Quang Dien Tu

Chng 1: Cc kin thc c bn
1
Chng 1
CC KIN THC C BN

1.1 nh sng
1.1.1. Tnh cht vt l ca nh sng
Bng phng php ton hc, Macxoen chng minh rng in t
trng do mt in tch im dao ng theo phng thng ng ti mt im
sinh ra s lan truyn trong khng gian di dng sng. Sng c gi l
sng in t.
Ngi ta ni rng in tch dao ng bc x ra sng in t. Nu xt
theo mt phng truyn Ox, sng in t l sng ngang c thnh phn in
dao ng theo phng thng ng v thnh phn t dao ng theo phng
nm ngang.

Hnh 1.1. Sng in t lan truyn trong khng gian
Tn s sng in t bng tn s ca in tch dao ng v vn tc ca
n trong chn khng bng vn tc nh sng trong chn khng.
Nng lng ca sng in t t l vi lu tha bc 4 ca tn s.
Ngy nay, ngi ta bit rng sng in t c y cc tnh cht nh
sng c hc, nhng sng c hc, truyn i trong nhng mi trng n hi,
cn sng in t th t n truyn i m khng cn nh n s bin dng ca
mt mi trng n hi no c, v vy n truyn c c trong chn khng.
nh sng kh kin dng ch cc bc x in t c bc sng nm
trong vng quang ph nhn thy c bng mt thng (tc l t khong 400
nm n 700 nm).
"nh sng lnh" l nh sng c bc sng tp trung gn vng quang ph
tm. "nh sng nng" l nh sng c bc sng nm gn vng .
nh sng c quang ph tri u t n tm l nh sng trng, nh sng
c bc sng tp trung ti vng quang ph rt hp gi l "nh sng n sc".
2

Hnh 1.2. Phn loi Sng in t
nh sng t nhin hoc nh sng nhn thy c chim mt phn rt
nh trong ph sng in t.
1.1.2. Bc sng v mu sc nh sng
o bc sng ca nhng nh sng n sc khc nhau bng phng
php giao thoa, ngi ta thy mi nh sng n sc c mt bc sng hon
ton xc nh. Chng hn:
nh sng mu u ca di mu lin tc c bc sng: .
nh sng mu tm cui ca di mu lin tc c bc sng:
nh sng vng do n hi natri pht ra c bc sng: .
Nh vy, nh sng n sc l nh sng c mt bc sng xc nh.
Mu ng vi nh sng gi l mu n sc hay mu quang ph.
Thc ra, nhng nh sng n sc c bc sng ln cn nhau th gn
nh c cng mt mu. V vy, ngi ta phn nh ra trong quang ph lin
tc nhng vng mu khc nhau:
Vng c bc sng t:
Vng da cam v vng c bc sng t: (Vng da
cam v Vng vng)
Vng lc c bc sng t:
Vng lam - chm c bc sng t: (Vng lam-
chm)
Vng tm c bc sng t:
Ngoi cc mu n sc, cn c cc mu khng n sc, l hn hp ca
nhiu mu n sc vi nhng t l khc nhau.
3

Hnh 1.3. mu sc v bc sng ca nh sng
1. Tia hng ngoi
Tia hng ngoi l nhng bc x khng nhn thy dc c bc sng
ln hn bc sng ca nh sng . Tia hng ngoi c bn cht l
sng in t. Tia hng ngoi do cc vt b nung nng pht ra.
Vt c nhit thp ch pht ra c cc tia hng ngoi. Chng hn
nh thn th ngi nhit ch pht ra cc tia hng ngoi trong
mnh nht l cc tia c bc sng vng .
Vt c nhit bt u pht ra nh sng mu ti nhng mnh
nht vn l cc tia hng ngoi vng bc sng .
Trong nh sng mt tri, c khong 50% nng lng ca chm sng l
thuc v cc tia hng ngoi. Ngun pht tia hng ngoi thng dng l cc
bng n c dy tc bng vonfram nng sng cng sut t 250W n 1000W.
Nhit dy tc bng n vo khong .
Tc dng ni vt nht ca tia hng ngoi l tc dng nhit. Ngoi ra, tia
hng ngoi cng c tc dng ln mt loi knh nh c bit gi l knh nh
hng ngoi. Nu chp nh cc m my bng knh nh hng ngoi th nh cc
m my s ni ln rt r rt. l cc m my cha hi nc t hay nhiu
s hp th cc tia hng ngoi yu hay mnh rt khc nhau.
ng dng quan trng nht ca cc tia hng ngoi l dng sy hoc
si. Trong cng nghip, ngi ta dng tia hng ngoi sy kh cc sn
phm sn (nh v t, v t lnh v.v) hoc cc hoa qu nh chui, nho
v.v Trong y hc, ngi ta dng n hng ngoi si m ngoi da cho
mu lu thng c tt.
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2. Tia t ngoi
Tia t ngoi l nhng bc x khng nhn thy c, c bc sng ngn
hn bc sng ca nh sng tm .
Tia t ngoi c bn cht l sng in t.
Mt Tri l mt ngun pht tia t ngoi rt mnh. Khong 9% cng
sut ca chm nh sng mt tri l thuc v cc tia t ngoi. Cc h quang
in cng l nhng ngun pht tia t ngoi mnh. Trong cc bnh vin v
phng th nghim, ngi ta dng cc n thu ngn lm ngun pht cc tia t
ngoi. Ngoi ra nhng vt nung nng trn cng pht ra tia t ngoi rt
mnh.
Tia t ngoi b thu tinh, nc v.v hp th rt mnh. Thch anh th
gn nh trong sut i vi cc tia t ngoi c bc sng nm trong vng t
( gi l vng t ngoi gn ).
Tia t ngoi c tc dng rt mnh ln knh nh. N c th lm cho mt
s cht pht quang. N c tc dng in ho khng kh. Ngoi ra, n cn c tc
dng gy ra mt s phn ng quang ho, phn ng quang hp v.v
Tia t ngoi c mt s tc dng sinh hc.
Trong cng nghip, ngi ta s dng tia t ngoi pht hin cc vt
nt nh, vt xc trn b mt cc sn phm tin. Mun vy, ngi ta xoa trn
b mt sn phm mt lp bt pht quang rt mn. Bt s chui vo cc khe nt,
vt xc. Khi a sn phm vo chm t ngoi, cc vt s sng ln.
Trong y hc, ngi ta dng tia t ngoi cha bnh ci xng.
3. Tia X
Nm 1895, nh bc hc Rn-ghen (Roentgen), ngi c, nhn thy
rng khi cho dng tia catt trong ng tia catt p vo mt ming kim loi c
nguyn t lng ln nh bch kim hoc vonfram th t s pht ra mt bc
x khng nhn thy c. Bc x ny i xuyn qua thnh thu tinh ra ngoi v
c th lm pht quang mt s cht hoc lm en phim nh. Ngi ta gi bc
x ny l tia X
Khi mi c pht hin, ngi ta tng lm tia X l mt dng ht no
. Tuy nhin, khi cho tia X i qua in trng v t trng mnh th n
khng b lch ng. Nh vy, tia X khng mang in. Tia X l mt loi sng
in t c bc sng ngn hn bc sng ca tia t ngoi. Bc sng ca tia
X nm trong khong t (tia X mm).
Tia X c nhng tnh cht v cng dng sau
Tnh cht ni bt ca tia X l kh nng m xuyn. N truyn qua c
nhng vt chn sng thng thng nh giy, ba, g. N i qua kim loi kh
khn hn. Kim loi c khi lng ring cng ln th kh nng cn tia X ca
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n cng mnh. Chng hn, tia X xuyn qua d dng mt tm nhm dy vi
cm, nhng li b lp ch dy vi mm cn li. V vy, ch c dng lm cc
mn chn bo v trong k thut k thutRnghen.
Nh kh nng m xuyn mnh m tia X c dng trong y hc
chiu in, chp in, trong cng nghip d cc l hng khuyt tt nm
bn trong cc sn phm c.
Tia X c tc dng rt mnh ln knh nh, nn n c dng chp
in.
Tia X c tc dng lm pht quang mt s cht. Mn hunh quang dng
trong vic chiu in l mn c ph mt lp platinocyanua bary. Lp ny pht
quang mu xanh lc di tc dng ca tia X.
Tia X c kh nng ion ho cc cht khi. Ngi ta li dng c im ny
lm cc my o liu lng tia X.
Tia X c tc dng sinh l. N c th hu hoi t bo, git vi khun. V
th tia X dng cha nhng ung th nng, gn ngoi da.

Hnh 1.4. ng dng sng in t.
1.1.3. Cc hin tng quang hnh hc
nh sng ni ring, cc bc x in t ni chung d bt k tn s
no u c tc truyn nh nhau trong mi trng chn khng: 299 792,5
km/s # 300 000 km/s
Tuy nhin, trong mi trng khc tc truyn nh sng s thay i
Mi trng chn khng v khng kh : 300 000 km/s
Mi trng nc : 225 000 km/s
Thu tinh : 200 000 km/s

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1. Hin tng khc x nh sng

Hnh 1.5. Hin tng khc x nh sng
Khc x thng dng ch hin tng nh sng i hng khi i qua
mt phn cch gia hai mi trng c chit sut khc nhau. M rng ra, y
l hin tng i hng ng i ca bc x in t, khi lan truyn trong mi
trng khng ng nht
2. Hin tng tn sc

Hnh 1.6. Hin tng tn sc

nh sng trng l tng hp ca rt nhiu tia sng, mi tia sng tng
ng vi cc di sng in t khc nhau v c mu sc khc nhau. Tia sng
c sng in t ngn cng d b khc x. Nh vy c ngha l nh sng xanh
d b khc x hn so vi nh sng
Lng knh l mt dng c quang hc, s dng khc x, phn x v
tn x nh sng sang cc mu quang ph (nh mu sc ca cu vng). Lng
knh thng c lm theo dng kim t thp ng, c y l hnh tam gic.
Tia sng i t mt mi trng (nh mi trng khng kh) sang mt
mi trng khc (nh tthutinh trong lng knh), n s b chm li, v ging
nh kt qu, n s hoc b cong (khc x) hoc b phn x hoc ng thi xy
ra c hai hin tng trn. Gc m tia sng hp vi trc thng gc ti im m
tia sng i vo trong lng knh c gi l gc ti, v gc to ra u bn
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kia, qua qu trnh khc x c gi l gc l. Tng t, tia sng i vo trong
lng knh c gi l tia ti v tia sng i ra ngoi lng knh c gi l tia l.
Cc lng knh phn x c s dng phn x nh sng, v d nh cc
ng nhm, v, nh hin tng phn x ton phn, chng d dng c s
dng hn l cc gng. Cc lng knh tn sc c s dng chia nh sng
thnh cc thnh phn quang ph mu, bi v khc x ca chng ph thuc
vo bc sng ca tia sng (hin tng tn sc); khi mt tia sng trng i vo
trong lng knh, n c mt gc ti xc nh, tri qua qu trnh khc x, v
phn x bn trong lng knh, dn n vic tia sng b b cong, hay gp khc,
v v vy, mu sc ca tia sng l s khc nhau. nh sng mu xanh c bc
sng nh hn nh sng mu v v vy n cong hn so vi nh sng mu
. Cng c loi lng knh phn cc, n c th chia nh sng thnh cc thnh
phn phn cc khc nhau.
1.1.4. Lng tnh sng ht ca nh sng
Nguyn t gm:
Ht nhn ( in tch +Z) gm:
Proton (p), m
p
=1,672. 10
-27
kg, tch in dng + 1,602. 10
-19
C.
Ntron(n), m
n
= 1,675. 10
-27
kg, khng mang in .
Ht nhn ca cc nguyn t u bn (tr cc nguyn t phng x).
Electron(e) ,m
e
= 9,1. 10
-31
kg , tch in m - 1,602. 10
-19
C.
Trong bng h thng tun hon (HTTH), s TT nguyn t = in tch
ht nhn = s e.
1. Hin tng quang in
nh sng l mt sng in t lan truyn trong chn khng vi vn tc c
= 3.10
8
m/s, c c trng bng bc sng l hay tn s dao ng = c/l
Thuyt sng ca nh sng gii thch c nhng hin tng lin quan
vi s truyn sng nh giao thoa v nhiu x nhng khng gii thch c
nhng d kin thc nghim v s hp th v s pht ra nh sng khi i qua
mi trng vt cht.
Nm 1900, M.Planck a ra gi thuyt: Nng lng ca nh sng
khng c tnh cht lin tc m bao gm tng lng ring bit nh nht gi l
lng t. Mt lng t ca nh sng (photon) c nng lng l E=h
Trong
E l nng lng ca photon
: tn s bc x
h = 6,626 .10
-34
J.s - hng s Planck.
8
Nm 1905, Anhstanh da vo thuyt lng t gii thch tha
ng hin tng quang in. Bn cht ca hin tng quang in l cc kim
loi kim trong chn khng khi b, khi b chiu sng s pht ra cc electron;
nng lng ca cc electron khng ph thuc vo cng ca nh sng
chiu vo m ph thuc vo tn s nh sng.
Anhstanh cho rng khi c chiu ti b mt kim loi, mi photon vi
nng lng h s truyn nng lng cho kim loi. Mt phn nng lng E
0

c dng lm bt electron ra khi nguyn t kim loi v phn cn li s
tr thnh ng nng ca electron

Nhng bc x c tn s b hn tn s gii hn s khng gy ra hin
tng quang in.
S dng cng thc trn ta c th tnh c vn tc ca electron bt ra
trong hin tng quang in.

2. M hnh nguyn t Bohr
Trong nguyn t mi electron quay xung quanh nhn ch theo nhng
qu o trn ng tm c bn knh xc nh.
Mi qu o ng vi mt mc nng lng xc nh ca electron. Qu
o gn nhn nht ng vi mc nng lng thp nht, qu o cng xa nhn
ng vi mc nng lng cng cao.
Khi e chuyn t qu o ny sang qu o khc th xy ra s hp th
hoc gii phng nng lng. Khi e chuyn t qu o c mc nng lng
thp sang mc nng lng cao hn th n hp th nng lng. Khi electron
chuyn t mt mc nng lng cao sang mc nng lng thp hn th xy ra
s pht x nng lng. Nng lng ca bc x hp th hoc gii phng l

Electron tn ti cc mc nng lng ring bit trong mt nguyn t.
Cc mc nng lng c th hiu l tng ng vi cc qu o ring bit ca
electron xung quanh ht nhn. Electron bn ngoi s c mc nng lng cao
hn nhng electron pha trong. Khi c s tc ng vt l hay ha hc t bn
ngoi, cc ht electron ny cng c th nhy t mc nng lng thp ln mc
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nng lng cao hay ngc li. Cc qu trnh ny c th to ra hay hp th cc
photon. Tp hp cc photon ny to ra nh sng.

1.7. Minh ho tng trng 1 photon
Bc sng ( mu sc) ca tia sng ph thuc vo s chnh lch nng
lng gia cc mc.
3. Lng tnh sng ht ca cc ht vi m
M hnh trn u khng gii thch c 1 s vn thc nghim t ra.
Nguyn nhn l do:
- Khng cp n tnh cht sng ca electron
- Do coi qu o chuyn ng ca electron trong nguyn t l qu
o trn c bn knh xc nh.
Nm 1924 nh vt l hc ngi Php Louis De Broglie a ra gi
thuyt: mi ht vt cht chuyn ng u c th coi l qu trnh sng c
c trng bng bc sng l v tun theo h thc

Trong
m - Khi lng ca ht, kg
v - Vn tc chuyn ng ca ht , m/s
h - Hng s Planck, h= 6,63.10
-34
J.s
i vi ht v m: m kh ln (h =const) l kh nh -> tnh cht sng
c th b qua.
10
i vi ht vi m : m nh (h =const) l kh kh ln -> khng th b
qua tnh cht sng.
V d : Mt ht c khi lng m = 0,3 kg, vn tc chuyn ng V= 30m/s th
l ca ht l?
Gii:
p dng h thc Louis De Broglie

l ca ht v cng nh nn b qua tnh cht sng ca ht.
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4. Nguyn l bt nh Heisenberg
Khng th xc nh ng thi chnh xc c to v vn tc ca ht, do
khng th v c chnh xc qu o chuyn ng ca ht.

y l h thc bt nh Heisenberg
Trong
x bt nh (sai s) v to theo phng x
v
x
bt nh (sai s) v vn tc theo phng x
Nu x cng nh th v
x
cng ln, ngha bt nh v to cng nh
th bt nh v vn tc cng ln. T y rt ra mt kt lun quan trng l
khng th dng c hc c in m t mt cch chnh xc qu o chuyn
ng ca ht vi m nh thuyt ca Bohr m phi s dng mt mn khoa hc
mi l c hc lng t.
1.1.5. nh sng laser
Laser l tn vit tt ca cm t Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation c ngha l "khuch i nh sng bng pht x kch
thch" hoc "khuch i nh sng bng bc x cng bc".
Tnh cht
Trong thc t, Laser l s to ra mt chm ht photon c pht x
tha mn cc iu kin sau y
Tt c cc photon pht ra u c cng bc sng ging nhau.(ta gi y
l s n sc)
Tt c cc photon u c cng pha dao ng. Ni cch khc l cc
photon phi c to ra vo cng mt thi im nh nhau.
Tt c cc photon u cng phn cc theo mt phng .
S khc nhau gia nh sng thng v nh sng Laser
nh sng laser gm nhiu photon cng mt tn s, ng pha v bay gn
nh song song vi nhau, nn c cng rt cao v chiu di ng pha ca
chm sng ln. Tia laser thng dng c th c chiu di ng pha c vi chc
cm . Cc tnh cht ny rt qu cho nhiu ng dng thc nghim.
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1.2. Bn cht ca s nhn thy
Chng ta nhn thy c mi vt xung quanh l do ngun sng chiu
vo vt ri phn x vo mt ta, nn ta thy c vt .
Cc dao ng ca in trng trong nh sng tc ng mnh n cc t
bo cm th nh sng trong mt ngi.
1.2.1. Cu to ca mt
Mt ging nh mt my nh. N c chc nng to ra mt nh tht, nh
hn vt, trn mt lp t bo nhy vi nh sng, t to ra nhng tn hiu
thn kinh, a ln no. Tuy nhin h thng quang hc ca mt phc tp hn
h thng quang hc ca my nh rt nhiu.
B phn chnh ca mt l mt thu knh hi t, trong sut, mm, gi l
thu tinh th. cong ca hai mt thu tinh th c th thay i c nh s
co gin ca c n.

Hnh 1.8. Cu to s lc mt
ng trc thu tinh th l mt cht lng trong sut, c chit sut n =
1,333 gi l thu dch.
ng sau thu tinh th cng l mt cht lng trong sut khc, c chit
sut n = 1,333, gi l dch thu tinh.
Mt ngoi cng ca mt l mt mng mng trong sut, cng nh sng,
gi l gic mc.
Thnh trong ca mt, phn i din vi thu tinh th, gi l vng mc.
N ng vai tr nh mt mn nh, ti c cc t bo nhy sng, nm u
cc dy thn kinh th gic.
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Trn vng mc, c mt vng nh mu vng, rt nhy vi nh sng, nm
gn giao im V ca trc chnh ca mt vi vng mc. Vng ny gi l im
vng.
Di im vng mt cht c im m M l im hon ton khng
nhy sng, v ti cc dy thn kinh phn nhnh v khng c u dy thn
kinh th gic.
St mt trc ca thu tinh th c mt mng khng trong sut, mu en
(hoc xanh hay nu) gi l mng mng mt (hay lng en).
Gia mng mng mt c mt l trn nh gi l con ngi. Tu theo
cng ca chm nh sng ti m ng knh ca con ngi s t ng
thay i, iu chnh chm sng chiu vo vng mc. ngoi nng, con
ngi thu nh li; trong phng ti, n m rng ra.
Mt c im rt quan trng v mt cu to ca mt l: cong ( do ,
tiu c) ca thu tinh th c th thay i c. Trong khi , khong cch t
quang tm ca thu tinh th n vng mc (d = OV) li lun lun khng i
(d = 2,2cm).
Vng mc ngi c chia lm 2 lp (xt v mt chc nng) gm lp
t bo cm nhn nh sng v lp t bo dn truyn xung thn kinh.
V t bo hc, vng mc ngi ch c 2 loi t bo: T bo gy v t
bo nn.

Hnh 1.9. Phn b cc t bo que v t bo nn trong vng mc
T bo gy c chc nng xc nh v cu trc, hnh th vt , nhng hnh
nh trong ti.
C t 75-150 triu
Rt nhy cmvi nh sng
Cm nhn trn di rng
nh sng ban ngy v m
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Cung cp kh nng nhn m
Cm nhn chi (cngsng)
phn gii cao

Hnh 1.10. nhy sng ca t bo que v t bo nn
T bo nn c chc nng xc nh r v mu sc, sc nt. Trong ,
t bo nn li c phn thnh 3 loi, nhn cm mu sc nh sng tng ng
vi 3 vng quang ph khc nhau
C t 6-7 triu
Tp trung ch yu ti im vng ti trung tm vng mc
Cm nhn trn di hp
phn gii thp
C 3 loi t bo nn cm nhn cc tn s cm nhn mu sc 460
nm ( xanh lam ), 575 nm ( xanh lc), 625 nm ( )
Ch c kh nng nhn ban ngy
C 3 loi t bo nn cm nhn 3 vng quang ph khc nhau (tc ba
mu sc khc nhau). S kt hp cng lc 3 tn hiu t 3 loi t bo ny to
nn nhng cm gic mu sc.
T bo cm gic mu v mu lc c ph hp th rt gn nhau, do
vy mt ngi phn bit c rt nhiu mu nm gia mu v lc (mu
vng, mu da cam, xanh nn chui, ...).
T bo cm gic mu lc v mu lam c ph hp th nm xa nhau, nn
mt ngi phn bit v cc mu xanh khng tt.
to ra hnh nh mu trn mn hnh, ngi ta cng s dng 3 loi n
pht sng 3 vng quang ph nhy cm ca ngi.

15

Hnh 1.11. Cc t bo nn hp th cc ph Si() c nh ti cc bc sng
1.2.2. Cc thuc tnh m t mu sc
Cc mu c phn bit da theo cc thuc tnh: sng, sc , v
bo ha mu
sng: c trng cho ri cm nhn
c trng mu ( Chrominance )
o Sc ( Hue )
L thuc tnh lin quan ti bc sng ch yu trong hn
hp cc bc sng nh sng.
c trng cho mu sc ch o c ngi quan st cm
nhn
o bo ha ( Saturation )
c trng cho thun khit tng i
Ph thuc vo rng ca ph nhsng
Th hin lng mu trng c trnvi sc
o Hue v bo ha gi l c trng mu( chromaticity )
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24-bit RGB color cube RGB safe color cube
Hnh 1.12. S biu din mu sc

Hu ht mt ca cc sinh vt nhy cm vi bc x in t c bc sng
nm trong khong t 300 nm n 1200 nm. Khong bc sng ny trng
khp vi vng pht x c cng mnh nht ca Mt Tri.
Cc loi vt trn Tri t tin ho thu nhn vng bc x t nhin
mnh nht em li li th sinh tn cho chng.
17

Hnh 1.13. S cm nhn sai tng phn v hnh dng kch thc ca mt

Chng 1 : Cc kin thc c bn

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1.3. Gc khi
1.3.1. Khi nim gc khi

Hnh 1.14. Gc khi
n v o gc khi l gc khi trng ti tm ca mt hnh cu c bn
knh r theo mt phn trn b mt ca hnh cu c din tch r. Nh vy ta c
4 Steraian trong hnh cu
1.3.2. Gc trng vt v nng sut phn li ca mt
Gc trng vt AB c dng mt on thng t vung gc vi trc chnh
ca mt, l gc to bi hai tia sng i t hai u A v B ca vt qua quang
tm O ca mt.
Mun phn bit c hai im A v B th khng nhng hai im
phi nm trong gii hn nhn r ca mt, m gc trng on AB phi ln.
Thc vy, khi on AB ngn li, gc trng on AB gim i, hai nh A v B
ca chng trn vng mc s tin li gn nhau. Khi hai nh A, B nm trn
cng mt u t bo nhy nh sng th ta khng cn phn bit c hai im
A v B na.
Do , ngi ta gi nng sut phn li ca mt l gc trng nh nht
gia hai im A v B m mt cn c th phn bit c hai im .
Lc hai nh A v B ca chng nm ti hai t bo nhy sng cnh nhau
trn vng mc.
Nng sut phn li ca mt ph thuc vo tng con mt. Php o c
thng k cho ta kt qu

1.3.3. S lu nh trn vng mc
Sau khi tt nh sng kch thch trn vng mc, phi mt mt khong
thi gian c 0,1s, vng mc mi hi phc li nh c. Trong khong thi gian
, cm gic sng cha b mt v ngi quan st vn cn thy hnh nh ca
vt. l s lu nh trn vng mc.
Hin tng ny c s dng trong chiu bng, trong v tuyn truyn
hnh
1.4. Trc quang

19
1.4.1. Quang ph
1. Quang ph lin tc
Nu ngun l mt bng n c dy tc nng sng th qua lng knh ta
thy c mt di sng c mu bin i lin tc t n tm. l quang ph
lin tc ca ngn n
Cc vt rn, lng hoc kh c t khi ln khi b nung nng s pht ra
quang ph lin tc. Mt Tri l mt khi kh c t khi ln pht sng. Quang
ph ca nh sng mt tri l quang ph lin tc. Trong quang ph lin tc cc
vch mu cnh nhau nm st nhau n mc chng ni lin vi nhau to nn
mt di mu lin tc.

Hnh 1.15. Bc sng tia hng ngoi pht ra gim
khi nhit cc vt b nung nng tng.
Mt c im quan trng ca quang ph lin tc l n khng ph thuc
thnh phn cu to ca ngun sng, m ch ph thuc vo nhit ca ngun
sng.
Mt ming st v mt min s t trong l, nung n cng mt nhit
s cho hai quang ph lin tc rt ging nhau.
nhit , vt bt u pht sng , nhng rt yu, nn mt
cha cm nhn c v vt vn ti.
Nhit cng cao, min pht sng ca vt cng m rng v pha nh
sng c bc sng ngn ca quang ph lin tc.
Cc dy tc bng n c nhit khong t 2500 K n 3000K pht
sng kh mnh vng nh sng nhn thy v cho mt quang ph lin tc c
mu sc t n tm. nh sng ca cc bng n ny l nh sng trng.
Nhit ca b mt Mt Tri khong 6000K. Vng sng mnh ca
quang ph lin tc ca Mt Tri nm ln cn bc sng , nh sng mt
tri l nh sng trng.

20

Hnh 1.16. Ph mt tri
Trn bu tri c cc ngi sao mu sng xanh. Nhit ca cc ngi sao
ny cng cao hn nhit ca Mt Tri rt nhiu.
Ngi ta li dng c im trn xc nh nhit ca cc vt pht
sng do nung nng nh nhit ca dy tc bng n, h quang, l cao, Mt
Tri, cc sao v.v
Mun o nhit ca mt vt b nung nng sng, ngi ta so snh
sng ca vt vi sng ca mt dy tc bng n mt vng bc sng
no (thng l ).
Nhit ca dy tc bng n ng vi nhng sng khc nhau
hon ton bit trc.
2. Quang ph vch pht x.
Chiu mt chm tia sng do mt n phng in cha kh long (n
hi thu ngn, n hyr, n natri v.v) pht ra vo khe ca mt my quang
ph, ta s thu c trn tm knh ca bung nh mt quang ph pht x ca
cht kh hoc hi kim loi . Quang ph ny bao gm mt h thng nhng
vch mu ring r nm trn mt nn ti v gi l quang ph vch.
Quang ph vch pht x do cc kh hay hi p sut thp b kch thch
pht sng ra. C th kch thch cho mt cht kh pht sng bng cch t nng
hoc bng cch phng mt tia la in qua m kh hay hi v.v
Thc nghim cho thy quang ph vch pht x ca cc nguyn t khc
nhau th rt khc nhau v s lng cc vch quang ph, v tr cc vch, mu
sc cc vch v sng t i ca cc vch .

21
Nh vy, mi nguyn t ho hc trng thi kh hay hi nng sng
di p sut thp cho mt quang ph vch ring, c trng cho nguyn t .
3. Quang ph vch hp th
Chiu mt chm sng trng do mt n c dy tc nng sng pht ra
vo khe ca mt my quang ph ta thu c mt quang ph lin tc trn tm
knh ca bung nh. Nu trn ng i ca chm sng ta t mt ngn n c
hi natri nung nng th trong quang ph lin tc ni trn xut hin mt vch
ti (thc ra l hai vch ti nm st cnh nhau) ng v tr ca vch vng
trong quang ph pht x ca natri. l quang ph hp th ca natri.
Nu thay hi natri bng hi kali th trn quang ph lin tc xut hin
nhng vch ti ng ch nhng vch mu ca quang ph pht x ca kali.
l quang ph hp th ca kali.
Quang ph ca Mt Tri m ta thu c trn Tri t l quang ph hp
thu. B mt ca Mt Tri (quang cu) pht ra mt quang ph lin tc. nh
sng t quang cu i qua lp kh quyn ca Mt Tri n Tri t cho ta mt
quang ph hp th ca kh quyn .
iu kin thu c quang ph hp th l nhit ca m kh hay
hi hp th phi thp hn nhit ca ngun sng pht ra quang ph lin tc.
4. Hin tng o sc cc vch quang ph
C mt hin tng c bit lin h gia quang ph vch hp th v
quang ph vch pht x ca cng mt nguyn t: hin tng o sc. Hin
tng ny xy ra nh sau
Gi s m hi hp th trong th nghim trn c nung nng n
nhit m chng c th pht sng, tuy nhit ny vn cn thp hn nhit
ca ngun sng trng. Trn knh nh ca my quang ph, ta thu c
quang ph hp th ca m hi .
By gi ta t nhin tt ngun sng trng i. Ta s thy bin mt nn
quang ph lin tc trn knh nh, ng thi nhng vch en ca quang ph
hp th tr thnh nhng vch mu ca quang ph vch pht x ca chnh
nguyn t . l hin tng o sc ca vch quang ph.
Th d: trong quang ph hp th ca hi natri c mt vch en kp
nm ng v tr ca hai vch vng ca natri.
Vy, mt nhit nht nh, mt m hi c kh nng pht ra nhng
nh sng n sc no th n cng c kh nng hp th nhng nh sng n sc
.
Quang ph vch hp th ca mi nguyn t cng c tnh cht c trng
ring cho nguyn t . V vy, cng c th cn c vo quang ph vch hp

22
th nhn bit s c mt ca nguyn t trong cc hn hp hay hp cht.
l ni dung ca php phn tch quang ph hp th.
Nh c vic phn tch quang ph hp th ca Mt Tri m ngi ta
pht hin ra hli trn Mt Tri, trc khi tm thy n Tri t. Ngoi ra
ngi ta cn thy c mt ca rt nhiu nguyn t trong kh quyn Mt Tri
nh hir, natri, canxi, st v.v
5. Php phn tch quang ph v tin li ca php phn tch quang ph
Php phn tch thnh phn cu to ca cc cht da vo vic nghin
cu quang ph gi l php phn tch quang ph.
Trong php phn tch quang ph nh tnh, ngi ta ch cn bit s c
mt ca cc thnh phn khc nhau trong mu m ngi ta cn nghin cu.
Php phn tch quang ph nh tnh th n gin v cho kt qu nhanh hn cc
php phn tch ho hc.
Trong php phn tch quang ph nh lng, ngi ta cn bit c nng
ca cc thnh phn trong mu. Php phn tch quang ph ht sc nhy.
Ngi ta c th pht hin c mt nng rt nh ca cht trong mu
(thng vo khong 0,002%).
Nh php phn tch quang ph m ngi ta bit c thnh phn cu
to v nhit ca cc vt rt xa nh Mt Tri v cc sao.
1.4.2. Khi nim quang trc
Cc h o nh sng da trn c s m phng p ng ca mt ngi
vi nh sng.
Trc quang l php o cc i lng lin quan vi nh sng trong vng
400-700 nm.
Php trc quang v quang k s dng cc i lng v n v khc vi
bc x k. Cc h trc quang da trn c s cc b thu c p ng vi nng
lng bc x theo kiu nh p ng ca mt ngi.
Ngi ta dng mt s rt ln d liu thng k to ra ng cong
chun m t p ng ph ca mt, gi l ng quan st chun (hay ng
c trng cho quan st chun) (Standard observer curve hay Luminosity curve
for the Standard observer) hay cn gi l ng cong CIE (Commision
International de lEclairage ca Hi ng International Commision on
Illumination).


23

Hnh 1.17. ng quan st chun
Lu trn th ng cong chun ( trng tng i ph thuc
bc sng). Bc sng 555nm l sng nht .Mt ngun c th bc x mt
nng lng bc x nh nhau 555nm v 610nm, s c sng 0,5 khi hot
ng 610nm so vi sng 1 khi hot ng 555 nm
BNG TRNG TNG I ( = 1 Ti bc sng 555 nm)
Bc
sng
(nm)

trng
tng
i
Bc
sng
(nm)

trng
tng
i
410 0,001 570 0,952
420 0,004 585 0,870
430 0.012 595 0,757
443 0,023 600 0,631
450 0,038 610 0,503
460 0,060 621 0,381
470 0,091 630 0,265
480 0,193 640 0,175
490 0,208 650 0,107
500 0,323 660 0,061
510 0,503 670 0,032
520 0,710 680 0,017
530 0,862 690 0,008
540 0,954 700 0,004
550 0,995 710 0,002
560 0,995 720 0,001


24
Dng cng sut quang c o theo Lumen v k hiu F
V
. Lumen c
ngha tng t nh n v ca cng sut Watt nhng dng trong vng bc
sng kh kin
Quan h gia dng cng sut bc x v dng cng sut quang
F
V
= 683[lm/W].
e

Vi
F
V
: Dng quang (lumen)

e
: Dng bc x (Watt)
683 lm/W : Hng s vt l
: trng tng i bc sng ang xt
Cc c trng c bn:
Nng lng quang trng (Luminous Energy): Q
v

lumen.second (lm.s)
Dng quang trng: F
v
= dQ
v
/dt lumen (lm)
Mt dng quang trng chiu x : E
v
= dF
v
/dA lm/m
2

Kch thch quang trng: M
v
= dF
v
/dA lm/m
2

Cng sng): I
v
= dF
v
/d =E
v
.R
2

lm/sr
gc c ( gc khi) Sr (SteRadian)
quang trng-Luminance L
v
= dF
v
/ (d.dA.cos) lm/sr.m
2

quang trng-Luminance L
v
ca mt ngun c cng I
()
ti v tr ca
u thu
L
v
= I
()
/a
t
cos
I
()
: Cng bc x, l hm s theo (gc gia tia ti v php tuyn ca
din tch b chiu x)
a
t
: Din tch ca ngun bc x.

1.4.3. Cc n v o bc x
Cc khi nim c bn

25
Radiant energy (nng lng bc x) Q
e

Joule
(J)
Radiant Flux (dng bc x)
e
= (dQ
e
/dt)|
qua din tch dA
Watt
(W)
Flux density (mt dng quang ti /vdt)
cn gi l irradiance ( ri nng lng): H
e
= d
e
/dA (W/m
2
)
Radiant Emittance ( trng nng lng)
l mt dng kch thch trn b mt ca ngun c kim tra:
M
e
= d
e
/dA (W/m
2
)
Radiant Intensity (cng bc x) I
e
= d
e
/d (W/sr)
vi d = dA/R
2

Steradian (sr)
Ch trng hp ngun im ng hng I
e
=
e
/4 = H
e
R
2
.
Radiance (cng sut bc x trn n v gc c v trn n v din tch)
L
= d
e
/ddAcos
(W/sr.m2)
Spectral Radiant Power (cng sut bc x trn n v bc sng):
= dQ
e
/d (W/nm)
Spectral Emittance (ph kch thch, ri ph)
W
= dM
e
/ d
(W/m
2
.nm)
Spectral Radiant Intensity: I

= dI
e
/ d
(W/sr.nm)
Spectral Radiance L

= dL
e
/ d (W/sr.m
2
.nm)

n v nh sng v bc x in t c lin quan
1 nng
lng bc
x
jun J 1J = 1N.1m = 1m
2
.kg.s
-2

26
2 cng sut
bc x
(thng
lng bc
x)
ot W 1W = 1J/1s = 1m
2
.kg.s
-3
3 cng
bc x
ot
trn
sterad
ian
W/sr

Ot trn steradian l cng bc x
ca mt ngun im pht u thng lng
bc x 1 ot trong gc khi 1 steradian.
1W/sr = 1m
2
.kg.s
-3
4 chi
nng
lng
ot
trn
sterad
ian
mt
vun
g
W/(sr.
m
2
)

Ot trn steradian mt vung l chi
nng lng theo mt hng cho ti mt
im trn b mt c cng bc x ca
phn t b mt y l 1 ot trn steradian v
din tch hnh chiu ca phn t ln mt
phng vung gc vi hng trn l 1 mt
vung.
1W/(sr.m
2
) = 1kg.s
-3
5 nng sut
bc x
ot
trn
mt
vun
g
W/m
2
Ot trn mt vung l nng sut bc x
ti mt im trn b mt c thng lng
bc x t mt phn t din tch 1 mt
vung ca b mt ny l 1 ot.
1W/m
2
=1kg.s
-3
6 ri
nng
lng
ot
trn
mt
vun
g
W/m
2
Ot trn mt vung l ri nng
lng mt im trn b mt c thng
lng bc x 1 ot chiu ln phn t din
tch 1 mt vung ca b mt .
1W/m
2
=1kg.s
-3
7 cng
sng
cande
la
cd Candela l cng sng theo mt
phng xc nh ca mt ngun pht ra
bc x n sc c tn s 540 x 10
12
hc v
c cng bc x theo phng l
1/683 ot trn steradian (CGPM ln th 16,
1979).
n v c bn.

