHHVSHUDUXQFLUFXLWRFRPSXHVWRSRUHOHPHQWRVGHGLVWLQWR WLSRSRUHMHPSORUHVLVWHQFLDVLQGXFWDQFLDV\FDSDFLWRUHVHOFRPSRUWDPLHQWR YDHVWDULQIOXHQFLDGRSRUWRGRVODVDPSOLWXGHVGHSHQGHUiQGHORVHOHPHQWRV \HOiQJXORGHIDVHHQWUHODWHQVLyQ\ODFRUULHQWH\DQRVHUiQLGHFHURFRPR HQODUHVLVWHQFLDQLGHFRPRHQODVUHDFWDQFLDV  3DUDHOHPHQWRVFRQHFWDGRVHQVHULHUHVXOWDTXHODUHVSXHVWDFRQMXQWD HVWiGDGDSRUOD =H[SUHVDGDHQRKPLRV\TXHVHREWLHQHGH GRQGH5UHSUHVHQWDODVXPDGHWRGDVODVUHVLVWHQFLDVGHODVHULH; ODVXPD GH WRGDV ODV UHDFWDQFLDV LQGXFWLYDV \ ;  OD VXPD GH WRGDV ODV UHDFWDQFLDV FDSDFLWLYDV  3DUD HOHPHQWRV FRQHFWDGRV HQ SDUDOHOR UHVXOWD TXH OD UHVSXHVWD FRQMXQWDHVWiGDGDSRUOD <H[SUHVDGDHQVLHPHQVRPKRV\ TXHVHREWLHQHGH GRQGH*UHSUHVHQWDODVXPDGHWRGDVODVFRQGXFWDQFLDVSXHVWDVHQSDUDOHOR % ODVXPDGHWRGDVODVVXVFHSWDQFLDVLQGXFWLYDV\% ODVXPDGHWRGDVODV VXVFHSWDQFLDVFDSDFLWLYDV  /DV H[SUHVLRQHV GH OD /H\ GH 2KP ODV UHODFLRQHV YROWDPSHU YLVWDV SDUDODUHVLVWHQFLDSXHGHQSRQHUVHHQIRUPDJHQHUDOL]DGDSDUDHOFDVRGH FRUULHQWHDOWHUQDGDFRPR GRQGH9,=H<VRQFDQWLGDGHVFRPSOHMDVTXHSRGUiQWHQHUSDUWHUHDOR LPDJLQDULD HYHQWXDOPHQWH QXOD SHUR TXH GHEHUHPRV RSHUDU XWLOL]DQGR ORV HOHPHQWRVGHOiOJHEUDFRPSOHMD YHUHOSXQWR+ 
) /RVFRQFHSWRVGHLPSHGDQFLD\GHDGPLWDQFLD LPSHGDQFLD = 5M ;/;&  5M  / & 
/ &

DGPLWDQFLD

<

*M %&%/ 

*M 

&

/ 

&

9

=,

H

,

9=

<9

(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

 ,QVLVWLPRVHVWRHVYiOLGRVLHVWDPRVWUDEDMDQGRFRQVHxDOHV WHQVLRQHV \ FRUULHQWHV  GH  \ KHPRV SDUWLGR GH H[SUHVLRQHV SXHVWDV   &RPRSRGHPRVGHGXFLUGHODVH[SUHVLRQHVHOFRPSRUWDPLHQWRGHXQ FLUFXLWR SXHGH VHU GHVGH LQGXFWLYR SXUR D FDSDFLWLYR SXUR SDVDQGR SRU UHVLVWLYR SXUR GHSHQGLHQGR GH ORV YDORUHV GH ORV FRPSRQHQWHV \ GH OD IUHFXHQFLD(QJHQHUDOWHQGUiXQFRPSRUWDPLHQWRLQGXFWLYRXQDGHODQWRGHOD WHQVLyQ UHVSHFWR GH OD FRUULHQWH SHUR GH PHQRV GH  R XQ DWUDVR GH OD WHQVLyQUHVSHFWRGHODFRUULHQWHFRPSRUWDPLHQWRFDSDFLWLYRWDPELpQPHQRU GH  (VWR VLHPSUH TXH KD\D FRPSRQHQWHV UHVLVWLYRV FDVR FRQWUDULR HO GHVIDVDMHVHUiGH H[FHSWRHQHOFDVRHQODVXPDGHODVUHDFWDQFLDVRGH ODVVXVFHSWDQFLDVVHDLJXDODFHURHQTXHHOFRPSRUWDPLHQWRVHUiUHVLVWLYR SXURDXQTXHHVWpFRQIRUPDGRSRULQGXFWDQFLDV\FDSDFLWRUHV(VWDPRVDQWHHO FDVRGH TXHUHTXLHUHXQWUDWDPLHQWRHVSHFLDOTXH QRYDPRVDFRQVLGHUDUDKRUD 
XQD PLVPD IUHFXHQFLD WRGDVFRPRIXQFLRQHVGHVHQRVRWRGDVGHFRVHQRV
UHVRQDQFLD GHO FLUFXLWR

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

* /DSRWHQFLDHQFRUULHQWHDOWHUQDGD

 (OFRQFHSWRGHSRWHQFLDTXHYLPRVHQHOWHPD0VREUHOD/H\GH-RXOH WLHQH WDPELpQ DSOLFDFLyQ HQ FRUULHQWH DOWHUQD SHUR HO FRPSRUWDPLHQWR HV GLVWLQWRSRU FXDQWRQLODLQGXFWDQFLDQLHOFDSDFLWRUGLVLSDQHQHUJtDORTXH KDFHQ HV DOPDFHQDUOD \ GHYROYHUOD DO JHQHUDGRU DOWHUQDWLYDPHQWH 6H GLFH TXHHQWUHWLHQHQHQHUJtD  $SOLFDQGR ORV FRQFHSWRV YLVWRV SXHGH GHPRVWUDUVH TXH OD SRWHQFLD DFWLYDRSRWHQFLDPHGLDGLVLSDGDSRUXQFLUFXLWRHVWiGDGDSRU   P = V 2 I cos (!  ) = V 2 I 2 cos   /DSRWHQFLD3HVWDUiGDGDHQYDWLRV ZDWWV VL9 HVWiHQYROWLRV\,  HQDPSHULRV(OIDFWRU OODPDGR HVWiGDGRSRUHO GHVIDVDMHGHODWHQVLyQUHVSHFWRGHODFRUULHQWH/DVDPSOLWXGHVGLYLGLGDVSRU UDt] GH  VRQ ORV GHQRPLQDGRV  GH OD WHQVLyQ \ GH OD FRUULHQWHSRUTXHVXSURGXFWRGDODSRWHQFLDVREUHXQDUHVLVWHQFLDSXUD FRV  6RQORVYDORUHVHTXLYDOHQWHVGHXQDFRUULHQWHFRQWLQXDTXHGHVDUUROODOD PLVPDSRWHQFLDTXHODDOWHUQD 
max max max max
PD[ PD[

