Sustainable Architecture for Tropical Climates

Sustainable Architecture for Tropical Climates Glenda C. Sacabin Instute of Architecture and Fine Arts

Sustainable Architecture for Tropical Climates Abstract Sustainability has been the main goal of architecture in every century, trying to innovate our world using the green way. Sustainable architecture seeks to minimize the

negative environmental impact of buildings by enhancing efficiency and moderation in the use of materials, energy, and development space. By constructing structures that focuses on energy reduction, chemical use reduction, and local labor and community support, healthy environment for human and nature can be developed. In tropical country, making a cooler environment, preventing insect or pest infestation and providing lowmaintenance housing are the other focuses. Information about materials, construction, form and design, are provided in this research paper to give enlightenment to proper construction of sustainable tropical architecture. However, the content of this paper are provided by various authors with different opinion but with the idea of sustainability in the tropical region. May this research paper guide architects in developing and improving sustainable in tropical regions, and enlighten the issues regarding the environment.

Sustainable Architecture for Tropical Climates

Materials Adaptable for Tropical Architecture

According to Wolfgang Lauber, Building in the Tropics means for both the builder and designer a constructive confrontation with extreme climatic conditions. ln the hot and humid zones, high humidity levels in conjunction with the constant heat represent a major problem for materials and construction. In the case of organic materials these conditions lead to swelling, and in the case of metals, to increased corrosion that can take the form of rust or oxidation. ln coastal regions the salty air of the coastal winds intensifies these processes. Even metals with protected surfaces, such as galvanized iron, anodized aluminum, stainless steel, coated metal sections, as well as concrete surfaces, are subject to extreme attack. The high humidity level also creates problems for wood and other organic building materials, for example, fungus, microbes and insects, termites, and other pests. Strong gusts of wind during typhoons and storms in the rainy season impose considerable ln the hot and dry zone the most significant problems are those caused by solar radiation and UV rays etc. These can destroy surface finishes, above all coated surfaces of metal sections, metal sheeting, plastic panels and wood surfaces. The great temperature differences, with daytime temperatures of 45'C in the summer and cold winter nights with temperatures below freezing point, impose considerable strain on construction and materials in the form of swelling and contraction. Sandbearing winds can have a damaging effect on surface finishes, such as sandblasted surfaces. Particularly susceptible are glass surfaces, galvanized and anodized metals, coatings and plastics and also hard building materials, such as fair-faced concrete, cement-bound sandstone, clay bricks and external render. tension and compression forces on structures, while erosion caused by heavy rainfall is another major problem. The use of friction-type joints and junctions in construction and detailing is therefore of particular importance.

Sustainable Architecture for Tropical Climates Biological pests In the Tropics, biological pests represent a dangerous plague that is often extremely difficult to combat. These include insects such as termites, midges and flies, as well as rats, mice and fungi. Termites represent the greatest danger for all organic building materials. Of the roughly 1,800 known kinds of termite, around 100 are regarded as a threat to buildings. Earth termites can climb through cracks and joints to reach the timber elements in a building. Flying termites nest in wood and destroy it by building channels and cavities. Organic building materials, such as thermal insulation materials, textiles, leather, rubber and foam materials are all susceptible to attack. All hard building materials, such as concrete, masonry, stone, mortar and metals, cannot be attacked, but they can be soiled by the pap the termites leave when hollowing out their channels. Buildings can be protected by the proper choice of materials, such as termite-resistant woods containing high amounts of tannin, resins or essential oils, plywood panels bound with synthetic resin or by chemical protection. Before they are used in a building, wooden parts can be sprayed The choice of building materials is essentially determined by their local Traditional and modern building materials or immersed in solutions of metallic salts (copper sulphates, zinc oxides,

borate salt or creosote), which should be applied, above all, to any cracks, joints and freshly cut areas. Constructional measures, such as projecting termite flashings on load bearing columns, are, generally speaking, ineffectual. Protection against mosquitoes and flies The only way to combat the problem of insects and reduce the danger of infections, such as malaria, carried by the anopheles fly, is to seal windows and door openings with mesh screens made of stainless steel or plastic and positioned in front of the frames. The most effective protection against fungus resulting primarily from high humidity is provided by damp-proofing and proper ventilation of the building.

availability, their economy, durability and suitability for the particular climate. The means of transporting materials from a distant place of production must be taken into consideration.