27
8 chi cande
la
trn
mt
vun
g
cd/m
2
Canela trn mt vung l chi ca
mt ngun phng 1 mt vung c cng
sng 1 candela o theo phng vung gc
vi ngun.
1cd/m
2
= 1m
-2
.cd
9
quang
thng
lume
n
lm Lumen l quang thng do mt ngun
sng im cng 1 candela pht u
trong gc khi 1 steradian.
1lm = 1cd.1sr = 1cd
10 lng
sng
lume
n giy
lm.s Lumen giy l lng sng ca quang
thng 1 lumen tnh trong thi gian 1 giy.
1lm.s = 1cd.s
lume
n gi
lm.h 1lm.h = 3 600 lm.s
11 nng sut
pht sng
( trng)
lume
n trn
mt
vun
g
lm/m
2
Lumen trn mt vung l nng sut
pht sng ca mt ngun hnh cu c din
tch mt ngoi 1 mt vung pht ra mt
quang thng 1 lumen phn b u theo mi
phng.
1lm/m
2
= 1m
-2
.cd
12 ri lux lx Lux l ri ca mt mt phng nhn
quang thng 1 lumen phn b u trn din
tch 1 mt vung ca mt .
1lx = 1lm/1m
2
= 1m
-2
.cd
13 lng ri lux
giy
lx.s Lux giy l lng ri ng vi ri 1
lux trong thi gian 1 giy.
1lx.s = 1m
-2
.s.cd
lux
gi
lx.h 1lx.h = 3 600 lx.s
14 t
(quang
lc)
mt
trn
mt
m
-1
Mt trn mt l t ca mt h quang
c tiu c 1 mt trong mi trng chit
sut bng 1.
1m
-1
= 1m
-1

28
ip dp ip l tn gi khc ca n v mt
trn mt.
1dp = 1m
-1

Chng 2: Bn dn

1
Chng 2
BN DN

2.1 . L thuyt di nng lng
2.1.1 Mc nng lng v di nng lng
Ta bit rng vt cht c cu to t nhng nguyn t ( l thnh
phn nh nht ca nguyn t m cn gi nguyn tnh cht ca nguyn t ).
Theo m hnh ca nh vt l Anh Rutherford (1871-1937), nguyn t gm c
mt nhn mang in tch dng (Proton mang in tch dng v Neutron
trung ho v in) v mt s in t (electron) mang in tch m chuyn
ng chung quanh nhn v chu tc ng bi lc ht ca nhn.
Nguyn t lun lun trung ho in tch, s electron quay chung quanh
nhn bng s proton cha trong nhn - in tch ca mt proton bng in tch
mt electron nhng tri du). in tch ca mt electron l -1,602.10
-19
C
(Coulomb), iu ny c ngha l c c 1 Coulomb in tch phi c
6,242.10
18
electron. in tch ca in t c th o c trc tip nhng khi
lng ca in t khng th o trc tip c. Tuy nhin, ngi ta c th o
c t s gia in tch v khi lng (e/m), t suy ra c khi lng
ca in t l m
o
=9,1.10
-31
Kg
2
0
2
/ 1
e
v
m m
c
=

l khi lng ca in t khi n chuyn ng vi vn tc rt nh so
vi vn tc nh sng (c=3.10
8
m/s). Khi vn tc in t tng ln, khi lng
ca in t c tnh theo cng thc Lorentz-Einstein:
Mi in t chuyn ng trn mt ng trn v chu mt gia tc
xuyn tm. Theo thuyt in t th khi chuyn ng c gia tc, in t phi
pht ra nng lng. S mt nng lng ny lm cho qu o ca in t nh
dn v sau mt thi gian ngn, in t s ri vo nhn. Nhng trong thc t,
cc h thng ny l mt h thng bn theo thi gian. Do , gi thuyt ca
Rutherford khng ng vng.
Nh vt l hc an Mch Niels Bohr (1885- 1962) b tc bng cc
gi thuyt sau:
- C nhng qu o c bit, trn in t c th di chuyn m khng
pht ra nng lng. Tng ng vi mi qu o c mt mc nng
lng nht nh. Ta c mt qu o dng.
Chng 2: Bn dn

2
- Khi in t di chuyn t mt qu o tng ng vi mc nng lng
w1 sang qu o khc tng ng vi mc nng lng w2 th s c hin
tng bc x hay hp thu nng lng. Tn s ca bc x (hay hp thu)
ny l
2 1
w w
f
h
=

Trong , h=6,62.10
-34
J.s (hng s Planck).
- Trong mi qu o dng, moment ng lng ca in t bng bi s
ca
2
h
=
H

Moment ng lng:
. . . .
2
h
mv r n n = =
H

Hnh 2.1. M hnh nguyn t hydro
Vi gi thuyt trn, ngi ta d on c cc mc nng lng ca
nguyn t hydro v gii thch c quang ph vch ca Hydro, nhng khng
gii thch c i vi nhng nguyn t c nhiu in t. Nhn thy s i
tnh gia sng v ht, Louis de Broglie (Nh vt l hc Php) cho rng c th
lin kt mi ht in khi lng m, chuyn ng vi vn tc v mt bc sng
h
=
mv

Chng 2: Bn dn

3
Trong khi gii phng trnh Schrodinger tm nng lng ca nhng
in t trong mt nguyn t duy nht, ngi ta thy rng mi trng thi nng
lng ca electron ph thuc vo 4 s nguyn gi l 4 s nguyn lng
- S nguyn lng xuyn tm (S nguyn lng chnh). Xc nh kch
thc ca qu o n=1,2,3,7
- S nguyn lng phng v: (S nguyn lng ph). Xc nh hnh th
qu o l=1,2,3,,n-1
- S nguyn lng t. Xc nh phng hng ca qu o ml=0, l,,
l
- S nguyn lng Spin. Xc nh chiu quay ca electron
1
2
s
m =

Trong mt h thng gm nhiu nguyn t, cc s nguyn lng tun
theo nguyn l ngoi tr Pauli. Nguyn l ny cho rng: trong mt h thng
khng th c 2 trng thi nguyn lng ging nhau, ngha l khng th c hai
in t c 4 s nguyn lng hon ton ging nhau.

2.1.2 Phn b in t trong nguyn t theo nng lng
Tt c cc nguyn t c cng s nguyn lng chnh n hp thnh mt
tng c tn l K,L,M,N,O,P,Q ng vi n=1,2,3,4,5,6,7.
mi tng, cc in t c cng s l to thnh cc ph tng c tn s, p, d, f
tng ng vi l =0,1,2,3
- Tng K (n=1) c mt ph tng s c ti a 2 in t.
- Tng L (n=2) c mt ph tng s c ti a 2 in t v mt ph tng p
c ti a 6 in t.
- Tng M (n=3) c mt ph tng s (ti a 2 in t), mt ph tng p (ti
a 6 in t) v mt ph tng d (ti a 10 in t).
- Tng N (n=4) c mt ph tng s (ti a 2 in t), mt ph tng p (ti
a 6 in t), mt ph tng d (ti a 10 in t) v mt ph tng f (ti
a 14 in t).
Nh vy:
- Tng K c ti a 2 in t.
- Tng L c ti a 8 in t.
- Tng M c ti a 18 in t.
Chng 2: Bn dn

4
- Tng N c ti a 32 in t.
- Cc tng O,P,Q cng c 4 ph tng v cng c ti a 32 in t.
ng vi mi ph tng c mt mc nng lng v cc mc nng lng
c xp theo th t nh sau:

Hnh 2.2. Phn b in t trong nguyn t theo nng lng
Khi khng b kch thch, cc trng thi nng lng nh b in t chim
trc (gn nhn hn) khi ht ch mi sang mc cao hn (xa nhn hn).
Th d: nguyn t Na c s in t z=11, c cc ph tng 1s,2s,2p b
cc in t chim hon ton nhng ch c 1 in t chim ph tng 3s.
Cch biu din

Chng 2: Bn dn

5

Hnh 2.3. . M hnh nguyn t Na, Si, Ge
Lp bo ho: Mt ph tng bo ho khi c s in t ti a.
Mt tng bo ho khi mi ph tng bo ho. Mt tng bo ho rt
bn, khng nhn thm v cng kh mt in t.
Tng ngoi cng: Trong mt nguyn t, tng ngoi cng khng bao gi
cha qu 8 in t. Nguyn t c 8 in t tng ngoi cng u bn vng
(trng hp cc kh tr).
Cc in t tng ngoi cng quyt nh hu ht tnh cht ho hc ca
mt nguyn t.
2.1.3. Di nng lng (Energy bands)
Nhng cng trnh kho cu tia X chng t rng hu ht cc cht bn
dn u dng kt tinh.
Tnh cht dn in ca cc vt liu rn c gii thch nh l thuyt
vng nng lng. Nh ta bit, in t tn ti trong nguyn t trn nhng mc
nng lng gin on (cc trng thi dng). Nhng trong cht rn, khi m cc
nguyn t kt hp li vi nhau thnh cc khi, th cc mc nng lng ny b
ph ln nhau, v tr thnh cc vng nng lng v s c ba vng chnh.
Chng 2: Bn dn

6
Ta kho st mt tinh th bt k, nng lng ca in t c chia thnh
tng di. Di nng lng cao nht b chim gi l di ho tr, di nng lng
thp nht cha b chim gi l di dn in. Khong cch hai di nng lng
ny gi l di cm.
Vng ha tr (valence band): L vng c nng lng thp nht theo
thang nng lng, l vng m in t b lin kt mnh vi nguyn t v
khng linh ng.
Vng dn (Conduction band): Vng c mc nng lng cao nht, l
vng m in t s linh ng (nh cc in t t do) v in t vng ny s
l in t dn, c ngha l cht s c kh nng dn in khi c in t tn ti
trn vng dn. Tnh dn in tng khi mt in t trn vng dn tng.
Vng cm (Forbidden band): L vng nm gia vng ha tr v vng
dn, khng c mc nng lng no do in t khng th tn ti trn vng
cm. Nu bn dn pha tp, c th xut hin cc mc nng lng trong vng
cm (mc pha tp). Khong cch gia y vng dn v nh vng ha tr gi
l rng vng cm, hay nng lng vng cm (Band Gap). Ty theo
rng vng cm ln hay nh m cht c th l dn in hoc khng dn in.

Hnh 2.4. Di nng lng
Nh vy, tnh dn in ca cc cht rn v tnh cht ca cht bn dn c
th l gii mt cch n gin nh l thuyt vng nng lng nh sau
Kim loi c vng dn v vng ha tr ph ln nhau (khng c vng
cm) do lun lun c in t trn vng dn v th m kim loi lun lun
dn in.
Cc cht bn dn c vng cm c mt rng xc nh. khng
tuyt i (0 K), mc Fermi nm gia vng cm, c ngha l tt c cc in t
tn ti vng ha tr, do cht bn dn khng dn in. Khi tng dn nhit
, cc in t s nhn c nng lng nhit (kB.T vi kB l hng s
Boltzmann) nhng nng lng ny cha in t vt qua vng cm nn
in t vn vng ha tr. Khi tng nhit n mc cao, s c mt s
Chng 2: Bn dn

7
in t nhn c nng lng ln hn nng lng vng cm v n s nhy
ln vng dn v cht rn tr thnh dn in. Khi nhit cng tng ln, mt
in t trn vng dn s cng tng ln, do , tnh dn in ca cht bn
dn tng dn theo nhit (hay in tr sut gim dn theo nhit ).
Ta c 3 trng hp tm tt sau
- Di cm c cao kh ln (E
G
>5eV)(1eV=1,602.10
-19
J). y l
trng hp ca cc cht cch in. Th d nh kim cng c E
G
=7eV,
SiO2 E
G
=9eV.
- Di cm c cao nh (E
G
<5eV). y l trng hp cht bn dn
in. Th d: Germanium c E
G
=0,75eV, Silicium c E
G
=1,12eV,
Galium Arsenic c E
G
=1,4eV
- Di ho tr v di dn in chng ln nhau, y l trng hp ca cht
dn in. Th d nh ng, nhm

Chng 2: Bn dn

8

Hnh 2.5. dn in ph thuc vo di cm
Gi s ta tng nhit ca tinh th, nh s cung cp nhit nng, in t
trong di ho tr tng nng lng.
Trong trng hp (a), v E
G
ln, in t khng nng lng vt di
cm vo di dn in. Nu ta cho tc dng mt in trng vo tinh th, v
tt c cc trng thi trong di ho tr iu b chim nn in t ch c th di
chuyn bng cch i ch cho nhau. Do , s in t i, v mt chiu bng
vi s in t i, v theo chiu ngc li, dng in trung bnh trit tiu. Ta
c cht cch in.
Trong trng hp (b), mt s in t c nng lng s vt di cm
vo di dn in. Di tc dng ca in trng, cc in t ny c th thay
i nng lng d dng v trong di dn in c nhiu mc nng lng trng
tip nhn chng. Vy in t c nng lng trong di dn in c th di
chuyn theo mt chiu duy nht di tc dng ca in trng, ta c cht bn
dn in.
Trong trng hp (c) cng ging nh trng hp (b) nhng s in t
trong di dn in nhiu hn lm cho s di chuyn mnh hn, ta c kim loi
hay cht dn in.
2.2 . S dn in trong bn dn
2.2.1. Cht bn dn in (Semiconductor)
1. cht bn dn in thun (Pure semiconductor )
Hu ht cc cht bn dn u c cc nguyn t sp xp theo cu to
tinh th. Hai cht bn dn c dng nhiu nht trong k thut ch to linh
kin in t l Silicium v Germanium. Mi nguyn t ca hai cht ny u
c 4 in t ngoi cng kt hp vi 4 in t ca 4 nguyn t k cn to
Chng 2: Bn dn

9
thnh 4 lin kt ho tr. V vy tinh th Ge v Si nhit thp l cc cht
cch in.

Hnh 2.6. Tinh th cht bn dn nhit thp (T = 0
0
K)
Nu ta tng nhit tinh th, nhit nng s lm tng nng lng mt s
in t v lm gy mt s ni ho tr. Cc in t cc ni b gy ri xa nhau
v c th di chuyn d dng trong mng tinh th di tc dng ca in
trng. Ti cc ni ho tr b gy ta c cc l trng (hole). V phng din
nng lng, ta c th ni rng nhit nng lm tng nng lng cc in t
trong di ho tr.

Hnh 2.7. Tinh th cht bn dn nhit cao (T = 3000K)
Khi nng lng ny ln hn nng lng ca di cm (0,7eV i vi Ge
v 1,12eV i vi Si), in t c th vt di cm vo di dn in v cha
li nhng l trng (trng thi nng lng trng) trong di ho tr). Ta nhn
thy s in t trong di dn in bng s l trng trong di ho tr.
Chng 2: Bn dn

10
Nu ta gi n l mt in t c nng lng trong di dn in v p l
mt l trng c nng lng trong di ho tr. Ta c n=p=n
i

Khi T tng th n
i
tng.

Hnh 2.8. Tinh th cht bn dn
Ta gi cht bn dn c tnh cht n = p l cht bn dn thun. Thng
thng ngi ta gp nhiu kh khn ch to cht bn dn loi ny.
2. Cht bn dn ngoi lai hay c cht pha (Doped/Extrinsic
Semiconductor)
Cht bn dn loi N: (N - type semiconductor)

Hnh 2.9. Tinh th Si
Gi s ta pha vo Si thun nhng nguyn t thuc nhm V ca bng
phn loi tun hon nh As (Arsenic), Photpho (p), Antimony (Sb). Bn knh
nguyn t ca As gn bng bn knh nguyn t ca Si nn c th thay th mt
nguyn t Si trong mng tinh th. Bn in t ca As kt hp vi 4 in t
ca Si ln cn to thnh 4 ni ho tr, Cn d li mt in t ca As. nhit
thp, tt c cc in t ca cc ni ho tr u c nng lng trong di ho
tr, tr nhng in t tha ca As khng to ni ho tr c nng lng E
D
nm
Chng 2: Bn dn

11
trong di cm v cch dy dn in mt khong nng lng nh chng
0,05eV.
Gi s ta tng nhit ca tinh th, mt s ni ho tr b gy, ta c
nhng l trng trong di ho tr v nhng in t trong di dn in ging nh
trong trng hp ca cc cht bn dn thun. Ngoi ra, cc in t ca As c
nng lng E
D
cng nhn nhit nng tr thnh nhng in t c nng
lng trong di dn in. V th ta c th coi nh hu ht cc nguyn t As
u b Ion ho (v khong nng lng gia E
D
v di dn in rt nh), ngha
l tt c cc in t lc u c nng lng E
D
u c tng nng lng
tr thnh in t t do.

Hnh 2.10. tng nhit

Nu ta gi N
D
l mt nhng nguyn t As pha vo (cn gi l nhng
nguyn t cho donor atom).
Ta c: n = p + N
D

Vi
- n mt in t trong di dn in.
- p mt l trng trong di ho tr.
Ngi ta cng chng minh c: n.p = n
i
2
(n < p)
n
I
mt in t hoc l trng trong cht bn dn thun trc khi
pha.
Cht bn dn nh trn c s in t trong di dn in nhiu hn s l
trng trong di ho tr gi l cht bn dn loi N.
Cht bn dn loi P
Thay v pha vo Si thun mt nguyn t thuc nhm V, ta pha vo
nhng nguyn t thuc nhm III nh Indium (In), Galium (Ga), nhm (Al),...
Bn knh nguyn t In gn bng bn knh nguyn t Si nn n c th thay th
mt nguyn t Si trong mng tinh th. Ba in t ca nguyn t In kt hp vi
Chng 2: Bn dn

12
ba in t ca ba nguyn t Si k cn to thnh 3 ni ho tr, cn mt in t
ca Si c nng lng trong di ho tr khng to mt ni vi Indium. Gia In
v Si ny ta c mt trang thi nng lng trng c nng lng EA nm trong
di cm v cch di ho tr mt khong nng lng nh chng 0,08eV.

Hnh 2.11. Tinh th cht bn dn loi P

nhit thp (T=0
0
K), tt c cc in t u c nng lng trong di
ho tr. Nu ta tng nhit ca tinh th s c mt s in t trong di ho tr
nhn nng lng v vt di cm vo di dn in, ng thi cng c nhng
in t vt di cm ln chim ch nhng l trng c nng lng E
A
.

Hnh 2.12. tng nhit cht bn dn loi P

Nu ta gi N
A
l mt nhng nguyn t Indium pha vo (cn c gi l
nguyn t nhn), ta cng c:
p = n + N
A

- p: mt l trng trong di ho tr.
- n: mt in t trong di dn in.
Chng 2: Bn dn

13
Ngi ta cng chng minh c:
n.p = n
i
2
(p > n)
n
i
l mt in t hoc l trng trong cht bn dn thun trc khi
pha.
Cht bn dn nh trn c s l trng trong di ho tr nhiu hn s in
t trong di dn in c gi l cht bn dn loi P.
Nh vy, trong cht bn dn loi p, ht ti in a s l l trng v ht
ti in thiu s l in t.

Cht bn dn hn hp
Ta cng c th pha vo Si thun nhng nguyn t cho v nhng nguyn
t nhn c cht bn dn hn hp. Hnh sau l s nng lng ca cht
bn dn hn hp.

Hnh 2.13. Di nng lng Cht bn dn hn hp

Trong trng hp cht bn dn hn hp, ta c:
n+N
A
= p+N
D

n.p = n
i

2

Nu N
D
> N
A
=> n > p, ta c cht bn dn hn hp loi N.
Nu N
D
< N
A
=> n < p, ta c cht bn dn hn hp loi P.
2.2.2 Dn sut ca cht bn dn

Chng 2: Bn dn

14

Hnh 2.15. nhng in t di chuyn trong tinh th
Di tc dng ca in trng, nhng in t c nng lng trong di
dn in di chuyn to nn dng in In, nhng cng c nhng in t di
chuyn t mt ni ho tr b gy n chim ch trng ca mt ni ho tr b
gy. Nhng in t ny cng to ra mt dng in tng ng vi dng in
do l trng mang in tch dng di chuyn ngc chiu, ta gi dng in ny
l Ip. Hnh sau y m t s di chuyn ca in t (hay l trng) trong di ho
tr nhit cao.
Vy ta c th coi nh dng in trong cht bn dn l s hp thnh ca
dng in do nhng in t trong di dn in (a s i vi cht bn dn loi
N v thiu s i vi cht bn dn loi P) v nhng l trng trong di ho tr
(a s i vi cht bn dn loi P v thiu s i vi cht bn dn loi N).

Hnh 2.16. Dng in trong cht bn dn

Di tc dng ca in trng, cc in t v l trng di chuyn vi
vn tc trung bnh v
n
= .n.E v v
p
= p.E.
Tng ng vi nhng dng in ny, ta c nhng mt dng in J,
Jn, Jp sao cho: J = Jn+Jp
Jn = n.e.v
n
= n.e..n.E.
Chng 2: Bn dn

15
- Jn Mt dng in tri ca in
-
n
l linh ng ca in t
- n l mt in t trong di dn in
Jp = n.e.v
p
= n.e..p.E.
- Jp Mt dng in tri ca l
-
p
l linh ng ca l trng
- p l mt l trng trong di ho tr).
Nh vy: J=e.(n..n+p..p).E.
Theo nh lut Ohm, ta c: J = o.E
=>o = e.(n..n+p.. p) c gi l dn sut ca cht bn dn.
Trong cht bn dn loi N, ta c n >> p nn o ~ n..n.e.
Trong cht bn dn loi P, ta c p >> n nn o ~ p.. p.e.
2.3 . Hin tng quang in
2.3.1. Th nghim Hecx
Nm 1887, nh bc hc Hecx ngi c lm th nghim sau: chiu
mt chm nh sng do mt h quang pht ra vo mt tm km tch in m,
gn trn mt in nghim (c th thay in nghim bng tnh in k). ng
thy hai l ca in nghim cp li. iu chng t tm km mt in
tch m.

Hnh 2.17. Tinh th
Chng 2: Bn dn

16
Nu tm km tch in dng th khng c hin tng g xy ra.
Hin tng cng xy ra tng t nu thay tm km bng cc tm ng,
nhm, bc, niken v.v
Nu dng mt tm thu tinh khng mu chn chm tia h quang th
hin tng trn khng xy ra. Ta bit rng thu tinh hp th mnh cc tia t
ngoi.
Nhiu th nghim tng t a ta n kt lun:
Khi chiu mt chm sng thch hp (c bc sng ngn) vo mt mt
tm kim loi th n lm cho cc electrn mt kim loi b bt ra. l
hin tng quang in.
Thc ra, khi chiu nh sng t ngoi vo tm km tch in dng th
vn c lectrn b bt ra. Tuy nhin, chng lp tc b ht tr li, nn in tch
ca tm km coi nh khng thay i.

2.3.2. T bo quang in
T bo quang in l mt bnh chn khng nh trong c hai in
cc: ant A v catt K. Ant( ant) l mt vng dy kim loi. Catt ( catt) c
dng mt chm cu lm bng kim loi (m ta cn nghin cu) ph thnh
trong ca t bo.
nh sng do mt h quang pht ra, c chiu qua mt knh lc F
lc ly mt thnh phn n sc nht nh, chiu vo catt K.

Ta thit lp gia ant v catt mt in trng nh b acquy E. Hiu
in th U gia A v K c th thay i (v ln v v du) nh thay i v
tr ca cht cm C trn b ngun.
Mt vn k V dng o hiu in th U v mt miliampe k nhy G
o cng dng in chy qua t bo quang in.
in tr trong ca cc acquy rt nh so vi in tr ca t bo quang
in.
Chng 2: Bn dn

17

Hnh 2.18. T bo quang in
Khi chiu vo catt nh sng c bc sng ngn th trong mch xut
hin dng in m ta gi l dng quang in.
Trong t bo quang in, dng quang in c chiu t ant sang catt.
N l dng cc lectrn quang in bay t catt sang ant di tc dng ca
in trng gia ant v catt.
Nghin cu s ph thuc ca hin tng quang in vo bc sng ca
nh sng kch thch (nh sng chiu vo catt) ngi ta thy: i vi mi kim
loi dng lm catt, nh sng kch thch phi c bc sng nh hn mt gii
hn no th mi gy ra c hin tng quang in. Nu nh sng kch
thch c bc sng ln hn th d chm nh sng c mch cng khng gy ra
hin tng quang in.
Sau khi chiu nh sng vo catt gy ra hin tng quang in,
ngi ta nghin cu s ph thuc ca cng dng quang in I vo hiu
in th U
AK
gia ant v catt. ng cong th ny gi l ng c trng
von-ampe ca t bo quang in.
Thot tin khi tng th dng quang in tng. Khi t
n mt gi tr no th cng dng quang in t n gi tr bo ho
.
Sau gi tr ca cng dng quang in s khng i d c tng .
Nghin cu s ph thuc ca cng dng quang in bo ho
vo cng ca chm nh sng kch thch, ta thy t l thun vi cng
sng kch thch
Chng 2: Bn dn

18
Mun cho dng quang in trit tiu hon ton th phi t gia ant v
catt mt hiu in th m no ( ). c gi l hiu
in th hm. Gi tr ca ng vi giao im ca ng c trng vn-
ampe ca t bo quang in vi trc honh.
Th nghim cho thy gi tr ca hiu in th hm ng vi mi kim
loi dng lm catt hon ton khng ph thuc vo cng ca chm sng
kch thch m ch ph thuc vo bc sng ca chm sng kch thch . Nu
hai chm sng kch thch 1 v 2, n sc, c cng bc sng, th cc ng
c trng von-ampe 1 v 2 s ct trc ti cng mt im
2.3.3 Cc nh lut quang in
a) nh lut quang in th nht
i vi mi kim loi dng lm catt c mt bc sng gii hn
nht nh gi l gii hn quang in. Hin tng quang in ch xy ra khi
bc sng ca nh sng kch thch nh hn gii hn quang in ( ).
Gi tr gii hn quang in ca mt s kim loi (tnh ra ) c
cho

Bc 0,26, Canxi 0,45, ng 0,30, Natri 0,50, Km 0,35,
Kali 0,55, Nhm 0,36, Xedi 0,66.
Ta thy nh sng nhn thy c ch c kh nng gy ra c hin
tng quang in canxi v cc kim loi kim.
b) nh lut quang in th hai
Vi nh sng kch thch c bc sng tho mn nh lut quang in
th nht th cng dng quang in bo ha t l thun vi cng ca
chm sng kch thch.

c) nh lut quang in th ba
S tn ti ca hiu in th hm chng t rng khi bt ra khi mt
kim loi, cc lectrn quang in c mt vn tc ban u . in trng cn
mnh n mc no th ngay c nhng lectrn c vn tc ban u ln
nht cng khng bay n c ant. Lc dng quang in trit
tiu hon ton v cng ca in trng cn c gi tr ng bng ng nng
ban u cc i ca lectrn quang in.

T s nghin cu thc nghim gi tr ca m ta trnh by bi
trc, ta rt ra nh lut sau
Chng 2: Bn dn

19
ng nng ban u cc i ca cc lectrn quang in khng ph
thuc vo cng ca chm sng kch thch, m ch ph thuc vo bc
sng ca nh sng kch thch v bn cht kim loi dng lm catt.
2.3.4 Thuyt lng t
a) Cc nh lut quang in hon ton mu thun vi tnh cht sng ca
nh sng. Thc vy, theo thuyt sng, khi nh sng chiu vo mt catt, in
trng bin thin trong sng nh sng s lm cho cc electrn trong kim loi
dao ng. Cng ca chm sng kch thch cng ln. th in trng
cng mnh v n lm cho lectrn dao ng cng mnh. n mc no
th electrn s b bt ra, to thnh dng quang in. Do , bt k chm sng
no cng c th gy ra hin tng quang in, min l n c cng ln
v ng nng ban u cc i ca lectrn quang in phi ph thuc vo
cng ca chm sng kch thch.
b) Ta ch c th gii thch c cc nh lut quang in, nu tha nhn
mt thuyt mi gi l thuyt lng t do nh bc hc Plng (Planck) ngi
c, xng vo nm 1900.
Theo thuyt lng t: Nhng nguyn t hay phn t vt cht khng hp
th hay bc x nh sng mt cch lin tc, m thnh tng phn ring bit, .
Mi phn c mang mt nng lng hon ton xc nh c gi l lng t
nh sng, c ln l , trong , l tn s ca nh sng m n pht
ra, cn l mt hng s gi l hng s Plng.

Mi phn gi l mt lng t nng lng
Ta thy mi lng t nh sng rt nh, mi chm sng d yu cng
cha mt s rt ln lng t nh sng. Do , ta c cm gic chm sng l
lin tc.
Khi nh sng truyn i, cc lng t nh sng khng b thay i, khng
ph thuc khong cch ti ngun sng, d ngun l mt ngi sao nm cch
xa ta hng triu nm nh sng.

2.3.5 Gii thch cc nh lut quang in bng thuyt lng t
Nh bc hc Anhxtanh (Einstein), ngi c, l ngi u tin vn
dng thuyt lng t gii thch cc nh lut quang in. ng coi chm
sng nh mt chm ht v gi mi ht l mt phtn. Mi phtn ng vi
mt lng t nh sng.
Theo Anhxtanh, trong hin tng quang in c s hp th hon ton
phtn chiu ti. Mi phtn b hp th s truyn ton b nng lng ca n
Chng 2: Bn dn

20
cho mt lectron. i vi cc electron nm ngay trn b mt kim loi th phn
nng lng ny s c dng vo hai vic
Cung cp cho lectrn mt cng A n thng c cc lc lin kt
trong tinh th v thot ra ngoi. Cng ny gi l cng thot.
Cung cp cho lectrn mt ng nng ban u. So vi ng nng
ban u m cc lectrn nm cc lp su thu c khi b bt ra th ng
nng ban u ny l cc i
(8-1)

y l cng thc Anhxtanh v hin tng quang in.
i vi cc electron nm cc lp su bn trong mt kim loi th trc
khi n b mt kim loi, chng chm vi cc ion ca kim loi v mt mt
phn nng lng. Do ng nng ban u ca chng nh hn ng nng
ban u cc i ni trn.
Cng thc (8-1) cho thy ng nng ban u cc i ca cc lectrn
quang in ch ph thuc tn s (hay bc sng ) ca nh sng kch thch
v bn cht ca kim loi dng lm catt (K) m khng ph thuc vo cng
ca chm sng kch thch. chnh l ni dung ca nh lut quang in
th ba.
Cng thc (8-1) cn cho thy: nu nng lng ca phtn nh hn
cng thot th n khng th lm cho lectron bt ra khi catt v hin tng
quang in s khng xy ra.
Ta c

t (8-2)

chnh l gii hn quang in ca kim loi. Bt ng thc (8-2) biu th
nh lut quang in th nht.
Cui cng, ta gii thch nh lut quang in th hai nh sau
Vi chm sng c kh nng gy ra hin tng quang in th s
lectrn quang in b bt ra khi catt trong n v thi gian t l thun vi
s phtn n p vo mt catt trong thi gian . Mt khc, s phtn ny
li t l thun vi cng ca chm sng; cn cng dng quang in
bo ho li t l thun vi s lectrn quang in b bt ra khi catt trong n
v thi gian. V vy, cng ca dng quang in bo ho s t l thun vi
cng ca chm sng kch thch.
Chng 2: Bn dn

21
2.3.6 Lng tnh sng - ht ca nh sng
nh sng nhn thy cng nh cc tia hng ngoi, tia t ngoi, tia
Rnghen, u l cc sng in t c bc sng khc nhau. Ngi ta ni
chng c cng bn cht in t
Ta li thy nh sng c tnh cht ht (tnh cht lng t). Vy, nh sng
va c tnh cht sng, va c tnh cht ht. Ngi ta ni: nh sng c lng
tnh sng - ht.
Nhng sng in t c bc sng cng ngn th phtn ng vi chng
c nng lng cng ln. Thc nghim cho thy tnh cht ht ca chng th
hin cng m nt, tnh cht sng cng t th hin.
Ta c th coi nhng tc dng sau y l nhng biu hin ca tnh cht
ht: kh nng m xuyn, tc dng quang in, tc dng ion ho, tc dng
pht quang.
Ngc li, nhng sng in t c bc sng cng di th phtn ng
vi chng c nng lng cng nh. Thc nghim cho thy: tnh cht ht ca
chng cng kh th hin, tnh cht sng ca chng cng d bc l. Ta d dng
quan st thy hin tng giao thoa, hin tng tn sc ca cc sng .
2.3.7 Hin tng quang dn
Mt s cht bn dn l cht cch in khi khng b chiu sng v tr
thnh cht dn in khi b chiu sng. Hin tng gim mnh in tr ca
cht bn dn khi b chiu sng gi l hin tng quang dn.
Trong hin tng quang in, khi c nh sng thch hp chiu vo catt
ca t bo quang in th lectrn s b bt ra khi catt. V vy, hin tng
ny cn gi l hin tng quang in ngoi.( hay hin tng quang in bn
ngoi)
Trong hin tng quang dn, mi phtn ca nh sng kch thch khi b
hp th s gii phng mt electrn lin kt n tr thnh mt lectrn t do
chuyn ng trong khi cht bn dn . Cc electrn lin kt khi c gii
phng, s li mt l trng mang in dng. Nhng l trng ny cng c
th chuyn ng t do t nt mng ny sang nt mng khc v cng tham gia
vo qu trnh dn in.
Hin tng gii phng lectrn lin kt cho chng tr thnh cc
lectrn dn gi l hin tng quang in bn trong.
V nng lng cn thit gii phng mt lectrn lin kt chuyn n
thnh lectrn dn khng ln lm, nn gy ra hin tng quang dn, khng
i hi phtn phi c nng lng ln. Rt nhiu cht quang dn hot ng
c vi nh sng hng ngoi. Th d: c gii hn quang dn l .
Ta hiu gii hn quang dn ca mt cht l bc sng di nht ca nh sng
Chng 2: Bn dn

22
c kh nng gy ra hin tng quang dn cht . y l mt li th ca
hin tng quang dn so vi hin tng quang in.
2.3.8 Quang tr (LDR)
Cu to Quang tr gm mt lp cht bn dn (cadimi sunfua CdS
chng hn) (1) ph trn mt tm nha cch in (2). C hai in cc (3) v (4)
gn vo lp cht bn dn

Ni mt ngun khong vi vn vi quang tr thng qua mt miliampe k. Ta
thy khi quang tr c t trong ti th trong mch khng c dng in. Khi
chiu quang tr bng nh sng c bc sng ngn hn gii hn quang dn ca
quang tr th s xut hin dng in trong mch.

in tr ca quang tr gim i rt mnh khi b chiu sng bi nh sng ni
trn. o in tr ca quang tr CdS, ngi ta thy: khi khng b chiu sng,
in trng ca n vo khong ; khi b chiu sng, in tr ca n ch
cn khong .

Ngy nay, quang tr c dng thay cho cc t bo quang in trong hu ht
cc mch iu khin t ng.

2.3.9 Pin quang in:

Pin quang in l mt ngun in trong quang nng c bin i trc tip
thnh in nng. Pin hot ng da vo hin tng quang in bn trong xy
ra trong mt cht bn dn.

Ta hy xt mt pin quang in n gin. Pin ng oxit (h.8.6)

Pin c mt in cc bng ng. Trn bn ng ny c ph mt lp ng oxit
. Ngi ta phun mt lp vng rt mng trn mt lp lm in
cc th hai. Lp vng ny mng n mc cho nh sng truyn qua c.
ch tip xc gia v hnh thnh mt lp c tc dng c bit: n ch
cho php lectrn chy qua n theo chiu t sang .

Khi chiu mt chm sng c bc sng thch hp vo mt lp th nh
sng s gii phng cc lectrn lin kt trong thnh electrn dn. Mt
phn cc lectrn ny khuch tn sang cc . Cc tha lectrn nn
nhim in m. nhim in dng. Gia hai in cc ca pin hnh
thnh mt sut in ng.

Nu ni hai in cc vi nhau bng mt dy dn thng qua mt in k, ta s
thy c mt dng in chy trong mch theo chiu t sang .
Chng 2: Bn dn

23

Ngoi pin quang in ng oxit, cn c rt nhiu loi pin quang in khc,
ph bin nht l pin slen.

Ngy nay, cc pin quang in c rt nhiu ng dng. Cc pin mt tri cc
my tnh b ti, trn cc v tinh nhn to v.v u l pin quang in.

TI LIU THAM KHO

1. SCH LINH KIN QUANG IN T (THY DNG MINH TR).
2. TI LIU CU KIN IN T (THS. TRN TH CM).
3. http://www.vocw.edu.vn/content/m10422/latest/.
4. http://www.onthi.com/?a=OT&ot=LT&hdn_lt_id=572
5. http://www.onthi.com/ly-thuyet/thuyet-luong-tu-va-cac-dinh-luat-quang-
dien_573.html.
6. http://www.onthi.com/ly-thuyet/quang-tro-va-pin-quang-dien_574.html.
7. www.wikipedia.org.

V mt s ti liu tham kho khc.
Chng 3: Led_Light emitting diode

1
Chng 3
LED-LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

3.1. Gii thiu v Diode pht quang - LED (Light Emitting Diode)
it pht quang l linh kin bn dn quang in t. N c kh nng pht
ra nh sng khi c hin tng ti hp xy ra trong tip xc P-N. it pht
quang thng c gi tt l LED do vit tt t cc t ting Anh: Light-
Emitting Diode. Tu theo vt liu ch to m ta c nh sng bc x ra cc
vng bc sng khc nhau.
Cht bn dn ca LED c lm t mt ming tinh th cc mng. V
bao bc cht bn dn c lm trong sut (nhng thng l c mu sc). Hai
chn bc ch c ko a ra khi lp bao bc epoxy.
Cht bn dn c 2 cc p v n c chia bi mt mi ni. Cc p mang
in tch dng; cc n mang in tch m (electron).Mi ni p-n nm gia
cc p v cc n.
Loi bc x ra nh sng nhn thy gi l LED ch th. LED ch th c u
im l tn s hot ng cao, kch thc nh, cng sut tiu hao nh, khng
st p khi bt u lm vic. LED khng cn knh lc m vn cho ra mu sc.
LED ch th rt r khi tri ti. Tui th ca LED khong 100 ngn gi.