FRV

IDFWRU GH SRWHQFLD

YDORUHV HILFDFHV

(VRVYDORUHVVRQORVXWLOL]DGRVSDUDLQGLFDUODVWHQVLRQHV\ODVFRUULHQWHV

HQHOPXQGRHOpFWULFRORVYROWLRVGHQXHVWUDGLVWULEXFLyQGRPLFLOLDULDVRQ

  3RUFRQVLJXLHQWHODSRWHQFLDODYDPRVDH[SUHVDUFRPR [ ] \DTXHQRHVQHFHVDULRLQGLFDUTXHVHWUDWDGHYDORUHVHILFDFHVSRUTXHHVDVt DPHQRVTXHVHLQGLTXHORFRQWUDULR  (V IUHFXHQWH XWLOL]DU HO SURGXFWR GH OD WHQVLyQ SRU OD FRUULHQWH VLQ FRQVLGHUDU HO IDFWRU GH SRWHQFLD \ VH REWLHQH DVt OD SRWHQFLDDSDUHQWH TXH REWHQGUtDPRVGHPHGLUDPEDVFRQXQPXOWtPHWURRWHVWHU\PXOWLSOLFDUODV FRPR REVHUYDPRV ODV GRV SRWHQFLDV WLHQHQ GLVWLQWR VtPEROR \ WDPELpQ GLVWLQWDVXQLGDGHVDXQTXHODGLPHQVLyQGHDPEDVHVODPLVPD\DTXHHOFRV HVDGLPHQVLRQDO   3DUDFRQVROLGDUORVFRQFHSWRVGDGRVUHDOL]DUHPRVDOJXQRVFiOFXORVHQ FLUFXLWRVGHFRUULHQWHFRQWtQXD\DOWHUQD 5HVROYHUHOFLUFXLWRGHODILJXUD GRQGH 5 RKPV  5 RKPV  5 RKPV  5 RKPV 5 RKPV  5 RKPV 9 YROWLRV  6ROXFLyQ (OFLUFXLWRSUHVHQWDXQJHQHUDGRULGHDOGH WHQVLyQ TXH DOLPHQWD D GRV UDPDV HQ SDUDOHOR IRUPDGDV SRU WUHV UHVLVWHQFLDV HQ VHULH $SOLFDQGR OD IyUPXOD GH UHVLVWHQFLDV HQ VHULH REWHQHPRV TXH OD UDPD GH OD L]TXLHUGD WLHQH XQD UHVLVWHQFLDHTXLYDOHQWHGH
 YROWLRV HILFDFHV OD DPSOLWXG GH HVD WHQVLyQ HV GH  YROWLRV SLFR R Pi[LPRV
3 9,FRV YDWLRV:  6 9,>YROWDPSHULRV9$@ + (MHPSORVGHFiOFXOR   5


$

5


5


,


9%

,


5


5


%

5


(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





5  5 5 5   RKPLRV (VWD UHVLVWHQFLD HVWi DOLPHQWDGD SRU HO JHQHUDGRU SRU HOOD FLUFXODUi XQD FRUULHQWHGH ,  95   $PSHULRV /DWHQVLyQGHVDUUROODGDVREUHFDGDUHVLVWHQFLDGHODUDPDWHQLHQGRHQFXHQWD HOVHQWLGRGHODFRUULHQWHLQGLFDGRVHUi 5  ,   5  ,  \ 5  ,   /DVXPDGHODVWUHVWHQVLRQHVGHEHGDULJXDODODGHOJHQHUDGRUYROWLRV 3DUDODRWUDUDPD 5  5 5 5   RKPLRV ,  95   $PSHULRV 5  ,   5  ,   \ 5  ,    7DPELpQVHREWLHQHQYROWLRVSDUDVXVXPD)LQDOPHQWHWHQHPRVTXHODV GRV FRUULHQWHV VRQ VXPLQLVWUDGDV SRU HO JHQHUDGRU WHQLHQGR HQ FXHQWD OD SULPHUD OH\ GH .LUFKKRII HQ HO QRGR $ R % SRU OR WDQWR OD FRUULHQWH TXH VXPLQLVWUDVHUi , ,    /DSRWHQFLDVXPLQLVWUDGDHV , 9     5HVROYHUHOFLUFXLWRGHODILJXUD GRQGH 5  RKPV  5  RKPV 5  RKPV  5  RKPV   5  RKPV   9  YROWLRV 9  YROWLRV  6ROXFLyQ  (QHVWHFDVRODUDPDGHODGHUHFKDVH UHVXHOYHLJXDOTXHHQHOFDVRDQWHULRU 5  5 5 5    ,  9 5   $PSHULR 5  ,   5  ,   \ 5  ,    /DUDPDGHODL]TXLHUGDHVWiIRUPDGDSRUXQJHQHUDGRU\GRVUHVLVWHQFLDVVL DSOLFDPRVODVHJXQGDOH\GH.LUFKKRIIWHQGUHPRVTXH 9 9 9 9  ,  5 9 ,  5 9   9 9 ,  5 5  (OVLJQRGH9 HVQHJDWLYRSRUHQFRQWUDUVHHQRSRVLFLyQD9 'HVSHMDQGR ,   9 9  5 5       $PSHULR 5  ,   \ 5  ,    /DFRUULHQWHSRU9 HVODPLVPD, \ODSRU 9 HVODVXPDGHODVGRVPDOODV ,    , ,      5HVROYHUHOFLUFXLWRGHODILJXUD 
     