Sustainable Architecture for Tropical Climates ln addition, for many people, above all in the tropical megacity regions, the acceptance of a material is related to its status. The hut made of clay, wood or bamboo is rejected by most of the new, poor, city dwellers as they long to build with the materials of the rich: concrete, brick and natural stone, steel, glass and shiny metal. The extent to which they can be worked by hand by local craftsmen and unskilled workers is a further influential factor in the choice of building materials. Construction timber Suitable building timber is available in almost all tropical climatic regions, nowadays also in the form of prefabricated plywood. The construction methods used can include skeletal frame, platform frame or prefabricated systems with panels. The use of hardwoods guarantees resistance to the problems provided by the climate. Care must be taken to protect timber properly by keeping timber building elements dry, protecting them against ground damp by means of plinths or by raising the building and protecting facade elements through the use of projecting roofs. Bamboo The bamboo grass flourishes in regions In the hot and humid Tropics, and above

all in the salty air of the coastal areas, only rustproof V4A stainless-steel connections, cast-steel elements or traditional timber joints should be used. To combat fungus attack, metal salt solutions can be used, while construction methods that keep the structure dry are also useful in combatting this problem. Timber that contains tannin and resin such as the ronier palm (Borassus athiopia) in West and North Africa, all hard redwoods, such as kaicedra, different kinds of mahogany, macaranduba, afzelia, the various acacias, tamarisk and teak - are all resistant to termites (information supplied by the institute for Building Materials Research in the University in Kumasi, Ghana).

Building Materials

like South-east Asia, which makes bamboo buildings widely found in traditional architecture. This widespread, fastgrowing building material is extremely economical, comes in long lengths and offers a multitude of economic advantages.

Sustainable Architecture for Tropical Climates It has a low self-weight, is highly resistant to tension and compression forces and bending moments and is easy to work without the need for specialist skills, which makes it particularly suitable for buildings that the poor construct themselves. Bamboo tends to rot relatively quickly but this process can be prevented or at least reduced by conservation methods such as watering regularly, smoking, or treating with mineral salts. Protecting buildings against the weather by means of deep roof projections, keeping the plinth area dry by elevating the building, or constructing a solid stone plinth all represent important contributions to extending the lifespan of bamboo architecture. The relatively low status of bamboo buildings, which are generally viewed as the architecture of the poor, can be raised by formal improvements in terms of architectural design. This is shown in a highly impressive manner by the buildings of the Colombian architect Simon V6lez, who designed a spectacular building, the Ceri Pavilion, to represent his native country at the Hanover World Fair in 2000. Bamboo is one of the most widely used plants in the world; around 1,500 different kinds in 75 different species cover about 25 million hectares in tropical and subtropical zones around the world,

Phyllostachys aurea, Tetragonoclamus angulatus, Phyllostachys nigra f.punctuata, Phyllostaches bamb. violascens, Phyllostachys nigra f. 'Boryana',Phyllostachys viridis 'Sulphurea', Phyllostachys bambusoides. (Illustration Photo by Wetterwald M.F.)

while about 10 per cent of the plants grow in temperate zones. Bamboo is also one of the world's fastest growing plants, with many kinds growing by as much as one meter in a day. Each kind of bamboo reaches its maximum cane length in between two to three months. In a moderate climate this length is around two to five meters; in the case of tropical bamboos it ranges between 20 and 30 meters. After a growing period of four to five years bamboo is mature enough to be used for building purposes. China is the world's leading producer of bamboo. The advantage of bamboo is that it spreads through its root system, which means that the plant begins to grow again immediately after harvesting.