Hnh 3.1. Cu to v k hiu LED
Vt liu ch to LED l cc nguyn t nhm III v V: GaAs, GaP,
GaAsP y l nhng vt liu ti hp trc tip. Nng ht dn ca P v N
rt cao nn in tr ca chng rt nh. Do khi mc LED phi mc ni tip
vi mt in tr hn dng.
3.2. Nguyn l lm vic v cu to ca LED
Da trn hiu ng pht sng khi c hin tng ti hp in t v l trng
vng chuyn tip P N. LED s pht quang khi c phn cc thun, ngha
l bin i nng lng in thnh nng lng quang. Cng pht quang t
l vi dng qua LED. Khi phn cc thun cc ht dn a s s di chuyn v
pha bn dn bn kia.

2
Khi bn dn loi p cha nhiu l trng t do mang in tch dng nn
khi ghp vi khi bn dn n (cha cc in t t do) th cc l trng ny c xu
hng chuyn ng khuch tn sang khi n. Cng lc khi p li nhn thm
cc in t (in tch m) t khi n chuyn sang. Kt qu l khi p tch in
m (thiu ht l trng v d tha in t) trong khi khi n tch in dng (
thiu ht in t v d tha l trng ).
bin gii hai bn mt tip gip, mt s in t b l trng thu ht v
khi chng tin li gn nhau, chng c xu hng kt hp vi nhau to thnh
cc nguyn t trung ho. Qu trnh ny c th gii phng nng lng di
dng nh sng ( hay cc bc x in t c bc sng gn ).
Tu theo mc nng lng gii phng cao hay thp m bc sng nh
sng pht ra khc nhau (tc mu sc ca LED s khc nhau). Mc nng lng
(v mu sc ca LED) hon ton ph thuc vo cu trc nng lng ca cc
nguyn t cht bn dn.
in t t bn N s khuch tn sang P v l trng bn P s khuch tn
sang N. Trong qu trnh di chuyn chng s ti hp vi nhau v pht ra cc
photon.
Ty theo mc nng lng gii phng cao hay thp m bc sng nh
sng pht ra khc nhau (tc mu sc ca LED s khc nhau). Mc nng lng
(v mu sc ca LED) hon ton ph thuc vo cu trc nng lng ca cc
nguyn t cht bn dn.
LED thng c in th phn cc thun cao hn it thng thng,
trong khong 1,5 n 3 V. Nhng in th phn cc nghch LED th khng
cao. Do , LED rt d b h hng do in th ngc gy ra.

Loi LED in th phn cc thun
1,4 - 1,8V
Vng 2 - 2,5V
Xanh l cy 2 - 2,8V
Hnh 3.2. in th phn cc thun ca LED
c tuyn V- A ca LED ging nh ca diode thng thng
in p phn cc thun U
D
=1,6 - 3 V; in p phn cc ngc U
ng
= 3
5 V; dng I
D
khong vi chc mA

3

Hnh 3.3. c tuyn Von-Ampe ca LED
tng cng tnh nh hng cho LED, ngi ta thng cu to LED
vi mt l cho nh sng i qua.
C hai loi LED l SLED (LED pht x mt) v ELED (LED pht x
cnh). Di y l hnh minh ho cho vic ly nh sng ra ca mt SLED.

Hnh 3.4. Cu to SLED
Tham s ca LED
* Nhit
Khong nhit lm vic ca LED : - 60
0
C n +80
0
C LED rt nhy
vi nhit . Nhit cng tng bc sng ca LED cng ngn (bc sng
gim 0,02 m 0,009 m /
0
C).v in p phn cc cho it c th b gim
(khong t 1,3 mV n 2,3 mV/
0
C).
rng vng cm ca cc vt liu cng ln th nng lng c gii
phng ra cng ln v bc x c pht ra c bc sng cng ngn.

4
Nhit tng cng bc x quang gim (1% /
0
C)
* Cng sut pht x vi trm mW n vi W
* Vt liu
V nguyn tc tt c cc chuyn tip P N u c kh nng pht ra nh
sng khi c phn cc thun nhng ch c mt s loi vt liu ti hp trc
tip mi cho hiu sut ti hp cao.
Cc LED truyn thng c lm t cc loi nguyn liu cht bn dn v
c, sn xut nhng mu sau y:
Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) red and infrared
Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP) green
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) high-brightness
orange-red, orange, yellow, and green
Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) red, orange-red, orange, and
yellow
Gallium phosphide (GaP) red, yellow and green
Gallium nitride (GaN) green, pure green (or emerald green), and
blue also white (if it has an AlGaN Quantum Barrier)
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) 450470 nm near ultraviolet,
bluish-green and blue
Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate blue
Silicon (Si) as substrate blue (under development)
Sapphire (Al2O3) as substrate blue
Zinc selenide (ZnSe) blue
Diamond (C) ultraviolet
Aluminium nitride (AlN), aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN),
aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN) near to far ultraviolet
(down to 210 nm)
Vi s thay i a dng ca mu sc, nhng LED a mu c th c
thit k sn xut nhng mu mi l.
Mt s loi LED thng dng


5

Hnh 3.4. Vt liu ca LED
Phn loi v ng dng ca LED
LED bc x nh sng nhn thy c s dng trong bo hiu, mn hnh,
qung co cn LED bc x nh sng trong vng hng ngoi dng trong cc
h thng thng tin quang hoc cc h thng t ng iu khin hoc bo mt.
vic s dng c n gin v gn nh ngi ta thng ghp nhiu
LED vi nhau, nu ghp cc cc anot vi nhau th cc u iu khin i vo
cc catot (iu khin bng xung m) v LED gi l anot chung. Nu ghp cc
cc catot vi nhau th cc iu khin i vo anot (iu khin bng xung
dng) v LED gi l catot chung. Ngi ta thng to LED theo cc cu
trc sau
LED n
LED i
LED 7 on. y l mt t hp gm c 7 LED c u ni vi nhau
theo hnh s 8 dng hin th cc s thp phn t 0 n 9.
Bng chiu sng LED: y l tp hp nhiu LED thnh mt chui vi
mch t hp hoc khng c mch t hp bn trong.


6

Hnh 3.5. Cc loiLED
3.3. LED hng ngoi (Infrared LED, IR LED)
i vi cc h thng thng tin quang yu cu tc bit xp x 100 n
200Mbit/s cng si quang a mt vi cng sut quang khong vi chc
W, cc it pht quang bn dn thng dng lm cc ngun sng.
Hng ngoi t b suy gim khi qua khi bi v cht bn dn nn LED
hng ngoi c hiu sut cao
3.3.1. Cu to
Cu to ca LED hng ngoi c bn l ging cc LED ch th. Ch c
mt im khc bit l mt mt ca bn dn c mi nhn lm gng phn
chiu a nh sng ra khi LED theo mt chiu vi tp trung cao.

7
Do c im cu to c bit nn LED hng ngoi to ra nh sng nm
trong vng hng ngoi. Ngoi ra, nhng tia c hng i vo trong lp bn dn
s gp gng phn chiu v b phn x tr li i ra ngoi theo cng mt
hng. Vic ny s tng hiu sut mt cch ng k cho LED. Tia hng ngoi
c kh nng xuyn qua cht bn dn tt hn so vi nh sng nhn thy nn
hiu sut pht ca LED hng ngoi cao hn rt nhiu so vi LED pht nh
sng mu.

Hnh 3.6. Cu to LED hng ngoi bc sng 980nm
bc x nh sng hng ngoi, LED hng ngoi c ch to t vt liu
Galium Asenit (GaAs) vi rng vng cm EG = 1,43 eV tng ng vi
bc x bc sng khong 900nm.

Hnh 3.7. Cu trc ca LED hng ngoi bc x bc sng 950 nm
Trong GaAs (N) to mt lp tinh th c tnh cht lng tnh vi tp cht
Silic l GaAsSi (N) v mt tip xc P-N c hnh thnh. Tu theo nng
pha tp cht Silic ta c bc x vi bc sng ph hp vi cc im cc i

8
ca cc detector ( LED thu). Mt di ca LED c mi nhn to thnh mt
gng phn chiu tia hng ngoi pht ra t lp tip xc P-N.
3.3.2. Nguyn l lm vic
Hnh sau m t s nguyn l u ni LED hng ngoi trong mch
in.

Hnh 3.8. S nguyn l ca LED hng ngoi
Khi phn cc thun cho it, cc ht dn a s s khuch tn qua tip
xc P-N, chng ti hp vi nhau v pht ra bc x hng ngoi. Cc tia hng
ngoi bc x ra theo nhiu hng khc nhau. Nhng tia hng ngoi c hng
i vo trong cc lp cht bn dn, gp gng phn chiu s c phn x tr
li i ra ngoi theo cng hng vi cc tia khc. i ny lm tng hiu
sut ca LED.
nh sng hng ngoi c c tnh quang hc ging nh nh sng nhn
thy, ngha l n c kh nng hi t, phn k qua thu knh, c tiu c.... Tuy
nhin, nh sng hng ngoi rt khc nh sng nhn thy kh nng xuyn sut
qua vt cht, trong c cht bn dn. iu ny gii thch ti sao LED hng
ngoi c hiu sut cao hn LED ch th v tia hng ngoi khng b yu i khi
vt qua cc lp bn dn ra ngoi.
Tui th ca LED hng ngoi di n 100 000 gi. LED hng ngoi
khng pht ra nh sng nhn thy nn rt c li trong cc thit b kim sot v
khng gy s ch .
3.3.3. LED hng ngoi cu trc c bit
truyn dn trong si quang t hiu qu ngi ta s dng cc loi
LED hng ngoi c sng pht ra cao, c thi gian p ng nhanh v hiu
sut lng t cao, l LED cu trc d th kp. y l cu trc c s
dng rt rng ri hin nay.
Hnh sau biu din mt LED cu trc d th kp (double heterostructure)
bi v c hai lp hp kim Ga
1-x
Al
x
As loi N v P u c rng vng cm
ln hn rng vng cm ca lp tch cc Ga
1-y
Al
y
As loi N, cng c ngha

9
l chit sut ca hai lp ny nh hn chit sut ca lp tch cc (trong %
phn t lng x > y). Bng phng php cu trc Sandwich ca cc lp hp
kim tng hp khc nhau, c 2 loi ht dn v trng nh sng c giam gi
li trong trung tm ca lp tch cc, (xem hnh b). ng thi s khc nhau v
chit sut ca cc lp k cn ny giam gi trng nh sng trong lp tch
cc trung tm (xem hnh c). S giam gi ht dn v nh sng trong lp
tch cc lm tng bc x v hiu sut quang lng t.

Hnh 3.9.
a/ Mt ct ca LED cu trc d th kp loi GaAlAs vi x>y
b/ Gin nng lng ca vng tch cc
v hng ro th nng ca in t v l trng
c/ S thay i chit sut trong cc lp d th
Hai dng c bn ca LED c dng cho si quang l bc x b mt
(cn gi l bc x Burrus) v bc x cnh.

10
Trong bc x b mt, mt phng ca vng tch cc bc x nh sng
vung gc vi trc x ca si quang nh m t trong hnh sau. Trong cu trc
ny mt "ci ging" c khc qua phn cht nn ca LED, sau si quang
c gn cht vo nhn nh sng bc x ra. Din tch vng trn tch cc
trong b mt bc x trn thc t c ng knh 50m v b dy n 2,5m.
Ph bc x c bn l ng hng vi rng chm tia na cng sut
120
0
.Ph ng hng ny t mt bc x b mt c gi l ph Lambe, trong
pht sng mi hng u bng nhau, nhng cng sut gim i theo
hm cos, vi l gc gia hng chiu nh sng v ng vung gc vi b
mt. Do vy cng sut gim xung 50% so vi tr s nh ca n khi = 60
0
,
tng rng chm tia na cng sut l 120
0
.

Hnh 3.10. Mt ct ca LED bc x b mt. Vng tch cc c gii hn bi
mt ng trn c din tch tng ng vi mt ct u li ca si quang

Hnh 3.11. Cu trc ca LED d th kp bc x cnh. Chm tia ra l Lambe
b mt ca tip xc P-N (
//
= 120
0
) v hng vung gc vi tip xc P-N l
= 30
0
.

11
LED bc x cnh c m t hnh trn gm mt vng tip xc tch
cc v hai lp dn nh sng. C hai lp dn quang u c chit sut thp hn
ca vng tch cc nhng cao hn chit sut ca cc vt liu xung quanh. Cu
trc ny to ra mt knh dn sng hng bc x nh sng theo hng li si
quang. ghp kht li si quang ng knh t 50m n 100m, bng
truyn tip xc i vi bc x cnh c chiu rng l 50m n 70m. Chiu
di ca vng tch cc khong t 100m n 150m. Ph bc x ca LED bc
x cnh nh hng tt hn so vi bc x b mt, nh biu din trong hnh (8-
13). b mt song song vi tip xc, m ti khng c hiu ng dn sng,
th chm tia bc x l ph Lambe vi rng na- cng sut ca // = 1200.
Trong b mt vung gc vi tip xc, bng vic chn dy ca ng dn
sng, rng chm tia na- cng sut c to ra nh hn 25 n 35
0
.

3.3.4. Cc mch li LED hng ngoi

Hnh 3.12. Cc mch li LED hng ngoi

12
3.3.5. LED hng ngoi LD271

LD 271, LD 271 H
LD 271 L, LD 271 HL
GaAs-IR-Lumineszenzdiode
GaAs Infrared Emitter

Features
GaAs infrared emitting diode, fabricated in a liquid phase epitaxy
process
High reliability
High pulse handling capability
long leads
Available in groups
Same package as SFH 300, SFH 203
Applications
IR remote control of hi-fi and TV-sets, video tape recorders, dimmers
Remote control of various equipment
Photointerrupters


13

Hnh 3.13. Cc thng s k thut LD 271

Hnh 3.14. Tnh cht ph ca LD 271


14

Hnh 3.15. Tnh cht in ca LD 271

Hnh 3.16. Gc pht x ca LD 271
3.3.6. ng dng
LED hng ngoi c nhiu ng dng trong vic truyn d liu bng v
tuyn hay cp quang , mch diu khin t xa ( Remote) , o khong cch

15

Hnh 3.17. Minh ha o khong cch
http://www.ikalogic.com/ir_prox_sensors.php


16
3.3.7. LED 7 on
1. Cu trc v m hin th d liu trn LED 7 on

Hnh 3.18. Minh ha Dng LED 7 on

Hnh 3.19. Minh ha Dng LED 7 on Anode chung
i vi dng LED anode chung, chn COM phi c mc logic 1 v
mun
sng LED th tng ng cc chn a f, dp s mc logic 0.

Hnh 3.20. Minh ha Bng m cho LED Anode chung (a l MSB, dp l LSB)

17

Hnh 3.21. Minh ha Bng m cho LED Anode chung (a l LSB, dp l MSB)
2. Hin th s liu dng s
Dng phng php qut
Khi kt ni chung cc ng d liu ca LED 7 on (hnh v), ta
khng th cho cc LED ny sng ng thi (do nh hng ln nhau gia cc
LED) m phi thc hin phng php qut, ngha l ti mi thi im ch
sng mt LED v tt cc LED cn li. Do hin tng lu nh ca mt, ta s
thy cc LED sng ng thi.

Hnh 3.22. Minh ha phng php qut

18
Dng phng php cht
Khi thc hin tch ring cc ng d liu ca LED, ta c th cho php
cc LED sng ng thi m s khng c hin tng nh hng gia cc LED.
IC cht cho php lu tr d liu cho cc LED c th s dng l 74LS373,
74LS374.

Hnh 3.23. Minh ha phng php cht
3. Hin th s liu dng tng t

ICL7106, ICL7107, ICL7107S
31/2 Digit, LCD/LED Display, A/D
Converters
The Intersil ICL7106 and ICL7107 are high performance, low power,
31/2 digit A/D converters. Included are seven segment decoders, display
drivers, a reference, and a clock. The ICL7106 is designed to interface with a
liquid crystal display (LCD) and includes a multiplexed backplane drive; the
ICL7107 will directly drive an instrument size light emitting diode (LED)
display. The ICL7106 and ICL7107 bring together a combination of high
accuracy, versatility, and true economy. It features autozero to less than 10V,
zero drift of less than 1V/oC, input bias current of 10pA (Max), and rollover
error of less than one count. True differential inputs and reference are useful
in all systems, but give the designer an uncommon advantage when measuring
load cells, strain gauges and other bridge type transducers. Finally, the true
economy of single power supply operation (ICL7106), enables a high
performance panel meter to be built with the addition of only 10 passive
components and a display.

19


20

Chng 4: Cc dng c pht hin bc x

1
Chng 4
CC DNG C PHT HIN BC X

4.1. c tnh chung
nh sng l 1 dng ca bc x in t c di bc sng t 0,001 nm
n 1cm hoc di tn s rt cao, 10
14
10
15
Hz. S thay i trng thi nng
lng trong nguyn t v phn t l ngun gc ca cc bc x nh sng .
Cc nh sng c chia thnh 3 vng l
Vng cc tm
di bc sng t
100 nm - 380 nm
Vng nh sng nhn thy
di bc sng t
380 n 780 nm
Vng hng ngoi
di bc sng t
780 nm n 1 mm

Hnh 4.1. Ph ca bc x in t
c im ca mt ngi l nhn thy cc sng in t thuc vng
nh sng nhn thy. Mt ngi khng ch phn bit c sng yu hay
mnh, m cn phn bit c tng bc sng ring bit gi l cm mu
ca mt. Nhng trong k thut ch dng khi nim bc sng ch khng
dng khi nim mu sc, v ngay c tn s cng t dng.Cc bc sng trong
thng tin quang hin nay nm vng hng ngoi nn khi nim mu
sc cng khng c ngha.

2
4.2. Cc linh kin thu quang (hiu ng quang in bn trong)
B thu quang l phn t c nhim v bin i tn hiu quang thnh tn
hiu in da trn nguyn l bin i quang in. Ngha l, bin i nng
lng quang thnh nng lng in. Khi cc nguyn t c cung cp nng
lng di dng nng lng quang thch hp, cc in t lp ngoi cng
ca chng c th bt ra thnh in t t do. Bng cch dng in trng
ngoi thu nhn cc in t ny ta s c dng in mch ngai gi l
dng quang in c ln ph thuc vo cng nh sng chiu vo Tu
theo mc ch s dng v cu trc m c nhiu loi b thu quang khc nhau,
v th c tnh ca chng cng khc nhau.
4.2.1. in tr quang

Hnh 4.2. in tr quang
in tr quang l mt linh kin bn dn th ng, khng c lp tip xc
P-N.
Vt liu dng ch to in tr quang thng l Cadmium
Sulfid (CdS), Cadmium Selenid (CdSe), Sulfid km (ZnS) hoc cc tinh th
hn hp khc. Tt c cc vt liu ny c gi l vt liu bn dn nhy quang.
1. Cu to
in tr quang gm mt lp vt liu bn dn nhy quang ri ln mt
tm vt liu cch in v 2 chn dn in. chng m ngi ta bc bn
ngoi quang tr mt lp sn chng m trong sut vi vng nh sng hot
ng ca n. Tt c c bc trong mt v bng cht do c ca s cho nh

3
sng i qua.
2. Nguyn l lm vic

Hnh 4.3. Nguyn l lm vic
Khi chiu nh sng vo vt liu bn dn nhy quang vi nng lng
photon ln hn hoc bng rng vng cm ca vt liu, do qu trnh hp
th quang nng, tng cp in t- l trng mi xut hin. Do vy, nng
ht dn trong cht bn dn tng ln, lm dn in ca n tng, hay ni
cch khc l in tr ca cht bn dn gim xung.
dn in c to ra khi c chiu nh sng l
o = o
0
+ o
F

trong
- o
0
- l dn in khi cha chiu sng.
- o
F
- dn in c to ra do nh sng
( ) p q
p n F
A + = o

y n = p - nng in t bng nng l trng mi sinh ra.
Dng in quang c tnh theo cng thc:
Ewd p q I
p n ph
) ( + A =

w.d l tit din ca lp bn dn nhy quang, E l cng in
trng.
Qua cng thc trn ta thy dn in ca vt liu bn dn c th thay
i c khi ta thay i nng ht dn v linh ng hiu dng ca in
t v l trng. Nh vy, khi ta thay i cng chiu sng ln in tr
quang th cng dng in trong mch cng thay i theo.
Cc in tr quang c kh nng khuch i dng in ln n 10
5
ln
hoc hn na. Tuy nhin, cc gi tr ny ch ph hp khi cng nh sng
khng thay i theo thi gian hoc thay i chm. Khi tn s bin iu,
cng nh sng tng th h s khuch i ca in tr quang gim. Kh

4
nng p ng tn s ca in tr quang thp, thng t t vi chc Hz n
vi KHz.

Hnh 4.4. nhy quang
3. Cc tham s chnh ca in tr quang
in dn sut o
p
l hm s ca mt nng lng quang
khi
di bc sng khng i
o
p =
o
p
(
) khi = const
nhy tng i ca in tr quang S () l t s gia in dn sut
thay i theo bc sng o
p
() v in dn sut cc i o
p
.max khi mt
nng lng quang
khng i
o
o
max
) (
) (
P
p
S =

Vn tc lm vic l thi gian hi p ca mt in tr quang khi c s
thay i t sng sang ti hay t ti sang sng. Vi cng nh
sng mnh, in tr quang lm vic nhanh hn. in tr quang lm vic
chm hn khi tri lnh v ct gi trong bng ti.
H s nhit ca in tr quang: H s nhit ca in tr quang t l
nghch vi cng chiu sng. Do , gim bt s thay i tr s ca
in tr quang theo nhit , in tr quang cn c cho hot ng mc
chiu sng ti a.
in tr ti Rd : in tr ti l in tr trong bng ti ca in tr
quang. in tr ti l tham s quan trng, n cho ta bit "dng in r" ln
nht i vi mt in th trn in tr quang.
in th hot ng: Tu theo cu trc mt n ca in tr quang m c
cc in th lm vic khc nhau. in th ny c th ln ti 0,5 Kv/mm.
in th hot ng cao nht o c khi in tr quang hot ng trong
bng ti. Khi s dng in tr quang cn chn gi tr in p cung cp sao
cho ti u i vi mch in m khng lm hng in tr quang.
Cng sut tiu tn cao nht: Khi in tr quang hot ng cn phi gi

5
cho nhit ca n thp hn mt nhit cho php. Nhit cho php ca
in tr quang thng gii hn t - 40
0
C n +75
0
C.
4.2.2. Photodiode Diode quang
1. Khi nim chung
Khi chiu sng mt tip xc P-N th trn n s xut hin mt in p.
Tu theo chc nng v cu trc c th chia it quang thnh nhiu loi nh
sau
it quang loi tip xc P-N.
it quang loi PIN.
it quang thc (APD).
Mt s c im ca it quang l rt tuyn tnh, t nhiu, di tn s
lm vic rng, nh, c bn c hc cao v tui th cao.
it quang khng nhy bng in tr quang loi CdS nhng n
lm vic nhanh gp nhiu ln.

Hnh 4.5. Diode quang
2. Vt liu c bn
Hin nay, truyn dn tn hiu quang theo 3 ca s suy hao nh nht
ca si quang, ngi ta ch n cc it quang lm vic hai vng bc
sng:
Vng bc sng t 0,85 n 0,9 m.
Vng bc sng t 1,3 n 1,6 m.
Trong vng bc sng th nht t 0,85 n 0,9 m, th vt liu ch to
it quang c chn l Silic v Silic c nhy cao vi bc sng quanh
0,85 m. rng vng cm ca silic l E
G
= 1,1eV v bng nng lng
quang cn hp th, ta c
C
h hv E
G
= =

v s c bc sng ct l:
P
= 1,1m.
Trong vng bc sng th hai t 1,3 n 1
dn c rng vng cm hp hn vi EG < 0,95 eV ngi ta thng chn

6
vt liu bn dn c ch to t cc lin kt III-V nh GaAs, InP, InAs v
GaSb... Ngoi ra, ngi ta cng ch n lin kt II-VI nh PbSnSe v
CdHgTe. Nh thay i hm lng ph hp trong cu trc Hg
x
Cd
1-x
Te c
th ch to c cc it quang lm vic bc sng 1,3 m n 1,55 m.
Thc t c loi it quang thc APD th nghim ch to t vt liu
Hg
0,4
Cd
0,6
Te.
2. it quang loi tip xc P-N

Hnh 4.6. Cu to ca it quang loi tip xc P-N (a)
v phn b di nng lng ca tip xc P-N (b).
Cu to
it quang gm c mt tip xc P-N. B dy ca lp tip xc l w.
Hai phn bn dn P
+
v N
+
c nng tp cht cao. it c mt ca s
chiu nh sng vo. Hai chn ant A v catt K l kim loi c ni ti cc
phn bn dn.
Nguyn l lm vic

Hnh 4.7. S nguyn l u ni it quang

7
it quang c cp ngun E
CC
sao cho tip xc P-N phn cc
ngc to ra mt in trng dch chuyn cc ht dn thiu s s c sinh
ra di tc dng ca nh sng. Do , khi cha c tc dng nh sng th trong
it thu quang ch c dng in ngc (dng in ti hay dng r) rt nh.
Khi cho nh sng chiu vo, do qu trnh hp th, trong bn dn xut
hin tng cp in t - l trng. Cc in t v l trng ny di tc ng
ca in trng tip xc P-N phn cc ngc s chuyn ng tri qua tip
xc P-N v to nn dng in gi l dng quang in.
Linh kin cn c nhy cao v n s cho dng in quang cao hn
i vi cng cng sut quang chiu vo.
Tn s v cng ca dng quang in hon ton do tn s v cng
ca nh sng kch thch quyt nh.
it quang loi tip xc P-N c vng in tch khng gian hp, nh
sng c hp th phn ln trong vng bn dn loi P v N. Nh vy hiu
sut lng t thp v tc p ng thp. tng hiu sut lng t ha v
nhy ngi ta ch to it quang c vng in tch khng gian rng hn.
l it quang loi PIN v it quang thc APD.
3. it quang loi PIN:
Cu to
it quang loi PIN gm mt lp bn dn N
+
c nng tp cht
cao lm nn, trn ph mt lp bn dn nguyn tnh I (Intrinsic), ri n
lp bn dn loi P
+
c nng tp cht cao. Do it c tn gi l it
P-I-N. Bn trn b mt ca lp bn dn P
+
l in cc vng Ant nh
sng c th thm nhp vo min bn dn I. Trn lp bn dn P c ph mt
lp mng chng phn x quang trnh tn tht nh sng chiu vo.
Nguyn l hot ng
in p cung cp cho it phn cc ngc dc theo linh kin, v vy
lp I b ngho hon ton trong sut thi gian hot ng ca n.
Khi nh sng i vo lp bn dn P
+
, trng hp l tng mi
photon s sinh ra trong min P
+
, I hoc N
+
mt cp in t- l trng. Cc
in t v l trng va sinh ra s c in trng mnh ht v hai pha
in cc, to ra mt dng in mch ngoi v trn ti R
t
thu c mt
in p U
Ra
.
Trn thc t, mt phn nh sng vo b tn tht do phn x. Lp chng
phn x to cho linh kin c th t hiu sut ti 80%.
i vi silic, h s phn x nh sng R
f
hu nh l 30%.

8
Kh nng thm nhp nh sng vo cc lp bn dn thay i theo bc
sng. V th lp bn dn P
+
khng c qu dy. Xc sut to ra cc cp
in t - l trng trong min I tng ln theo dy ca min ny, do
min I cng dy cng t hiu sut lng t ha cao. Nhng nu rng
ca lp I tng ln th thi gian tri qua n chm hn v lm chm tc
chuyn mch.

Hnh 4.8. Hot ng ca it quang PIN
a/ M hnh cu to ca it PIN
b/ Gin nng lng khi phn
cc ngc
c/ c tnh pht sinh ht dn
Trong it PIN khng c khuch i v hiu sut cc i l n v,

9
rng bng tn c th gii hn bi hng s thi gian in dung - in tr
ngoi. Trn thc t, rng bng c th t 10 GHz. it quang loi PIN c
dng in ti rt nh nn ting n thp hn so vi in tr quang. V nguyn
nhn ny, it PIN l b tch quang thng dng trong cc h thng thng tin
quang.
4. it quang thc (APD)
tng nhy ca it quang, ngi ta c th s dng hiu ng
ging nh hiu ng nhn in t trong cc b nhn quang in. Cu to
ca it quang s c dng c bit l it quang vi hiu ng quang thc
APD - Avalanche Photodiodes.
it quang thc ging nh it PIN tr in p phn cc ln hn
nhiu to ra s nhn thc l v ht dn v nh vy APD c khuch i
dng in bi s ion ho do va chm v nhn ht dn.
Cu to

Hnh 4.9. Cu to v s phn b in trng trong it quang thc APD.

Nh hnh v, lp bn dn nguyn tnh I trong it P-I-N c thay
bng mt lp bn dn P c nng tp cht thp. Nh vy, min bn dn P
to thnh min tri v l ni sinh ra cc cp in t- l trng.
in trng do in p phn cc ngc bn ngoi t vo thay i
theo cc lp bn dn dc theo it. Trong vng tri in trng tng chm,
nhng trong vng tip xc P-N
+
th tng nhanh v to ra min thc ti vng
ny.
Nguyn l hot ng
Nguyn l hot ng ca APD c bn ging nh it P-I-N.
S nguyn l c m t trong hnh trn. Theo s ny, it
quang thc c phn cc ngc nh ngun U
CC
, v tn hiu in c ly
ra trn ti R
t
.
Khi chiu nh sng vo, s xut hin thm cc cp in- l trng mi

10
trong min tri (bn dn P). Di tc ng ca in trng, cc in t
trong min P s dch chuyn n vng thc ca tip xc P-N
+
v ri vo
vng c in trng mnh nn c tng tc. Cc in t c tc ln ny
s va chm vo cc nguyn t khc to ra cc cp in t- l trng mi.
Hin tng ny c gi l hin tng ion ha do va chm. Do , dng
in qua it APD tng nhanh nh c khuch i ln vi h s khuch i
M. H s khuch i (hay cn gi l h s nhn) ph thuc vo in p phn
cc cho it v n c th t ti 200 ln. Xem hnh di.

Hnh 4.10. S ph thuc ca h s khuch i dng in M ca it quang
APD silic vo in p phn cc U
CC
cc bc sng khc nhau ti nhit
trong phng.
H s nhn M cng c th tnh theo cng thc
( )
n
dt ph
M
ph
V V I
I
M
= =
1
1

Trong :
- I
M

- l gi tr trung bnh ca dng in nhn tng ti u ra.
- I
ph
- l dng quang in s cp cha c nhn, xc nh theo cng
thc trn.
- V
dt
- in p nh thng ti gi tr M xc nh.
- n lu tha, l hng s vt liu c gi tr t 2,5 n 7.
-
V = V
0
I
M
R
M

11
o V
0
l in p phn cc ngc cho it;
o R
M
l in tr ni tip ca it quang v in tr ti ca mch
tch quang
o I
M
l dng in nhn u ra ca APD.
Ta thy it APD cn c in p phn cc ln hn nhiu so vi it
loi P-I-N. Nu thi gian cho qu trnh ion ha trong min thc cng di
th h s khuch i M cng ln, song tc tri qua min thc s chm
i. Cc xung cng s b dn rng ra v hn ch rng bng tn B.
nh gi kh nng lm vic ca APD, ngi ta nh ngha tch s khuch
i v rng bng do qu trnh thc l
tt 2
1
= B M
ph (27)
Trong : t l thi gian gia 2 qu trnh va chm ca in t vi cc
nguyn t.
S tng h s khuch i c th t c khi tch h s khuch i -
rng bng tn t 100 GHz hoc hn. Thng thng, cc APD cho php t
rng bng trn 1GHz vi gi tr M
ph
ln. n nh gi tr M
ph
, ta cn
cp mt in p ngun ln v n nh v nhit do chi ph m bo ch
lm vic cho APD ln hn nhiu so vi it loi P-I-N.
Trong it APD silic, ion ho do va chm bi in t khong 50 ln ln
hn l trng v do n cho t l tn hiu / ting n tt nht.
5. Cc c tnh v tham s ca it quang
Hiu sut lng t ha l t s gia s lng cc i in t- l trng
sinh ra trn s photon c nng lng h i n v n c tnh theo cng
thc sau
hv P
q I
ph
0
= q

Trong
I
ph
l dng quang in trung bnh sinh ra do cng sut quang trung
bnh P
0
i ti it quang.
Trn it thc t hiu sut lng t ha = (30 - 95)%.
nhy ca it quang S: (hay h s chuyn i)
nhy ch r gi tr dng quang in sinh ra trn n v cng sut nh
sng i n it. N lin h vi hiu sut lng t ha theo cng thc:

hv
q
P
I
S
ph
q
= =
0

Trong cc it quang loi P-I-N, nhy l hm ca bc sng c m

12
t hnh di
Trong hu ht cc photoit, nhy l mt hm tuyn tnh vi cng
sut quang. C ngha l, dng quang in I
Ph
t l thun trc tip vi cng
sut quang P
0
chiu vo cu kin tch quang, cng nh vy, nhy S l
hng s ti mt bc sng cho.
Tuy nhin, hiu sut lng t ha khng phi l hng s ti tt c cc
bc sng v n thay i theo nng lng photon. Dn n nhy l hm
ca bc sng v vt liu bn dn.

Hnh 4.11. So snh gia hiu sut lng t v nhy nh mt hm ca
bc sng cho it quang loi P-I-N i vi cc vt liu khc nhau.
Tp m ca b tch quang
Trong cc h thng thng tin si quang, nhn chung photoit c
yu cu tch cc tn hiu quang rt yu. Vic tch cc tn hiu quang yu
nht c th yu cu b tch quang v mch khuch i tip theo ca n phi
ti u sao cho t s tn hiu trn tp m (S/N) c duy tr. T s tn hiu
trn tp m (S/N) ti u ra ca mt b thu quang c xc nh nh sau
S Cng sut tn hiu dng quang in
N Cng sut tp m Diode quang + Cng sut tp m mch khuch i
Thi gian hi p
Thi gian hi p ca it quang c biu th bng thi gian ln v
thi gian xung ca tn hiu tch quang trn li ra khi it quang c chiu
sng bng bc x quang u vo. Thi gian ln c o t 10% n 90%
sn ln ca xung ra v thi gian xung cng c o nh vy.


13

Hnh 4.12. Thi gian ln t
r
v thi gian xung t
f

ca p ng in p li ra ca it quang.
4.2.3. Tranzito quang Phototransistor
1. Cu to
Tranzito quang c 2 loi PNP v NPN. Ba chn cc: cc pht E, cc
gc B, v cc gp C. Cc gc l b mt c nh sng chiu vo, n c
ch to rt mng c in tr nh.

Hnh 4.13. Cu to v k hiu ca tranzito quang
2. Nguyn l hot ng

14
Trong hnh, ngun cung cp E
CC
to cho tip xc pht phn cc
thun v tip xc gp phn cc ngc. Ti R
t
st bt mt phn in p
phn cc cho tranzito, v ly tn hiu in ra.
- Khi khng c tn hiu quang (h = 0 hay I
B
= I
Phot.
= 0) trong
mch ch c dng in ti I
C ti
. y l dng in do cc l trng khuch
tn t phn pht sang ti cc gp v n c tr s nh.
- Khi c tn hiu quang n (h = 0 hay I
B
= I
Phot
= 0), phn
gc s xut hin cc cp in t- l trng. Cc l trng s di chuyn v
cc gp to nn thnh phn dng quang in I
Pphot.
, cn cc in t
chuyn ng v pha tip xc pht, kch thch cho s khuch tn ca cc ht
dn ti y d dng hn..

Hnh 4.14. S nguyn l u ni tranzito quang
v c tuyn Vn -Ampe ca n
Vi s mc cc pht chung nh hnh v, ta c th tnh gn ng
dng in cc gp khi tranzito quang c chiu sng I
Cs
:
o Do cc gc h v c nh sng chiu n nn dng in cc
gc chnh l dng tn hiu quang I
Phot.
.
o H s khuch i dng quang chnh bng h s khuch i ca
tranzito trong s mc cc pht chung (M = |).
Vy, tng dng in trong tranzito quang khi c chiu sng
I
Cs
= |I
Phot.
+ I
Pphot
+ I
C ti
Thnh phn dng in ti I
C ti
s hn ch kh nng khuch
i tn hiu quang ca tranzito. khc phc hn ch ny ngi ta dng
tranzito quang 3 chn cc gim dng in ti v tng tr khng ra ca
mch. S u tranzito 3 chn cc nh trong hnh 28. Vi cch mc ny
cc tham s ca mch ph thuc vo dng in cc gc r rt. Ti gi tr
dng cc gc ti u no s cho cc thng s ti u: dng in ti c th

15
gim xung 10 ln, tr khng ra tng ln khong 10 ln, v cc h s khuch
i dng in v in p tng ln ng k so vi mch h cc gc. Trong
cc mch, tranzito quang cng c th mc theo 3 cch mc.
l cc s : cc gc chung, cc pht chung v cc gp chung
nh tranzito thng ch c khc tn hiu iu khin l tn hiu quang.

Hnh 4.15.
a- S mc tranzito quang 3 chn cc ti u cc thng s
b- S tng ng ca tranzito quang: it quang l tip xc gc- gp.

V mt cu trc c th coi tranzito quang nh mt mch tch hp n
gin gm mt it quang lm nhim v bin i tn hiu quang sang tn
hiu in v mt tranzito c nhim v khuch i
c h s khuch i dng quang ln, ngi ta dng s
Dacling- tn i vi cc tranzito quang, xem hnh 29. Tranzito quang
Dacling-tn c ch to nh ch ra trong hnh.