$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

9 



YROWLRV

9 



YROWLRV

9 





YROWLRV







9 



YROWLRV

9



YROWLRV

9



YROWLRV

,9





DPSHULRV

:*

*

YDWLRV



5


5


9$

,

9%

,


5


5


5








9 



YROWLRV

9



YROWLRV

9





YROWLRV









9 



YROWLRV
$

9



YROWLRV



,

,$



DPS

,%





DPS

$

,


5


%



5


(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





9$

 ,* 

5


GRQGH 5 RKPV  5 RKPV 5 RKPV 5 RKPV 5 RKPV  5 RKPV 9 YROWLRV 6ROXFLyQ $KRUDHOSUREOHPDHVDOJRPiVFRPSOHMR 7HQHPRVHOPRQWDMHFRPELQDGRGHUHVLVWHQFLDVHQVHULH\SDUDOHOR\VHGHEH UHVROYHUSRUSDUWHV 5  VHULH  5 5    5  SDUDOHORGH5 \5   5 5  5 5          5  VHULH5 5 5 \5  5 5 5 5   /DFRUULHQWHTXHVXPLQLVWUDHOJHQHUDGRUUHVXOWD 95    (VWDPLVPDFRUULHQWHFLUFXODSRUODVUHVLVWHQFLDVGHODVHULH5 5 5 \5  6REUHOD5 GHVDUUROODXQDWHQVLyQGH 9  5  ,    YROWLRV (VDWHQVLyQKDFHFLUFXODUSRU5 ODFRUULHQWH ,  9 5  DPS /RTXHQRVSHUPLWHLQGLFDUTXH\DTXHHVWiQHQVHULH ,    ,    ,  5    ,  5    /DWHQVLyQ9 WDPELpQHVWiVREUH5 \ODFRUULHQWHTXHFLUFXODSRUHOODHV 9 5    9  ,  5   6LDSOLFDPRVODSULPHUDOH\GH.LUFKKRIIHQHOQRGR$RHQHO%YHPRVTXHVH FXPSOHTXH, ,  ,  ,   ,   H ,    ,  5     ,  5   \ ,  5    /DSRWHQFLDHQWUHJDGDSRUHOJHQHUDGRU\GLVLSDGDHQODVUHVLVWHQFLDVHQ IRUPDGHFDORUHV 9 ,       5HVROYHUHOFLUFXLWRGHODILJXUD GRQGH 5  RKPV  5  RKPV 5  RKPV 5  RKPV   5  RKPV   9  YROWLRV 9  YROWLRV 6ROXFLyQ  (VWDPRVDQWHHOPLVPRFDVRGHOSUREOHPD  DQWHULRU HQ FXDQWR DO PRQWDMH GH ODV UHVLVWHQFLDV\DOFDVRGHODPDOODL]TXLHUGD GHOSUREOHPDQ3RUORWDQWR 5  VHULH  5 5    5  SDUDOHORGH5 \5   5 5  5 5          5  VHULH5 5 \5  5 5 5  
         

$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$





,*

DPS

















,

 

DPS


,



DPS 


9

YROWLRV

9

YROWLRV

 

,



DPS

9



YROWLRV



,

DPS


,

DPS 
*

,

DPS 
*

9

9

9

9

9 

9

:*

YDWLRV



,

5

,


5

5

9$

,*

9%

5

5















(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





/DFRUULHQWHTXHVXPLQLVWUDQORVJHQHUDGRUHVUHVXOWD 9 9 5    (VWDPLVPDFRUULHQWHFLUFXODSRUODVUHVLVWHQFLDVGHODVHULH5 5 \5  6REUHOD5 GHVDUUROODXQDWHQVLyQGH 9  5  ,    YROWLRV (VDWHQVLyQKDFHFLUFXODUSRU5 ODFRUULHQWH ,  9 5  DPS /RTXHQRVSHUPLWHLQGLFDUTXH\DTXHHVWiQHQVHULH ,    ,    ,  5      ,  5      /DWHQVLyQ9 WDPELpQHVWiVREUH5 \ODFRUULHQWHTXHFLUFXODSRUHOODHV 9 5    9  ,  5     6LDSOLFDPRVODSULPHUDOH\GH.LUFKKRIIHQHOQRGR$RHQHO%YHPRVTXHVH FXPSOHTXH, ,  ,  ,  H ,    ,  5    \ ,  5      /DSRWHQFLDHQWUHJDGDSRUFDGDJHQHUDGRU\GLVLSDGDHQODVUHVLVWHQFLDVHQ IRUPDGHFDORUHV 9  ,     (QHOJHQHUDGRU%ODFRUULHQWHFLUFXODUHVSHFWRDODWHQVLyQHQIRUPDFRQWUDULD DORTXHRFXUUHHQHO$(VDVLWXDFLyQODSRQHPRVGHPDQLILHVWRHQODIyUPXOD FRQHOVLJQRPHQRV 9  ,     (V GHFLU TXH HVWH JHQHUDGRU UHFLEH HQHUJtD GHO RWUR QR DSRUWD QDGD DO FLUFXLWR 7DO FRQGLFLyQ OD SRGUtDPRV YHU FDOFXODQGR OD HQHUJtD GLVLSDGD HQ FDGD UHVLVWHQFLD :  5  ,      ::  ::  ::  :\:   : /DVXPDGHHVDVSRWHQFLDVGLVLSDGDVHVGH:TXHVXPDGDDODDEVRUELGD SRUHOJHQHUDGRU%GDHOWRWDOGH:VXPLQLVWUDGRVSRUHOJHQHUDGRU$    5HVROYHU HO FLUFXLWR GH OD ILJXUD GRQGH 5  RKPV  5  RKPV 5  RKPV 5  RKPV 5  RKPV  5  RKPV , DPSHULRV 6ROXFLyQ 3DUD OD VROXFLyQ GHO SUREOHPD HV QHFHVDULRHQFRQWUDUODWHQVLyQHQ$%3DUDHVRGHEHFDOFXODUVHODUHVLVWHQFLD FRQHFWDGDDORVERUQHVGHOJHQHUDGRUGHFRUULHQWH 5  5 5 5    5  5 5 5    5  5 5         $KRUDSRGHPRVFDOFXODUODWHQVLyQ$%
,* 
$ % 5