Sustainable Architecture for Tropical Climates

Great Wall House, China

www.commune.com.cn

three months until it has lost about 90 per cent of its moisture content. The major disadvantage of bamboo is its vulnerability to attack by insects, fungus and fire. Methods of treating bamboo to deal with these problems include, for example, watering it, lime-washing, removal of moisture by smoking, and heating, whereby the bamboo releases its pyrolytic acids when warmed gently. This process makes the surface smoother and more resistant to fire. Not only is the bamboo canes used. The stalks, for example, can be split into bamboo lathes the most common form in which bamboo is used - and bamboo beading can be used to make mats, baskets, furniture or semifinished industrial products. Other products include pressboard made of compressed bamboo sawdust, laminates made of bamboo or those have similar properties to that of normal wood (chipboard) but are considerably more elastic.

By contrast, it requires considerable effort and expense to build up a normal wood again after all the trees have been felled. Bamboo can be used and processed at every phase of its growth cycle. vvvvFirst of all as bamboo shoots (30 days), then for baskets and woven goods (six months to one year), while two-yearold bamboo canes can be split and woven together in strips. Once the bamboo is three years old it can be used for construction purposes, but the optimum age is around five years. Bamboo should not, however, be older than six years as its rigidity begins to decrease from this age onwards. Generally, bamboo is cut in the early morning when the moon is in its last quarter as this is the time when its moisture content is at a minimum. Nevertheless, after the harvest and quality control, bamboo must be stored for two to

Sustainable Architecture for Tropical Climates

Green School by Ibuku; Bali, Indonesia

www.ibuku.com

Bamboo structure design 60m x 25m high central tower is 18 m building, built of 28 pieces of sustainable bamboo. A total of 32,000 linear meters of bamboo used to build the building without using heavy machinery.

Sustainable Architecture for Tropical Climates Glass In the Tropics, glass is generally an expensive imported material. Glazing facade openings makes sense only when rooms must be protected against dust (museums, health care facilities) or if they are completely airconditioned. In hot and dry zones, the use of solarprotection glass can make sense, above all for high level glazing and roof lights reduce the build-up of radiant heat. In regions with dust-bearing winds or heavy rainfall, reflective sun protective films are unsuitable as they tend to weather badly. The variation represented by the horizontally adjustable glass louvre window, the so-called fenetre persienne, offers the advantage that it allows rooms to be completely ventilated while protecting them against such problems as dust-bearing winds or squalls of rain. Steel These materials, which are generally imported, are used in the form of reinforcement steel, construction steel sections, cast-steel parts and metal sheeting, often as galvanized corrugated

Villa Amanzi, Phuket, Thailand

http://www.worldarchitecturenews.com

iron. Corrosion of untreated steel and iron is a major problem, particularly in the hot and humid zones. The high salt content of the air in coastal regions (where most of the construction in the megacities takes place nowadays) is an important additional factor. Protective measures include painting, heat-dried coating, dipping or hot galvanising. In the case of stainless steel, V4A quality (molybdenum alloy) should be used in coastal regions or V3a chromenickel steel.

Sustainable Architecture for Tropical Climates Aluminium Although this raw material is found the Tropics, aluminium products are generally manufactured in industrialized countries on account of the considerable amount of energy used in the electrolyzing process. Aluminium sheeting has a reflective quality that can lead to unpleasant and annoying reflections, above all in rural settlement areas, where it is used on pitched roofs. Protection against corrosion is provided by the natural oxidation of the surface. This can be improved by the use of alloy additives (magnesium). This treatment is especially recommended for the aluminium sections used in window frames and in facade construction in coastal areas, where the air has a high salt content. Additional surface protection can be provided by powder coatings and anodizing. Copper This raw material is also found in the Tropics. lt is produced above all in rolled bands for use as a corrosion-resistant sheeting. The protective layer of patina that results from oxidation occurs sooner in the hot and humid zones of the Tropics. Reference should be made here to the bactericidal properties of copper. In the Clay and fired brick

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chemical methods of protecting timber a saline copper solution is used to combat fungus, bacteria and termites.