Hnh 4.16. S tranzito quang Darlingtn

16
T s tng ng ta thy nhy ph ca tranzito quang cng
ging nh i vi cc it quang tng ng, tuy nhin v tranzito quang c
kh nng khuch i nn nhy ca n cao hn it quang khong vi trm
ln. Tn s lm vic ca tranzito quang thp hn it quang. Tranzito quang
lm vic vi tn s n vi trm KHz (khong 300KHz, cn s
Darling- tn ch khong 30KHz) trong khi it quang lm vic n vi chc
MHz.

BPW 21
Features
Especially suitable for applications from 350nm to 820nm
Adapted to human eye sensitivity (V)
Hermetically sealed metal package (similar to TO-5)
Application
Exposure meter for daylight
For artificial light of high color temperature in photographic fields and
color analysis


17


18


19


20
4.3. Cc linh kin thu quang (hiu ng quang in bn ngoi)
4.3.1. vacuum photodetectors
Dng hiu ng quang in to ra dng v p t l vi mt dng cng sut
sng ti.
nhy cao, p ng nhanh .
Ch yu dng trong phng th nghim.
1. Nguyn l
Cathode cu to t b mt kim loi cong c ph lp oxide.
Anode: ng mng t ti tiu im ca cathode.
Pht x in t t b mt cathode i hi nng lng photon n phi
ko in t ra khi cc lc lin kt ca e- vi nguyn t v vi b mt cathode (do
cc in tch dng to ra bi cc in t ri khi b mt).
E
kmax
= hf - W
- W: cng thot in t
- h: hng s planck
- f: tn s photon

Hnh 4.17. vacuum photodetectors

21
2. Cc dc trng c bn
Stopping voltage th p t lm trit tiu E
k max
dn = 0
Tn s ngng khi sng n c tn s nh hn tn s ngng s khng pht x
in t t cathode, l tn s ng vi E
k
= 0.
c trng thun
- Tn tai in p knee voltage m trn dng s bo ho, photodiode hot
ng trong min ny.
-Dng bo ho t l thun vi mt dng quang ti H.
-Th stop ging nhau vi cc mt dng quang ti khc nhau (ch l hm ca
tn s photon)
c tuyn ra c ti dng tnh gn ng dng qua ng I
T
, th ri trn ng V
T
khi bit ti R v mt dng quang (lm)
Cc tnh cht c bn ca vacuum photodetector
1/ Dng photodiode tng tuyn tnh theo mt dng quang nu tr ti nh.
2/ Trng hp l tng, nhy dng S
I
= = const. v khng ph thuc ti
3/ Cc mch thc t lch khi l tng khi dng ln v b .
4/ Th anode gim khi mt dng quang tng.
5/ nhy in p S
v
= t l vi tr ti .
6/ Vi tr ti R
L
nh, nhy in p gn khng i v dng, th thay i gn
tuyn tnh theo mt dng quang.
4.3.2. Photomultiplier - ng nhn quang
Loi n in t dng khuch i dng photon yu.
Cu trc gm bng chn khng, photocatt C
1
, cc cc trung gian C
2
, C
3
...
(cn gi l cc int) v ant A.
Dng photon yu p vo photocatt lm pht x dng electron, gia cc i
in cc C
1
C
2
, C
2
C
3
... c t hiu th gia tc tng dn, da vo hiu ng pht x
th cp ca cc int, dng in t n ant c th tng ln 10
5
10
9
ln.

22
Hin nay c nhiu loi ng nhn quang khc nhau v cu to catt quang,
phng php chiu sng, h thng cc cc pht x th cp, h thng hi t in t
th cp. ng nhn quang dng khuch i nhng tia sng yu, bin thin nhanh.
c s dng trong cc h truyn hnh, truyn nh v cc ng m nhp nhy

Hnh 4.18. ng nhn quang in
O - ng chn khng;
V
1
< V
2
< V
7
; 1,2,3,4,5,6 Chm in t;
I - Bc x, tia phng x;
C
1
C
6
Catt. A Ant. i Dng ant;
Cp (C
1
, C
2
) gi l int, tng t nh vy l (C
2
, C
3
), (C
3
, C
4
)


23

Chng 5: Led_light emitting diode
1
Chng 5
LED-LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

5.1. Nguyn tc hot ng v cu to
5.1.1. Hin tng phn cc nh sng.
nh sng l sng in t c di t 0.4 m n 0.75 m. Mt ngun
sng nh mt ngn n, mt ngn la gm v s cc ht pht ra nh sng.
Cc ht ny l cc phn t, nguyn t hay ion.

Hnh 5.1. Lan truyn sng in t
Cc sng in t pht ra bi cc ht c vect cng in trng
E hng theo tt c mi phng thng gc vi phng truyn tia sng. nh
sng nh vy c gi l nh sng t nhin. Vy nh sng t nhin c coi
l gm v s cc dao ng thng, phn b u nhau theo tt c mi phng
thng gc vi phng truyn ca tia sng. Khng c mt phng no c u
i.
Nu bng cch no ta lm mt s i xng ny ca cc phng dao
ng sng th nh sng c gi l nh sng phn cc.
C th c nh sng phn cc mt phn hay nh sng phn cc hon
ton.
S phn cc (Polarization): hin tng vector dao ng b gii hn
phng dao ng.
nh sng t nhin: Vector E dao ng theo mi phng
nh sng phn cc: Phng dao ng ca vector E khng cn tnh i
xng xung quanh phng truyn na.
2

Hnh 5.2. nh sng khng phn cc hay phn cc mt phn

Hin tng phn cc do phn x
nh sng t nhin b phn x qua mt b mt vi mt gc thch hp s
b phn cc.
nh lut Brewster
c nh sng phn cc hon ton do s phn x trn mt b mt ca
mt mi trng trong sut, gc ti i phi c mt tr s xc nh ty thuc vo
bn cht ca mi trng v c tnh bi cng thc
tg i =n
n l chit sut ca mi trng
Gc i c gi l gc Brewster (i
B
)
Nu mi trng ti l thy tinh c n = 1,5
tg i
B
= 1,5. Suy ra i
B
= 57
0
.

Hnh 5.3. nh sng phn cc Brewster
Hin tng phn cc do truyn qua mi trng d hng
3

Hnh 5.4. nh sng phn cc do truyn qua mi trng d hng
(nh minh ho)
5.1.2. Mt ch th tinh th lng (LCD - Liquid Crystal Display)
LCD c nhng li im sau
rt t tn in, khong 10Uw
ch s hin r rng d c ni c nhiu nh sng
cu trc phng, dp, c bn c hc cao
c th c iu khin trc tip bng cc linh kin TTL, hay
CMOS
c th ch th nhng du hiu phc tp
Tuy nhin, LCD cng c nhng bt li sau:
i sng tng i ngn so vi LED
khi tri ti ch c th c c vi nh n t bn ngoi hay
chiu t pha sau
thi gian tt v m tng i chm
Vi nhng tnh cht nh trn, LCD c dng lm mt ch th cho
ng h, my tnh, my o digital, cc ng h trong xe hi, tr chi tr
em. LCD l linh kin th ng, n khng pht sng, cng d c hn khi
chung quanh cng sng.
Ngy nay c LCD mu. Thi gian tt m ca LCD loi mi cng ci
tin nhanh hn dng lm mt mn hnh Tivi, my tnh c nhn.
Khi nim
4
Mt hin th tinh th lng LCD ( Liquid Crystal Display ) l linh kin
to ra nh kh kin nh iu khin s truyn sng qua mt qu trnh phn cc.
Cc n in pht quang thng c dng nh cc ngun nh sng en cho
ng dng hin th tinh th lng.
Mt ch th tinh th lng LCD khng phi l linh kin bn dn
quang in t. LCD c ch to di dng thanh v chm ma trn. LCD
c tui th kh cao t 10000 gi n 100 000 gi v ngy nay n thay th
dn cc mt ch th loi LED, Plasma hay hunh quang.
Vt liu
Tinh th lng s dng trong LCD l nhng hp cht hu c. Cc phn
t ca tinh th lng ny c phn b sao cho cc trc dc ca chng nm
song song vi nhau.
Hiu ng quang hc dng cho LCD ch hn ch trong khong "khng
ng hng", do vy di nhit lm vic ca LCD b hn ch v xc nh
bi hai im nhit nng chy v nhit trong sut.

Hin nay, c nhiu hng in t ch to cc loi LCD nh Hitachi,
Sharp, Seiko, Samsung, Hanntronic, Optex, Phillip, Powertip, Thng dng
nht l LCD ca hng Hitachi
Cc LCD trn c khc nhau v
Kch thc: c loi kch thc nh, trung bnh v ln. Loi kch thc
nh cho cc thit b in t s dng trong gia nh. Loi kch thc
thc trung bnh cho cc thit b in t s dng trong cng nghip v
ti vi. Loi kch thc ln dnh cho mn hnh ha v cc bin qung
co.
Cch trao i tin: song song ( cho cc thit b gn ) v ni tip ( cho
cc thit b xa )..
Hin th: Ch/ s hay hnh nh ( ha ).
5

Hnh 5.5. Cc loi mn hnh tinh th lng (LCD)
Cu to ca thanh LCD:
Cu to ca LCD gm c 2 tm knh t cch nhau khong 10m. Mt
pha trong ca 2 tm knh trng mt lp oxit km (ZnO) trong sut lm hai
in cc. Xung quanh bn cnh hai tm knh c hn kn, sau tinh th
lng vo khong gia 2 tm knh v gn kn li. Hai tm nha c tnh phn
cc nh sng c dn bn ngoi hai tm knh sao cho hnh nh phn chiu
ca mt ch th c nhn t mt pha nh gng phn chiu.

6
Hnh 5.6. Cu to ca mt thanh LCD
Nguyn l lm vic
Ch phn chiu:
Khi cha c in p t vo, cc thanh LCD khng lm vic th
nh sng s i qua tm nha phn cc th nht, qua cht tinh th
lng, qua tm nha phn cc th 2 n gng phn chiu v
phn chiu tr v pha ngi quan st v thanh LCD khng nhn
thy - Mt ch th trong sut.
Khi c in p cung cp cho thanh LCD, trc di ca cc phn t
cht tinh th lng c nh hng theo hng ca in trng.
Nh vy, nh sng i qua tm nha phn cc th nht s b thay
i do cht tinh th hot ha, do , nh sng khng th i qua
tm phn cc th 2 phn chiu li bng gng phn chiu. Nh
th thanh tinh th lng chu tc ng ca in trng s b ti i.
Vi 2 mng lc phn cc 90
0
ta c nn ca mt ch th trong sut v
nhng ch, s, du hiu ti en. y l mt ch th hot ng ch phn
chiu.
Nhc im ca ch phn chiu l mt ch th phi da vo mt
ngun sng t bn ngoi. Nu khng c nh sng ngoi hay trong mt
phng ti th mt ch th s khng nhn thy.
Ch thng sng:
Nu 2 mng lc phn cc song song th ta c mt ch th c nn
ti v cc ch, s v du hiu s trong sut. Loi ny thch hp
vi vic chiu sng t pha sau mt ch th v ta gi l ch
thng sng.
ch ny, nh sng i qua cc phn khng hot ha nhng c
a vo khun bng cc thanh hot ha. V vy ch s chn s nhn thy.
nh sng chiu u, cn c mt tm knh tn x t gia LCD v ngun
sng.
LCD ny dng in p xoay chiu t 3V n 8V, thi gian hin s l
100 msec v thi gian tt t 200 msec n 300 msec.

7

Hnh 5.7. Ch lm vic ca LCD
Cu to LCD mu

Hnh 5.8. Cu to LCD mu
1. Polarizing filter (B lc phn cc) iu khin nh sng i vo v thot
ra.
2. Glass substrate (Hp cht thu tinh c bit) Lc chn in t cc in
cc
3. Transparent electrodes (in cc trong sut) L cc thanh dn in
trong sut cho php nh sng xuyn qua.
4. Alignment layer (Sp xp lp) L hai b mt c rnh, gia l cc phn
t tinh th lng, Cc phn t c sp xp theo hnh son c 90
o
.
5. Liquid crystals (Cc tinh th lng).
6. Spacer (Khong trng) Duy tr khong cch u gia cc tm knh.
8
7. Color filter (B lc mu) Mu c lc v th hin khi dng cc b lc
R, G v B.
8. Backlighting (nh sng pha sau) nh sng c chiu t pha sau mn
hnh xuyn qua cc lp trn, mn hnh in thoi, ngi ta s dng nh
sng chiu t xung quanh sau dng lp phn x hng nh sng
chiu thng gc vi mn hnh t sau v pha trc.
Mu c hin th nh cc b lc mu dnh cho mi thnh phn hin
th, trong h thng ma trn im, cc im mu (R) , xanh l (G), xanh
dng (B) nhn c do s dng cc b lc mu, ba mu c bn trn kt hp
li cho ta mt im nh, mi im mu s cho mt mu c cng sng
khc nhau, mt im nh c th cho v s mu v l mu tng hp c t ba
mu c bn trn.
LCD vi hiu ng trng
Mn nh LCD dng cho my tnh v tivi c ch to vi k thut
mng mng transistor TFT ( thin film transistor ) hay k thut cu trc hnh
si ch xon STN ( super twisted nematic )
Vi k thut STN, gia hai tm knh l mt lp mng cht lng hu c
c bit c phn t vi kch thc kh di. Cht lng ny l tinh th lng dng
ngt m nh sng. Vi lp ph trn hai tm knh, ngi ta to nhng khe
cc b vi k thut mi c bit.
Cc khe ny chy dc theo cng mt hng v c dng nh
hng cc phn t tinh th lng theo cch c hc. Cc phn t tinh th lng
sp xp theo hng cc khe ny. V nhng lc gia cc phn t tc dng ln
nhau, cc phn t lun nh hng theo phn t k bn. S nh hng ny
c bt u v tip din t cc khe cc nh trn tm knh. V hng ca cc
khe tm knh trn thng gc vi hng cc khe ca tm knh di, do cc
phn t b cng bc theo hai hng ny. Hng ca trc cc phn t theo
tng lp b lm lch tun t t tm knh ny sang tm knh kia. Bn ngoi hai
tm knh c ph hai mng lc phn cc ch cho nh sng xuyn qua theo
mt mt phng nh hng. V nh hng ca knh lc phn cc trng vi
hng ca cc khe cho mi tm knh, cho nn hai hng ca knh lc phn
cc xoay nhau mt gc 90
o
. V rng mt phng ca nh sng xuyn qua mt
knh lc phn cc s xoay theo hng ca cc trc ca cc phn t tinh th
lng, cho nn mt phng dao ng ca nh sng cng c xoay i mt gc
90
o
v nh th nh sng c th xuyn qua knh lc phn cc th hai. trng
thi khng c in p mn nh s trong sut v cho nh sng i qua.
Di tc dng ca in trng cc phn t tinh th lng nh hng
theo chiu in trng mt ng thng. Khi mt knh c ph mt lp
dn in v c dng nh in cc, khi c in p, cc phn t xoay i v
nm theo trc thng gc vi hai tm knh.
9
Nh th mt phng nh sng khng b xoay, hai knh lc c chiu phn
cc thng gc nhau s khng cho nh sng xuyn qua. im no trn hai
tm knh c s chng lp hai in cc, y cho ta mt im ti theo hnh th
v ln ca s chng lp ca hai in cc. Trong nhng mn nh LCD, in
cc l cc phn on hay nhng im ca mt ma trn. Cho mn nh LCD
mu, trc mi im nh l mt knh lc mu. Ba im mu , xanh l cy,
xanh da tri to nn mt im nh mu.
Nh th mt mn nh LCD mu vi cng phn gii nh mn nh
mt mu c s im Pixel nhiu gp 3 ln.
Cc mn nh LCD hin nay u cn c chiu sng t pha sau bi
cc n hunh quang, tm dn quang, si dn quang bng cht do hay mng
nha in pht quang.
cho nh sng chiu u, cn c 1 tm knh tn x t gia LCD v
ngun sng. Ch c khong 3% n 5% nh sng n mt ngi xem. 50%
nh sng b hp thu bi knh lc phn cc v 30% bi knh lc mu. Hng 3M
ch to mt mng nha. trn y c hang triu lng knh cc nh a nh
sng t ngun sng chiu thng gc vi mn nh. iu ny rt quan trng cho
cc thit b cm tay cn tit kim in. Mn nh LCD nu trn l loi th ng
STN. N c iu khin bi mt ma trn hai chiu gm cc ng dn in
trong sut. cc v tr ct nhau ca cc ng dn in trn hai tm knh cho
ta mt im nh. Ma trn c vn ng theo phng php qut cho nn vn
tc chm. Nu hnh nh thay i nhanh, nhng bng hnh nh s c to ra.
trnh nhng nhc im ny, loi mn nh LCD tch cc TFT c pht
trin. Mi im nh l mt transistor ring bit trn mt trong hai tm knh
c to nn vi k thut mng mng. Vi k thut ny ngi ta t phn
gii cao, hnh nh c th thay i nhanh hn v vi in trng cao hn cho
ta hnh nh c tng phn r nt hn.
Vi k thut TFT c hng triu transistor c hnh thnh trn tm
knh.
Mt trong nhng nhc im ca mn nh LCD l gc nhn kh b ( 15
n 40 grad, vng trn = 400 grad = 360
0
). Vi k thut IPS ( in Plane
Switching Mode ) hay Super TFT ta t gc nhn n 140 grad. Vi k
thut ny 2 in cc v transistor cho mt im nh c ch to trn cng
mt tm knh. in trng c hnh thnh khng gia hai tm knh m
gia hai in cc trn cng mt tm knh. Nu khng c in cc cc phn t
nm song song vi cc khe cc nh trn mt tm knh. S xoay theo hnh
xon c ca cc phn t trong tinh th lng khng c to ra theo phng
php mi ny. V mng lc phn cc c nh hng 90
0
cho nn khi khng
c in p im nh ti i.
Khi c in p, cc phn t tinh th lng vn nm song song vi mt
knh nhng xoay i mt gc 90
0
trong mt phng nm ngang v in trng
10
gia hai in cc nm thng gc vi cc khe trn tm knh. in trng cng
ln, s xoay cc phn t cng mnh v nh sng lt qua cng nhiu.

11
5.2. Mch in iu khin LCD
Phn on tinh th lng v mch in tng ng ca n c m
t trong hnh 8- 21a,b. Trong hnh v c
- a: l in cc ca mt phn on
- b: l in cc chung.
- R
K
: l in tr ca cc vt liu gia ngun in v phn
on tinh th lng (khong vi K).
- R
S
: l in tr ca tinh th lng (khong vi M)
- C
S
: l in dung gia hai cc in ca mt phn on tinh th lng.
(khong t 100pF 200pF , 300pF cho LCD loi ln).
in dung C
S
khng gy nh hng tn s lm vic t 30 Hz n 150
Hz, hoc 200 Hz.

Hnh 5.9. Mch in iu khin LCD
a- Phn on LCD vi cc chn in cc.
b- Mch in tng ng ca mt phn on LCD.
c- Hai in cc a v b c in p cng pha.
12
d- Hai in cc a v b c in p ngc nhau.
Chng 5: H thng thng tin di dng

13
Vi cc tn s < 30 Hz cc ch s b chp chn; v vi tn s > 100 Hz
v vi in p kh cao cc phn on khng c in p cng b chp chn.
hn ch hin tng ny, cc phn on khng s dng phi ni vi in cc
mt sau (Back -plane).
Trong hnh (c) cho ta thy, khi in p trn hai in cc a v b ca phn
on LCD cng pha th hiu th ca phn on l 0V nn n khng c kch
hot.
Trong hnh (d) Khi hai in cc a v b c in p ngc nhau th hiu th
gia in cc a v in cc b l mt in p xoay chiu vi bin bng
2U
b
v phn on LCD c kch thch hot ng.
Nh bit, LCD lm vic ta cn mt in p xoay chiu khng c
ln in p mt chiu. Vi in p mt chiu ln, mng in cc trong sut t
cht Indium/ oxit km b kh thnh Indium/km. Mng in cc s ti i v
LCD b m.

Hnh 5.10. Hot ng ca LCD vi b gii m 7 on sng
v cng X-OR (CMOS).
LCD thng thng, yu cu in p mt chiu ln vo phi < 100mV;
cn LCD mu yu cu in p mt chiu ln vo phi < 50mV. Do vy, ta

14
nn dng mch iu khin vi IC h CMOS s cho ta mt in p t mo
nht. V LCD c cng sut thp nn dng cc cng CMOS iu khin l tt
nht. Hnh trn m t hot ng ca mt ch th LCD 7 on vi b gii m
BCD thnh 7 on.
Theo nh hnh trn, mt phn on trn mt ch th LCD s tr nn en
nu n ngc pha vi B.P.( in cc Back plane); n s tr nn trong sut nu
in p trn n cng pha vi in p trn B.P.
e. Cc tham s chnh ca LCD:

Hnh 5.11. Bng tham s ca LCD.
Thi gian ln: Thi gian lc c tn hiu n khi LCD hin th
Thi gian xung: Thi gian t lc khng cn tn hiu n khi LCD
khng cn hin th
Nguyn tc iu khin hin th LCD


15
Hnh 5.12. S khi nguyn tc iu khin hin th LCD
Cc LCD ca cc hng khc nhau nhng u c mt cu trc v tnh
nng thng nht v h lnh v cch lp trnh
S khi
Trn hnh ta thy LCD c s khi gm
Mn hnh tinh th lng ma trn im (dot matrix LCD panel).
Vi mch iu khin (controller & driver IC).
Cc b iu khin cc on (segment driver).

Segment driver dng IC 4543
BCD to 7-segment latch/decoder/driver
HEF4543B
DESCRIPTION
The HEF4543B is a BCD to 7-segment latch/decoder/driver for liquid
crystal and LED displays. It has four address inputs (DA to DD), an active
HIGH latch disable input (LD), an active HIGH blanking input (BI), an active
HIGH phase input (PH) and seven buffered segment outputs (Oa to Og). The
circuit provides the function of a 4-bit storage latch and an 8-4-2-1 BCD to 7-
segment decoder/driver. It can invert the logic levels of the output
combination. The phase (PH), blanking (BI) and latch disable (LD) inputs are
used to reverse the function table phase, blank the display and store a BCD
code, respectively. For liquid crystal displays a square-wave is applied to PH
and the electrical common back-plane of the display. The outputs of the
device are directly connected to the segments of the liquid crystal.


16

FUNCTION TABLE
Notes
1. H = HIGH state (the more positive voltage)
2. L = LOW state (the less positive voltage)
3. X = state is immaterial
4. For liquid crystal displays, apply a square-wave to PH.
For common cathode LED displays, select PH = LOW.
For common anode LED displays, select PH = HIGH.
5. Depends upon the BCD-code previously applied when LD = HIGH.


17
5.3. Hin th s o s liu dng tng t dng IC 7106
ICL7106, ICL7107, ICL7107S
31/2 Digit, LCD/LED Display, A/D
Converters
The Intersil ICL7106 and ICL7107 are high performance, low power,
31/2 digit A/D converters. Included are seven segment decoders, display
drivers, a reference, and a clock. The ICL7106 is designed to interface with a
liquid crystal display (LCD) and includes a multiplexed backplane drive; the
ICL7107 will directly drive an instrument size light emitting diode (LED)
display. The ICL7106 and ICL7107 bring together a combination of high
accuracy, versatility, and true economy. It features autozero to less than 10V,
zero drift of less than 1V/oC, input bias current of 10pA (Max), and rollover
error of less than one count. True differential inputs and reference are useful
in all systems, but give the designer an uncommon advantage when measuring
load cells, strain gauges and other bridge type transducers. Finally, the true
economy of single power supply operation (ICL7106), enables a high
performance panel meter to be built with the addition of only 10 passive
components and a display.


18

Chng 6: Linh kin ca h thng thng tin quang

1
Chng 6
LINH KIN CA H THNG THNG TIN
QUANG

6.1. H thng truyn dn quang.
S khi ca cc h thng thng tin
S khi c bn nht ca h thng thng tin in v quang c m t
trn hnh 8-1a,b. Trong hnh :
Ngun tn hiu: l cc dng thng tin thng thng nh ting ni, hnh
nh, s liu, vn bn...
Mch in t : c nhim v x l ngun thng tin to ra cc tn hiu
in di dng analog hoc digital.
Khi E/O: l mch bin i in - quang c nhim v iu bin tn hiu
in thnh cng bc x nh sng pht i (bin i tn hiu in thnh
tn hiu quang).
Si quang c nhim v truyn dn tn hiu quang t ni pht n ni thu.
Khi O/E : mch bin i quang - in cn gi l b thu quang c nhim
v tip nhn nh sng t si quang a n v bin i tr li thnh tn hiu
in nh tn hiu in pht i.
Ti tin : Trong h thng in th ti tin l cc sng in t cao tn, trong
h thng quang ti tin l nh sng v cng l sng in t song c tn s rt
cao ( 10
14
10
15
Hz) do vy ti tin quang rt thun li cho ti cc tn hiu
bng rng.

Hnh 6.1. H thng truyn dn quang.

2
Trm lp quang in (optoelectronic repeater)
Suy hao ca si quang l nguyn nhn gii hn c ly truyn ca cc h
thng thng tin quang. i vi cc h thng truyn dn quang c ly di, gii
hn v suy hao c khc phc bng cch s dng cc trm lp quang in
(optoelectronic repeater). Trong cc trm lp quang in ny (xem hnh 1.1),
qu trnh khuch i tn hiu quang c thc hin qua nhiu bc. u tin,
tn hiu quang s c bin i thnh dng in bi cc b thu quang (optical
receiver) s dng linh kin tch sng quang nh PIN hay APD. Dng quang
in thu c s c ti to li dng xung, nh thi v khuch i bi cc
mch phc hi tn hiu v mch khuch i. Sau , tn hiu in s c bin
i thnh tn hiu quang thng qua cc ngun quang trong b pht quang
(optical transmitter) v c truyn i trong si quang.
Nh vy, qu trnh khuch i tn hiu c thc hin trn min in.

Hnh 6.2. Cu trc ca mt trm lp quang in (optoelectronic
repeater)
Cc trm lp quang in c s dng ph bin trong cc h thng
truyn dn quang mt bc sng nh h thng truyn dn quang SDH. Tuy
nhin, khi s dng cho cc h thng truyn dn quang a bc sng nh h
thng WDM, rt nhiu trm lp quang in cn c s dng khuch i
v ti to cc knh quang c bc sng khc nhau. iu ny lm tng phc
tp cng nh tng gi thnh ca h thng truyn dn quang WDM.
u im ca h thng truyn dn quang

3
So vi h thng thng tin in , h thng thng tin quang c mt s u
im sau:
+ Si quang nh, nh hn dy kim loi, d un cong, tn t vt liu.
+ Si quang ch to t thu tinh thch anh khng b nh hng ca nc,
axit, kim nn khng b n mn. ng thi, si l cht in mi nn cch in
hon ton, tn hiu truyn trong si quang khng b nh hng ca nhiu bn
ngoi ti v cng khng gy nhiu ra mi trng xung quanh.
+ m bo b mt thng tin, khng s b nghe trm.
+ Kh nng truyn c rt nhiu knh trong mt si quang c ng
knh rt nh. Tiu hao nh v khng ph thuc tn s nn cho php truyn dn
bng rng v tc truyn ln hn nhiu so vi si kim loi.
+ Gi thnh rt r.
8.2. Khi nim v k thut ghp knh phn chia theo bc sng -WDM.
S tng tc gia nh sng v vt cht.
Nh bit, theo l thuyt di nng lng ca vt cht, th thng
thng cc ht u tn ti mc c bn (E
k
) v mc ny c nng lng thp
nht nn cng bn vng nht. Ch cn kch thch mt nng lng no , v d
nh quang nng, in nng, nhit nng... th cc ht mc c bn s di
chuyn ln mc nng lng cao hn, gi l cc mc kch thch (E
i
). Cc ht
ch tn ti cc mc kch thch mt thi gian rt ngn khong 10
-8
giy ri n
li dch chuyn v cc mc nng lng thp hn v pht ra nh sng, hay cn
gi l cc photon. Photon pht ra theo nh lut bo ton nng lng:
h = E
i
- E
k

v ta c tn s bc x ca nh sng tnh theo cng thc

trong
- tn s bc x ca nh sng ( = c/ ).
h - hng s Plank (h = 6,625.10
-34
J.s = 4,16.10
-15
eV.s).
c - vn tc ca nh sng (c = 3.10
8
m/s).
- di bc sng ca bc x nh sng pht ra.

Khi nim v k thut thng tin quang WDM.

4
B lc quang lin quan n k thut ghp knh phn chia theo bc
sng -WDM. V mi mt ngun sng n sc c rng ph hp, nn trong
truyn dn n ch s dng mt phn rt nh bng truyn dn ca mt si
quang. Ghp knh phn chia theo bc sng s to ra rt nhiu knh ph s
dng ng thi.

Hnh 6.3. Mt ngun quang n s dng mt phn rt nh bng truyn dn
ca ph c sn ca si quang ghp knh phn chia theo bc sng (WDM)
to ra rt nhiu knh ph s dng ng thi.
Ta thy c rt nhiu vng hot ng ph c th thm vo. Mt cch l
tng, s tng t bin dung lng thng tin ca mt si quang c th t
c bng vic truyn dn ng thi cc tn hiu quang trn cng mt si
quang t nhiu ngun nh sng khc nhau c cc bc sng nh bc x t
cch nhau mt cch chnh xc. Bi mi ngun sng hot ng ti mt bc
sng nh khc nhau, tnh ton vn ca cc tin tc c lp t mi ngun c
duy tr vic chuyn i tun t sang tn hiu in u thu. y l c s
ca ghp knh phn chia theo bc sng (WDM).
Hai c cu WDM khc nhau m t trong hnh sau.

5

Hnh 6.4. H thng WDM n hng kt hp N tn hiu c lp truyn trn
1 si quang n.
Trong hnh trn, linh kin WDM n hng c s dng kt hp
cc bc sng mang tn hiu khc nhau trn mt si quang n ti mt u v
tch chng vo b tch quang thch hp ti u kia.

Hnh 6.5. H thng WDM hai hng, trong , hai bc sng hoc nhiu hn
c truyn ng thi trong cc hng ngc nhau trn cng mt si quang.
S h thng WDM hai hng c m t trong hnh trn.
S ny gm vic gi tin tc trong mt hng ti mt bc sng
1

v ng thi trong hng ngc li ti bc sng
2
.
Trong cc h thng thng tin quang trong hai hnh trn, cc b ghp
knh phn chia theo bc sng c hai loi c s dng rng ri nht l cc
linh kin tn sc cnh nh cc lng knh hoc cc cch t, v cc b lc mng
mng hoc cc linh kin tch hp quang n mt.
B lc quang bng cc linh kin tn sc (hay b ghp knh tn sc cnh).
S ca mt b ghp knh tn sc cnh c m t trong hnh 8- 51
i vi h thng 3 bc sng s dng, d / d l tn sc cnh ca linh
kin.

6

Hnh 6.6. S biu din mt phn t WDM tn sc cnh cho 3 bc sng.
Nhiu bc sng c th kt hp hoc phn chia vi loi linh kin ny.
Khi linh kin s dng nh mt b phn knh, nh sng t si quang i
ra c chun trc bng thu knh L1 (gi l thu knh chun trc) v i qua
phn t tn sc cnh v n c phn chia thnh cc knh c bc sng i
vo cc chm tia c nh hng khng gian khc nhau. Thu knh L2 (thu
knh hi t) s hi t cc tia u ra vo cc si quang thu thch hp hoc cc
b tch quang thch hp.
8.5.3. B lc quang mng mng .
Trong phn ny chng ta s nghin cu v b lc quang mng mng.
Hot ng ca mt phn t ghp knh loi b lc c m t trong hnh 8- 52
cho hot ng ca hai bc sng.
Cc b lc c thit k truyn nh sng cho mt bc sng c th
v hoc hp th, hoc phn x tt c cc bc sng khc.
Cc b lc loi phn x thng c s dng v tn hao ca cc b lc
loi hp th c xu hng tng cao hn (cao hn 1dB).
B lc phn x gm mt tm knh phng, bn trn n nhiu lp mng
mng cht cch in khc nhau c lng ng tu theo tnh chn lc ca
bc sng. Cc b lc ny c th s dng ni tip thnh chui phn chia
thm cc knh bc sng. S phc tp cng tng theo s lng cc b lc ni
tip v s tng tn hao tn hiu cng xy ra vi vic tng thm cc b ghp
knh ni tip. Nhn chung ch nn hn ch hot ng n 2 hoc 3 b lc (c
ngha l hot ng 3 hoc 4 knh).

7

Hnh 6.7. B lc mng mng nhiu lp phn x s dng cho WDM.
Linh kin ny trong sut ti bc sng 2 v phn x ti bc sng 1.
Trong thit k cc h thng WDM, cn phi ch lm gim n mc
thp nht cc yu t gy ra s gim st phm cht ngoi bin ca ng
truyn. Trn y l cc linh kin WDM th ng, chn lc bc sng ca
chng c c nh. Ngi ta cng pht minh ra cc phn t WDM tch cc,
cc phn t ny c chuyn mt cch tch cc hoc c iu chnh theo
bc sng. Gia cc phn t WDM tch cc l ngun a bc sng v cc t
hp tch quang, cc laser c kh nng iu chnh bc sng, v cc b lc c
th iu chnh bc sng.
B lc c th iu chnh bc sng (a wavelengthtunable-filter).

Hnh 6.8. V d v b lc iu chnh bc sng. Mt tm thch anh di
ng thay i di tuyn ng i qua tinh th thay i ph ra hnh sin.

Trong phng php ny, cc tn hiu tin tc khc nhau c gi vo
cc knh tn s ring ca rng bng B. Bng vic s dng mt b lc vi

8
di thng c rng B m n c th iu chnh trn khong tn s ca cc
knh ny, ngi ta c th chn c knh theo yu cu.
y, mt phn t a cp lng chit sut cu to t hai ng dn sng
bng thch anh (a birefringent multiple - order element) c t gia hai b
tch tia phn cc (polarizing beam splitters).
Cng sut ra P ca nh sng ti cc cng ra A v B lin h vi cng
sut vo P
0
bng cng thc

Trong :
- n : chnh lch gia chit sut thng thng v chit sut khc
thng ca vt liu lng chit.
- : di bc sng.
- du lin quan n cc cng A (du +) v cng B (du -).
S bin i hnh sin ca ph ra c th c thay i bng cch thay i
di ng truyn L i qua tinh th. iu ny t c bng cch di chuyn
mt trong cc tm thch anh ln trn hoc xung di. S thay i chiu di
theo cp bc chu k quay phn cc s xc nh v tr ca knh.
V tuyn quang l thun nghch, linh kin ny c th c s dng nh
l b ghp knh v hoc nh l b phn knh u c.


9
6.3. Nguyn l ghp knh theo bc sng quang (WDM)
6.3.1. Gii thiu chung
S pht trin nhanh chng ca cc m hnh truyn s liu, c bit l
Internet lm bng n nhu cu tng bng thng . Trong bi cnh IP (Internet
Protocol) ang ni ln nh l nn tng chung ca mi loi hnh dch v trong
tng lai, cc nh cung cp dch v truyn dn bt buc phi xem xt li
phng thc truyn dn TDM truyn thng, vn ti u cho truyn thoi
nhng li km hiu qu trong vic tn dng bng thng.