$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

DPS

















,

 

DPS


,



DPS 9


9  ,

YROWLRV

YROWLRV

 



DPS

9 



YROWLRV



,

DPS


, 

DPS 
*

9 

9

9 

9

:*$

YDWLRV

:*%

YDWLRV





5


$

5


5


,


, ,


5


5


%

5




 5





(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





,

9  5  ,   9ROWLRV /DVFRUULHQWHVHQFDGDPDOODVHUiQSRUORWDQWR ,  9 5   $PS ,  9 5   $PS 5 ,    5  ,     5  ,     5  ,     5  ,     5  ,      9 9 9   9 9 9 9   9 ,  \ ,   /DSRWHQFLDVXPLQLVWUDGDSRUHOJHQHUDGRUGHFRUULHQWHUHVXOWD 9  ,    RN:   &DOFXODUODUHDFWDQFLDLQGXFWLYDSDUDXQDIUHFXHQFLDGH+HUW]GH XQDERELQDFX\DLQGXFWDQFLDHVGH+HQULRV     ;  I/  RKPV   &DOFXODUODUHDFWDQFLDFDSDFLWLYDSDUDXQDIUHFXHQFLDGH+HUW]GH XQFRQGHQVDGRUFX\DFDSDFLWDQFLDHVGH)DUDGLRV     ;    I&      RKPV   &DOFXODUODLPSHGDQFLDGHXQFLUFXLWRTXHWHQJDORVGRVHOHPHQWRV DQWHULRUHV PiVXQD UHVLVWHQFLDGH RKPLRVWRGRVFRQHFWDGRVHQVHULH\ SDUDODPLVPDIUHFXHQFLD        = 5M ; ;            M             M RKPV   &DOFXODUODFRUULHQWHTXHFLUFXODUtDSRUHVHFLUFXLWRVLVHOHDSOLFDXQD WHQVLyQ GHLJXDOIUHFXHQFLD +HUW] XQDPDJQLWXGGHYROWLRV\XQ iQJXORGHIDVHGH  /DFRUULHQWHHVWiGDGDSRUODUHODFLyQGHOD/H\GH2KP, 9=R,  9<&RPRWHQHPRVODWHQVLyQH[SUHVDGDHQIRUPDSRODUGHEHUtDPRVOOHYDUD ODLPSHGDQFLDDODPLVPDIRUPDSDUDKDFHUOXHJRPiVVLPSOHHOFiOFXOR   _=_ 5 ;         DUFWJ   
   = 
 $KRUD   , 9=   YROWV 
   
$PS
$% 5

$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$



$%





$%



9



9ROWLRV

9



9ROWLRV

9



9ROWLRV

9



9ROWLRV 9ROWLRV

9



9ROWLRV

9


 

,

,



$PS

,

,

,



$PS

:*

$%

YDWLRV



/



&

&



;/ 

;&

5

&











(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





 /D FRUULHQWH UHVXOWDQWH WLHQH XQYDORU HILFD] GH  DPSHULRV \ XQ iQJXORGHIDVHGH
(OGHVIDVDMHHQWUHODWHQVLyQ\ODFRUULHQWHUHVXOWD H[DFWDPHQWHLJXDODOiQJXORGHODLPSHGDQFLDTXHGHWHUPLQDVXUHODFLyQ   &DOFXODUODSRWHQFLDPHGLDGHVDUUROODGDHQHOFLUFXLWR  +DEtDPRV YLVWR TXH OD SRWHQFLD HVWDED GDGD SRU HO SURGXFWR GH ORV YDORUHVHILFDFHVGHODWHQVLyQ\ODFRUULHQWH\SRUHOFRVHQRGHOiQJXORHQWUH HOORVOXHJR   3 9,FRV  FRV 
   YDWLRV 

=

$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

, 3UREOHPDVSUiFWLFRV  

 'DGR XQ FLUFXLWR VHULH FRQ 5    /   +\ \ &   )G GHWHUPLQDU OD WHQVLyQ HQ FDGD HOHPHQWR \ OD WRWDO VL HV UHFRUULGR SRU XQD FRUULHQWHGHDPSHULRVFRQXQDSXOVDFLyQGH   


95

99/

M99&

M99

 M 9

 3DUD HO FLUFXLWR DQWHULRU FDOFXODU OD FRUULHQWH TXH OR DWUDYHVDUi VL HV DOLPHQWDGR SRU XQD WHQVLyQ GH  YROWLRV FRQ XQD IUHFXHQFLD GH I  KHUW]LRV'HWHUPLQDUDGHPiVODWHQVLyQVREUHODLQGXFWDQFLD 
  ,  M $9/  M 9  

 'DGR XQ FLUFXLWR SDUDOHOR FRQ *   6 /   +\ \ &   )G GHWHUPLQDUODFRUULHQWHHQFDGDHOHPHQWR\ODWRWDOVLHVDOLPHQWDGRSRUXQD WHQVLyQGHYROWLRVFRQXQDSXOVDFLyQGH   
,5 $,/ M$,& M$,  M $

3DUDHOFLUFXLWRDQWHULRUFDOFXODUODWHQVLyQTXHWHQGUiVREUHVXVHOHPHQWRV VLHVDOLPHQWDGRSRUXQDFRUULHQWHGHDPSHULRVFRQXQDIUHFXHQFLDGHI  KHUW]LRV'HWHUPLQDUDGHPiVODFRUULHQWHVREUHODFDSDFLGDG  &DOFXODUHOiQJXORGHIDVHHQWUHODWHQVLyQ\ODFRUULHQWHWRWDOGHOSUREOHPD DQWHULRUDVXPLHQGRTXHODFRUULHQWHWLHQHiQJXORGHIDVHLJXDODFHUR ,  M  3DUDHOSUREOHPDQFDOFXODUODVSRWHQFLDPHGLD\DSDUHQWHVREUHFDGD HOHPHQWR\ODVWRWDOHV 8WLOL]DUORVGDWRV\DREWHQLGRVVLFRUUHVSRQGH  
  9  M 9,&  M $   
  65 :6/ M9$U6& M9$U6  M  9$   