The building material clay is available in sufficient amounts and in good quality across wide areas of the Tropics. ln Africa and Latin America in particular, the mix of weathered geological granite base rock with the sand that gets blown in produces a very stable clay that has been used for ceramic products and, above all, for bricks or roof tiles for thousands of years. In the hot and dry zones, unfired clay structures are made 'ih Banco' (torus technique) with air-dried clay bricks or rammed clay construction. The danger of weathering during the rainy season means that the external skin should be protected by rendering. Resistance to weathering can be greatly improved by the use of organic additives or cement. Nevertheless, traditional clay architecture remains 'architecture of transience' that requires regular maintenance after one to three rainy seasons. Its susceptibility to mechanical damage when wet requires a hard protective base or plinth made of stonework. Clay structures offer good thermal insulation, which makes them particularly suitable for building in the hot and dry

Sustainable Architecture for Tropical Climates climatic zone. Clay buildings are, by and large, resistant to attack by microbes and parasites, as the extremely dry clay base does not offer any dampness, which such parasites require. Adding cement to the clay bricks or to the internal plastering can reduce the likelihood of termite attacks. The advantageous climatic behavior of clay architecture as produced by traditional, labour-intensive handmade methods can no longer be used to meet the demand for dwellings in the megacities in the Tropics. This construction method remains widespread only in rural areas. Natural stone In the hot and dry zones, natural stone is a suitable material for constructing plinths for clay building stone resist erosion or for external walls requiring little maintenance. Its use is advantageous only in regions where it is found locally; as the transport of this heavy material is expensive and working it is also costly. Stone offers little thermal insulation but when combined with insulating or fired hollow or clay bricks in the form of a double-shell structure it can provide a highly suitable and functional concept Sand-cement blocks The use of sand-cement blocks for walls and ceiling slabs is very widespread in tropical countries. In their production

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simple forms are often used in an amateur self-build process. This method of production is hardly suitable, however, for walls that must carry heavier loads for, in contrast to industrial production methods, the blocks are not pressed in the moulds. Furthermore, mixes low in cement (< 1:4) and sand with a high salt content are frequently used, which has resulted, above all in coastal regions, in premature decay (disintegration) of the blocks. On account of this, these blocks are frequently used only as infill material in concrete frame buildings. lf they are not used in the form of cavity blocks, which offer better thermal insulation, but merely as solid blocks with a minimal thickness of10 cm, then the interiors heat up excessively because the solid blocks radiate the energy they have stored during the day until late in the evening. Economic hollow-element systems for building floor slabs are available in many tropical countries. Cement-bound hollow blocks or bricks are laid between prefabricated concrete Tbeams and then covered with a 6- to 8-cm screed reinforced with steel reinforcement mats. This produces stable, quickly erected floor slabs with spans of up to around 5 meters at a low cost.

Sustainable Architecture for Tropical Climates Concrete and reinforced concrete The production of reinforced concrete is by now widespread in most tropical countries, even in remote regions. However, even a minimum standard is often not achieved because of efforts to economize by using sand-cement mixes of less than I to 5 and the frequent use of dirty additives or water and sand (humus, coastal sand), or because the formwork id removed prematurely in the hot and humid climatic regions during high daytime temperatures. In areas with little timber, concrete columns are inserted between the previously erected block work walls, with a thickness of 10 to 15 cm, using flat board shuttering. The reinforcement is often insufficient and the columns too slender, which leads to the collapse of buildings several storey high, above all in those cases where the concrete work is not carried out by skilled Plastics and films workers. Concrete has high thermal storage

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properties and low thermal insulation and should therefore be carefully protected against heating when it comes to incorporating design elements that shade it from the sun.

Plastics have established themselves in the Tropics too, generally in the form of imported industrial products. However, where it is planned to use them in facades and roofs, their resistance to weathering and to UV light should be examined. Frequently, plastic surfaces become dry and brittle as a result of strong solar radiation. Insulating foils and films should have a reinforcing mesh and, above all in flat roofs, they should be protected by screeds, a layer of gravel, or ceramic slabs that can be walked across.

Binh Duong School, Binhduong, Vietnam

http://www.worldarchitecturenews.com

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Methods of Construction
Straw Bale Construction Probably one of the better known methods of alternative construction known to most lay people. There has been a lot of publicity for the use of straw bales in construction.