Hnh 6.9. Tng quan gia nhu cu truyn thoi v truyn s liu
Tm li, ta phi gii quyt bi ton tng bng thng cho vin thng
tng lai. Cc nh cung cp dch v truyn dn bt u xt n ba phng
thc truyn dn sau:
1. Truyn dn ghp phn khng gian SDM (Space Devision
Multiplexing): n gin v khng cn s pht trin cng ngh, ch n thun
l tng s lng si quang, tc truyn dn vn gi nguyn. Ta c th chn
SDM nu trn tuyn truyn dn cn tng bng thng c sn s lng si
quang cha dng v khong cch tuyn truyn dn l ngn khng cn
dng cc b lp, b khuch i. Nu khong cch l xa, khi chi ph s vt
tng do mi h thng lp thm u cn mt s lng b lp, b khuch i...
nh h thng c.
2. Truyn dn ghp phn theo thi gian TDM (Time Devision
Multiplexing):

10
Tng tc truyn dn ln trn si quang. Khi tip tc dng phng
thc truyn thng ny, ta phi xem xt n hai vn :
Trc v khi truyn trn si quang. Trc khi chuyn thnh tn hiu
quang truyn i, cc linh kin in t c kh nng x l vi tc bit ti a
l bao nhiu?
Thc t hin nay cho thy, a s cc mng truyn dn, linh kin in
t c kh nng p ng tt i vi cc dng tn hiu tc 2.5 Gbps hoc
10 Gbps. Nh vy th cha gii quyt trn vn bi ton tng bng thng.
Trong phng th nghim cho cc linh kin hot ng tc 40
Gbps hoc 80 Gbps. TDM c th t c nhng tc cao hn, cc
phng php thc hin tch/ghp knh trong min quang, c gi l phn
knh thi gian trong min quang (Optical time Division Multiplexing -
OTDM) ang c tch cc trin khai.
Cc kt qu nghin cu trong phng th nghim cho thy OTDM c th
ghp c cc lung 10Gbit/s thnh lung 250Gbit/s. Nhng khi , truyn
trn si quang s vp phi cc vn nghim trng nh hng n cht lng
truyn dn: tn sc sc th, tn sc phn cc, phi tuyn tnh.
3. Ghp phn theo bc sng WDM (Wavelength Devision Multiplexing)
Ghp thm nhiu bc sng c th truyn trn mt si quang, khng
cn tng tc truyn dn trn mt bc sng. Cng ngh WDM c th mang
n gii php hon thin nht trong iu kin cng ngh hin ti.
Th nht n vn gi tc x l ca cc linh kin in t mc 10
Gbps, bo m thch hp vi si quang hin ti. Thay vo , cng ngh
WDM tng bng thng bng cch tn dng ca s lm vic ca si quang
trong khong bc sng 1260 nm n 1675 nm. Khong bc sng ny c
chia lm nhiu bng sng hot ng nh minh ho trn bng 1.1.
Thot tin, h thng WDM hot ng bng C (do EDFA hot ng
trong khong bng sng ny). V sau, EDFA c kh nng hot ng c bng
C v bng L nn h thng WDM hin ti dng EDFA c th hot ng c
bng C v bng L.
Nu theo chun ITU-T, xt khong cch gia cc knh bc sng l
100 Ghz (m bo kh nng chng xuyn nhiu knh trong iu kin cng
ngh hin ti), s c 32 knh bc sng hot ng trn mi bng. Nh vy,
nu vn gi nguyn tc bit trn mi knh truyn, dng cng ngh WDM
cng lm tng bng thng truyn trn mt si quang ln 64 ln

Bng 1.1 S phn chia cc bng sng

11

6.3.2. S khi tng qut
a) nh ngha
Ghp knh theo bc sng WDM (Wavelength Devision Multiplexing)
l cng ngh trong mt si quang ng thi truyn dn nhiu bc sng tn
hiu quang. u pht, nhiu tn hiu quang c bc sng khc nhau c
t hp li (ghp knh) truyn i trn mt si quang. u thu, tn hiu t
hp c phn gii ra (tch knh), khi phc li tn hiu gc ri a vo
cc u cui khc nhau.
b) S chc nng
m bo vic truyn nhn nhiu bc sng trn mt si quang, h
thng WDM phi thc hin cc chc nng sau:
Pht tn hiu
Trong h thng WDM, ngun pht quang c dng l laser. Hin ti
c mt s loi ngun pht nh: Laser iu chnh c bc sng (Tunable
Laser), Laser a bc sng (Multiwavelength Laser)... Yu cu i vi ngun
pht laser l phi c rng ph hp, bc sng pht ra n nh, mc cng
sut pht nh, bc sng trung tm, rng ph.
Ghp/tch tn hiu
Ghp tn hiu WDM l s kt hp mt s ngun sng khc nhau thnh
mt lung tn hiu nh sng tng hp truyn dn qua si quang. Tch tn
hiu WDM l s phn chia lung nh sng tng hp thnh cc tn hiu nh
sng ring r ti mi cng u ra b tch. Hin ti c cc b tch/ghp tn
hiu WDM nh: b lc mng mng in mi, cch t Bragg si, cch t
nhiu x, linh kin quang t hp AWG, b lc Fabry-Perot...
Khi xt n cc b tch/ghp WDM, ta phi xt cc tham s nh:
khong cch gia cc knh, rng bng tn ca cc knh bc sng, bc
sng trung tm ca knh, mc xuyn m gia cc knh, tnh ng u ca
knh, suy hao xen, suy hao phn x Bragg, xuyn m u gn u xa...


12

Hnh 6.10. S chc nng h thng WDM
Truyn dn tn hiu
Qu trnh truyn dn tn hiu trong si quang chu s nh hng ca
nhiu yu t: suy hao si quang, tn sc, cc hiu ng phi tuyn, vn lin
quan n khuch i tn hiu ... Mi vn k trn u ph thuc rt nhiu
vo yu t si quang (loi si quang, cht lng si...)
Khuch i tn hiu
H thng WDM hin ti ch yu s dng b khuch i quang si
EDFA (Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifier). Tuy nhin b khuch i Raman
hin nay cng c s dng trn thc t. C ba ch khuch i: khuch
i cng sut, khuch i ng v tin khuch i. Khi dng b khuch i
EDFA cho h thng WDM phi m bo cc yu cu sau:
li khuch i ng u i vi tt c cc knh bc sng (mc
chnh lch khng qu 1 dB).
S thay i s lng knh bc sng lm vic khng c gy nh
hng n mc cng sut u ra ca cc knh.
C kh nng pht hin s chnh lch mc cng sut u vo iu
chnh li cc h s khuch i nhm m bo c tuyn khuch i l
bng phng i vi tt c cc knh.
Thu tn hiu
Thu tn hiu trong cc h thng WDM cng s dng cc b tch sng
quang nh trong h thng thng tin quang thng thng: PIN, APD.
c) Phn loi h thng WDM

13

Hnh 6.11. H thng ghp bc sng n hng v song hng
H thng WDM v c bn chia lm hai loi: h thng n hng v
song hng nh minh ho trn hnh trn. H thng n hng ch truyn theo
mt chiu trn si quang. Do vy, truyn thng tin gia hai im cn hai
si quang. H thng WDM song hng, ngc li, truyn hai chiu trn mt
si quang nn ch cn 1 si quang c th trao i thng tin gia 2 im.
C hai h thng u c nhng u nhc im ring. Gi s rng cng
ngh hin ti ch cho php truyn N bc sng trn mt si quang, so snh hai
h thng ta thy:
Xt v dung lng, h thng n hng c kh nng cung cp dung
lng cao gp i so vi h thng song hng. Ngc li, s si quang cn
dng gp i so vi h thng song hng.
Khi s c t cp xy ra, h thng song hng khng cn n c ch
chuyn mch bo v t ng APS (Automatic Protection-Switching) v c hai
u ca lin kt u c kh nng nhn bit s c mt cch tc thi.
ng v kha cnh thit k mng, h thng song hng kh thit k
hn v cn phi xt thm cc yu t nh: vn xuyn nhiu do c nhiu
bc sng hn trn mt si quang, m bo nh tuyn v phn b bc sng
sao cho hai chiu trn si quang khng dng chung mt bc sng.
Cc b khuch i trong h thng song hng thng c cu trc phc
tp hn trong h thng n hng. Tuy nhin, do s bc sng khuch i
trong h thng song hng gim theo mi chiu nn h thng song
hng, cc b khuch i s cho cng sut quang ng ra ln hn so vi h
thng n hng.

14
6.3.3. c im ca h thng WDM
Thc t nghin cu v trin khai WDM rt ra c nhng u nhc
im ca cng ngh WDM nh sau:
u im ca cng ngh WDM
Tng bng thng truyn trn si quang s ln tng ng s bc sng
c ghp vo truyn trn mt si quang.
Tnh trong sut: Do cng ngh WDM thuc kin trc lp mng vt l
nn n c th h tr cc nh dng s liu v thoi nh: ATM, Gigabit
Ethernet, ESCON, chuyn mch knh, IP ...
Kh nng m rng: Nhng tin b trong cng ngh WDM ha hn tng
bng thng truyn trn si quang ln n hng Tbps, p ng nhu cu
m rng mng nhiu cp khc nhau.
Hin ti, ch c duy nht cng ngh WDM l cho php xy dng m
hnh mng truyn ti quang OTN (Optical Transport Network) gip
truyn ti trong sut nhiu loi hnh dch v, qun l mng hiu qu,
nh tuyn linh ng ...
Nhc im ca cng ngh WDM
Vn cha khai thc ht bng tn hot ng c th ca si quang (ch
mi tn dng c bng C v bng L).
Qu trnh khai thc, bo dng phc tp hn gp nhiu ln.
Nu h thng si quang ang s dng l si DSF theo chun G.653 th
rt kh trin khai WDM v xut hin hin tng trn bn bc sng
kh gay gt.
6.3.4. Li ITU
Vic chun ho cc b bc sng dng cho cc mng WDM l ht sc
cn thit v n bo m cho cc thit b ca cc nh cung cp khc nhau u
c sn xut theo cng mt tiu chun, v u lm vic tng thch vi
nhau.
Khi chun ho bc sng, vn cn phi xem xt u tin l l
khong cch gia cc knh phi da theo tn s hay bc sng. Khong cch
tn s bng nhau s lm cho khong cch bc sng hi khc nhau. Khng c
mt tiu chun k thut no c u tin la chn trong trng hp ny.
Trong khuyn co ITU-G.692 cc knh cch nhau mt khong 50 GHz (tng
ng vi khong cch bc sng l 0.4nm) vi tn s trung tm danh nh l
193.1THz (1552.52 nm). Tn s ny gia di thng ca si quang 1.55m
v b khuch i quang si EDFA (xem hnh 1.4). Khong cch ny ph hp
vi kh nng phn gii ca cc b MUX/DEMUX hin nay, n nh tn s

15
ca cc b laser, MUX/DEMUX,... Khi cng ngh hon thin hn khong
cch ny s phi gim i.
Mt vn khc, kh khn hn l chn la mt b bc sng tiu
chun bo m cho cc h thng cho 4, 8, 16, v 32 bc sng hot ng
tng thch vi nhau bi v cc nh sn xut u c cc cu hnh knh ti u
ring v cc k hoch nng cp h thng t t knh ln nhiu knh khc nhau.
ITU chun ho (ITU G.959) b 16 bc sng bt u t tn s 192.1 THz,
rng 200GHz mi bn cho giao din a knh gia cc thit b WDM.
Cui cng l phi lu khng ch bo bo m cc tn s trung tm m
cn phi bo m lch tn s ti a cho php. i vi f 200 GHz, ITU
quy nh lch tn s l khng vt qu f /5 GHz. Vi f =50 GHz v f
=100 GHz th n thi im ny ITU vn cha chun ho.

Hnh 6.12. Li bc sng theo ITU
6.3.5. Cc yu t nh hng n cht lng ca h thng WDM
C 3 yu t c bn ca si quang nh hng n kh nng ca cc h
thng thng tin quang, bao gm:
Suy hao
Tn sc
Hin tng phi tuyn xy ra trong si quang.
Tuy nhin, i vi cc h thng khc nhau th mc nh hng ca
cc yu t ny cng khc nhau.
i vi cc h thng c ly ngn, dung lng thp th yu t ch yu
cn quan tm l suy hao.
i vi cc h thng tc cao, c ly tng i ln th yu t ch yu
cn quan tm l suy hao v tn sc.
i vi cc h thng c ly di v dung lng rt ln th ngoi 2 yu t
trn cn phi xem xt n c cc hiu ng phi tuyn.
6.4. Cc linh kin trong kin trong h thng WDM
Cc linh kin c s dng trong cc mng quang hin i bao gm
cc b ghp/tch (couplers)
b pht laser (lasers)
b tch quang (photodetectors)

16
b khuch i quang (optical amplifiers)
b chuyn mch quang (optical switches)
b lc (filters)
b ghp/tch knh (multiplexers).
6.4.1. B ghp/tch tn hiu (Coupler)
a) nh ngha
B ghp/tch tn hiu (Coupler) l thit b quang dng kt hp cc
tn hiu truyn n t cc si quang khc nhau. Nu coupler ch cho php nh
sng truyn qua n theo mt chiu, ta gi l coupler c hng (directional
coupler). Nu n cho php nh sng i theo 2 chiu, ta gi l coupler song
hng (bidirectional coupler).
Coupler thng dng nht l coupler FBT (Fused Binconical Taper).
Coupler ny c ch to bng cch t 2 si quang cnh nhau, sau va
nung chy chng kt hp vi nhau va ko gin ra to thnh mt vng
ghp (coupling region). Mt coupler 2 x 2 c trng bi t s ghp (0<<1).
l t l cng sut nh sng ng vo 1 n ng ra 1 so vi tng cng sut nh
sng vo ng vo 1. Phn t l 1- cng sut nh sng cn li ca ng vo 1 s
c truyn n ng ra 2. Hnh 1.9 l mt coupler FBT 2 x 2 c hng.

Hnh 6.13. Cu to coupler FBT 2 x 2
Coupler c th l chn la bc sng (wavelength selective) hay khng
ph thuc vo bc sng, tng ng vi ph thuc hay khng ph thuc
vo bc sng.
Trng hp = 1/2, coupler c dng chia cng sut tn hiu ng
vo thnh hai phn bng nhau hai ng ra. Coupler trong trng hp ny
c gi l coupler 3 dB. Coupler hnh sao nxn c th c to bng cch kt
ni cc coupler 3dB nh trn hnh sau.

17

Hnh 6.14. Coupler hnh sao vi 8 ng vo v 8 ng ra c hnh thnh t
cc
coupler 3dB. Cng sut t mt ng vo c chia u cho cc ng ra
b) Nguyn l hot ng
Khi hai si quang c t cnh nhau, nh sng s c ghp t si
ny sang si kia v ngc li. l do qu trnh truyn mt nh sng trn si
quang qua vng ghp s khc so vi truyn trn si quang n. Khi , ton
b nh sng thuc mt si quang s c ghp hon ton sang si quang ghp
vi n, phn nh sng ny li tip tc c ghp ngc tr li sang si quang
ban u theo mt chu k tun hon khp kn. Kt qu ta c cng trng
in t u ra ca b ghp E
o1
, E
o2
c tnh theo cng trng in t
u vo E
i1
, E
i2
theo cng thc

Trong :
l h s pha ca s truyn nh sng trong si quang.
l H s ghp. ph thuc vo chiu rng ca si quang, chit sut
ca li si v n khong cch gn nhau ca hai si quang khi thc
hin nung chy.
Nu ch cho nh sng vo ng 1 (cho Ei2=0), khi cng thc (1.32)
c vit li l:

18

Ta nhn xt rng 2 u ng ra c s lch pha /2.
d) ng dng
Coupler l linh kin quang linh hot v c th cho nhiu ng dng khc
nhau. B coupler vi t s ghp 1 c dng trch mt phn nh tn
hiu quang, phc v cho mc ch gim st.
Coupler cn l b phn c bn to nn cc thnh phn quang khc,
chng hn nh: cc b chuyn mch tnh, cc b iu ch, b giao thoa Mach-
Zehnder MZI... MZI c th c ch to hot ng nh b lc,
MUX/DEMUX, chuyn mch v b chuyn i bc sng.
Thc hin ghp/tch bc sng trn si quang. Nh iu chnh chiu
di ghp thch hp khi ch to, coupler 2 x 2 ghp 50:50 phn b cng sut
nh sng t mt u vo ra lm 2 phn bng nhau 2 ng ra. Coupler ny cn
c gi l coupler 3 dB, ng dng ph bin nht. T coupler 3 dB, c th to
nn b coupler n x n ghp n tn hiu khc nhau vo mt si quang.
6.4.2. B isolator/circulator
a) nh ngha
Coupler v phn ln cc linh kin quang th ng khc l cc thit b
thun ngc (reciprocal) theo ngha thit b s hot ng cng mt kiu nu
o ng vo v ng ra vi nhau.
Isolator l thit b khng thun ngc (nonreciprocal). N ch truyn
nh sng qua n theo mt chiu v ngn khng cho truyn theo chiu ngc
li. N c dng ti u ra ca cc thit b quang (b khuch i, ngun pht
laser) ngn qu trnh phn x ngc tr li cc thit b , gy nhiu v h
hi thit b. Hai tham s chnh ca Isolator l suy hao xen v cch ly.
Circulator cng thc hin chc nng tng t nh b Isolator nhng n
thng c nhiu cng, thng l 3 hoc 4 ca. Chnh v s tng ng gia
hai loi thit b, ta s ch trnh by hot ng ca b Isolator m thi.

19

Hnh 6.15.
(a) S khi ca b Circulator 3 ca.
(b) S khi ca b Circulator 4 ca.
(c) S khi ca b Isolator.
b) Nguyn l hot ng

Hnh 6.16.
(a) Cu to b Isolator khi nh sng vo phn cc dc.
(b) Cu to b Isolator khi nh sng vo phn cc bt k.
Trng thi phn cc ca nh sng truyn trong si quang c nh
ngha l chiu phn cc ca vector cng trng E nm trn mt phng

20
vung gc vi phng truyn nh sng trong si. Ta gi l phn cc ngang v
phn cc dc. Qu trnh truyn nh sng trong si quang l s kt hp tuyn
tnh truyn cc sng phn cc ngang v phn cc dc.
M hnh n gin ca b Isolator c minh ho nh trong Hnh 6.16.
(a). Gi s nh sng truyn l phn cc dc, truyn n b phn cc
(Polarizer), b ny thc hin chc nng ch cho sng phn cc dc i qua,
khng cho sng phn cc ngang i qua. Sau b phn cc l b quay pha
Faraday, thc hin quay pha 45o theo chiu kim ng h khng phn bit
chiu nh sng n.
Tip theo l b phn cc, b ny thc hin chc nng ch cho sng
phn cc 45
o
i qua. Nh vy, b Isolator ta xt ch cho php sng phn cc
dc i qua theo chiu t tri sang phi. Trong trng hp sng phn x theo
chiu ngc li, nu sng qua c b phn cc th hai, qua tip theo b
quay pha Faraday, th cng khng th qua c b phn cc th nht (do lc
ny sng phn cc ngang).
Trn thc t th sng truyn trong si quang lun l s kt hp tuyn
tnh ca cc trng thi phn cc ngang v dc nn thit k b Isolator phc tp
hn. M hnh thu nh c trnh by trong Hnh 6.16. (b).
nh sng truyn trong si quang vi trng thi phn cc bt k c
a n b tch/ghp trng thi phn cc SWP (Spatial Walk-off Polarizer),
tch thnh hai dng tn hiu phn cc dc v ngang theo hai ng c lp
nhau. Tip theo, n b quay pha Faraday, quay pha 45
o
theo chiu kim ng
h. Mt phng /2 (Half-wave plate) thc hin quay pha 45
o
theo chiu kim
ng h i vi tn hiu truyn t tri sang phi, quay pha 45
o
theo chiu
ngc kim ng h theo chiu truyn ngc li. Cui cng, tn hiu hai
nhnh c kt hp li nh b SWP th hai. Nu theo chiu ngc li, hai b
SWP s kh ln nhau. nh sng truyn qua b SWP th hai, qua b quay pha
Faraday s khng th kt hp li c ti b SWP th nht nh minh ho trn
Hnh 6.16. .
c) ng dng
B Isolator v Circulator c nhng ng dng sau:
B Isolator thng ng trc u ra b khuch i quang hoc ngun
pht laser ngn nh sng phn x ngc tr li thit b gy nhiu v
c th lm h thit b.
B Circulator c dng nh mt b phn ch to phn t xen rt
quang OADM.


21
6.4.3. B lc quang
a) Tng quan

Hnh 6.17. S khi ca b lc.
(a) B lc c nh bc sng k.
(b) B lc c th iu chnh bc sng c tronkhongng .
nh ngha
B lc l thit b ch cho php mt knh bc sng i qua, kho i vi
tt c cc knh bc sng khc. Nguyn l c bn nht ca b lc l s giao
thoa gia cc tn hiu, bc sng hot ng ca b lc s c cng pha
nhiu ln khi i qua n, cc knh bc sng khc, ngc li, s b trit tiu v
pha.
Tu thuc vo kh nng iu chnh knh bc sng hot ng, ngi ta
chia b lc lm hai loi: b lc c nh (fixed filter) v b lc iu chnh c
(tunable filter).
Yu cu i vi b lc
Hin nay, c rt nhiu cng ngh ch to b lc. Tuy nhin, yu cu chung i
vi tt c cc cng ngh l:
B lc tt phi c gi tr suy hao xen IL thp.
B lc phi khng ph thuc nhiu vo trng thi phn cc ca tn hiu
a vo.
Di thng hot ng ca b lc phi khng nhy cm vi s thay i
nhit ca mi trng.
B lc phi m bo trong khong nhit hot ng (thng l
khong 100
o
C), dch di thng hot ng phi khng vt qu
khong cch gia hai knh bc sng hot ng gn nht.
Khi ng dng ghp ni tip nhiu b lc trong h thng WDM, bng
thng hot ng s b thu hp li. hn ch ti a iu ny, cc b lc
phi c hm truyn t trong khong bc sng hot ng l bng
phng.

22
Hm truyn t ca b lc phi c dc ln trnh giao nhau phn
vt ca hai bc sng ln cn, gy xuyn nhiu gia cc knh.
Gim chi ph sn xut.
Vn ny li ph thuc vo cng ngh ch to. Tuy nhin, khi vn
ny t ln hng u th ta s c hai la chn.
Th nht l dng cng ngh ng dn sng, cho php sn xut trn
nhng vi mch tch hp quang (b li hot ng ph thuc vo trng thi phn
cc ca sng quang).
Th hai l dng cng ngh sn xut cc thit b thun quang, tuy kh
khn trong tch hp mch nhng c nhiu u im l: khng ph thuc vo
trng thi phn cc ca sng quang, ghp sng t si quang vo thit b d
dng.
b) Thng s c bn

Hnh 6.18. (a) Cc thng s c trng ca b lc. (b) gn sng ca b
lc.
Hnh trn minh ho cc c tnh c trng cho mt b lc, cc c tnh
c nh ngha nh sau:
Bc sng trung tm: phi l bc sng tun theo tiu chun ITU-T
rng bng thng (Pass Bandwidth): l rng ca hm truyn t
ti mc suy hao xen cch nh 0.5 dB. Trong mt s trng hp, ngi
ta cn c th xt bng thng i qua 1 dB, 3 dB. c tnh ny rt quan
trng v laser trong trng hp khng l tng ch pht tn hiu c bc
sng dao ng nht nh so vi bc sng trung tm c qui nh theo
chun ITU-T.

23
rng bng chn (Stop Bandwidth): l rng ca hm truyn t ti
mc suy hao xen cch nh 20 dB. Di chn ca b lc phi cng nh
cng tt trnh hin tng xuyn nhiu gia cc knh.
cch ly (Isolation): ch cng sut ca mt knh bc sng xuyn
nhiu sang cc knh bc sng ln cn.
gn sng (Ripple): l chnh lch nh-nh trong phm vi mt
knh bc sng.
H s s dng bng thng BUF (Bandwidth-utilization Factor): l t s
ca rng knh truyn LW (Linewidth) ca nh sng c truyn i
so vi nh sng phn x ti mt mc suy hao xc nh. B lc l tng
phi c BUF = 1. Trn thc t, khi IL = -25 dB th BUF 0.4.
Nu b lc thuc loi c th iu chnh bc sng c, n cn c
thm cc c tnh na nh l:
Khong iu chnh bc sng ng: l khong bc sng m trong
phm vi hot ng ca b lc.
S knh bc sng c th x l: l t l khong iu chnh bc sng
ng trn khong cch gia cc knh bc sng.
Thi gian iu chnh: Thi gian iu chnh gia cc knh bc sng
hot ng khc nhau.
T l nn bin SSR (Sidelobe Suppression Ratio): l khong cch gia
gi tr cng sut nh so vi gi tr cng sut ln nht bin.
phn gii: l dch bc sng nh nht b lc c th nhn bit
c.
c) Cch t
Cch t dng m t cc thit b m hot ng ca n da trn hin
tng giao thoa gia cc tn hiu quang xut pht t cng mt ngun quang
nhng c lch pha tng i vi nhau.
Phn bit vi cch t l vt chun (etalon) l thit b nhiu tn hiu
quang c to ra nh mt hc cng hng (single cavity) lp li cc tia i
ngang qua n.
Sng nh sng c lan truyn theo hng z vi tn s gc l v hng
s pha l s c dch pha l (t-z). Do dch pha tng i gia hai
sng pht sinh t mt ngun c th c to ra bng cch cho chng truyn
qua hai ng khc nhau.
Trong WDM cch t c dng nh l mt b tch knh tch cc
bc sng hoc nh l mt b ghp knh kt hp cc bc sng.

24
Hnh 6.18. l hai v d v cch t: trn mt phng cch t (grating
plane), cc khe (slit) c cch u nhau. Khong cch gia hai khe k cn
gi l pitch. Do cc khe nh nn theo hin tng nhiu x (diffraction) nh
sng truyn qua cc khe ny s lan to ra mi hng. Trn mt phng nh x
(imaging plane) s quan st c hin tng giao thoa cng hng
(constructive interference) v trit tiu cc bc sng ti cc im khc nhau,
cch t ny c gi l cch t nhiu x (diffraction grating).
Hnh 6.18. (a) l cch t truyn dn (transmission gratings),
Hnh 6.18. (b) l cch t phn x (reflection gratings).

Hnh 6.18. (a) Cch t truyn dn v (b) Cch t phn x

Hnh 6.19. Nguyn tc hot ng ca cch t truyn dn.
Cch t phn x hot ng tng t

25

Hnh 6.20. Cch t blazing vi gc blaze .

Hnh 6.21. B lc ghp/tch knh c to t cc b lc mng mng in mi
6.4.4. B ghp/tch knh bc sng
B ghp/tch knh bc sng, cng vi b kt ni cho quang, l thit
b quan trng nht cu thnh nn h thng WDM.
Khi dng kt hp vi b kt ni cho quang OXC (Optical
Crossconnect) s hnh thnh nn mng truyn ti quang, c kh nng truyn
ti ng thi v trong sut mi loi hnh dch v, m cng ngh hin nay ang
hng ti.
Tuy nhin, trong khi thit b v cng ngh chuyn mch quang, nhn
chung vn cn ang mc nghin cu ti cc phng th nghim th cc thit
ghp/tch knh bc sng c thng mi ho rng ri.
V cng ngh ch to, cng ngh ch to b lc (m c trnh by
chi tit phn 6.4.3.) v cng ngh ch to b tch/ghp knh hon ton
ging nhau. Ch khc l b lc thng ch c mt bc sng hot ng, cn
b tch/ghp knh hot ng trn nhiu knh bc sng lin tc. B lc chnh
l phn t c bn cu to nn b ghp/tch knh
a) nh ngha

26
Nguyn l hot ng ca b MUX/DEMUX cng tng t nh b
Coupler. Tuy nhin, b Coupler/Splitter thc hin ghp tch tn hiu c cng
bc sng, cn b MUX/DEMUX thc hin ghp tch tn hiu cc bc
sng khc nhau. S khi b MUX/DEMUX cho trong hnh 6.22. (a) v (b).
b) c tnh
B MUX/DEMUX thng c m t theo nhng thng s sau:
Suy hao xen (Insertion Loss): m t phn coupler.
S lng knh x l: l s lng knh bc sng u vo v u ra
ca b ghp/tch knh. Thng s ny c trng cho dung lng ca thit b.
Bc sng trung tm: Cc bc sng trung tm phi tun theo chun
ca ITU-T m bo vn tng thch.
Bng thng: l rng ph (linewidth) ca knh bc sng trn thc
t. Bng thng thng c tnh l rng ca hm truyn t cng sut
cc mc cch nh 1dB, 3dB, 20dB.
Gi tr ln nht suy hao xen: c tnh l khong cch nh nht gia
nh ca hm truyn t cng sut ca mt knh bc sng no so vi mc
IL=0 (dB) (minh ho trn 6.22. (c)).
chnh lch suy hao xen vo gia cc knh: c tnh l hiu ca gi
tr ln nht v nh nht suy hao xen vo gia cc knh bc sng.


27

Hnh 6.22. B tch/ghp knh bc sng quang.
(a) S khi b ghp knh bc sng (MUX).
(b) S khi b tch knh bc sng (DEMUX).
(c) Cc thng s c trng ca b MUX/DEMUX.
c) Ghp tng to b ghp knh dung lng cao
Nhu cu v dung lng ngy cng cao trong khi cng ngh ch to si
quang vn cn nhng gii hn nht nh, lm hn ch tc truyn dn mt
knh bc sng. iu i hi phi tng s lng knh bc sng truyn
trn mt si quang, c ngha l s lng knh m b MUX/DEMUX x l
phi tng ln.
Trong khi cng ngh ch to phn t c bn vn cn gii hn mt
khong s lng knh bc sng c th x l nht nh th gii php ghp
tng c xem l gii php hp l nht.
Ghp tng ni tip n knh (Serial)

28
Trong phng php ny thc hin ghp n tng, mi tng ch thc hin
ghp/tch mt knh bc sng. Mt v d tiu biu l b DEMUX 8 knh
bc sng, ch to t cc phn t c bn l b lc TFMF nh trnh by
trong hnh (1.25).
u im ln nht ca phng php ghp tng ni tip l s bc sng
x l c th thay i linh ng bng cch thm/bt s b lc ghp vo (pay
as you grow).
Nhc im chnh l ch c th tng ln n mt s lng bc sng
no m thi, do suy hao xen s tng gn nh tuyn tnh vi s lng b lc
thm vo.
Ghp mt tng (Single-Stage)
Tt c cc bc sng u c tch ng thi trong mt tng duy nht.
V d cho cu trc ny l b lc AWG
u im ca phng php ny suy hao xen nh, tnh ng nht ca suy
hao tt hn.
Nhc im l s knh c tch b hn ch do cng ngh sn xut
AWG.

Hnh 6.23. Ghp tng tng dung lng ghp/tch cc knh bc
sng.
(a) Ghp tng theo tng bng sng.
(b) Ghp tng an xen chn l.
Ghp tng theo tng bng sng (Multistage Banding)

29
Phng php ny thc hin vi n/m tng, mi tng thc hin ghp/tch
m knh bc sng thuc cng mt bng sng (thng thng m=4 hoc m=8,
s lng knh bc sng trong mt bng sng l do nh sn xut thit b qui
nh) xem hnh (6.23. a). Nh vy, i hi b MUX/DEMUX tng u phi
c di bc sng hot ng rt rng.
u im: hn ch c suy hao thm vo m ln so vi phng php
ghp tng ni tip. Cu trc ny c th m rng thm nhiu tng. Cu trc c
dng m un nn tng cui cng c th ch dng mt bng
Nhc im: ph phm ti nguyn bc sng do phi cha khong
cch rng gia cc bng sng.
Ghp tng an xen chn l
C th p dng vi hai tng hoc nhiu hn. Tng u lm nhim v
ghp/tch cc knh bc sng chn, l ra lm thnh hai bng, a n tng
hai. Tip theo, tng hai c th thc hin chc nng tng t nh tng mt
hoc thc hin ghp/tch ring ra thnh cc knh ring l (xem hnh 6.23. b).
u im ca phng php ny l cng v tng cui, khng cn phi
dng cc b lc c chnh xc cao do khong cch gia cc knh bc sng
cn x l tng sau s cng rng ra.
6.4.5. B chuyn mch quang
a) Cc b chuyn mch n (Single Switch)
Theo chc nng, cc b chuyn mch n thng c chia lm hai
loi: on/off v chuyn tip (passing).
B chuyn mch on/off (1x1) s cho php/hoc khng cho php tn hiu
nh sng i qua ( hnh 6.24. (a)).
Chuyn mch chuyn tip 1x2 hng tn hiu nh sng t si quang th
nht sang si quang th hai hoc sang si quang th ba (hnh 6.24. (b)). Cu
hnh chuyn mch 1x2 trong hnh hnh 6.24. (b) l cu hnh chuyn mch n
gin nht. Cc b chuyn mch chuyn tip 1xN n mang tnh thng mi
cao.
B chuyn mch chuyn tip 2x2 c th kt ni hai si quang ny vi
hai si quang khc. B chuyn mch chuyn tip 2x2 c th c hai trng thi:
trng thi kt ni thng (bypass/bar) v trng thi kt ni cho (cross/inserted)
(hnh 6.24. (c)). Thut ng khng nghn dng ch mt b chuyn mch c
th kt ni bt k ng vo n bt k ng ra.
Hnh 6.24. (d) trnh by b chuyn mch 2x2 c nghn v b chuyn
mch ny ch c th kt ni t si quang 1 n si quang 4.

30

Hnh 6.24. Cc loi cu hnh chuyn mch quang:
(a) chuyn mch On/Off (1x1);
(b) chuyn mch chuyn tip (1x2) (khng nghn);
(d) chuyn mch 2x2 c nghn.
Nhiu v d n gin v cc ng dng ca b chuyn mch khng nh
tm quan trng ca cc b chuyn mch trong h thng thng tin si quang
nh sau:
Cc chuyn mch on/off c dng lm cc u pht v u thu cch ly
trong thit b o th. B chuyn mch 1x2 cho php la chn knh v
c dng cho chuyn mch bo v ( nh hng li lu lng khi
si quang b t).
Cc chuyn mch 1xN c dng kim tra v o cc linh kin
quang, kim tra t xa cc h thng thng tin si quang.
Cc chuyn mch 2x2 c dng kt ni thng nt trong cc mng
quang. Chuyn mch 2x2 thng c ng dng trong cc mng FDDI.
Khi mt trm no b h hng hoc b mt ngun, b chuyn mch s
t ng thay i sang trng thi nghn, do m bo lung lu lng
khng b nh hng khi nt b h hng.
Cc chuyn mch n c ch to theo cc kiu kho (latching) hoc
khng kho (nonlatching). Loi kho s gi nguyn trng thi (v tr) ca
chuyn mch nu ngun b mt.

31
Nguyn l hot ng ca cc chuyn mch n
Nguyn l hot ng ca cc chuyn mch n in hnh thng da
trn: in-quang, quang c hc, nhit quang. Hnh 6.25 trnh by mt s
nguyn l hot ng ca b chuyn mch.
Nu chuyn mch thin p ca mt b khuch i quang bn dn
(SOA- Semiconductor Optical Amplifier) sang hai trng thi on/off th to ra
c mt chuyn mch in-quang (hnh 6.25. (a)) v mt SOA ch khuch
i nh sng khi n c phn cc v hp th nh sng khi n khng c
phn cc.
Hnh 6.25(b) trnh by mt v d khc ca chuyn mch EO, trong t
s ghp ca b ghp ng dn sng ph thuc vo in p p vo. Thay i t
s ghp bng cch dng LiNbO3 ch to lp trn cng ca b ghp v
LiNbO3 l loi nhin liu c ch s khc x thay i theo gi tr ca in p
p vo.
Chuyn mch quang c hc hot ng da trn chuyn ng c hc ca
cc linh kin quang. V d, di chuyn lng knh trong hnh 6.25(c) theo chiu
dc s cho php chuyn mch mt tn hiu quang t si 2 sang si 3.
Ta cng c th t c kt qu tng t khi t nh ln tr mt gng
hnh cu (hnh 6.25(d)). Cc thu knh GRIN (graded-index) s lm cho vic
chuyn tip nh sng ghp t/vo si quang c d dng hn.
Hnh 6.25(e) trnh by v d v chuyn mch quang. Mt cp si quang
ng vo chuyn t v tr ny sang v tr khc thc hin vic chuyn mch
tn hiu quang.
Nguyn l ca vic lm mt tc dng ca ton b nh sng phn x bn
trong (FTIRFrustration of Total Internal Reflection) c ng dng ch to
b chuyn mch c trnh by trong hnh 6.25(f). Nhc li l mt phn nh
sng s truyn qua mi trng khc x khc ngay c khi khng c nh sng
phn x bn trong. Ta gi nh sng c truyn qua ny l sng suy bin
(evanescent wave). Nh hiu ng ny, khi l chuyn mch c gn vi lng
knh th s to ra nh sng phn x bn trong. Khi l chuyn mch (switching
plate) tin ti gn lng knh, th ton b nh sng phn x bn trong b mt tc
dng, kt qu l chm nh sng phn x s di chuyn dn dn sang hng
khc.