/RPLVPRTXHHODQWHULRUSDUDHOSUREOHPDQ 
65 :6/ M9$U6&

M9$U6

 M 9$

 

 4Xp FRQFOXVLRQHV SXHGH VDFDU GH ORV UHVXOWDGRV GH ORV GRV SUREOHPDV DQWHULRUHVWHQLHQGRHQFXHQWDORVHUURUHVGHSUHFLVLyQ"
 

(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF

$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

7HQLHQGRHQFXHQWDODVFRQFOXVLRQHVDQWHULRUHVFDOFXODUODSRWHQFLDPHGLD GHVDUUROODGDVREUHHOFLUFXLWRGHORVSUREOHPDVQ\Q 
6  M 9$6

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

 M 9$

&DOFXODUODFRUULHQWHTXHFRQVXPHXQPRQLWRUVLVXSODFDLQGLFDTXHHVWi GLVHxDGRSDUDYROWV\WRPDXQDSRWHQFLDPHGLDGHYDWLRVFRQXQ IDFWRUGHSRWHQFLDGH)3 


  , $  

 3DUD HVSHFLILFDU XQD OODYH WHUPRPDJQpWLFD GH SURWHFFLyQ SDUD OD LQVWDODFLyQHVQHFHVDULRFRQRFHUHOPyGXORGHODFRUULHQWHWRWDOTXHFRQVXPH /RVHOHPHQWRVTXHODLQWHJUDQVRQ 8Q JDELQHWH SULQFLSDO TXH LQGLFD  YROWLRV  DPSHULRV )3   XQ PRQLWRU TXH HVSHFLILFD  YROWLRV  YROWDPSHULRV )3   XQD LPSUHVRUDOiVHUFX\DSODFDLQGLFDYROWLRVDPSHULRV)3  
 , $

3DUDSRGHUHVSHFLILFDUXQDIXHQWHQRLQWHUUXPSLEOH 836 DGHPiVGHO WLHPSR GH SURWHFFLyQ PtQLPR UHTXHULGR PH HV LPSUHVFLQGLEOH LQGLFDU OD SRWHQFLDPHGLD\ODDSDUHQWHTXHLQVXPHODLQVWDODFLyQDQWHULRU&XDOHVVRQ HVRVYDORUHV"
  3 :6 9$  

 &RQ ORV GDWRV GH OD LQVWDODFLyQ DQWHULRU &XiO HV OD LPSHGDQFLD HTXLYDOHQWHGHODLQVWDODFLyQ" 
=  M 

*UDILTXHHQWUHVJUiILFRVLQGHSHQGLHQWHVD ODLPSHGDQFLDE ODWHQVLyQ \ODFRUULHQWH XVHGLIHUHQWHVHVFDODV\FRORUHVSDUDFDGDXQD \F ODSRWHQFLD YHFWRULDO 6DTXHFRQFOXVLRQHVGHHOORV 


   

(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

127$6<&20(17$5,26


,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

$SpQGLFH$

   $QWHVGHLQGLFDUFRPRVHPLGHQORVSDUiPHWURVHOpFWULFRVTXHKHPRV FLWDGRYDPRVDYHUDOJXQRVFRQFHSWRVEiVLFRVUHIHULGRVDHOORV  /D HVODGLIHUHQFLDGHSRWHQFLDOHOpFWULFRHQWUHGRVSXQWRVGH XQ VLVWHPD 7DPELpQ VH OR FRQRFH FRPR  SRUTXH OD XQLGDG GH PHGLFLyQHVHO R (VDGLIHUHQFLDVXUJHGHUHDFFLRQHVTXtPLFDVHQ ODV SLODV FRPXQHV HQ ODV EDWHUtDV \ HOHPHQWRV VLPLODUHV WDPELpQ SXHGHQ SURGXFLUVHSRUHIHFWRVItVLFRVHQODVFHOGDVVRODUHV\HQODVWHUPRSLODV\SRU PHGLRV HOHFWURPHFiQLFRV HQ ORV JHQHUDGRUHV \ ODV GtQDPRV /RV VtPERORV XWLOL]DGRVSDUDLQGLFDUODVRQ  R WDQWRPLQ~VFXODVFRPRPD\~VFXODV  /DFRPSDxtDGHHOHFWULFLGDGTXHQRVODSURYHHGHEHVXPLQLVWUDUQRVXQD WHQVLyQ HVSHFtILFD TXH SRGHPRV FRQWURODU HQ FXDOTXLHU WRPD GH QXHVWUDV FDVDV PLGLHQGR HVD WHQVLyQ HQWUH ORV GRV FRQWDFWRV GHO WRPD (Q OD JHQHUDOLGDG GH ODV LQVWDODFLRQHV GRPLFLOLDULDV GH QXHVWUR SDtV HV GH  YROWLRVGHDOWHUQD&RPRFRPSDUDFLyQXQDSLODFRP~QGHOLQWHUQDSURYHHXQD WHQVLyQGHYROWLRVHQFRQWLQXDXQDEDWHUtDGHDXWRPyYLOHVGHYROWLRV WDPELpQGHFRQWLQXD\HOWXERGHXQWHOHYLVRURODVEXMtDVGHXQDXWRSXHGHQ WUDEDMDUFRQWHQVLRQHVGHYROWV  /D WHQVLyQ TXH VXPLQLVWUD XQ GLVSRVLWLYR R OD TXH UHTXLHUH SDUD VX IXQFLRQDPLHQWRQRUPDOHVWiVLHPSUHLQGLFDGR3RUHMHPSORVLREVHUYDPRVXQD OiPSDUD FRP~Q YHUHPRV TXH WLHQH OD LQVFULSFLyQ  9 R  9 ODV UHIRU]DGDV /DOHWUD HVODDEUHYLDWXUDVWDQGDUGSDUDODXQLGDGGHWHQVLyQ  /D HOpFWULFDHVODFLUFXODFLyQGHFDUJDVHOpFWULFDVDWUDYpVGH XQHOHPHQWRGHELGRDODH[LVWHQFLDGHXQDWHQVLyQHQORVWHUPLQDOHV\DOD SRVLELOLGDGGHTXHHOORRFXUUDGDGDSRUODVFDUDFWHUtVWLFDVGHOHOHPHQWR3RU HMHPSORODVOiPSDUDVVRQHOHPHQWRVTXHSHUPLWHQODFLUFXODFLyQGHFRUULHQWH SRUHOODVGHVGHXQWHUPLQDODRWUR GHVGHHOFDVTXLOORURVFDGR\HOFRQWDFWRGH IRQGR SHURQRWRGDVVRQLJXDOHV$OJXQDVSHUPLWHQXQDPD\RUFLUFXODFLyQGH FRUULHQWH TXH RWUDV SDUD OD PLVPD WHQVLyQ HQ VXV WHUPLQDOHV FRPR FRQVHFXHQFLDGHHOORODVSULPHUDVGDQPiVOX]TXHODVRWUDV  /D FRUULHQWH HOpFWULFD TXH WDPELpQ VH FRQRFH FRPR  \ JHQpULFDPHQWHVHLQGLFDFRQ R VHPLGHHQ R \HO VtPEROR GH OD XQLGDG HV OD OHWUD  (VD FDUDFWHUtVWLFD SXHGH R QR YHQLU LQGLFDGDHQORVGLVSRVLWLYRVSHURHQORVGHPDUFDHVFDVLXQDQRUPDTXHOR H[SUHVHQ  6L YROYHPRV DO FDVR GH ODV OiPSDUDV YHUHPRV TXH FRPR LQGLFDFLyQ PXHVWUDQODWHQVLyQ TXH\DLQGLFDPRV \RWURSDUiPHWURLQGLFDGRSRU  SRU HMHPSOR: HVWRHVOD  TXHFRQVXPHODOiPSDUDH[SUHVDGD HQ  R  (VWH YDORU VH REWLHQH GH PXOWLSOLFDU OD WHQVLyQ SRU OD FRUULHQWHTXHFLUFXODSRUHOHOHPHQWR      3 9, 
 $ 12&,21(6%6,&$6(/(0(17$/(6'(&255,(17((/e&75,&$ WHQVLyQ YROWDMH YROW YROWLR Y H X 9 FRUULHQWH LQWHQVLGDG L , DPSHUHV DPSHULRV $ : SRWHQFLD 3 YDWLRV ZDWWV
(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF  