There are two approaches to using straw bales: Structural or "load bearing" As insulation The first approach is to use straw bales as the main load bearing component within the walls of the building. This method tends to be used on single story buildings. Cement plaster/ stucco tends to be used as the exterior and interior finish. Different methods are utilized to compress the bales which are typically stacked using a running bond pattern. The second approach initially started by utilizing straw bales within heavy timber or post and beam structures. Technically the load was carried by structural members that are more common and readily acceptable to building officials. The acceptance of the insulating values of straw bale has resulted in more methods being develop that allows straw bale to be used in more or less conventional methods of construction. Traditional stud framing, stress skin panels, con crete cast in place or concrete walls have all be utilized. Note that the type of rice species used in California has high silica content, has little nutrient value in

Waldorf School, Cuernavaca, Mexico

the straw and takes a long time to decompose when distributed over

http://www.waldorftoday.com

Sustainable Architecture for Tropical Climates open fields. The use of straw helps the environment in several ways by minimizing the disposal of straw through burning and technically to eliminate and use productively what is agricultural waste. Do note that straw bale walls tend to be thicker than conventional walls. 22-24" thick walls as compared to a typical 6" or 12" wall, That's a lot of area taken up by a wall, yet its insulating values (~ R30-42 for a two string straw bale vs R-19 in a typical 2x6 wall using fiberglass batts) provide for a better insulated building and its thicker walls impart a different aesthetic that appeals to many people and imparts a feeling of stability in soundness. Typically used in traditional mission/ Spanish style buildings, or adobe, it can be utilized successfully within modern and contemporary designs. Rammed Earth Rammed earth or the use of compacted earth to build has been around for

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centuries. It's resurgent as an alternative method of construction. Benefits include thicker walls, better acoustics, thermal mass, wide availability of raw earth, load bearing, use no processing and reduce usage of timber. Historically, a process of construction that involves hand ramming and compressing earth/ soil between wooden forms to build up a wall (many of these buildings have been around for centuries). Considering their reputation and history as durable and long lasting structures, it sort of negates the un-informed view that earthen based construction may not fare well in a rainstorm. Newer technology is helping bring this process more mainstream. David Easton's method of pneumatically shooting a

Glenhope House, Melbourne, Australia

http://www.joharchitects.com.au

Sustainable Architecture for Tropical Climates mixture of earth and cementitious stabilizers against a one sided form work is a good example. East on's process is referred to as PISE (Pneumatically Impacted Stabilized Earth). Obviously the benefit of using earth is that it is a building material that is widely and fairly cheaply available. If your site requires grading and removal of dirt or soil, it might be feasible to explore using rammed earth or other methods that utilize earth. There are no design boundaries when it comes to aesthetics. The old adage that alternative materials lend themselves to vernacular or traditional looking homes or buildings does not hold water. It really depends on a client's foresight and the architects abilities. Properly designed, a rammed earth building can be utilized succe ssfully in any climate. Rammed earth in residential construction seems to be widely accepted in Australia. Cob As with rammed earth, Cob utilizes soil or earth as a base material. It has similar benefits of thermal mass, termite resistant, good acoustics and well suited for passive solar technology and inversely, passive cooling. Lime based plaster should be utilized as the exterior finish for protection as opposed to cement based plaster/ stucco. Recent research and findings have shown that earth based walls like Adobe tend to fail if covered

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with cement based plaster. It doesn't allow the walls to breathe and release any built up moisture. Cob does not require formwork and is made from a combination of sand, clay, straw and water. It is normally formed by hand. Cob structures have been known to have survived for centuries, as can be seen by Cob houses in England. Earthen based construction tends to be labor intensive and slower than the standard form of construction. However you are using a material that is readily available under your feet and less timber (which is important when you consider deforestation and its impact on the global climate). Obviously you need to protect a cob structure from rain or water and factor in labor cost and building regulating agencies. Quite recently an entire village in Thailand was rebuilt using the labor of volunteers and villagers of a village that was displaced by the construction of a dam. The villagers were given a grant (as part of a settlement by the government) to procure land but with limited funds, they had to resort to natural building techniques. Cob lends itself well to developing countries where labor is more