32

Hnh 6.25. Nguyn l hot ng ca cc b chuyn mch quang:
(a) chuyn mch on/off dng SOA;
(b) b ghp ng dn sng ch to t LiNBO3;
(c) chuyn mch dng lng knh chuyn ng;
(d) chuyn mch dng gng hnh cu;
(e) chuyn mch bng cch di chuyn si quang;
(f) chuyn mch ng dng hiu ng FTIR;
(g) chuyn mch quang-nhit s dng b giao thoa Mach-
Zehnder.
Do , bng cch di chuyn l chuyn mch hng ti lng knh, ta c
th nh hng tn hiu nh sng sang si 3. Khi l chuyn mch khng tip
xc vi lng knh, s xy ra hin tng phn x nh sng bn trong v tn hiu

33
quang i vo si 2. Ch l qu trnh chuyn ng c hc ca cc linh kin
quang xy ra rt nhanh, rt t v chc chn. Nn hin nay, cc b chuyn mch
quang c hc ang c s dng ph bin nht.
Hnh 6.25(g) trnh by v d v chuyn mch quang nhit. Mt b giao
thoa Mach- Zehnder kt hp vi mt b dch pha gn trong mi nhnh giao
thoa. Bng hi nng, ta c th iu khin s lng b dch pha, ngha l c
th nh hng tn hiu quang sang si 2 hoc si 3.
Cc chuyn mch quang nhit c tc chuyn mch nhanh hn so vi
cc b chuyn mch quang c hc, v quan trng nht l, chng c th c
thc hin theo cng ngh trng thi rn planar (planar solid-state) nh cc ma
trn chuyn mch ln.
Mt s tham s chnh quy nh c tnh ca cc b chuyn mch:
T s tt m (extinction ratio): th hin c tnh ca b chuyn mch
on/off. y l t s gia nng lng nh sng khi chuyn mch trng
thi on v nng lng nh sng khi chuyn mch trng thi off. Gi
tr ny cng cao cng tt, thng nm trong khong t 45 n 50 dB.
Suy hao xen (insertion loss): l n v o cng sut suy hao do b
chuyn mch gy ra thng c gi tr khong 0.5 dB.
Nhiu xuyn m (crosstalk): t s gia cng sut ng ra c to ra bi
ng vo mong mun v cng sut ng ra c to ra bi ng vo khng
mong mun. Gi tr ny cng cao cng tt, thng khong 80 dB.
Thi gian chuyn mch (switching time): l tham s rt quan trng. Khi
s dng cc b lc hiu chnh c, thi gian chuyn mch yu cu ph
thuc vo cc ng dng ca chuyn mch. i vi cc mng chuyn
mch knh ngy nay, thi gian chuyn mch khong c s, thm ch c
ms, nhng i vi cc mng quang chuyn mch gi, thi gian chuyn
mch ch khong vi ns, thm ch khong s. Cc b chuyn mch n
quang-c hc v quang-nhit c thi gian chuyn mch nm trong
khong t 2 n 20 ms, trong khi cc b chuyn mch n quang-in
c thi gian chuyn mch c ns.
Ngoi nhng tham s k ra trn y, trong ti liu tham kho c tnh
ca phn t chuyn mch cn c mt s tham s nh di bc sng hot
ng, PDL, v nhit phng.

b) Cc khi chuyn mch quang ln (multistage/large optical switch)
Cc khi chuyn mch quang vi s lng cng t vi trm n vi
ngn ang c nghin cu cho h thng mng quang th h tip theo. Khi
thit k cc khi chuyn mch quang ln, cn quan tm n cc vn sau:

34
S lng ca cc phn t chuyn mch cn thit: cc b chuyn mch
ln c to thnh t cc phn t chuyn mch theo nhiu cch khc
nhau, nh s trnh by bn di. Chi ph v phc tp ca khi
chuyn mch ph thuc vo s phn t chuyn mch c yu cu,
cch ng gi, ghp ni, phng php ch to v iu khin.
Tnh ng nht ca suy hao: cc b chuyn mch c th to ra suy hao
khc nhau cho tng kt ni khc nhau ca ng vo v ng ra. Khi
chuyn mch cng ln th s khc nhau v suy hao cng nhiu. nh
gi tnh ng nht ca suy hao bng cch xem xt s phn t chuyn
mch ti thiu v ti a trn ng dn quang i vi tng kt ni ng
vo/ra khc nhau.
S im ni cho trong khi chuyn mch: thng s ny c bit quan
trng trong vic ch to cc khi chuyn mch quang. Mt s khi
chuyn mch quang c tch hp t nhiu b chuyn mch trn mt
mch duy nht. Khng ging nh trong cc mch in tch hp (IC),
, cc kt ni gia nhiu linh kin khc nhau c th nm trn nhiu
lp, trong cc mch quang tch hp, tt c cc kt ni u c to ra
trn mt lp duy nht bng cc ng dn sng. Nu cc ng dn ca
hai ng dn sng ct nhau (to ra im ni cho) th s xy ra cc hiu
ng khng mong mun nh suy hao cng sut v hin tng nhiu
xuyn m. hin tng suy hao cng sut v nhiu xuyn m khng
gy nh hng n khi chuyn mch th phi ti thiu ho hoc hn
ch hon ton cc im ct nhau ny.
Cc c tnh nghn: v chc nng, c th chia khi chuyn mch thnh
hai loi: nghn v khng nghn. Khi chuyn mch gi l khng nghn
khi mt cng ng vo no ang ri c th kt ni vi bt k ng ra
no cng ang ri. V th, mt khi chuyn mch khng nghn c kh
nng thc hin mi kt ni t ng vo n ng ra. Nu trong khi
chuyn mch c mt s kt ni khng th thc hin c, th khi
chuyn mch ny c gi xem l c nghn. Phn ln cc ng dng
u yu cu chuyn mch khng nghn. Vi chuyn mch khng nghn
c th phn thnh hai loi l: chuyn mch khng nghn theo ngha
rng (wide-sense nonblocking), v chuyn mch khng nghn theo
ngha hp (strict-sense non-blocking). Theo ngha rng, bt k ng vo
no cha c s dng cng c th kt ni vi bt k ng ra no cng
cha c s dng m khng cn phi nh tuyn li cc kt ni ang
tn ti; khi chuyn mch dng ny s dng cc thut ton nh tuyn
c trng nh tuyn cho cc kt ni hin c sao cho m bo khng
xy ra nghn cho cc kt ni tip sau . Theo ngha hp, bt k ng
vo no cha c s dng cng c kt ni vi bt k ng ra no

35
cng cha c s dng m khng cn quan tm n trng thi ca cc
kt ni trc trong khi chuyn mch.
Mt khi chuyn mch khng nghn yu cu vic nh tuyn li cho
cc kt ni m bo thuc tnh khng nghn c gi l khi chuyn mch
khng nghn sp xp li (rearrangeably non-blocking switch). Vic nh tuyn
li cc kt ni c th hoc khng th c chp nhn cn tu thuc vo ng
dng v chc chn cc kt ni s b ngt trong mt khong thi gian no
khi chng c chuyn mch sang ng dn khc. So vi cc cu trc
chuyn mch khng nghn theo ngha rng, u im ca cc cu trc chuyn
mch khng nghn sp xp li l s dng cng t cc b chuyn mch nh th
kch thc ca khi chuyn mch cng ln. Tuy nhin, khi cc cu trc khng
nghn sp xp li s dng cng t b chuyn mch nh th thut ton iu
khin thit lp kt ni ca chng cng phc tp, nhng ni chung vi cng
ngh vi x l p dng trong khi chuyn mch ngy nay, th y l vn
nh, khng quan trng. Nhc im ln nht ca cc khi chuyn mch
khng nghn sp xp li l khng th phc v cho cc ng dng khng cho
php ngt cc kt ni ang tn ti, thm ch trong khong thi gian cc ngn
khi cn thit lp mt kt ni mi.
R rng, tu thuc vo ng dng ca khi chuyn mch trn thc t
mt thng s c th c u tin hn cc thng s khc.
Bng sau y trnh by s so snh gia cc cu trc chuyn mch khc
nhau, trong cu trc Spanke dng cc b chuyn mch 1n, cc cu trc
cn li u hnh thnh t b chuyn mch 22.
Bng1.2 So snh gia cc cu trc chuyn mch khc nhau.

6.4.6. B chuyn i bc sng
B chuyn i bc sng l thit b chuyn i tn hiu c bc sng
ny u vo ra thnh tn hiu c bc sng khc u ra. i vi h thng
WDM, b chuyn i bc sng cho nhiu ng dng hu ch khc nhau:

36
Tn hiu c th i vo mng vi bc sng khng thch hp khi truyn
trong mng WDM. Chng hn nh hin nay cc thit b WDM trn th
gii a s u ch c kh nng hot ng trn cc bc sng thuc bng
C v bng L, nhng tn hiu SDH hot ng vi bc sng 1310 nm c
th truyn trn h thng WDM nh cc b chuyn i bc sng t
bin gii gia mng WDM v mng SDH, chuyn i tn hiu t bc
sng 1310 nm sang tn hiu tng thch vi bc sng theo qui nh
ITU-T hot ng vng 1550 nm.
B chuyn i khi c trang b trong cc cu hnh nt mng WDM
gip s dng ti nguyn bc sng hiu qu hn, linh ng hn.
C bn phng php ch to b chuyn i bc sng: phng php
quang-in, phng php ca quang, phng php giao thoa v phng php
trn bc sng. Phng php trn bc sng l phng php ton quang, hot
ng hon ton khng da vo tn hiu in, tuy nhin hin ti cng ngh ch
to theo phng php ny vn cha hon thin c th thng mi ho.
a) To bng phng php quang-in
y l phng php ch to b chuyn i bc sng n gin v ph
bin nht hin nay.
Tn hiu u vo trc ht c chuyn sang dng tn hiu in, ti to
li v sau c mt b pht laser pht bc sng khc. Thng cc b
chuyn i bc sng u vo bin i-u ra c nh dng phng php ch
to ny. Tnh trong sut ca thit b loi ny ph thuc vo kiu ti to
(regeneration) ca thit b i vi tn hiu:
Ti to 1R: u thu n gin ch chuyn i tn hiu u vo t dng
nng lng cc ht photon nh sng sang cc ht in t, sau cc ht
in t c khuch i bi mt b khuch i tng t RF (Radio
Frequency) v pht ra tia laser vi bc sng thch hp.
Ti to 2R: phng php ti to ny ch p dng c khi tn hiu u
vo l tn hiu s. Tn hiu c sa li dng xung (reshaped) nh cho
i qua cng logic, khng thc hin ng b li tn hiu (retimed) nn
phng php ch to ny d lm ny sinh hin tng Jitter.
Ti to 3R: thc hin ng thi vic sa dng xung v ng b li cho
tn hiu. Phng php ny gip xo b nhng nh hng n dng ca
tn hiu do cc yu t nh: phi tuyn tnh, tn sc trong si quang,
nhiu ca b khuch i Tuy nhin, ng b li tn hiu mi b
chuyn i bc sng ch hot ng tng ng vi mt lung tn hiu
s c tc bit nht nh, gim tnh trong sut ca thit b.

37

Hnh 6.26. Cc loi chuyn i bc sng quang in: (a) 1R; (b) 2R; (c) 3R


38
b) Ch to bng phng php ca quang
Phng php ch to cc b chuyn i bc sng dng phng php
ca quang tn dng tnh cht ca mt s thit b quang c c tnh u ra thay
i theo cng tn hiu. S thay i ny c chuyn n tn hiu cha
c iu ch, gi l tn hiu d (probe signal) cu hnh cho i xuyn qua
thit b. Ti u ra, tn hiu d mang thng tin cha trong tn hiu u vo.
Cc thit b ch to theo phng php ny thng thuc dng u vo thay
i-u ra c nh, hoc u vo thay i-u ra thay i tu theo tn hiu d
l c nh hoc c th iu chnh bc sng khng.
K thut chnh ca phng php ny l iu ch cho li CGM
(Cross-Gain Modulation), tn dng hiu ng phi tuyn trong mt b khuch
i quang bn dn SOA, tn dng tnh cht ca SOA l c li thay i theo
cng tn hiu i vo. Nguyn l hot ng ca mt thit b SOA c cu
hnh lm b chuyn i bc sng c minh ho nh trn hnh sau.

Hnh 6.27. B chuyn i bc sng ch to theo phng php ca quang.
c) Ch to bng phng php giao thoa
K thut chnh ca phng php ny chnh l iu ch cho pha. Khi
cng sng mang trong b khuch i thay i cng vi tn hiu u vo,

39
n lm thay i chit sut ca mi trng li, dn n thay i pha ca tn
hiu d.
Hin tng iu ch pha kiu ny c th chuyn sang iu ch bin
bng cch dng b lc Mach-Zehnder. Trong , c hai nhnh ca b lc
Mach- Zehnder u c cng chiu di, mi nhnh dng kt hp thm vi mt
b khuchh i SOA
Ti u vo ca b lc Mach-Zehnder dng b Coupler tch tn hiu i
theo hai nhnh ca b lc theo t l khng u nhau. Do cng tn hiu i
trn mi nhnh khng u nhau nn khi i qua cc b SOA s b dch pha cc
lng khng ging nhau. Theo nguyn l hot ng ca MZI, s lch pha
gia hai tn hiu ny c chuyn n mt tn hiu iu ch bin u ra
truyn vi bc sng khc.

Hnh 6.28. Bin i bc sng bng iu ch xuyn pha
s dng b khuch i quang bn dn c gn b lc Mach-Zender bn trong
d) Ch to bng phng php trn bc sng
Phng php ch to ny da trn hin tng trn bn bc sng, trong
nu c ba bc sng f
1
, f
2
, f
3
cng truyn trong si quang th theo hin

40
tng phi tuyn tnh s xut hin sng nh hng do hiu ng phi tuyn tnh
c tnh l: f1+f2-f3. ng dng cho b chuyn i bc sng khi f1 = f2 v
sau cho qua b khuch i SOA. Gi s sng vo k hiu l fs v sng d
l fp, b khuch i SOA c cu hnh sao cho mt trong hai bc sng sinh
do hin tng FWM 2fp-fs v 2fs-fp nm trong bng thng hot ng ca tn
hiu, khi ta thc hin c chc nng chuyn i bc sng.
u im ca phng php ch to ny l tnh trong sut i vi cc
nh dng tn hiu, ngha l c th hot ng vi nhiu tc bit khc nhau.
Tuy nhin, nhc im l khi khong cch gia bc sng tn hiu fs v bc
sng d fp tng th hiu qu chuyn i bc sng s gim.

Hnh 6.29. Chuyn i bc sng
bng cch trn bn bc sng trong b khuch i quang

Chng 5: Ghp quang v khuch i quang

1
Chng 7
GHP QUANG V KHUCH I QUANG

7.1. Ghp quang
B ghp quang cn gi l Photo coupled isolator, Photo-couplers,
Photo-coupled pairs v Optically Coupled pairs.T thng thng nht cho
linh kin ny l Opto-Couplers. B ghp quang dng truyn t tn hiu v
ng thi to s cch in gia nhng mch in. Ngoi ra n cn dng trnh
cc vng t (ground circuit circuit terrestre) gy nhiu trong mch in. S
truyn t tn hiu c thc hin qua nh sng.
7.1.1. C ch hot ng
Thng thng b ghp quang gm 1 diot vi vt liu bn dn loi III/V
(v.d.GaAs) pht ra tia hng ngoi v 1 phototransitor vi vt liu silic.Vi
dng in thun, diot pht ra bc x hng ngoi vi chiu di sng khong
650-950nm. Dng in thun I
F
c cng khong 1-30mA.

Hnh 7.1. Opto-Couplers
Nng lng bc x ny c chiu ln trn b mt ca phototransitor
(face to face) hay chiu gin tip qua mt mi trng dn quang . B ghp
quang face to face thng c dng nht.

2
u tin tn hiu c phn pht (LED hng ngoi) trong b ghp quang
bin thnh tn hiu nh sng. Sau tn hiu nh sng c phn nhn
(photodiot, phototransitor, IC c t hp diot) bin li thnh tn hiu in

Hnh 7.2. Nguyn l lm vic ca Opto-Couplers
Tu theo loi b ghp quang tn s truyn t tn hiu c th t DC n
20MHz. B ghp quang c 1 v nha loi DIP (Dual-In-Line-Plastic) bo
v. V nha ny chn sng v cch in. Phn pht v phn thu c ghp
bng 1 loi nha trong sut v cch in.
7.1.2. Cc tnh cht quan trng
1. Tnh cch in
Nh ni b ghp quang thng c dng cch in gia 2 mch
in c in th cch bit kh ln. B ghp quang c th lm vic vi dng
in 1 chiu hay tn hiu in c tn s kh cao. c bit vi th tch nh b,
b ghp quang t ra u vit hn so vi bin th.
2. in tr cch in
l in tr vi dng in 1 chiu gia ng vo v ng ra ca b
ghp quang. N c tr s b nht l 10
11
, nh th p ng yu cu thng
thng . Nh th chng ta cn ch , vi dng in r trong khong nA c th
nh hng n hot ng ca mch in, v d khi dng in r chy vo cc
gc ca phototransitor cn trng. Gp trng hp ny ta c th to nhng
khe trng trn mch in hay 1 ng mch in ni vi in th t gia ng ra
v ng vo. Vi b ghp quang ta cn c mch in loi tt.
3. in dung ghp ni
S min nhiu tn hiu ng hnh (common mode transient immunity)
Cu trc ca b ghp quang gm c phototransitor, LED, phn c. Gia
cc phn t ny c th to ra 1 in dung t 0.32pF. in dung ny c o
khi chn ng vo cng nh chn ng ra c ni tt. Vi s thay i cao
p kh nhanh (500V/s v d do nhng xung in nhiu trong li in)
gia ng ra v ng vo, in dung k sinh c th truyn i s thay i ny v
xung in ng ra c nhng gai nhn. Trong trng hp ny, nn s dng b

3
ghp quang khng c chn ni vi cc gc, v gia cc thu v cc pht nn
ni 1 t in lm gim gai nhiu xung ra. khng to thm in dung k
sinh , vi b ghp quang ta khng nn dng chn cm IC..Vi tr s in
dung ghp ni cng b ta c s min nhiu ng hnh cng tt.
4. in th cch ly:
in th cch ly l in th cao nht gia ng vo v ra m b ghp
quang c th chu ng ni. in th cch ly cn tu thuc vo cu trc ca
b ghp quang, khng kh
5. Hiu ng trng
Di 1 mt th kh cao gia LED v phototransitor c khong cch kh
gn, ta c 1 in trng kh ln. Nu b ghp quang lm vic vi iu kin
nh th lin tc vi ngy, cc thng s ca b ghp quang (c bit l
phototransitor) b thay i.
Hiu ng trng cng r rng hn vi nhit cao (100
o
) v 1 in th
1 chiu kh cao (1kV). Cc thng s nh khuch i, in p v dng in
ngc c th b thay i, vi 1 in trng kh ln
So vi transitor, cc thng s ca LED rt n nh di tc dng ca
in trng. Ngi ta c th bo v lp chuyn tip pn ca transitor silic bng
1 mng ion trong sut chng li nh hng ca in trng (Transparent
Ion Shield Trios)
6. S lo ho
Vi thi gian, cng sut pht sng ca LED b gim i, do ta c h
s truyn t ca 1 b ghp quang b i. Ngi ta trnh s lo ho ca 1 b
ghp quang bng phng php Burn in . Sau khi sn xut, cc b ghp
quang c cho lm vic vi dng in v vi nhit xung quanh kh ln
trong 1 thi gian (v d 24 gi). Do b ghp quang b lo ho trc v n
khng b lo ho nhanh nh cc b ghp quang cha qua Burn in. cho
b ghp quang lm vic lu di khng b lo ho nhanh, nhit xung quanh
v dng in lm vic cng thp cng tt.
7. H s truyn t
H s truyn t (current transfer ratio-CTR) ging nh khuch i
dng in ca 1 transitor. H s truyn t l h s tnh theo phn trm cho
bit dng in in ra ( v d ca 1 phototransitor) ln hn so vi dng in
vo ca LED hng ngoi trong 1 b ghp quang ( CTR= (I
C
/I
F
)

x 100% )
Theo s mch di, ta c th o c h s truyn t. Ngun dng
I
F
c th to bng 1 in p n nh ni tip vi 1 in tr. Trong c trng k
thut ca 4 loi b ghp quang CNY17ta c s lin h gia dng in I
F

qua LED v h s truyn t. S lin h ny khng tuyn tnh. C cng
chiu sng ca LED hng ngoi v khuch i ca phototransitor cng u

4
gia tng nhanh khi I
F
tng. Vi dng I
F
kh ln, t tuyn khng cn dc
nhiu na. Cng chiu sng ca LED khng cn tng theo I
F
v
phototransitor cng bo ho. Nh th b ghp quang ch hot ng vi tn
hiu tng i b.
Trong b ghp quang digital phn nhn l 1 mch t hp, tr s CTR
khng cn ngha. y ngi ta ch cn bit vi cng dng in ng
vo c trng thi High hay Low ng ra.

Hnh 7.3. H s truyn t
8. rng di tn s - Tn s truyn t:
Cc b ghp quang hin nay c th t n tn s
B ghp quang loi transitor n 250kHz.
B ghp quang vi b nhn t hp n gin ( photodiode, transitor
nhanh) n 2MHz.
B ghp quang vi b nhn l mch t hp (IC) n 20 MHz.
7.1.3. Cc s la chn khi dng b ghp quang
p ng cc i hi cho tng ng dng cc b ghp quang c
chn v th nghim c bit.

5
1/ m bo s cch in:
Vi in th V
I/O
=500V v nhit 175
o
C in tr cch nhit phi
10
9
. m bo s cch in ny b ghp quang phi lm vic vi cc
thng s gii hn bng nhng mch in bo v.
2/B ghp quang c th nghim 100% m bo thi gian chuyn
tip ngn.
t
on
4,5 s (I
F
= 10mA)
t
off
4,5 s (I
F
= 10mA)
3/ C n nh cao hn vi nh hng mi trng:
V l do kinh t v bc b ghp quang khng c lm bng kim loi
hay gm m lm bng plastic d phm cht ti hn. Trong nhng iu kin
nng (25-55
o
C) v m (trn 90% m tng i, hm m trong khng kh
c th thm vo bn trong linh kin v lm c cch in gim i. Ngi ta c
th dng silicon bc bn ngoi.
7.1.4. B ghp quang vi phototransistor

Hnh 7.4.
Thng thng cc gc ca phototransitor c ni ra ngoi ( v d
trong trng hp vi mch phn hi ). Tuy nhin b ghp quang vn lm vic
trong trng hp khng c cc gc. trong trng hp khng c cc gc, b
ghp quang c h s truyn t gia LED v phototransitor ln hn, v b mt
cc gc khng b che lp 1 phn bi cng tc ca cc gc.Tuy nhin khng c
cc gc b ghp quang vn c nhng bt li
B ghp quang lm vic khng n nh vi nhit cao ( v dng
in ngc tng cao vi nhit ).
B ghp quang lm vic chm hn. Nu ta ni gia cc gc v cc
pht 1 in tr b ghp quang lm vic nhanh hn, dng in ngc
b hn. Tuy nhin h s truyn t cng b i v 1 phn dng in
ca cc gc b dn i mt.

6
Cng sng ca LED b gim i, nhng dng quang in ca
phototransitor gia tng khi nhit tng cao. Do b ghp quang
lm vic kh n nh vi nhit .

Hnh 7.5.

7.1.5. B ghp quang vi photo-darlingtontransistor
Hot ng ca mt b ghp quang vi photo-darlingtontransistor ging
nh vi 1 phototransistor, nhng vi h s truyn t ln hn(t 2001500)
nh s khuch i kh ln ca darlington-transistor. Tuy nhin vi photo
darlington-transistor ta c mt s nhc im
Thi gian ng m chm
Dng ti tng.

7
Tu thuc nhiu vo nhit .
Vi mch in khng c in tr gia cc pht v cc gc. Khng c
in tr, b ghp quang c h s truyn t ln vi dng in qua diot nh,
nhng b nh hng bi nhit rt ln.Vi in tr (trong khong M)b
ghp quang c h s truyn t b hn nhng lm vic tt vi nhit cao.

Hnh 7.6.
7.1.6. B ghp quang vi photothyristor v phototriac
Vi nh sng ,ta c dng in I
B
lm thng photothyristor dn in .
cho photoristor nhy vi nh sng n ch c th lm vic vi in p v dng
in b v cu trc ca n b v mng.
Khi in th v cng dng in thay i nhanh theo thi gian ,tr s
dV/dt v di/dt kh ln ,thyristor c th t kch v dn in ngoi mun.
chng li hiu ng ny,ta c th ni 1 in tr Rgk gia catt v Gate.Vi tr
s Rgk b ,chng nhiu dV/dt tt ,nhng cn dng in I
f
qua LED ln
,ngc li vi tr s Rgk ln (t 10k n 100k),dng I
f
b nhng chng nhiu
dV/dt ti.


8

Hnh 7.7.

7.1.7. Mt s lu c bn vi b ghp quang
Vi mch iu khin

9
iu khin cc b ghp quang ,ta cn dng vo cho LED hng
ngoi l 10mA v dng ra cho phototransistor khong 2mA l b
nht . gim thi gian ln (rise time) v thi gian tr (propagation
delay),dng dit hng ngoi c th gim cn 1mA nhng chng
nhiu ti.
Vi cc mch in trn ,b ghp quang c th thay th cc r-le.B
ghp quang lm vic nhanh hn,khng c hin tng ny (contact
bounce), an ton hn v cch in tt hn.Tuy nhin r-le lm vic
vi dng in ln hn ,in th ng ra ln hn,in tr khi r-le
ni in nh hn v in tr ngt in cao hn.
B ghp quang c th thay th cc bin th xung.N c th truyn
cc tn hiu 1 chiu hay tn hiu c tn s thp.Trong khi bin th
xung ch c th lm vic tt vi tn s cao v mt b m (latch)
lu gi tn hiu 1 chiu. Bin th xung c thi gian ln nhanh hn
b ghp quang vi phototransistor.
Cc IC ti v nhn tn hiu c dng trong vic truyn cc tn hiu
digital qua cc ng truyn d liu rt di trong s hin din cc
tn hiu nhiu.Bin tn hiu nhiu cao nht cho php l khng
30V.Trong nhiu trng hp thc t ,tn hiu nhiu c th ln n
vi trm Volt trn cc ng truyn.B ghp quang vi cch in
hng nghn Volt t ra rt hu dng trong trng hp ny.
Vi mch tuyn tnh
Dng in thun ca dit hng ngoi phi c cng khong t 5mA
n 20mA.Tn hiu bin iu (modulating signal) c ghp vo nn ca in
th 1 chiu ny.
Vi tn s cao phototransistor phi lm vic vi 1 khuch i c tng
tr vo thp,thng l khuch i c cc gc ni t

Tm tt c tnh cc linh kin ghp tn hiu

Linh kin u im Khuyt im
B ghp
quang
- Kinh t , r tin
- C th ch to vi vt liu bn
dn
- Khi ngt in hay dn in
u c mt in tr gii hn
(in tr khng th bng

10
- Lm vic t tn hiu 1 chiu
n tn hiu xoay chiu vi tn
s cao
- cch in tt n vi KV
- Tng tr cch in cao
- Kch thc nh
- Khng c cng tc nn khng
b ny
- Cng sut tiu th t
zero hay v cc)
- Dng in khi dn in v
in p khi ngt in u c
tr s gii hn
- H s truyn t CTR thp.
R-le - Lm vic vi cng sut ln
- Khi dn in c in tr rt
thp
- C th truyn tn hiu 1 chiu
- Cch in tt
-t tin v m r-le lm
bng kim loi qu
-Cng sut tiu th cao
-Vn tc lm vic rt chm
-Kch thc ln
Bin th
xung
-Truyn tn hiu vi vn tc
cao.
-Kch thc trung bnh
-C h s truyn t tt
-Khng th truyn tn hiu 1
chiu hay xoay chiu c tn
s thp
- cch in(c tng tr
cao hay in th cao)rt t
tin .
IC pht v
nhn tn hiu
ng di
-C th ch to vi vt liu bn
dn
-Kch thc b (Dip)/Truyn tin
vi vn tc cao
-C th truyn tn hiu DC r
tin.
-Tng tr cch in b
-in th nh thng rt
thp 30v.


11
7.2. Khuch i quang
Trong cc b khuch i quang (Optical Amplifier) tn hiu nh sng
c khuch i trc tip trong min quang m khng thng qua vic bin i
sang min in. Cc b khuch i quang c cc u im sau:
Khng ph thuc vo tc bit v phng thc iu ch tn hiu nn
nng cp h thng
Khuch i nhiu tn hiu c bc sng khc nhau cng truyn trn mt
si quang.
7.2.1. Nguyn l khuch i quang
Nguyn l khuch i quang trong cc b khuch i quang c thc
hin da trn hin tng pht x kch thch v khng c s cng hng xy ra
trong qu trnh khuch i.
a. Hin tng pht x kch thch (stimulated emission) l mt trong ba
hin tng bin i quang in c ng dng trong thng tin quang. Cc
hin tng ny c minh ha trn hnh sau

(a). Hp th (b). Pht x t pht (c). Pht x kch thch

Hnh 7.8. Cc hin tng bin i quang in
Hin tng pht x kch thch, hnh c, xy ra khi mt in t ang
trng thi nng lng cao E
2
b kch thch bi mt photon c nng lng h
12

bng vi chnh lch nng lng gia trng thi nng lng cao v trng
thi nng lng thp ca in t (Eg= E
2
E
1
). Khi , in t s chuyn t
trng thi nng lng cao xung trng thi nng lng thp hn v to ra mt
photon c nng lng bng vi nng lng ca photon kch thch ban u.
Nh vy, t mt photon ban u sau khi khi xy ra hin tng pht
x kch thch s to ra hai photon (photon ban u v photon mi c to ra)
c cng phng truyn, cng phn cc, cng pha v cng tn s (tnh kt hp,
coherent, ca nh sng). Hay ni cch khc, qu trnh khuch i nh sng
c thc hin.

12
Hin tng ny c ng dng trong cc b khuch i quang bn
dn (OSA) v khuch i quang si (OFA).Hin tng pht x kch thch
cng c ng dng trong vic ch to laser.
Tuy nhin, im khc bit chnh gia laser v cc b khuch i
quang l trong cc b khuch i quang khng xy hin tng hi tip v
cng hng. V nu xy ra qu trnh hi tip v cng hng nh trong laser,
b khuch i quang s to ra cc nh sng kt hp ca ring n cho d khng
c tn hiu quang ng vo. Ngun nh sng ny c xem l nhiu xy ra
trong b khuch i. Do vy, khuch i quang c th lm tng cng sut tn
hiu nh sng c a vo ng vo b khuch i nhng khng to ra tn
hiu quang kt hp ca ring n ng ra.
b. Hin tng hp th (absorption)
Hin tng hp th, hnh (a), xy ra khi mt photon c nng lng hf
12

b hp th bi mt in t trng thi nng lng thp. Qu trnh ny ch xy
ra khi nng lng hf
12
ca photon bng vi chnh lch nng lng gia
trng thi nng lng cao v trng thi nng lng thp ca in t (Eg = E
2

E
1
). Khi xy ra hin tng hp th, in t s nhn nng lng t photon v
chuyn ln trng thi nng lng cao. Hay ni cch khc, hin tng hp th
l nguyn nhn gy suy hao cho tn hiu quang khi i qua b khuch i
quang. Qu trnh ny xy ra ng thi vi hai hin tng pht x t pht v
pht x kch thch trong mi trng tch cc (active medium) ca b khuch
i.
c. Hin tng pht x t pht (spontaneous emission)
Hin tng pht x t pht, hnh (b), xy ra khi mt in t chuyn
trng thi nng lng t mc nng lng cao E
2
xung mc nng lng thp
E
1
v pht ra mt nng lng Eg= E
2
E
1
di dng mt photon nh sng.
Qu trnh ny xy ra mt cch t nhin v trng thi nng lng cao E
2
khng
phi l trng thi nng lng bn vng ca in t. Sau mt khong thi gian
c gi l thi gian sng (life time) ca in t mc nng lng cao, cc
in t s t ng chuyn v trng thi nng lng thp hn (trng thi nng
lng bn vng). Ty theo loi vt liu khc nhau, thi gian sng ca in t
s khc nhau.
Cho d hin tng pht x t pht to ra photon nh sng, nhng trong
khuch i quang, pht x t pht khng to ra li khuch i. Nguyn
nhn l do hin tng ny xy ra mt cch t pht khng ph thuc vo tn
hiu nh sng a vo b khuch i. Nu khng c nh sng tn hiu a
vo, vn c nng lng nh sng c to ra ng ra ca b khuch
i.Ngoi ra, nh sng do pht x t pht to ra khng c tnh kt hp nh
hin tng pht x kch thch.

13
Do vy, pht x t pht c xem l nguyn nhn chnh gy nhiu
trong cc b khuch i quang. Loi nhiu ny c gi l nhiu pht x t
pht c khuch i ASE (Amplified Spontaneous Emission noise).
7.2.2. Phn loi khuch i quang
Tng qut, cu to ca mt b khuch i quang c th c biu din
nh hnh sau

Hnh 7.9. M hnh tng qut ca mt b khuch i quang
Trong mt b khuch i quang, qu trnh khuch i nh sng c din
ra trong trong mt mi trng c gi vng tch cc (active medium). Cc
tn hiu quang c khuch i trong vng tch cc vi li ln hay nh ty
thuc vo nng lng c cung cp t mt ngun bn ngoi gi chung l
ngun bm (Pump Source). Cc ngun bm ny c tnh cht nh th no ty
thuc vo loi khuch i quang hay ni cch khc ph thuc vo cu to ca
vng tch cc.
Ty theo cu to ca vng tch cc, c th chia khuch i quang thnh
hai loi chnh:
Khuch i quang bn dn SOA ( Semiconductor Optical Amplifier)
- Vng tch cc c cu to bng vt liu bn dn.
- Cu trc ca vng tch cc ca SOA tng t nh vng tch cc ca
laser bn dn. im khc bit chnh gia SOA v laser l SOA hot ng
trng thi di mc ngng pht x.
- Ngun cung cp nng lng khuch i tn hiu quang l dng in
Khuch i quang si OFA (Optical Fiber Amplifier)
- Vng tch cc l si quang c pha t him. Do , OFA cn c
gi l DFA (Doped-Fiber Amplifier)

14
- Ngun bm l nng lng nh sng c cung cp bi cc laser c
bc sng pht quang nh hn bc sng ca tn hiu cn khuch i.
- Ty theo loi t him c pha trong li ca si quang, bc sng
bm ca ngun bm v vng nh sng c khuch i ca OFA s thay i.
Mt s loi OFA tiu biu:
+ EDFA (Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifier): 1530nm 1565nm
+ PDFA (Praseodymium-Doped Fiber Amplifier): 1280nm 1340nm
+ TDFA (Thulium-Doped Fiber Amplifier): 1440nm -1520nm
+ NDFA (Neodymium-Doped Fiber Amplifier): 900nm, 1065nm hoc
1400nm
Trong cc loi OFA ny, EDFA c s dng ph bin hin nay v c
nhiu u im v c tnh k thut so vi SOA v c vng nh sng khuch
i (1530nm-1565nm) thch hp vi di tn hot ng ca h thng ghp
knh theo bc sng mt cao DWDM (Dense Wavelength Division
Multiplexing).
C hai loi khuch i quang SOA v EDFA u hot ng da trn
hin tng pht x kch thch. Ngoi ra, mt loi khuch i quang khc cng
c s dng nhiu trong cc h thng WDM hin nay l khuch i Raman.
Loi khuch i ny cng s dng si quang lm vng tch cc khuch i
nh sng. Tuy nhin, nguyn l khuch i ca khuch i Raman da trn
nh hng phi tuyn ca si quang (hin tng tn x Raman c kch thch
SRS, Stimulated Raman Scattering) hn l hin tng pht x kch thch.
7.2.3. Cc thng s k thut ca khuch i quang:
a) li (Gain)
li ca mt b khuch i quang l t s gia cng sut quang ng ra
chia cho cng sut quang ng vo.
(1.1)
(1.2)
G: li tn hiu ca b khuch i quang
P
in
, P
out
cng sut tn hiu nh sng ng vo v ng ra
ca b khuch i quang (mW).
li l mt thng s quan trng ca b khuch i. N c trng cho kh
nng khuch i cng sut nh sng ca b khuch i. Tuy vy, li ca

15
mt b khuch i b gii hn bi cc c ch bo ha li. iu ny lm
gii hn cng sut quang ra cc i ca b khuch i.
b) Bng thng li (Gain Bandwidth)
li ca b khuch i quang khng bng nhau cho tt c cc tn s ca
tn hiu quang vo. Nu o li G ca cc tn hiu quang vi cc tn s khc
nhau, mt p ng tn s quang ca b khuch i G(f) s t c. y
chnh l ph li ca b khuch i quang.
Bng thng li ca b khuch i quang B
0
c xc nh bi im -
3dB so vi li nh ca b khuch i. Gi tr B
0
xc nh bng thng ca
cc tn hiu c th c truyn bi mt b khuch i quang. Do , nh
hng n hot ng ca cc h thng thng tin quang khi s dng chng nh
cc b lp hay b tin khuch i.
c) Cng sut ng ra bo ha ( Saturation Output Power )
Khi hot ng ch tn hiu nh, cng sut quang ng ra s tng
tuyn tnh vi cng sut quang ng vo theo h s li G: P
out
= G.P
in
.
Tuy nhin, cng sut ng ra khng th tng mi c. Bng thc nghim,
ngi ta thy rng trong tt c cc b khuch i quang, khi cng sut ng
vo P
in
tng n mt mc no , li G bt u gim. Kt qu l cng sut
ng ra khng cn tng tuyn tnh vi tnh hiu ng ra na m t trng thi
bo ha. S thay i ca tn hiu quang ng ra so vi cng sut quang ng
vo c minh ha trong hnh sau

Hnh 7.10. Cng sut ng ra theo cng sut ng vo

16

Hnh 7.11. li khuch i theo cng sut quang ng ra
Hnh trn biu din s bin i ca li tn hiu G theo cng sut
quang ng ra Pout.Cng sut ng ra ti im li gim i 3 dB c gi l
cng sut ra bo ha P
sat, out
.
Cng sut ra bo ha P
sat, out
ca mt b khuch i quang cho bit cng
sut ng ra ln nht m b khuch i quang c th hot ng c. Thng
thng, mt b khuch i quang c li cao s c cng sut ra bo ha cao
bi v s nghch o nng cao c th c duy tr trong mt di cng sut
vo v ra rng.
d) H s nhiu (Noise Figure)
Ging nh cc b khuch i in, cc b khuch i quang u to ra
nhiu. Ngun nhiu chnh trong cc b khuch i quang l do pht x t
pht. V s pht x t pht l cc s kin ngu nhin, pha ca cc photon pht
x t pht cng ngu nhin. Nu photon pht x t pht c hng gn vi
hng truyn ca cc photon tn hiu, chng s tng tc vi cc photon tn
hiu gy nn s dao ng v pha v bin . Bn cnh , nng lng do pht
x t pht to ra cng s c khuch i khi chng truyn qua b khuch i
v pha ng ra. Do , ti ng ra ca b khuch i cng sut quang thu c
P
out
bao gm c cng sut tn hiu c khuch i v cng sut nhiu pht x
t pht c khuch i ASE (Amplified Spontaneous Emission).
Pout = G.P
in
+ P
ASE
(1.3)
nh hng ca nhiu i vi b khuch quang c biu din bi h
s nhiu NF (Noise Figure), m t s suy gim t s tn hiu trn nhiu SNR
(Signal to Noise Ratio) do nhiu ca b khuch i thm vo. H s NF c
cho bi cng thc sau
(1.4)

17
SNR
in
, SNR
out
l t s tn hiu trn nhiu ti ng vo v ng ra ca b
khuch i
H s nhiu NF ca b khuch i cng nh th cng tt. Gi tr nh
nht ca NF c th t c l 3dB. Nhng b khuch i tha mn h s
nhiu ti thiu ny c gi l ang hot ng gii hn lng t.
Ngoi bn thng s k thut chnh c nu trn, cc b khuch i
quang cn c nh gi da trn cc thng s sau
nhy phn cc (Polarization sensitivity) l s ph thuc ca
li ca b khuch i vo phn cc ca tn hiu
nh hng ca nhit i vi li v bng thng li,
Xuyn nhiu (crosstalk)
7.2.4. ng dng ca khuch i quang
Khuch i quang c ng dng trong cc cc h thng truyn dn
quang nh cc b khuch i nhm lm tng cng sut ca tn hiu quang trn
ng truyn, khc phc suy hao do si quang v cc mi hn, ni xy ra trn
ng truyn. Ty theo v tr lp t, cc b khuch i trn tuyn truyn dn
quang c chia lm ba loi
a. Khuch i cng sut (Booster Amplifier): l b khuch i quang c
t ngay sau thit b pht nhm mc ch lm tng cng sut tn hiu quang
n mc cao nht lm cho khong cch truyn cc i. Yu cu ca cc b
khuch i cng sut l to ra cng sut u ra cc i ch khng phi li
cc i v cng sut tn hiu ng vo ln.
b. Khuch i ng dy (In-line Amplifier): l cc b khuch i quang
c t trn tuyn quang nhm mc ch b mt mt cng sut gy ra bi
suy hao si, suy hao do kt ni v suy hao do vic phn phi tn hiu quang
trong mng. Cc b khuch i ng dy c th c lp t ni tip nhau
trn ng truyn gia tng khong cch lp t. Tuy nhin, vic lp t ni
tip cc b khuch i quang s lm gim h s SNR nh hng n cht
lng ca h thng truyn dn quang. Yu cu ca b khuch i ng dy
l n nh trn ton b di thng ca h thng WDM, gi nhiu mc cc
tiu v thc hin vic trao i tt tn hiu quang vi si quang truyn dn.

c. Tin khuch i (Preamplifier): l cc b khuch i quang c t
ngay trc thit b thu quang nhm khuch i tn hiu ngay trc khi tn hiu
c a vo thit b. iu ny lm gim yu cu nghim ngt ca nhy
thit b thu v cho php h thng truyn dn quang hot ng vi tc bit
cao hn. Do v tr lp t, cc b tin khuch i hot ng vi cng sut tn

18
hiu vo yu v mc nhiu u thu cao. Do vy, yu cu ca mt b tin
khuch i l nhy ln, li ln v nhiu thp.
Ngoi cc ng dng chnh lm cc b khuch i trn ng truyn
quang, cc b khuch i quang SOA v OFA cn c s dng trong cc b
chuyn i bc sng. Vic chuyn i bc sng c thc hin da trn
hin tng bo ha li v hin tng trn bn bc sng FWM (Four-
Wave Mixing) xy ra trong cc b khuch i quang.
7.3. B khuch i quang bn dn (SOA)
7.3.1. Cu trc v nguyn l hot ng
Cu trc v nguyn l hot ng ca khuch i quang bn dn SOA
(Semiconductor Optical Amplifier) tng t nh laser bn dn. Ngha l cng
da vo h thng hai di nng lng ca cht bn dn v cc qu trnh bin
i quang in: hp th (absorption), pht x t pht (spontaneous emission)
v pht x kch thch (stimulated emission). Trong , tn hiu quang c
khuch i da trn hin tng pht x kch thch xy ra trong vng tch cc
ca SOA. Vng tch cc ny c t gia hai lp bn dn loi n va p. Ngun
bm bn ngoi c cung cp bi dng in phn cc.