3RU OR WDQWR SRGHPRV FDOFXODU OD FRUULHQWH GLYLGLHQGR OD SRWHQFLD SRU OD WHQVLyQ3DUDHOFDVRGDGRWHQGUtDPRVTXHODFRUULHQWHHQXQDOiPSDUDGH YDWLRVDYROWLRVVHUiGH $RP$ PLOLDPSHUHV   /D FDUDFWHUtVWLFD GH ORV HOHPHQWRV TXH SHUPLWHQ XQD PD\RU R PHQRU FLUFXODFLyQ GH FRUULHQWH VH GHQRPLQD  HOpFWULFD R VLPSOHPHQWH UHVLVWHQFLD (VH SDUiPHWUR GHWHUPLQD OD UHODFLyQ HQWUH OD WHQVLyQ \ OD FRUULHQWHVXPDJQLWXGVHH[SUHVDHQ X \VHLQGLFDFRQODOHWUD JULHJDPD\~VFXODRPHJD      5 9,  9ROYLHQGR DO FDVR DQWHULRU GH OD OiPSDUD VX UHVLVWHQFLD VHUi LJXDO D OD GLYLVLyQGHODWHQVLyQSRUODFRUULHQWHHVGHFLUTXHVHUi  RKPLRV  +HPRVFLWDGRDOKDEODUGHODWHQVLyQTXHSRGtDVHUFRQWLQXDRDOWHUQD /DGLIHUHQFLDHQWUHHOODVHVWiGDGDSRUODYDULDFLyQTXHH[SHULPHQWDQHQHO WLHPSR/DFRQWLQXDSHUPDQHFHVLHPSUHLJXDOPLHQWUDVTXHODDOWHUQDHVWi RVFLODQGRHQIRUPDVHQRLGDOHQWUHXQPi[LPRSRVLWLYR\XQRQHJDWLYRGHLJXDO PDJQLWXGGHQRPLQDGR RYDORUSLFR(VWDRVFLODFLyQODUHDOL]D XQQ~PHURHVWDEOHFLGRGHYHFHVSRUVHJXQGRTXHVHGHQRPLQDOD  VLHQGR OD XQLGDG HO  R  LQGLFDGD SRU  (Q QXHVWUDVFDVDVHVGH+HUW]RVHDTXHUHDOL]DODYDULDFLyQFRPSOHWD YHFHVSRUVHJXQGR  )RUPDOPHQWH ODV H[SUHVLRQHV GH XQD WHQVLyQ \ GH XQD FRUULHQWH HQ IXQFLyQGHOWLHPSRHVWiQGDGDVSRU    Y W  9 FRVHQR IW  \ L W  , FRVHQR IW     'RQGH HVODIUHFXHQFLD\ HVODYDULDEOHWLHPSR6LELHQODYDULDFLyQ GH OD WHQVLyQ WLHQH OD PLVPD IRUPD \ IUHFXHQFLD TXH OD GH OD FRUULHQWH QRUPDOPHQWH QR HVWiQ VLQFURQL]DGDV \ HVD GLIHUHQFLD OD VHxDODQ ORV FRHILFLHQWHV\HQODVH[SUHVLRQHVOODPDGRV (VWRLPSOLFD TXH KD\ XQ GHVSOD]DPLHQWR GH OD FXUYD TXH UHSUHVHQWD D OD WHQVLyQ FRQ UHVSHFWRDODGHODFRUULHQWHHVHGHVSOD]DPLHQWRVHGHQRPLQD \ VHH[SUHVDFRPR  JHQHUDOPHQWHFRQODOHWUDJULHJDSKL =    voltios am perios         
UHVLVWHQFLD RKPLRV RKPV YDORU Pi[LPR IUHFXHQFLD +] +HUW] FLFORV SRU VHJXQGR
PD[ PD[

$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

iQJXORVGHIDVH

GHVIDVDMH

GLIHUHQFLDGHIDVH

18 15 12 9 6 3

Y W 

FRV W

 