Sustainable Architecture for Tropical Climates affordable and soil is readily available. These buildings have to be detailed well, with proper foundations and weather protection. Note: Cob isn't an acronym, so the letters by themselves do not mean anything. It's just the name applied to this method of building. Other Earth/ Soil base methods Earth ships, modular contained earth, light clay and adobe are other alternative methods of construction using earth. Earth ships have been written about extensively and recent projects have been built in England. It's a process involving using old tires, stacking them and ramming with earth. Modular contained earth actually encompasses earth ships and also earth filled bag construction. Earth filled burlap and or polypropylene bags are stacked and sometimes finished with a plaster based coating. Super Adobe is a variation designed by architect Nader Khalili, which utilizes a long bag system that can be coiled and stacked in organic looking structures. Adobe as a building material is probably a method many people are familiar with. It evokes visions of Spanish missions stretching across California. Basically a clay based earth brick, stacked with mud Other materials Beyond the systems listed above, other

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based mortar and grout, with a mud based plaster finish. It's use is probably the most widespread throughout the globe. All these systems share similar benefits and disadvantages as those listed above.

alternative construction materials can be as simple as reverting back to vernacular or aboriginal forms of construction in certain regions. These are normally ways of building that have evolved over time to compensate for a region's climate. Tropical climates like New Orleans, Florida, The Caribbean Island, and South East Asia have similar themes in their vernacular architecture. Raised floors to allow the circulation of air for ventilation beneath the buildings, steep roofs and ceilings to shed heavy rainfall and to allow hot air to be released through a stacked effect. Louvered window shutters to keep out rain but to allow for ventilation and day lighting. All effective methods that evolved through time. Bamboo has been utilized as a building material over the centuries. In Asia, it's used as scaffolding to aid in the erection of high rise steel framed buildings. In South America and some parts of Asia, it is being utilized as the structural framing. Bamboo

Sustainable Architecture for Tropical Climates is fast growing, and a great renewable resource. Other materials while not utilized as structural members are seeing in-roads in the building industry as finishes or cabinets. Wheat has been utilized in panels for kitchen cabinets and wall finishes. Cork within linoleum or cork flooring and wall panels. Recycled rubber from tires can be used in ecoflooring and wall coverings. Recent research has shown great promise for recycled rubber and rice straw combined as rigid insulation panels. There are new solid surface materials made from recycled paper and resins which are durable, cost effective and easy to work with. Sustainability is no longer a trend but a method of construction that is responsible and cost effective.

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Sustainable Architecture for Tropical Climates

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Geometric Shapes
Solar Insulation Different geometric shapes have different capacity to receive solar energy under the same conditions due to its geometric characteristics. For basic geometric shape, circular shape with W/L ratio 1:1 received lowest amount of solar insulation (9,296 mWh/year), followed by square shape (SQ 1:1) which received 10,503 mWh/year throughout the year as shown in Figure 2. Therefore, the circular shape is considered as the optimum shape in minimizing the total solar insulation on high-rise buildings. In order to compare the effectiveness among building shapes, the

shape is used as the base reference to other generic forms tested. From all simulated building shapes, the rectangular shape with W/L ratio 1:3 and east-west (E-W) elongated orientation received the highest amount of solar insulation. It received 12,588 mWh/year which is 33% more than the optimum shape (circular shape CC 1:1). The results showed that circular shapes with W/L ratio 1:1.7 and 1:3 received 35 and 14 30% more total solar insulation respectively compared to the base case (circular CC 1:1). Square shape with W/L ratio 1:1, 1:1.7 and 1:3 received 1113, 1217 and 2333% more total insulation respectively than the base case (Figure 3). Based on the shape, W/L ratio 1:3 of both

total solar insulation received on circular

square and circular shapes received more

Figure 1 The Geometric Proportion of Two Basic Geometric Shapes

Sustainable Architecture for Tropical Climates than 2030% compared to optimum shape (CC 1:1). Slight increase (25%) of total solar insulation for all generic forms with W/L ratio 1:1 and 1:1.7 is shown compared to optimum shape. The result indicated that main factors that determine the relationship between solar insulation level and building shape are W/L ratio and building orientation. Geometric shape with W/L ratio 1:1 contained the lowest value of S/V ratio; it received the lowest annual total solar insulation. Building orientation

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contributes greater impact to geometric shape with lower W/L ratio than higher W/L ratio, especially for east-west (E-W) elongated building shape.