Hnh 7.12. Cu trc ca mt b khuch i quang bn dn SOA
Do c cu trc v nguyn l hot ng tng t vi laser bn dn nn
SOA cn c gi l khuch i laser bn dn SLA (Semiconductor Laser
Amplifier).
S khc nhau chnh gia SOA v laser bn dn l SOA hot ng di
mc ngng dao ng. iu kin ny xy ra khi dng in phn cc I
bias
<
dng in ngng I
th
ca laser v h s phn x ca hai mt phn x ca vng
tch cc nh. Khi , qu trnh phn x, cng hng v t pht x nh sng s
khng xy ra.
SOA c th c phn thnh hai loi chnh da vo h s phn x ca
hai mt phn x ca lp tch cc.

19
Loi th nht, khuch i Fabry-Perot FPA (Fabry-Perot Amplifier) c
h s phn x cao (c th ln ti 32%). Cu trc ca FPA cng tng t nh
laser Fabry-Perot nhng hot ng vi dng phn cc I
bias
<I
th
. Vi cu trc
hc cng hng c h s phn x cao, qu trnh hi tip, chn lc tn s xy
ra. Kt qu l, FPA c li cao nhng ph li khuch i nhp nh,
khng u. iu ny lm gim bng thng khuch i ca FPA.
khc phc hn ch trn ca FPA, hai lp chng phn x AR (anti-
reflection) c h s phn x R = 0, c t ti hai u ca vng tch cc
khng cho qu trnh phn x xy ra bn trong b khuch i. Khi , tn hiu
vo SOA s c khuch i khi ch i qua mt ln (c gi l single pass)
xuyn qua vng tch cc ca b khuch i m khng c hi tip v. y l
cu trc ca loi SOA th hai: khuch i sng chy TWA (Traveling Wave
Amplifier). Trn thc t, h s phn x hai u ca vng tch cc ca TWA
khng hon ton bng 0 m c gi tr rt nh t 0.1% n 0.01%.
7.3.2. c tnh ca b khuch i FPA v TWA
Xt mt b khuch i FPA c h s phn x cng sut hai mt phn
x ca lp tch cc l R1 v R2 nh hnh 7.12. B khuch i ny cng
c th TWA nu cho R
1
= R
2
= 0. Do , qu trnh phn tch sau, u
c th p dng cho FPA v TWA.
B qua suy hao khi nh sng truyn qua mi mt phn x, ta c h s
xuyn qua ca cng sut nh sng i qua mi mt phn x tng ng l
(1-R
1
) v (1-R
2
).
Tng ng, ta c h phn x v h s xuyn qua ca cng in
trng ti hai mt phn x l:

Gi Gs l rng li n thng (single-pass gain) ca SOA khi tn
hiu quang i qua vng tch cc m khng c s hi tip (h s phn x R=
0).
Ta c
(1.5)
- Trong
- g: li trn mt n v chiu di ca vng tch cc
- : suy hao trn mt n v chiu di ca vng tch cc

20
- : h s tp trung (confinement factor) biu din mc tp
trung ca lung nh sng bn trong vng tch cc
- L: chiu di ca vng tch cc
- Pin, Pout: cng sut tn hiu ng vo v ng ra ca b khuch
i

Hnh 7.12. Qu trnh khuch i tn hiu xy ra trong FPA
Qu trnh khuch i tn hiu nh sng trong FPA (xem Hnh 7.12. ) c
th c dn gii nh sau:
in trng ca tn hiu quang vo E
i
c a vo hc cng hng
ca FPA c chiu di L ti mt phn x R1. Sau khi xuyn qua mt phn x
R1, tn hiu ban u s c khuch i bi vng tch cc v t cng
ti mt phn x R2 (k l h s truyn dn ca mi trung khuch
i).
Ti y, mt phn nng lng nh sng s truyn ra ngoi vi cng
. Phn cn li s phn x ngc tr li v pha R1 vi cng
.
Ti R1, in trng thu c l . Tng t nh ti R2,
mt phn in trng s phn x ngc v pha R2, phn cn
li s i ra ngoi hc cng hng.
Sau khi i qua khong cch L ca vng tch cc, tn hiu thu c ti
R1 t gi tr . Qu trnh phn x v truyn xuyn qua mt
phn x R2 tip tc din ra. Phn tn hiu xuyn qua c in trng
. Phn cn li s phn x ngc v pha R1. C nh vy
qu trnh phn x trong vng tch cc tip tc tip din.

21
in trng tng cng thu c ti ng ra ca b khuch i s bng
tng ca cc thnh phn in trng i xuyn qua R2. Nu gi s rng thi
gian truyn trong hc cng hng nh hn chu k ca in trng ti E
i
, ta
c in trng thu c ti ng ra

Vi , biu thc (2.6) c th bin i thnh

Hm truyn cng sut ca b khuch i FPA

Do

vi v l vn tc nh sng truyn trong mi trng khuch i, l tn
s gc ang xt,
0
l tn s gc cng hng m ti li t gi tr ln
nht. Biu thc trn c vit li nh sau

Nu h s phn x ca hai mt phn x ca FPA bng nhau R1=R2=R

v l vn tc nh sng truyn trong mi trng khuch i
l tn s gc ang xt

0
l tn s gc cng hng m ti li t gi tr ln nht
L chiu di FPA
R h s phn x ca hai mt phn x
Gs l rng li n thng (single-pass gain) ca SOA

22

Hnh 7.13. li G(f) ca FPA thay i theo tn s vi R = 0.3;R=0.03 v
R=0
Gi s li n thng Gs, tng ng vi R=0 (TWA), c dng Gauss.
Khi h s phn x ca hai lp phn x ca vng tch cc ln R=0.3, li
G() khng bng phng theo tn s m c dng gn sng ln do chc nng
lc tn s ca hc cng hng.
Ti cc tn s cng hng =(2fN)/(2L) vi N l s nguyn, li
ca FPA t gi tr cc i. Gia cc tn s cng hng, li ca FPA gim
nhanh chng. Do , bng thng li (c xc nh ti v tr -3dB so vi
li nh) ca FPA nh so vi bng thng li ca TWA.
V vy, FPA khng thch hp vi cc ng dng khuch i trong h
thng thng tin quang.
Khi h s phn x R=0.03, G() tin gn ti Gs nhng vn cn gn
sng nh. gn sng ny c th c loi b bng cch gim h s phn x
hn na b khuch i tr thnh TWA.
7.3.3. Nhiu xuyn m (Crosstalk) trong SOA:
Nhiu xuyn m xy ra khi cc tn hiu quang khc nhau c khuch
i ng thi trong cng mt b khuch i. C hai loi nhiu xuyn m xy
ra trong SOA: nhiu xuyn knh (interchannel crosstalk) v bo ha li
(cross saturation).
Nhiu xuyn knh xy ra l do hiu ng trn bn bc sng FWM
(Four Wave Mixing). Bn cht v nh hng ca hiu ng phi tuyn ny i
h thng thng tin quang WDM khng c trnh by trong chng ny.

23

Hnh 7.14. nh hng ca nhiu xuyn knh trong SOA khi khuch i hai tn
hiu
Nhiu xuyn knh gy nn do hin tng bo ha li xy ra trong
SOA c minh ha trn. Xem xt u vo b SOA l tng ca hai tn hiu
quang cc bc sng khc nhau. Gi thit rng c 2 bc sng nm trong
bng thng ca SOA. S c mt ca tn hiu th hai s lm suy gim mt
in t vng nng lng cao do qu trnh bc x kch thch lm dn n s
nghch o nng c quan st tn hiu th nht gim xung. Do , tn
hiu th nht s khng c khuch i ging nh tn hiu th hai, v nu
mt in t vng nng lng cao khng ln th tn hiu th nht c
th b hp th. Qu trnh ny xy ra ng thi i vi c hai tn hiu. Do ,
trn hnh 2.8 ta thy, khi mc 1 ca hai tn hiu 1 v 2 xy ra ng thi, li
ca mi tn hiu s nh hn so vi bnh thng.
Hin tng xuyn m ph thuc vo thi gian sng ca in t trng
thi nng lng cao. Nu thi gian sng ln so vi tc dao ng ca
cng sut trong cc tn hiu vo, cc in t khng th chuyn t trng thi
nng lng cao xung trng thi nng lng thp do s dao ng ny. Do ,
khng c xuyn m xy ra.
i vi cc SOA, thi gian sng ny mc ns. Do , cc in t d
dng phn ng li s dao ng trong cng sut ca cc tn hiu c iu ch
tc Gb/s, dn n mt s suy yu h thng chnh do xuyn m. Ngc
li, thi gian sng pht x t pht trong EDFA l khong 10ms. Do , xuyn
m ch c mt nu tc iu ch ca cc tn hiu vo t hn vi kiloHertz,
iu ny thng t gp trong thc t. Do , EDFA ph hp hn khi c s
dng trong cc h thng WDM hn SOA.
7.3.4. u khuyt im v ng dng ca SOA:
u im:
- li cao (25-30dB).
- Kch thc nh, c th tch hp vi cc linh kin quang bn dn khc.
- Di thng ln, c th ln ti 100 nm, rng hn so vi EDFA.

24
- C th thc hin khuch i tn hiu c hai ca s nh sng 1300nm v
1550nm.
Khuyt im:
- Cng sut ra bo ha thp (khong 5mW) hn ch kh nng ca SOA khi
c s dng lm b khuch i cng sut.
- H s nhiu cao (5-7 dB) nh hng n cht lng ca SOA khi c s
dng lm b tin khuch i v khuch i ng dy.
- Ph thuc vo phn cc ca tn hiu quang ti
- Nhiu xuyn knh ln do cc hiu ng phi tuyn: hiu ng trn 4 bc sng
FWM (four wave mixing) v hiu ng bo ha li cho (cross-gain
saturation)
- Ph li c dng gn sng do s khng hon ho ca lp chng phn x
to
- Km n nh do li chu nh hng ca nhit
ng dng:
Vi cc c tnh k thut trn, SOA c nhiu khuyt im so vi EDFA
khi c dng lm khuch i quang. Do , cho d SOA c nghin cu v
ch to t trc EDFA, nhng SOA khng c s dng lm b khuch i
quang trong h thng WDM cng nh cc h thng truyn dn quang khc
hin nay. Thay vo , da trn cc hiu ng phi tuyn p ng nhanh ca
SOA, SOA c dng trong cc ng dng khc ca h thng thng tin quang
nh: b bin i bc sng (wavelength convertor), phc hi xung clock
(clock recovery) v cc ng dng x l tn hiu quang (optical signal
processing applications).

7.4. B khuch i quang si pha tp Erbium (EDFA)
Thng tin quang si pht trin mnh trong cc h thng vin thng
trn th gii cng nh ti Vit Nam. Vic tng kh nng truyn dn v m
rng khong cch truyn dn ch c th gii quyt hiu qu bng cc h thng
truyn dn mi s dng cc cng ngh nh SDH hoc ATM kt hp vi cc
linh kin truyn thu kiu mi nh cc b khuch i quang hc. Khuch i
tn hiu quang bng cch s dng cc si quang pha t him m ra nhng
kh nng gim gi thnh tuyn truyn dn trong cc mng vng hoc cc
mng ng trc bng vic tng khong cch cc trm lp hoc a knh
truyn trn cc mng a phng c sn. Cc b khuch i quang si bng
si dn quang pha tp erbium (EDFA) bc sng 1550nm c s dng

25
rng ri trong cc tuyn thng tin cp quang ng di hoc cc mng vng
ln.
Nguyn tc hot ng ca cc khuych i quang si pha tp Erbium l
pht x cng bc. Cc ion Er3+ hp th cc photon t chm sng bm vi
bc sng nh hn 1,5 mm, ri li ti pht x mt phn nng lng di dng
cc photon vi bc sng ca signal. Cc ion Er3+ c chn bi v n
pht x hunh quang ti bc sng ~ 1.5 mm, bc sng ny sinh ra bi dch
chuyn pht x gia trng thi in t b kch thch v mc c bn 4I15/2.
Cc cng trnh nghin cu v laser v cc khuych i quang pha tp vi cc
ion t him v vi Erbium, khi so snh vi cc phng php ch to khc,
cho thy rng bng phng php sol-gel, ch to cc khuych i quang,
trn thu tinh, vi nng erbi 0.25 at.% v vi chiu di khuych i l
5,7 cm, thi gian sng l 6 ms vi Gain (dB/mW) c 2,7 ti bc sng bm
980 nm.
Trong cng ngh vin thng quang hc ton b (all-optical telecomunications)
th cc laser pha tp t him v khuych i quang l mt vi trong s cc
linh kin c bn, v bi s cn gim gi thnh v kch thc linh kin nn n
cn phi c tch hp li. S nh gn v cng sut ca laser v khuych i
quang ch yu lin quan ti mc ion t him pha tp cng nhiu cng tt
v phi gim thp nht mt mt trong qu trnh truyn sng.
Trong bi ny s trnh by vi nt s lc v cc b khuch i quang
si pha tap Erbium v cc ng dng ca n trong thng tin quang. S dng
cc b khuch i quang si pha tp Erbium (EDFA) ko di c ly v tng
tc bit truyn dn ang c xem nh l mt trong nhng gii php tt
nht xy dng cc h thng thng tin quang si. Trong nhng ng dng ,
EDFA c dng lm tin khuch i quang ci thin nhy thu c sc
hp dn c bit . S c mt ca b khuch i quang trong h thng thng tin
quang ni chung v trong b thu khuch i quang (OAR) ni ring lm
tng cng sut tn hiu quang l do EDFA khuch i tn hiu trc khi
tin hnh tch sng ti b thu quang.
7.4.1. Cc cu trc EDFA


26

Hnh 7.15. Cu trc tng qut ca mt b khuch i EDFA
Cu trc ca mt b khuch i quang si pha trn Erbium EDFA
(Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifier) bao gm
Si quang pha ion t him Erbium EDF (Erbium-Doped Fiber): l ni
xy ra qu trnh khuch i (vng tch cc) ca EDFA. Cu to ca si quang
pha ion c minh ha nh sau.

Hnh 7.16. Mt ct ngang ca mt loi si quang pha ion Erbium
Trong :
+ Vng li trung tm (c ng knh t 3 -6 m) ca EDF c
pha trn ion l ni c cng sng bm v tn hiu cao nht. Vic pha

27
cc ion trong vng ny cung cp s chng lp ca nng lng bm v
tn hiu vi cc ion erbium ln nht dn n s khuch i tt hn.
+ Lp bc (cladding) c chit sut thp hn bao quanh vng li.
+ Lp ph (coating) bo v bao quanh si quang to bn knh si
quang tng cng l 250 m. Lp ph ny c chit sut ln hn so vi lp bc
dung loi b bt k nh sng khng mong mun no lan truyn trong si
quang.
Nu khng k n cht pha erbium, cu trc EDF ging nh si n
mode chun trong vin thng. Ngoi ra, EDF cn c ch to bng cc loi
vt liu khc nh si thy tinh flouride (flouride-based glass fiber) hoc si
quang thy tinh a vt liu (multicomponent glass fiber).
- Laser bm (pumping laser): Cung cp nng lng nh sng to ra
trng thi nghch o nng trong vng tch cc. Laser bm pht ra nh
sng c bc sng 980nm hoc 1480nm.
- WDM Coupler: Ghp tn hiu quang cn khuch i v nh sng t
laser bm vo trong si quang. Loi coupler c s dng l WDM coupler
cho php ghp cc tn hiu c bc sng 980/1550nm hoc 1480/1550nm.
- B cch ly quang (Optical isolator): Ngn khng cho tn hiu quang
c khuch i phn x ngc v pha u pht hoc cc tn hiu quang trn
ng truyn phn x ngc v EDFA.
7.4.2. L thuyt khuch i trong EDFA
a) Gin phn b nng lung ca
Gin phn b nng lng ca trong si silica c minh ha trong
hnh v. Theo , cc ion c th tn ti nhiu vng nng lng khc
nhau c k hiu: , , , , , , .
Trong
- Vng c mc nng lng thp nht, c gi l vng nn
(ground-state band)
- Vng c gi l vng gi bn (mestable band) v cc ion c
thi gian sng (lifetime) ti vng ny lu (khong 10ms) trc khi chuyn
xung vng nn. Thi gian sng ny thay i ty theo loi tp cht c pha
trong li ca EDF.
- Vng , , , , l cc vng nng lng
cao, c gi l vng kch thch hay vng bm (pumping band). Thi gian
cc ion c trng thi nng lng trong cc vng ny rt ngn (khong 1
s)

28

Hnh 7.17. Gin phn b nng lng ca ion trong si silica.

S chuyn i nng lng ca cc ion c th xy ra trong cc
trng hp sau:
- Khi cc ion vng nn nhn mt mc nng lng bng
chnh lch nng lng gia vng nn v vng nng lng cao hn, chng s
chuyn ln vng c mc nng lng cao hn (s hp th nng lng)

29
- Khi cc ion chuyn t cc vng nng lng cao xung vng
nng lng thp hn s xy ra hai trng hp sau:
Phn r khng bc x (nonradiative decay): nng lng c gii
phng di dng photon to ra s dao ng phn t trong si quang
Pht x nh sng (radiation): nng lng c gii phng di dng
photon
chnh lch nng lng gia vng gi bn ( ) v vng nn ( )
0.775eV (tng ng vi nng lng ca photon c bc sng
1600nm) tnh t y vng gi bn n nh ca vng nn
0.814eV (1527 nm) tnh t y vng gi bn n y ca vng
nn
0.841 eV (1477nm) tnh t nh vng gi bn n y ca vng
nn
Mt phn b nng lng ca cc ion trong vng gi bn khng u
nhau: cc ion c khuynh hng tp trung nhiu cc mc nng lng
thp. iu ny dn n kh nng hp th v pht x photon ca ion Erbium
thay i theo bc sng. Ph hp th (absortion spectrum) v ph li (gain
spectrum) ca EDFA c li pha Ge c biu din trn hnh di

Hnh 7.18. Ph hp th (absorption spectrum) v ph li (gain
spectrum) ca EDFA c li pha Ge
b) Nguyn l hot ng ca EDFA
Nguyn l khuch i ca EDFA c da trn hin tng pht x kch
thch.
Qu trnh khuch i tn hiu quang trong EDFA c th c thc hin
theo cc bc nh sau

30
Khi s dng ngun bm laser 980nm, cc ion vng nn s hp
th nng lng t cc photon (c nng lng Ephoton =1.27eV) v chuyn
ln trng thi nng lng cao hn vng bm (pumping band) (1)
Ti vng bm, cc ion phn r khng bc x rt nhanh (khong
1s) v chuyn xung vng gi bn (2)
Khi s dng ngun bm laser 1480nm, cc ion vng nn s hp
th nng lng t cc photon (c nng lng E
photon
=0.841eV) v chuyn
sang trng thi nng lng cao hn nh ca vng gi bn (3)

Hnh 7.19. Qu trnh khuch i tn hiu xy ra EDFA vi hai bc
sng bm 980 nm v 1480nm
Cc ion trong vng gi bn lun c khuynh hng chuyn xung
vng nng lng thp (vng c mt in t cao) (4)
Sau khong thi gian sng (khong 10ms), nu khng c kch thch
bi cc photon c nng lng thch hp (pht x kch thch) cc ion s
chuyn sang trng thi nng lng thp hn vng nn v pht x ra photon
(pht x t pht) (5).
Khi cho tn hiu nh sng i vo EDFA, s xy ra ng thi hai hin
tng sau:
- Cc photon tn hiu b hp th bi cc ion vng nn (6). Tn
hiu nh sng b suy hao

31
- Cc photon tn hiu kch thch cc ion vng gi bn (7). Hin
tng pht x kch thch xy ra. Khi , cc ion b kch thch s chuyn
trng thi nng lng t mc nng lng cao vng gi bn xung mc nng
lng thp vng nn v pht x ra photon mi c cng hng truyn, cng
phn cc, cng pha v cng bc sng. Tn hiu nh sng c khuch i.
rng gia vng gi bn v vng nn cho php s pht x kch thch
(khuch i) xy ra trong khong bc sng 1530 nm 1565nm. y cng l
vng bc sng hot ng ca EDFA. li khuch i gim nhanh chng
ti cc bc sng ln hn 1565 nm v bng 0 dB ti bc sng 1616nm.
7.4.3. Yu cu i vi ngun bm
a) Bc sng bm
Vi cc vng nng lng c nu trong phn trn, nh sng bm c
th c s dng ti cc bc sng khc nhau 650 nm ( ), 800 nm
( ), 980 nm ( ), 1480 nm ( ). Tuy nhin, khi bc sng bm
cng ngn th cc ion phi tri qua nhiu giai on chuyn i nng
lng trc khi tr v vng nn v pht x ra photon nh sng. Do , hiu
sut bm khng cao, nng lng bm s b hao ph qua vic to ra cc phonon
thay v photon. V vy, trn thc t, nh sng bm s dng cho EDFA ch
c s dng ti hai bc sng 980nm v 1480nm.
Trong EDFA, iu kin c khuch i tn hiu l t c s nghch
o nng bng cch s dng ngun bm bm cc ion erbium ln trng
thi kch thch. C hai cch thc hin qu trnh ny: bm trc tip ti bc
sng 1480 nm hoc bm gin tip bc sng 980 nm.
Phng php bm gin tip (bm 980 nm): Trong trng hp ny, ion
erbium lin tc c chuyn tip t vng nng lng thp ln vng
nng lng cao , sau cc ion s phn r xung vng nhng
khng pht x. T vng ny, khi c nh sng kch thch th cc ion s pht x
bc sng mong mun (t 1550 n 1600 nm) khi chuyn t vng nng
lng xung vng . y chnh l h thng ba mc. Thi gian
sng ca ion erbium mc khong 1s trong khi th ti 10ms.
Vi thi gian sng di, vng c gi l vng n nh. V vy, cc ion
c bm ln mc cao, sau nhanh chng ri xung vng v tn ti
trong mt khong thi gian tng i di to nn s nghch o v nng
.
Vi phng php bm trc tip (1480 nm): cc ion erbium ch hot ng
trong hai vng nng lng v . y l h thng 2 mc. Cc ion erbium

32
lin tc c chuyn t vng nng lng nn ln vng nng lng
kch thch nh nng lng bm. V thi gian tn ti mc ny di nn
chng tch ly ti y to ra s nghch o nng .
Ngun bm c hiu qu cao c hai bc sng 980 v 1480 nm. c
h s khuch i hn 20 dB th ch cn to ra ngun bm c cng sut nh
hn 5 mW, nhng vn cn phi c ngun bm t 10 n 100 mW m bo
cho cng sut ra ln.
Ch s nhiu lng t gii hn l 3 dB t c bc sng 980 nm.
i vi bc sng 1480 nm th ch s nhiu l vo khong 4 dB v tit din
ngang pht x ti1480 nm cao hn ti 980 nm v s bc x kch thch do
ngun bm gii hn s nghch o tch lu ti 1480nm. Do , bc sng
bm 980 nm c ng dng cho cc b khuch i tp m thp. H s li
ti bc sng bm 980 nm cao hn ti 1480 nm ti cng cng sut bm. Do
, t c cng mt h s li th cng sut bm ti 1480 nm phi cao
hn ti 980 nm. V cng sut bm 1480 nm ln hn nn cng sut ng ra
ln hn, do bm bc sng 1480nm c ng dng cho cc b khuch
i cng sut. Ngoi ra, bc sng bm 1480 nm c truyn trong si quang
vi suy hao thp. Do , ngun bm laser c th t xa b khuch i.
Hin nay, bm bc sng 1480 nm c s dng rng ri hn v chng
sn c hn v tin cy cao hn. tin cy l c im quan trng i vi
laser bm v n dng bm cho khong cch di v trnh lm nhiu tn
hiu. Cc thit b khuch i cng sut i hi cng sut bm cao nht v
n nh ca chng l mu cht trong qu trnh nghin cu pht trin chng.
Nu tng c n nh ca laser c bc sng 980 nm th c th chng s
c chn lm ngun bm. Mt s EDFA c bm ti c hai bc sng
tn dng u im ca c hai bc sng.
Bng 1 So snh hai bc sng bm 980nm v 1480nm

Bc sng bm 980 nm 1480 nm
Tnh cht:
li
li cng sut bm
Suy hao cng sut bm
H s nhiu

Cao hn
Thp hn
Cao hn
Thp hn

Thp hn
Cao hn
Thp hn
Cao hn
ng dng Tin khuch i Khuch i cng sut
b) Cng sut bm
Cng sut bm cng ln th s c nhiu ion erbium b kch thch trao
i nng lng vi tn hiu cn khuch i v s lm cho h s khuch i
tng ln. Tuy nhin, h s khuch i khng th tng mi theo cng sut bm

33
v s lng cc ion erbium c cy vo si l c gii hn. Ngoi ra, khi cng
sut bm tng ln th h s nhiu s gim. iu ny s c trnh by trong
phn tnh h s nhiu ca EDFA.
c) Hng bm
B khuch i EDFA c th c bm theo ba cch:
Bm thun (codirectional pumping): ngun bm c bm cng chiu
vi hng truyn tn hiu.
Bm ngc (counterdirectional pumping): ngun bm c bm
ngc chiu vi hng truyn tn hiu.
Bm hai chiu (dual pumping): s dng hai ngun bm v c theo
hai chiu ngc nhau.
Hng bm thun c u im nhiu thp v nhiu kh nhy cm vi
li m li tn hiu cao nht khi cng sut tn hiu vo thp nht. Trong khi
, hng bm ngc cung cp cng sut ra bo ho cao nhng c h s
nhiu cao hn bm thun.
Do vy, ngi ta ngh s dng c hai laser bm c bc sng bm
khc nhau. Vic bm ti bc sng 1480 nm thng c s dng theo chiu
ngc vi hng truyn tn hiu v bm ti 980 nm theo hng thun s
dng tt nht u im ca mi loi bm. Bm ti 1480 nm c hiu sut lng
t cao hn nhng c h s nhiu cao hn, trong khi bm ti bc sng 980
nm c th cung cp mt h s nhiu gn mc gii hn lng t. H s nhiu
thp ph hp cho cc ng dng tin khuch i.
Mt EDFA c bm bng mt ngun bm c th cung cp cng sut
u ra cc i khong +16 dBm trong vng bo ho hoc h s nhiu t 5-6
dB trong vng tn hiu nh. C hai bc sng bm c s dng ng thi c
th cung cp cng sut u ra cao hn; mt EDFA c bm kp c th cung
cp cng sut ra ti +26 dBm trong vng cng sut bm cao nht c
th t c. Hnh 6 th hin mt EDFA c bm kp.
Gi tr cc c tnh ca b khuch i EDFA c trnh by trong bng
2.


34
Hnh 7.20. Cu hnh b khuch i EDFA c bm kp.
7.4.4. Ph khuch i
Ph li ca EDFA c trnh by trong hnh Hnh 7.18. l tnh cht
quan trng nht ca EDFA khi xc nh cc knh tn hiu c khuch i
trong h thng WDM. Hnh dng ca ph khuch i ph thuc vo bn cht
ca si quang, loi tp cht (Ge, Al) v nng tp cht c pha trong li
ca si quang.
Hnh Hnh 7.18. cho thy ph li ca EDFA c li pha Ge kh
rng. Tuy nhin, ph li ny khng bng phng. iu ny s dn n vic
h s khuch i khc nhau i vi cc bc sng khc nhau. Nu li ca
cc knh tn hiu khng ng nht, nht l sau khi qua nhiu tng EDFA, sai
s li ny s tch lu tuyn tnh n mc khi ti u thu knh bc sng c
li cao lm cho u vo my thu qu ti. Ngc li, knh tn hiu c li
nh th t s SNR khng t yu cu. S lm phng li l cn thit loi
b s khuch i mo cc tn hiu qua cc EDFA ng truyn ghp tng.
Mt s bin php c s dng khc phc s khng bng phng ca
ph li:
Chn la cc bc sng c li gn bng nhau. WDM lm vic
di sng bng C (1530 1565 nm). Trong di bc sng ny chn 40
bc sng lm bc sng cng tc ca WDM. Cc bc sng ny c
li gn bng nhau.
Cng ngh cn bng li: dng b cn bng (equalizer) hp th bt
cng sut bc sng c li ln v b khuch i tng cng sut
ca bc sng c li nh.
Thay i thnh phn trn trong si quang: dng si quang trn thm
nhm, photpho nhm hay flo cng vi erbium s to nn b khuch i
c bng tn c m rng v ph khuch i bng phng hn.
Ngoi ra, ph li ca EDFA cn ph thuc vo chiu di ca si
EDF. L do l v trng thi nghch o nng thay i dc theo chiu di
ca si quang khi cng sut bm thay i.
B khuch i EDFA hot ng bng C (1530-1565 nm). Tuy nhin,
li ca si pha tp c ui tri rng n khong 1605 nm. iu ny kch
thch s pht trin ca cc h thng hot ng bng L t 1565 n 1625
nm. Nguyn l hot ng ca EDFA bng L ging nh EDFA bng C. Tuy
nhin, c s khc nhau trong vic thit k EDFA cho bng C v bng L. Cc
phn t bn trong b khuch i quang nh b cch ly (isolator) v b ghp
(coupler) ph thuc vo bc sng nn chng s khc nhau trong bng C v

35
bng L. S so snh cc tnh cht ca EDFA trong bng C v bng L c th
hin trong bng 2.
Bng 2 Bng so snh EDFA hot ng trong bng C v bng L
Tnh cht Bng C Bng L
li
Ph li
Nhiu ASE
Cao hn
t bng phng hn
Thp hn
Nh hn khong 3 ln
Bng phng hn
Cao hn
Hnh di trnh by cu trc ca mt b khuch i bng L lm bng
phng li trong khong bc sng 1570nm 1610nm vi thit k hai tng
Tng u tin c bm bc sng 980nm v hot ng nh mt b
EDFA truyn thng (si quang di 20-30nm) c kh nng cung cp li
trong khong bc sng 1530-1570 nm.
Ngc li, tng th hai c si quang di 200m v c bm hai chiu
s dng laser 1480nm. Mt b isolator c t gia hai tng ny cho php
nhiu ASE truyn t tng th 1 sang tng th 2 nhng ngn ASE truyn
ngc v tng th nht. Vi cu trc ni tip nh vy, khuch i hai tng c
th cung cp li phng trn mt vng bng thng rng trong khi vn duy tr
mc nhiu thp.

Optical
Isolator
Optical
Isolator
Optical
Isolator
Bulk-type WDM
Coupler
Bulk-type WDM
Coupler
Bulk-type WDM
Coupler
Signal
In
First Amp. Unit Second Amp. Unit
Signal
Out
Er -Doped
Fiber
3+
Er -Doped
Fiber
3+
0,98
LD
m 1,48
LD
m 1,48
LD
m

Hnh 7.21. Cu hnh ca mt b khuch i bng L lm bng phng li
trong khong bc sng 1570nm 1610nm vi thit k hai tng

7.4.5. Cc tnh cht ca EDFA
a) li (Gain)
li ca mt b EDFA c th c tnh theo phng trnh sau:

36

(z)
(2.11)

Trong :
- (z), (z): mt ion erbium trng thi kch thch v trng thi nn ti
v tr z trong on si quang pha erbium
- : chiu di si pha erbium.
- , : tit din ngang hp th v pht x ca ion erbium ti bc sng tn
hiu.
- Phng trnh (2.11) cho thy li lin quan n s nghch o nng
trung bnh. Gi ln lt l nng ion Erbium mc nng lng nn
v mc nng lng kch thch trung bnh. Khi , s c tnh theo
cng thc sau:

= (z)ds (2.12)

= (z)ds (2.13)
Phng trnh (2.11) c th c vit li mt cch n gin hn nh sau:

(2.14)

T phng trnh trn ta thy li tn hiu sau khi i qua si quang ch
ph thuc vo s nghch o nng cc ion erbium trung bnh trong si
quang m khng ph thuc vo chi tit v dng nghch o nh mt hm i
vi v tr dc theo chiu di si quang. Trong phng trnh (2.12), (2.13) c
hai tham s (z) v (z) l hm theo v tr z dc theo si quang c cho
bi

(z) = N (2.15)

37

(z) = N (z) (2.16)
Trong :
: thi gian sng ca ion erbium trng thi kch thch .
Ps(z): cng sut ca tn hiu ti v tr z trong si quang.
Pp(z): cng sut bm ti v tr z trong si quang.
: h s chng lp ti bc sng tn hiu.
: h s chng lp ti bc sng bm.
: tn s tn hiu.
: tn s bm.
mt ion erbium tng cng.
l tit din ngang hp th v pht x ti bc sng tn
hiu.
: l tit din ngang hp th v pht x ti bc sng bm.
h : hng s Planck; h= 6,625. J.s.
T cng thc (2.15) ta thy h s khuch i ca EDFA ph thuc vo cc
yu t sau:
Ph thuc vo nng ion : Khi nng trong si quang
ca b EDFAtng th kh nng chng c chuyn ln mc nng
lng cao hn cng nhiu, do h s khuch i tng. Nhng nu
nng tng qu cao s gy tch t dn n hin tng tiu hao
quang lm cho h s khuch i gim.
Ph thuc vo cng sut tn hiu n v cng sut bm quang: Khi
cng sut vo tng, bc x b kch tng nhanh, ngha l ion mc
nng lng cao tr v mc nng lng c bn cng nhiu lm gim
nng s ion mc nng lng cao, lm yu i kh nng bc
x ca ion khi tn hiu quang c a ti, do h s khuch
i gim. S c mt mc gii hn m cng sut tn hiu vo tng nhng
cng sut ra khng tng na gi l cng sut bo ho.
Ph thuc vo chiu di si: Khi chiu di si ngn th tn hiu khng
c khuch i nhiu do li tn hiu nh. Ngc li, khi chiu
di tng ln th tn hiu c khuch i nhiu hn, do li ln
hn. Tuy nhin, khi chiu di qu di so vi cng sut bm th li
tn hiu s b gim do chiu di qu ln m cng sut bm li khng

38
p ng ht chiu di si th tn hiu s b suy hao dn v do lm
gim li.
Ph thuc vo cng sut bm: Cng sut bm cng ln th s c nhiu
ion erbium b kch thch trao i nng lng vi tn hiu cn khuch
i v s lm cho h s khuch i tng ln. Tuy nhin, h s khuch
i khng th tng mi theo cng sut bm v s lng cc ion erbium
c cy vo si l c gii hn.
Do vy, ty theo ng dng ca EDFA, cc yu t trn s c hiu
chnh sau cho li ca EDFA t gi tr yu cu vi hiu sut cao nht.
Thng thng, li ca EDFA vo khong 20-40 dB tu theo ng dng ca
EDFA l b khuch i cng sut, khuch i ng truyn hay tin khuch
i.
b) Cng sut ra bo ho (Output saturation power)
S bo ho xy ra khi cng sut tn hiu vo EDFA ln gy ra s gim
h s khuch i. V vy, n gii hn cng sut ra ca b khuch i. S bo
ho h s khuch i ny xut hin khi cng sut tn hiu tng cao v gy ra
s pht x kch thch mt t l cao v do lm gim s nghch o nng
. iu c ngha l s cc ion erbium trng thi kch thch gim mt
cch ng k. H qu l, cng sut tn hiu ng ra b hn ch bi s bo ho
cng sut. Cng sut ra bo ha c nh ngha l tn hiu ra m
h s khuch i b gim i 3 dB so vi khi khuch i tn hiu nh.