L W 

FRV W  

0 tie m p o -0 -3 , 0 ,3 0 ,8 1 ,3 1 ,8 2 ,3 2 ,8 3 ,3 3 ,8 4 ,3 4 ,8 5 ,3 5 ,8 6 ,3 6 ,8 2 -6 -9
 

(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF

-1 2 -1 5 -1 8

         $GHPiV FRPR HO YDORULQVWDQWiQHR GHODWHQVLyQ\GHODFRUULHQWHHV VLHPSUHFDPELDQWHHOUHVXOWDGRGHVXSURGXFWRSDUDGHWHUPLQDUODSRWHQFLD WDPELpQHVFDPELDQWH\GHSHQGHWDQWRGHODVDPSOLWXGHVFRPRGHOGHVIDVDMH 3RU HOOR VH KD GHILQLGR HO  FRPR HO YDORU GH XQD WHQVLyQ R FRUULHQWHFRQWtQXDTXHSURGXFHODPLVPDSRWHQFLDTXHHOYDORUPHGLRGHOD SRWHQFLD GH XQD WHQVLyQ R FRUULHQWH DOWHUQD (VH YDORU HVWi GDGR SRU OD DPSOLWXGGHODWHQVLyQRFRUULHQWHDOWHUQDGLYLGLGDSRUODUDt]GH     9  9    ,  ,    (VWHYDORUHVHOTXHVHXVDQRUPDOPHQWHSDUDHYDOXDUODVWHQVLRQHV\ FRUULHQWHV DOWHUQDV HQ OXJDU GHO OD DPSOLWXG R YDORU SLFR (O YDORU GH  YROWLRV GH OD WHQVLyQ GH GLVWULEXFLyQ GRPLFLOLDULD HV HO YDORU HILFD] GH XQD WHQVLyQFX\DDPSOLWXGRYDORUPi[LPRHVGHYROWLRV\ORVYDORUHVGHO JUiILFR VH FRUUHVSRQGHUtDQ FRQ XQD WHQVLyQ FX\R YDORU HILFD] HV GH  YROWLRV\XQDFRUULHQWHGHDPSHULRV  &RQ ORV FRQFHSWRV GH GHVIDVDMH HQWUH OD WHQVLyQ \ OD FRUULHQWH \ WHQLHQGRHQFXHQWDORVYDORUHVHILFDFHVOD VH LQGLFDGHGRVIRUPDV    RDFWLYDGDGDSRU  3 9,FRV HQ YDWLRV>:@   \OD  GDGDSRU  6 9, HQ YROWDPSHULRV>9$@  
YDORU HILFD]
HI PD[ HI PD[

$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

SRWHQFLDHQFRUULHQWHDOWHUQD

3RWHQFLD PHGLD

3RWHQFLD DSDUHQWH

$ 862'(,167580(1726'(0(',&,1

 'DGR TXH WUDEDMDUHPRV FRQ HQHUJtD HOpFWULFD FUHHPRV FRQYHQLHQWH WHQHUFRQRFLPLHQWRVGHFyPRXVDUXQLQVWUXPHQWRGHPHGLFLyQGHYDULDEOHV HOpFWULFDV $FWXDOPHQWH VRQ GH EDMR FRVWR \ SXHGHQ VHUYLU SDUD UHVROYHU SUREOHPDV \WDPELpQSDUDHYLWDUORV HQQXHVWURVHTXLSRV  $O LQVWUXPHQWR TXH KDUHPRV UHIHUHQFLD HV DO  FRQRFLGR FRPR TXHQRVSHUPLWHPHGLUWHQVLRQHVFRUULHQWHV\UHVLVWHQFLDV HQ DOJXQRVFDVRVWDPELpQRWURVSDUiPHWURV   /RVLQVWUXPHQWRVGLVSRQLEOHVVRQGHGLVWLQWRVWLSRV\WHFQRORJtDVGHVGH ORV VLPSOHV GH DJXMD D ORV VRILVWLFDGRV HOHFWUyQLFRV SRU HOOR ODV FRQVLGHUDFLRQHV TXH GDUHPRV DTXt VRQ JHQHUDOHV HQ SDUWLFXODU KDEUi TXH REVHUYDU HO PXOWtPHWUR GLVSRQLEOH \ OHHU HO PDQXDO SDUD GHWHUPLQDU ODV SUHVWDFLRQHV\ODVSUHFDXFLRQHVDWHQHUHQFXHQWDSDUDXWLOL]DUOR
 PXOWtPHWUR WHVWHU
(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF  