Hnh 7.22. Cng sut ra bo ho tng tuyn tnh theo cng sut bm vo ti
bc sng bm 975 nm i vi bc sng tn hiu l 1555 nm v 1532 nm.

39
Cng sut ra bo ho khng phi l mt hng s m tng ln tuyn tnh
vi cng sut bm (xem hnh 8). Cng sut bo ho c th c xc nh
bng cng sut tn hiu ng ra m ti li bng li tn hiu nh tr 3
dB. Nh vy bng cch xc nh li tn hiu nh ta c th suy ra im bo
ho v t xc nh cng sut bo ho.
Cng sut ra bo ho cng thay i ty theo bc sng ca tn hiu v
mt cc ion phn b ti vng nng lng gi bn khng bng nhau.
Hnh 2.16 cho thy cng sut ra bo ha ti 1.55 m cao hn ti 1.53 m vi
cng cng sut bm.
7.4.6. u khuyt im ca EDFA
a) u im:
- Ngun laser bm bn dn c tin cy cao, gn v cng sut cao.
- Cu hnh n gin: h gi thnh ca h thng.
- Cu trc nh gn: c th lp t nhiu EDFA trong cng mt trm, d
vn chuyn v thay th.
- Cng sut ngun nui nh: thun li khi p dng cho cc tuyn thng
tin quang vt bin.
- Khng c nhiu xuyn knh khi khuch i cc tn hiu WDM nh b
khuch i quang bn dn.
- Hu nh khng ph thuc vo phn cc ca tn hiu.
b) Khuyt im:
- Ph li ca EDFA khng bng phng.
- Bng tn hin nay b gii hn trong bng C v bng L.
- Nhiu c tch ly qua nhiu chng khuch i gy hn ch c ly
truyn dn.
2.4 B khuch i quang RAMAN (RA)
2.4.1 Nguyn l hot ng
Khuch i Raman da trn hin tng tn x Raman kch thch
(Stimulated Raman Scattering). Tn x Raman kch thch l hin tng mt
nguyn t hp th nng lng ca mt photon, sau to ra mt photon c
nng lng khc. V vy, tn x Raman kch thch c nh ngha l hin
tng photon th cp c sinh ra do kch thch t ngun bn ngoi.

40

Hnh 7.23. S chuyn nng lng trong khuch i Raman
c khuch i Raman th phi to ra s nghch o nng . iu
ny t c bng cch cung cp nng lng cho cc nguyn t ca si quang
t mt laser bm c bc sng thp hn bc sng ca tn hiu. Khi , cc
nguyn t ca si quang s hp th nng lng bm c nng lng cao (bc
sng ngn) v chuyn ln mc nng lng cao hn. Khi c tn hiu n, n s
kch thch cc nguyn t ang mc nng lng cao chuyn sang trng thi
nng lng thp hn v gii phng ra mt nng lng di dng photon nh
sng c cng bc sng (di hn
bc sng bm) v cng pha vi tn hiu n. Do , tn hiu c khuch
i
Da trn gin nng lng trn, tn s nh sng bm fbm v tn s
nh sng c khuch i fkhuch i c xc nh nh sau
f
bm
= (E3 E1)/h
f
khuch i
= (E2 E1)/h
Trong
h l hng s Plank;
E1, E2, E3 l nng lng ca cc trng thi nng lng cao (transition
state), trng thi nng lng trung gian (vibration state) v trng thi nng
lng thp (ground state) ca cc nguyn t trong si quang.
Khng ging nh nguyn l khuch i ca EDFA, khuch i Raman
khng cn mt si quang ring v c bit (pha trn ion Er3+).
Trong khuch i Raman, tn hiu quang c khuch i dc theo ton
b chiu di ca si quang silic bnh thng.
Cu trc ca mt b khuch i Raman c minh ha trong hnh 2.19.

41

Hnh 7.24. Cu trc ca b khuch i Raman
Si quang: l ni xy ra qu trnh khuch i. Si quang ny cng l si
quang truyn tn hiu nh si SMF, DSF,
Trong khuch i quang khng cn s dng si quang c bit (pha ion
Erbium) nh b khuch i EFDA.
B ghp (Coupler): dng ghp bc sng tn hiu vo vi sng bm.
Laser bm (Pump laser): dng cung cp nng lng cho cc nguyn
t ca si quang chuyn ln trng thi kch thch, gip to ra s nghch o
nng .
B cch ly (Isolator): t hai u ca b khuch i quang ngn chn tn
hiu phn x hai u b khuch i. ng thi n cng gip loi tr nhiu
ASE theo hng ngc v pha u vo c th gy nh hng n tn hiu
u vo.
2.4.2 rng bng tn v h s khuch i
H s khuch i Raman tng hu nh tuyn tnh vi chnh lch
bc sng gia tn hiu v ngun bm (wavelength offset), t gi tr nh ti
100 nm v gim nhanh chng sau . Trong hnh cng cho thy, bng thng
li ca khuch i Raman c th t c t 45-50nm.

42

Hnh 7.25. H s li Raman thay i theo chnh lch bc sng ca tn
hiu v ngun bm (wavelength offset)
Nu di tn ca cc tn hiu cn khuch i Raman ln hn bng thng
li ca khuch i Raman (gi s 40nm), cn phi s dng nhiu ngun
bm khc nhau. Mi ngun bm c bc sng cch nhau khong 40nm (bng
vi bng thng li). Khi , di tn ln ca cc tn hiu c th c
khuch i mt cch hiu qu (xem Hnh 7.26.-a). Tuy nhin, do c tnh
khuch i ca khuch i Raman v do khong ca cc bc sng bm, bng
thng li tng cng c dng gn sng nh hnh Hnh 7.26.-b.
Vi u im bng thng li ln, khuch i Raman c quan tm
n trong cc ng dng thng tin quang. Tuy nhin hiu sut li ca
khuch i Raman khng cao. t c h s khuch i ln, cn phi s
dng cng sut bm tng i cao.

43
Hnh 7.26.
(a)Vi khong cch cc ngun bm 40nm, cc knh nm trong di tn rng c khuch
i
(b) Gn li do khuch i Raman v do khong cch cch ngun bm
2.4.3 u khuyt im ca khuch i Raman:
So vi cc loi khuch i quang khc, khuch i Raman c nhng u
im sau:
- Tp m nhiu thp
- Cu trc n gin, khng cn si c bit.
- D chn bng tn.
- C th t c bng thng rng nh kt hp vi laser bm.
Tuy nhin, bn cnh nhng u im b khuch i Raman cng c
nhng nhc im nh sau:
- Xuyn m gia cc knh tn hiu do hin tng tn x Raman kch
thch SRS. y l mt trong cc hiu hng phi tuyn ca si quang c th gy
nh hng n cht lng ca h thng ghp knh theo bc sng WDM.
- H s khuch i thp.
- Hiu sut khuch i thp hn so vi EDFA: khuch i Raman cn
mt cng sut bm ln hn t cng mt gi tr li

Chng 8: LASER

1
Chng 8
LASER

Gii thiu chung
Laser l tn vit tt ca cm t Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation c ngha l "khuch i nh sng bng pht x cng
bc". Laser c phng theo maser ( Microwave Amplication by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation-S khuch i sng viba do S pht x cng bc ),
mt thit b c c ch tng t nhng to ra tia vi sng hn l cc bc x nh
sng. Maser u tin c to ra bi Charles H. Townes v sinh vin tt
nghip J.P. Gorn v H.J. Zeiger vo nm 1953. Maser u tin khng
to ra tia sng mt cch lin tc. Nikolay Gennadiyevich Basov v Aleksandr
Mikhailovich Prokhorov ca Lin bang X Vit lm vic c lp trn lnh
vc lng t dao ng v to ra h thng phng tia lin tc bng cch dng
nhiu hn 2 mc nng lng. H thng c th phng ra tia lin tc m
khng cho cc ht xung mc nng lng bnh thng. Nm 1964, Charles
Townes, Nikolai Basov v Aleksandr Prokhorov cng nhn gii thng Nobel
vt l v nn tng cho lnh vc in t lng t, dn n vic to ra my dao
ng v phng i da trn thuyt maser-laser.
8.1 Cc phn t ca quang laser

Hnh 8.1. Cc phn t ca quang laser
(1) Bung cng hng (vng b kch thch)
(2) Ngun nui (nng lng bm vo vng b kch thch)
(3) gng phn x ton phn
(4) gng bn m
(5) tia laser
Chng 8: LASER

2
Bung cng hng cha hot cht laser, l mt cht c bit c kh
nng khuch i nh sng bng pht x cng bc to ra laser. Tnh cht
ca laser ph thuc vo hot cht , do ngi ta cn c vo hot cht
phn loi laser.
Ngun nui l phn cung cp nng lng cho h thng laser. Bao gm
cc phng in, n nhy, n h quang, nh sng t laser khc. Vic la
chn loi ngun nui no s dng da ch yu vo mi trng kch thch
l loi g, v iu ny l yu t ch cht quyt nh lm sao m nng lng
truyn vo trong mi trng.
V d: Laser He-Ne dng cc phng in trong hn hp kh Heli Neon.
Laser Nd:YAG dng nh sng hi t t n nhy Xenon.
Mi trng kch thch l yu t chnh quyt nh bc sng, v cc tnh
cht khc ca tia laser. C hng trm mi trng kch thch c th lm c.
Mi trng kch thch b kch thch bng ngun bm to ra s kch thch ng
u gia cc electron, cn thit cho s pht x cng bc cc ht photon, dn
n hin tng khuch i nh sng.
Mt v d v c ch hot ng ca laser c th c miu t cho laser
thch anh. Di s tc ng ca hiu in th cao, cc electron ca thch anh
di chuyn t mc nng lng thp ln mc nng lng cao to nn trng thi
o nghch mt ca electron.
mc nng lng cao, mt s electron s ri ngu nhin xung mc
nng lng thp, gii phng ht nh sng c gi l photon. Cc ht photon
ny s to ra nhiu hng khc nhau t mt nguyn t, v phi cc nguyn t
khc, kch thch eletron cc nguyn t ny ri xung tip, sinh thm cc
photon cng tn s, cng pha v cng hng bay, to nn mt phn ng dy
chuyn khuch i dng nh sng.
Cc ht photon b phn x qua li nhiu ln trong vt liu, nh cc
gng tng hiu sut khuch i nh sng. Mt s photon ra ngoi nh c
gng phn x ti mt u ca vt liu. Tia sng i ra chnh l tia laser.
8.2 Nguyn tc hot ng laser
8.2.1 S pht x cng bc
Ta bit rng s pht x bi cc ht (nguyn t, phn t, ion) trong
cc ngun sng thng thng l cc qu trnh xy ra mt cch t pht, hon
ton ngu nhin. Khi nhn c mt nng 1ng thch hp, ht s t trng
thi bn nhy ln trng thi kch thch c mc nng lng cao hn. Sau mt
thi gian, ht s ri tr v trng thi bn v phng thch nng lng ( hp
th) di dng nh sng, ngha l pht ra photon.
Nm 1917, khi nghin cu qu trnh tng tc gia nh sng v vt
cht, Einstein cho rng : Khng nhng cc ht pht x mt cch ngu nhin
nh trn m cn c th pht x do tc ng ca bn ngoi. Khi ta chiu vo h
Chng 8: LASER

3
mt bc x, th cc ht ang mc nng lng kch thch E2 s ri tr v
trng thi cn bn E1 v pht ra bc x : 1 hin tng bc x kch thch
ng (hay bc x cm ng, bc x cng bc). y l c s hot ng ca
my Laser.
Cc ht thay i gia hai mc nng lng E1 (cn bn) v E2 (kch
thch). Khi ta kch thch bng quang t (photon) c nng lng.
h = E
2
E
1
Th cc ht t mc E1 s nhy ln mc E2.
S ht mc nng lng kch thch E2 (cao hn) bnh thng t hn
mc nng lng cn bn E1 (thp hn).
Tm li, khi ta chiu vo h mt chm tia sng kch thch c nng
lng photon l h (th trong mt thi gian s lm cho mt s ht t trng
thi c bn E1 nhy ln trng thi kch thch E2 (s hp th), trong thi gian
, mt s ht t mc E2 t pht ri tr v E1, mt s ht khc b ng vi
photon kch thch cng ri tr v E1 (s pht x ngu nhin v pht x cng
bc). Nhng lun lun n
2
< n
1
. Do , cc photon kch thch h (gp cc ht
mc E1 nhiu hn gp cc ht mc E2, ngha l hin tng hp th mnh
hn hin tng pht x nh sng. V vy, iu kin bnh thng, khi i qua
mt mi trng vt cht bao gi nh sng cng b yu i.
Khi mt photon ht gp mt ht trng thi kch thch v lm ht ny
ri tr v mc cn bn th photon c ht phng thch cng l h (nng
lng do ht hp th khi i t E1 ln E2), photon mi sinh ra ny hon ton
ging photon.
Nh vy kt qu ca s kch thch l t mt photon ti ht, ta c hai
photon pht x. Ta gi l pht x cng bc

Hnh 8.2. Cc qu trnh pht x t pht v pht x cng bc
8.2.2 S khuch i nh sng i qua mt mi trng
By gi ta th gi thuyt c mt trng hp: Trong mt mi trng s
ht trng thi kch thch ln hn s ht trng thi cn bn : n
2
> n
1
. Trong
trng hp ny, photon kch thch s gp cc ht trng thi kch thch nhiu
Chng 8: LASER

4
hn trng thi cn bn. Khi hin tng bc x s mnh hn hin tng
hp th v kt qu ngc vi trng hp trn, khi truyn qua mi trng, nh
sng mnh hn ln.
Thc vy, khi mt photon kch thch gp mt ht trng thi kch thch
v gy ra s pht x th mt photon thnh hai. C nh th s photon tng ln
rt nhanh, v khi truyn qua mi trng, ta c mt chm tia sng c cng
mnh.
Nh vy, vn 1: Mun c mt chm tia sng cc mnh bng cch
c khuch i ln nh trn, ta phi lm cch no c n
2
> n
1
. 1 s o
ngc mt ( nng ). Mi trng khi b o ngc mt ( nng )
nh vy c gi l mi trng hot tnh.
s ht c nng lng cao nhiu hn ht s ht c nng lng thp,
ngi ta phi cung cp nng lng cho mi trng, phi bm nng lng
cho n. Mt trong cc cch lm nghch o mt ( nng ) 1 phng php
bm quang hc. K thut ny a n gii Nobe1 v vt 1 cho nh bc
hc Php Kastler nm 1966 (cng trnh ny ca Kastler c thc hin t
nm 1950). Kastler dng mt chm tia sng c cng mnh 1m bm
bm nng lng cho mi trng khin n tr thnh hot tnh. Phng php
bm quang hc thng c dng vi cc cht rn v cht lng. Vi laser kh,
ngi ta thng nghch o mt ( nng ) bng cch phng in trong kh
km.
8.2.3 B cng hng
Vi iu kin n
2
> n
1
, mi trng cho kh nng c th thc hin s
khuch i cng nh sng, nhng mun c c mt chm tia Laser c
c tnh nh hng cao th ch c mi trng hot tnh th cha , m
cn cn mt b phn gi l b cng hng. B phn ny va c tc dng tng
cng cng nh sng, va c tc dng nh hng chm tia laser khi n
phng ra khi my. Trong trng hp n gin nht, b phn cng hng
gm hai gng phng M1 v M2, t hai u my.
Cc photon c phng di chuyn thng gc vi hai gng s di i, di
li nhiu ln trong mi trng hot tnh. Nh vy b phn cng hng ng
vai tr nh mt ci by nh sng. Trong khi phn chiu qua li nh th, cc
photon p vo cc ht trng thi kch thch, lm phng thch cc photon
khc. Cc photon ny li phn chiu qua li gia M1 v M2, p vo cc ht
trng thi kch thch v li lm bt ra cc photon mi na, c nh th cng
nh sng tng ln rt mnh.
Vi cc photon ny khng di chuyn thng gc vi hai gng th sau
mt hi di chuyn, chng b lt ra ngoi my.
8.2.4 Thm pht x cng bc
Ta nhn thy trong cch cu to trn ca my laser, c th mt phn
nng lng s b mt i do s phn chiu trn hai gng M1, M2 v do s
Chng 8: LASER

5
nhiu x lm lch phng di chuyn ca cc photon. Do , ta ch thc s c
hin tng khuch i cng nh sng nu cng sut P sinh ra do s pht
x cng bc ln hn cng sut P b mt i

Hnh 8.3. S pht x cng bc trong bung cng hng laser
Nh vy mun c c s khuch i cng nh sng, khng nhng
ta phi c iu kin u tin n
2
> n
1
m n
2
n
1
phi ln hn mt tr s (dng)
xc nh. Tr s ny c gi l thm pht x cng bc. Ta c tr s cng ln
th thm pht x cng bc cng thp.
Ch khi vo n
2
n
1
vt qua thm, th mi c nh sng laser pht ra.
8.2.5. Cc c tnh ca tia laser
1. Tnh n sc
Cc photon pht x cng bc mang cng mt nng lng ht nn nh
sng rt n sc. Nu xt nh sng pht ra bi ngc hng to th trong trng
hp laser, b rng PP ca vch 6943A
o
hp khong 10
-4
1n so vi b rng
QQ ca vch ny trong trng hp pht x thng thng.
Chng 8: LASER

6

Hnh 8.4. Tnh n sc
2. Tnh ng pha
Vi mt ngun sng thng thng, nh sng pht ra bi cc ht l nh
sng khng ng pha nhau, ngha l khng c mt s lin h no v pha gia
cc dao ng pht ra bi cc ht. Trong trng hp ngun sng laser, cc
photon pht ra u ng pha nn nh sng laser l 1 chm nh sng iu hp.
Chnh v vy, chm tia laser c th gy ra cc tc dng rt mnh (tng hp cc
dao ng ng pha).
3. Tnh song song
Chm tia laser pht ra song song vi trc, vi mt gc loe rt nh.
Nm 1962, ngi ta to ra mt chm tia laser c gc loe l 3 x 10
-5
rad.
8.2.6. Cc ch hot ng
1. Ch pht lin tc
Trong ch pht lin tc, cng sut ca mt laser tng i khng i
so vi thi gian. S o nghch mt (electron) cn thit cho hot ng laser
c duy tr lin tc bi ngun bm nng lng u n.
2. Ch pht xung
Trong ch pht xung, cng sut laser lun thay i so vi thi gian,
vi c trng l cc giai on ng v ngt cho php tp trung nng
lng cao nht c th trong mt thi gian ngn nht c th.
Cc dao laser l mt v d, vi nng lng cung cp mt nhit
lng cn thit, chng c th lm bc hi mt lng nh vt cht trn b mt
mu vt trong thi gian rt ngn. Tuy nhin, nu cng nng lng nh vy
nhng tip xc vi mu vt trong thi gian di hn th nhit lng s c thi
gian xuyn su vo trong mu vt do phn vt cht b bc hi s t hn.
C rt nhiu phng php t c iu ny, nh
+ Phng php chuyn mch Q (Q-switching)
+ Phng php kiu kho (modelocking)
Chng 8: LASER

7
+ Phng php bm xung (pulsed pumping)
Dao laser: Thit b l s kt hp gia 2 cng ngh: laser femto giy v
hin vi hunh quang hai photon, thnh mt loi my thm d linh hot c nh
duy nht. My thm d c th xc nh cc t bo n l trong khng gian 3
chiu, m xuyn ti 250 micromet vo trong khi m.
8.2.7. Dng ph
Hin tng laser xy ra do s tng tc ca hai h thng
+ H nguyn t c chuyn mc nng lng ca in t lm pht sinh
photon.
+ Hc cng hng to bi cc gng u cui.
1. Tng tc gia bc x vi h nguyn t
Mt photon s pht sinh khi 1in t chuyn t 1 mc nng lng cao
xung 1
mc nng lng thp hn:
h = E
2
- E
1

Trong thc t c s m rng vch ph do 2 qu trnh sau:
- Homogeneous broadening: c trng cho tt c cc nguyn t trong h,
- Inhomogeneous broadening: vch ph b m rng do cc hiu ng
nguyn t ring bit. Trong tinh th cc nguyn t khc nhau c th c
cc chuyn mc nng lng khc nhau t do cc nguyn t ln cn. Cc
nguyn t trong khi chuyn ng theo cc hng khc nhau vi cc vn
tc khc nhau, do gy ra cc dch chuyn Doppler khc nhau ln tn
s
* Qu trnh ny chim u th vi laser kh; laser Helium-neon c
rng bn ph 1.1 x 10
9
Hz n 1.4 x 10
9
Hz
* Ph ca laser thc c th b nh hng do tn hao phn x bi gng
v tn x khng kh
2. Hc cng hng to bi cc gng u cui
iu kin cng hng: hnh trnh qua hc 2L = s nguyn m ln bc
sng
2L = m
C rt nhiu tn s laser c php, cch nhau cc khong
L
c
f
2
= A
gi l cc mode hc cng hng (cavity modes) hay mode dc
(longitudinal modes)
Ngi thit k laser phi ti u ho thit k cho tn s mong mun nh
vic iu khin hn hp kh, cc c trng kch thch v phn x ca hc v
c th dng b lc, hoc tng khong cch gia cc gng (tng L).
Chng 8: LASER

8

Hnh 8.5. mode dc (longitudinal modes)
Trong thc t ch c nhng chuyn mc nng lng vi thi gian sng
tng i ln mi c th to ra cc vch ph c th s dng c.
Nng lng laser kh dng nhn c khi li ca hc c iu
chnh chn 1 trong cc vch laser kh d.
S Pht x ng thi ny c gi l longitudinal modes.
Ngoi ra, hc laser c th to ra mt s mode khng gian hay TEM modes
(mode ngang Tranverse Electric Magnetic). Cc mode ny hnh thnh do cc
tia hi lch so vi trc chnh.
Trong thc t, mode mong mun l TEM00, l tia n vi phn b
nng lng theo phn b Gauss.

Hnh 8.6. mode ngang
8.2.8. iu khin Laser
Cng sut bc x, bc sng, dng hot ng v thi gian s dng ca
Laser u thay i theo nhit , do cn c cc vng iu khin in v
iu khin nhit.
+ Vng iu khin in:
Chng 8: LASER

9
- Chng cc xung dng v th ph hu.
- iu ch dng laser
- iu chnh dng ngng
+ Vng iu khin nhit:
- Tip xc nhit vi v laser.
- Thng cha linh kin bm nhit bn dn gi l thermoelectric
cooler hoc Peltier device c tc dng thu nhit (bm nhit t laser ra v
ngoi ca u laser).
- Bm nhit in: dng in t chuyn nhit lng t mt hp th nhit
ra mt truyn nhit thng qua dy cc bn dn BiTe (Bismuth Telluride) loi
N v P ghp lun phin vi kim loi tip xc vi cc mt truyn nhit v mt
hp th nhit.
8.3 . Cc kiu laser

Hnh 8.7. Cc loi laser thng dng
8.3.1. Laser cht rn
C khong 200 cht rn c kh nng dng lm mi trng hot cht
laser. Mt s loi laser cht rn thng dng:
+ YAG-Neodym: hot cht l Yttrium Aluminium Garnet (YAG) cng
thm 2-5% Neodym, c bc sng 1060nm thuc ph hng ngoi gn. C th
pht lin tc ti 100W hoc pht xung vi tn s 1000-10 000Hz.
Chng 8: LASER

10
+ Hng ngc (Rubi): hot cht l tinh th Alluminium c gn nhng ion
chrom, c bc sng 694,3nm thuc vng ca nh sng trng.
+ Bn dn: loi thng dng nht l diot Gallium Arsen c bc sng
890nm thuc ph hng ngoi gn. ( trnh by k phn 8.4. )
8.3.2. Laser cht kh
- He-Ne: hot cht l kh Heli v Neon, c bc sng 632,8nm thuc
ph nh sng trong vng nhn thy, cng sut nh t mt n vi chc
mW.
- Argon: hot cht l kh argon, bc sng 488 v 514,5nm.
CO2: bc sng 10 600nm thuc ph hng ngoi xa, cng sut pht x
c th ti megawatt (MW). Trong y hc ng dng lm dao m.

Mi trng
kch thch
v loi
Bc sng
Ngun kch
thch
ng dng v ghi ch
Laser kh
He-Ne
632.8 nm (543.5
nm, 593.9 nm,
611.8 nm, 1.1523
m, 1.52 m,
3.3913 m)
Cc phng
in
Giao thoa k, holograph,
quang ph hc, c m vch,
cn chnh, miu t quang hc.
Laser kh
ion Argon
488.0 nm, 514.5
nm, (351 nm,
465.8 nm, 472.7
nm, 528.7 nm)
Cc phng
in
Cha tr vng mc bng nh
sng (cho ngi bnh tiu
ng), in thch bn, l ngun
kch thch cc laser khc.
Laser kh
Ion Kryton
416 nm, 530.9 nm,
568.2 nm, 647.1
nm, 676.4 nm,
752.5 nm, 799.3
nm
Cc phng
in
Nghin cu khoa hc, trnh
din nh sng.
Laser kh
ion Xenon
Nhiu vch t cc
tm n hng
ngoi.
Cc phng
in
Nghin cu khoa hc.
Laser kh
Nit
337.1 nm
Cc phng
in
L ngun kch thch cho laser
mu, o nhim, nghin
cu khoa hc, Laser nit c
kh nng hot ng cng
yu.
Laser H-F
2.7 n 2.9 m (H-
F) 3.6 n 4.2 m
(D-F)
Phn ng
chy
ethylene v
Dng cho nghin cu v kh
laser, dng sng pht ra lin
tc v c tnh cng ph ln.
Chng 8: LASER

11
NF
3

Laser
ho hc
xy-It
1.315 m
Phn ng
ho hc
trong gia
-xy v I-
t,
V kh laser, nghin cu vt
liu v khoa hc.
Laser kh
CO
2
10.6 m, (9.4 m)
Phng in
ngang
(cng sut
cao) hay
dc (cng
sut thp)
Gia cng vt liu (ct, hn),
phu thut.
Laser kh
CO
2.6 n 4 m, 4.8
n 8.3 m
Cc phng
in
Gia cng vt liu (chm khc,
hn), ph hc quang-m.
Excimer
laser
193 nm (ArF), 248
nm (KrF), 308 nm
(XeCl), 353 nm
(XeF)
Excimer ti
hp nh
phng in
Quang thch bn cc tm cho
ch to link kin bn dn,
phu thut laser, LASIK.
Hnh 8.8. Bng m t cc loi laser kh
8.3.3. Laser cht lng
Mi trng hot cht l cht lng, thng dng nht l laser mu.
Tnh cht:
+ nh hng cao: tia laser pht ra hu nh l chm song song do
kh nng chiu xa hng nghn km m khng b tn x.
+ Tnh n sc rt cao: chm sng ch c mt mu (hay mt bc sng)
duy nht. y l tnh cht c bit nht m khng ngun sng no c.
+ Tnh ng b ca cc photon trong chm tia laser: C kh nng pht
xung cc ngn: c mili giy (ms), nano giy, pico giy, cho php tp trung
nng lng tia laser cc ln trong thi gian cc ngn.
8.4 . Laser Diode (LD)

Hnh 8.9. Diode laser bn dn
Chng 8: LASER

12
Mt loi laser c cu to tng t nh mt diod. N c mi trng kch
thch l cht bn dn. Diod laser hot ng gn ging vi diod pht quang. N
cng c gi l n diode ni x v c vit tt l LD hay ILD.
Cht bn dn (Semiconductor) l vt liu trung gian gia cht dn in
v cht cch in. Cht bn dn hot ng nh mt cht cch in nhit
thp v c tnh dn in nhit phng. Gi l "bn dn" ngha l c th
dn in mt iu kin no , hoc mt iu kin khc s khng dn
in.
8.4.1. Vng nng lng trong cht bn dn
Tnh cht dn in ca cc vt liu rn c gii thch nh l thuyt
vng nng lng. Nh ta bit, in t tn ti trong nguyn t trn nhng mc
nng lng gin on (cc trng thi dng). Nhng trong cht rn, khi m cc
nguyn t kt hp li vi nhau thnh cc khi, th cc mc nng lng ny b
ph ln nhau, v tr thnh cc vng nng lng v s c ba vng chnh.

Hnh 8.10. Vng nng lng trong cht bn dn

8.4.2. Cu trc nng lng in t trong mng nguyn t ca cht bn
dn
Vng ha tr c lp y, trong khi vng dn trng. Mc nng lng
Fermi nm vng trng nng lng.
- Vng ho tr (valence band): L vng c nng lng thp nht theo
thang nng lng, l vng m in t b lin kt mnh vi nguyn t v
khng linh ng.
- Vng dn (Conduction band): Vng c mc nng lng cao nht, l
vng m in t s linh ng (nh cc in t t do) v in t vng ny s
l in t dn, c ngha l cht s c kh nng dn in khi c in t tn ti
trn vng dn. Tnh dn in tng khi mt in t trn vng dn tng.
Chng 8: LASER

13
- Vng cm (Forbidden band): L vng nm gia vng ho tr v vng
dn, khng c mc nng lng no do in t khng th tn ti trn vng
cm. Nu bn dn pha tp, c th xut hin cc mc nng lng trong vng
cm (mc pha tp). Khong cch gia y vng dn v nh vng ho tr gi
l rng vng cm, hay nng lng vng cm (Band Gap). Tu theo
rng vng cm ln hay nh m cht c th l dn in hoc khng dn in.
Nh vy, tnh dn in ca cc cht rn v tnh cht ca cht bn dn c
th l gii mt cch n gin nh l thuyt vng nng lng nh sau:
- Kim loi c vng dn v vng hhotr ph ln nhau (khng c vng
cm) do lun lun c in t trn vng dn v th m kim loi lun lun
dn in.
- Cc cht bn dn c vng cm c mt rng xc nh. khng
tuyt i (0 K), mc Fermi nm gia vng cm, c ngha l tt c cc in t
tn ti vng ho tr, do cht bn dn khng dn in. Khi tng dn nhit
, cc in t s nhn c nng lng nhit kB.T (vi k l hng s
Boltzmann) nhng nng lng ny cha in t vt qua vng cm nn
in t vn vng ho tr. Khi tng nhit n mc cao, s c mt s
in t nhn c nng lng ln hn nng lng vng cm v n s nhy
ln vng dn v cht rn tr thnh dn in. Khi nhit cng tng ln, mt
in t trn vng dn s cng tng ln, do , tnh dn in ca cht bn
dn tng dn theo nhit (hay in tr sut gim dn theo nhit ). Mt
cch gn ng, c th vit s ph thuc ca in tr cht bn dn vo nhit
nh sau:
|
|
.
|
\
| A
=
T k
E
R R
B
g
2
exp
0

Ta c:
R0 l hng s,
E
g
l rng vng cm.
Ngoi ra, tnh dn ca cht bn dn c th thay i nh cc kch thch
nng lng khc, v d nh nh sng. Khi chiu sng, cc in t s hp thu
nng lng t photon, v c th nhy ln vng dn nu nng lng ln.
y chnh l nguyn nhn dn n s thay i v tnh cht ca cht bn dn
di tc dng ca nh sng (quang-bn dn).
8.4.3. Bn dn pha tp
Cht bn dn loi p c tp cht l cc nguyn t thuc nhm III, dn
in ch yu bng cc l trng (vit tt cho ch positive, ngha l dng).
Cht bn dn loi n c tp cht l cc nguyn t thuc nhm V, cc nguyn t
ny dng 4 electron to lin kt v mt electron lp ngoi lin kt lng lo vi
nhn, y chnh l cc electron dn chnh. C th gii thch mt cch n gin
v bn dn pha tp nh vo l thuyt vng nng lng nh sau: Khi pha tp,
s xut hin cc mc pha tp nm trong vng cm, chnh cc mc ny khin
Chng 8: LASER

14
cho in t d dng chuyn ln vng dn hoc l trng d dng di chuyn
xung vng ho tr to nn tnh dn ca vt liu. V th, ch cn pha tp vi
hm lng rt nh cng lm thay i ln tnh cht dn in ca cht bn dn.
8.4.4. Cc c tnh ph ca diode laser
Trong diode Laser ch c mt s sng nh sng c bc sng nht nh
mi c th lan truyn c trong Bung Cng Hng. iu kin truyn lan
nh sng l sng phn x v sng ti phi ng pha vi nhau.

Nh vy Laser ch khuch i nhng bc sng
0
tho mn iu kin
(n, N cc s t nhin)
N
nL 2
0
=
Mi bc sng c gi l mode dc, hay n gin l mode. Tp
hp nh ca cc mode ny s to thnh ng bao ph bc x ca diode
Laser.
Ta s tm c khong cch v mt tn s gia hai mode lin tip nhau.
L
c
f
2
= A
Ph bc x ca Laser ph thuc rt nhiu vo dng in nh thin. Khi
Laser hot ng ch di ngng, bc x t pht chim u th v do
rng vch ph ging vi LED. Tuy nhin, nu diode Laser hot ng ch
ln hn ch ngng th vch ph s gim xung. Vch ph hp li
do tc ng ca bung cng hng v khuch i theo hm m nhng mode
t ti mc ngng, ng thi b qua tt c cc mode khc.

Hnh 8.11.
a) Cc mode trong Laser bn dn;
Chng 8: LASER

15
b) ng bao vch ph khi Laser hot ng di mc ngng;
c) ng bao vch ph khi Laser hot ng trn mc ngng;
d) Ph bc x.

Khi diode Laser hot ng di mc ngng th tt c cc mode truyn
dn c khuch i nh nhau. Nu tng dng in phn cc diode ln th h
s khuch i tng. Tuy nhin mode c bc sng gn vi bc sng hot
ng danh nh hn c s c khuch i nhiu nht. Hin tng ny c
biu din nh hnh trn. Nh vy c th thy rng, khi diode Laser hot ng
trn mc ngng th rng vch ph s hp ng k so vi LED.
Bn cnh cc mode dc, cn c cc mode ngang v cc mode bn
(lateral mode). Cc mode ny c xu hng lm cho cc chm tia ra phn k
mnh, kt qu l vic ghp ni vi si quang s km hiu qu. Trng thi l
tng ch c mt trong cc mode ngang c bn v mode bn ca n tn ti
(iu ny s lm cho chm sng ra song song v c ng knh ngang nh).
Vi hu ht cc diode Laser, vng hot tnh u c b dy nh hn 1
m
8.4.5. S bin thin cng sut quang theo dng iu khin
Ta nhn thy rng vi diode Laser hot ng trn mc ngng, cng
sut ra t l trc tip vi dng in chnh lch so vi mc ngng. Trong thc
t, diode Laser hot ng trn mc ngng khng th hin quan h tuyn tnh
hon ton gia lng nh sng ra v dng in nh thin. iu ny c
nguyn nhn t hin tng mode-hopping.

Hnh 8.12. S bin thin cng sut quang theo dng iu khin.
Biu din s bin thin ca cng sut ra theo dng in diode i vi
mt diode Laser pht quang bc sng 850nm. Hnh v ny cho thy, trn
im ngng diode Laser mi hot ng nh mt Laser. Ta cng bit rng
Chng 8: LASER

16
cng sut ra s bo ho khi dng in ln. Bi v do dng in c cng
cao lm nng diode, iu ny lm gim hiu sut nghch o.
8.4.6. Cc yu t nh hng n tui th ca Laser
- Lp t v th nghim
- Cc xung in t pht sinh bn ngoi trong thi gian ngn
- Mc dng
- Nhit
- Mc bc x cc i
- S gi ho linh kin
8.5 . Cc ng dng ca laser
Vo thi im c pht minh nm 1960, laser c gi l "gii php
tm kim cc ng dng". T , chng tr nn ph bin, tm thy hng
ngn tin ch trong cc ng dng khc nhau trn mi lnh vc ca x hi hin
i, nh phu thut mt, hng dn phng tin trong tu khng gian, trong
cc phn ng hp nht ht nhn... Laser c cho l mt trong nhng pht
minh nh hng nht trong tth k20.
ch li ca laser i vi cc ng dng trong khoa hc, cng nghip,
kinh doanh nm tnh ng pha, ng mu cao, kh nng t c cng
sng cc k cao, hay s hp nht ca cc yu t trn. V d, s ng pha ca
tia laser cho php n hi t ti mt im c kch thc nh nht cho php bi
gii hn nhiu x, ch rng vi nanmt i vi laser dng nh sng. Tnh cht
ny cho php laser c th lu tr vi gigabyte thng tin trn cc rnh ca
DVD. Cng l iu kin cho php laser vi cng sut nh vn c th tp trung
cng sng cao v dng ct, t v c th lm bc hi vt liu trong k
thut ct bng laser. V d, mt laser Nd:YAG, sau qu trnh nhn i tn s,
phng ra tia sng xanh ti bc sng 523 nm vi cng sut 10 W c kh nng,
trn l thuyt, t n cng sng hng triu W trn mt cm vung. Trong
thc t, th s tp trung hon ton ca tia laser trong gii hn nhiu x l rt
kh.
Tia sng laser vi cng cao c th ct thp v cc kim loi khc.
Tia t laser thng c phn k rt nh, ( chun trc cao). chun trc
tuyt i l khng th to ra, bi gii hn nhiu x. Tuy nhin, tia laser c
phn k nh hn so vi cc ngun sng. Mt tia laser c to t laser He-
Ne, nu chiu t Tri t ln Mt Trng, s to nn mt hnh trn ng knh
khong 1 dm (1,6 kilmt). Mt vi laser, c bit l vi laser bn dn, c
vi kch thc nh dn n hiu ng nhiu x mnh vi phn k cao. Tuy
nhin, cc tia phn k c th chuyn i v tia chun trc bng cc thu
knh hi t. Tri li, nh sng khng phi t laser khng th lm cho chun
trc bng cc thit b quang hc d dng, v chiu di ng pha ngn hn rt
Chng 8: LASER

17
nhiu tia laser. nh lut nhiu x khng p dng khi laser c truyn trong
cc thit b dn sng nh si tthutinh. Laser cng cao cng to nn cc
hiu ng th v trong quang hc phi tuyn tnh.

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