 'HEHPRV WHQHU PXFKD SUHFDXFLyQ SDUD XWLOL]DU WDQWR XQ PXOWtPHWUR FRPRFXDOTXLHURWURLQVWUXPHQWRGHPHGLFLyQ(OFRQHFWDUPDOXQLQVWUXPHQWR SXHGH FDXVDU HO GDxR LUUHSDUDEOH GHO HOHPHQWR EDMR PHGLFLyQ \R GHO LQVWUXPHQWRDGHPiVGHVHULRVGDxRVSDUDHOXVXDULR  $QWHV GH UHDOL]DU PHGLFLRQHV VRORV HV DFRQVHMDEOH OD UHDOL]DFLyQ GH SUiFWLFDVEDMRODVXSHUYLVLyQGHDOJXLHQTXHWHQJDH[SHULHQFLD    1XQFDWRTXHPRVODVSDUWHVPHWiOLFDVGHXQFLUFXLWRPDQLSXOHPRVORV HOHPHQWRV GH FRQH[LyQ SRU VXV SDUWHV DLVODGDV SUHSDUDGDV SDUD HOOR QR DSR\HPRVHOPXOWtPHWURVREUHHOFLUFXLWRTXHHVWHPRVPLGLHQGR  (OPiVVLPSOHGHORVLQVWUXPHQWRVSRVHHGRVWHUPLQDOHVXQRPDUFDGR FRPR   R FRP~Q \ HO RWUR PDUFDGR FRPR   (Q HVRV WHUPLQDOHV VH FRQHFWDQODV JHQHUDOPHQWHXQDQHJUDHQHO  \RWUD URMDHQHO  2WURVWUDHQDGHPiVWHUPLQDOHVSDUDRWUDVIXQFLRQHV  $QWHV GH FRQHFWDU HO LQVWUXPHQWR GHEHPRV DVHJXUDUQRV TXH HVWi SUHSDUDGRSDUDODPHGLFLyQTXHTXHUHPRVKDFHU3DUDHOORVHGLVSRQHGHXQ VHOHFWRU TXH WLHQH YDULDV SRVLFLRQHV  LQGLFDGD FRQ 9 FRQ YDULDV HVFDODV GH FRQWLQXD \ DOWHUQD  R LQWHQVLGDG LQGLFDGD FRQ , D YHFHV FRQ $ SRU OD XQLGDG GH PHGLFLyQ  WDPELpQ FRQ YDULDV HVFDODV GH FRQWLQXD\QRVLHPSUHGHDOWHUQD\ LQGLFDGDFRQ5RFRQ  FRQ YDULDV HVFDODV $OJXQRV LQVWUXPHQWRV VRQ PXOWLIXQFLRQDOHV \ SRVHHQ GLVWLQWRV WLSRV GH FRQHFWRUHV SDUD ORV GLVWLQWRV ILQHV (Q HVWRV FDVRV \ HQ DOJXQRVPXOWtPHWURVVLPSOHVKD\TXHXVDUHOVHOHFWRU\DGHPiVFDPELDUOD FRQH[LyQ GH ODV SXQWDV GH SUXHED SDUD HOHJLU OD IXQFLyQ \R HO UDQJR GHVHDGRV  'LMLPRVTXHOD HV GRVSXQWRVSRUORTXHSDUDPHGLUODR XWLOL]DUODGHEHPRVFRQHFWDUQXHVWURGLVSRVLWLYRHQWUHHVRVGRVSXQWRVXQD SXQWDGHSUXHEDRXQWHUPLQDOHQXQSXQWR\HOUHVWDQWHHQHORWURGHFLPRV TXHVHFRQHFWDQHQ 7RGRVORVHOHPHQWRVTXHGDQDOLPHQWDGRVSRUOD PLVPDWHQVLyQHVORTXHRFXUUHFXDQGRXWLOL]DPRVXQWULSOHHQXQWRPDGH QXHVWUDVFDVDV       9         /D  FLUFXOD HOHOHPHQWRSDUDPHGLUODGHEHUHPRVKDFHU FLUFXODUHVDFRUULHQWHSRUHOLQVWUXPHQWRGHEHUHPRVLQWHUFDODUORHQXQRGH ORV WHUPLQDOHV OD FRQH[LyQ HV HQ  $Vt HV FRPR FRQHFWDPRV ORV LQWHUUXSWRUHVROODYHVGHOX]SDUDFRUWDUODFRUULHQWHRDSDJDU\RSUHQGHU ODVOXFHV    
&RQ OD HOHFWULFLGDG QR VH MXHJD ODPHQWDEOHPHQWH QR VH YH SHUR VLHVWiODVHQWLUHPRV\WDOYH]VHDOR~OWLPRTXHVLQWDPRV  SXQWDV GH SUXHED WHQVLyQ FRUULHQWH UHVLVWHQFLD WHQVLyQ HQWUH SDUDOHOR
7HQVLyQD PHGLU

$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

FRUULHQWH

SRU

VHULH

(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF

7HQVLyQGH

DOLPHQWDFLyQ





$ 

 (OHPHQWRD



 PHGLUOHOD

FRUULHQWH

       7DQWRSDUDPHGLUWHQVLRQHVFRPRFRUULHQWHVGHEHPRVWHQHUHQFXHQWD GRV FRVDV PX\ LPSRUWDQWHV D  DVHJXUDUQRV GH ODV SRODULGDGHV GH ODV WHQVLRQHVVLHVWDPRVHQFRQWtQXDFRQHFWDQGRORVHOHPHQWRVFRPRORLQGLFDQ ORVGLDJUDPDVDQWHULRUHV\E XWLOL]DUXQDHVFDODTXHWHQJDXQDFDSDFLGDG Pi[LPD PD\RU TXH HO YDORU GHO SDUiPHWUR D PHGLU (Q FDVR GH GXGD HPSHFHPRVFRQODPi[LPDGLVSRQLEOH\OXHJRVLHVQHFHVDULREDMHPRVOD HVFDOD  3DUDPHGLU HOFLUFXLWRGHEHHVWDUVLQWHQVLyQHVGHFLUQR GHEH HVWDU FRQHFWDGR 6L OR HVWi QRV TXHGDUHPRV VLQ LQVWUXPHQWR /D PHGLFLyQGHODUHVLVWHQFLDVHUHDOL]DKDFLHQGRFLUFXODUXQDFRUULHQWHSRUHOOD HVWDFRUULHQWHHVVXPLQLVWUDGDSRUHOPLVPRLQVWUXPHQWR SDUDHOORGLVSRQH GHSLODVREDWHUtDVDGHPiVGHODVQHFHVDULDVSDUDVXIXQFLRQDPLHQWRQRUPDO VLHVHOHFWUyQLFR VLKD\RWUDFRUULHQWHHQHOFLUFXLWRORPHQRVTXHYDDRFXUULU HV TXH OD PHGLFLyQ VHD LQFRUUHFWD SHUR LQVLVWLPRV OR PiV SUREDEOH HV HO GDxRGHOPXOWtPHWUR 8QD  YH]VHOHFFLRQDGDODHVFDODGHVHDGDVHSRQHQHQFRQWDFWRODVSXQWDVGHODV SXQWDV GH SUXHED \ FRQ XQD SHULOOD DO HIHFWR DMXVWDPRV SDUD WHQHU XQD OHFWXUD GH FHUR VHD FRQ OD DJXMD R HQ HO GLVSOD\  /XHJR UHDOL]DPRV OD PHGLFLyQ FRORFDQGR ODV SXQWDV GH SUXHED HQ ORV WHUPLQDOHV R ERUQHV GH FRQH[LyQGHOHOHPHQWRDPHGLU
UHVLVWHQFLD

$SXQWHVGH(OHFWULFLGDG

,QJ-RUJH0%8&&(//$

1RUPDOPHQWH SDUD PHGLU UHVLVWHQFLDV KD\ TXH DMXVWDU HO PHGLGRU

(/(&75,&,'$'&203/(72GRF





You might also like