Figure 2 Comparison of the Capacity of Geometric Shapes to Receive Solar Insolation

Sustainable Architecture for Tropical Climates Wind Tunnel Ventilation Wind Direction Boundary Layer/ Site Density Boundary layer describes layers of wind near the ground which are always turbulent due to roughness in the surface of the earth. The wind speed is zero at ground level; the amount it increases with height depends on the type of terrain and is called a boundary layer profile. The presence of neighboring buildings reduces wind speeds. In the wind tunnel, the boundary layer roughness is generated by using wood blocks. Ernest tested the effects of three boundary layers (terrains corresponding to flat farmland, villages and suburbs) on a lowrise building model and found virtually no differences in pressure coefficients 33. He also noted a previous study (Akins and Cermak 1976), wherein the affect of different boundary conditions had much more of an effect on highrise buildings. Building Massing

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Givoni (1962) found that average indoor air velocity was higher for the incident wind angles of 45 than for 0 (Figure 25). Sobin tested multiple window proportions and found this only to be true for horizontal windows, while square windows performed better at 0. In his 1977 studies, Chand concluded that wind direction cannot be studied independently of other variables.

In his report on the ventilation of tropical school buildings, Chand (1977) compared various building floor plan shapes; he found wind shadows could be minimized with Lshaped (or reentrant cornered) plans. In a similar manner, Aynsley (1979) studied six types of freestanding houses for hot humid climates in the context of Queenland, Australia. He concluded that both elevated and groundlevel houses with extended verandas and endwalls (types 4 and 2 respectively in Figure 27) could provide the highest cooling potential in the test set. These architectural features, not surprisingly, are also common to Australias hot humid tropics. Through CFD tests, Tantasavasdi et al

Figure 3 Sobin's diagram describing various incident wind angles he tested.

(2001) came to a similar conclusion. He found houses elevated on stilts, rather

Sustainable Architecture for Tropical Climates At a more basic level of massing, Ernest

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(1991) tested the addition of mass onto his baseline building. He added on supplementary blocks above and beside the baseline model, although not simultaneously in both places, as would be the case in a midrise building. When adding a block to increase the height of the building, he found a 5% increase in average interior air velocity at some angles (between 30 and 75). There was little difference at 0, 15 and 30 angles of incidence. When a block was added to one side of the building, he found less than a 5% increase at some angles. (The interior
Figure 4 Chand (1976) studied concluded that wind shadows could be remedied with reentrant corners.

air velocity was very close to the single block except between 3075, where there was less than a 5% increase.) When two blocks were added to the right and left side of the baseline, the average air velocities decreased slightly, as compared with the single block.

Figure 4 (Above) House types tested by Aynsley (1979). Types 2 and 4 (with eaves and endwalls, with and without stilts) showed the most cooling potential. (Right) Design strategy based on findings from CFD simulations (Tantasavasdi et al, 2001)

Sustainable Architecture for Tropical Climates Architectural Forms Buildings in hot-humid climates need to be different from those in hot-dry climates. Heavy buildings can moderate the temperature in dry areas. In places where the climate alternates between dry and wet seasons, heavy buildings are comfortable in the dry season, but during the rainy season are damaged by mold growth caused by condensation. Buildings in humid climates are also subject to more intense attack by insects, and materials rust and decay much more quickly than in other environments. Hot-humid inland areas of the world have high humidity and temperatures that rise and fall slightly every day. In the warm and humid zone of central Africa, southern Asia, and northern South America temperatures go from 75- 908F, and the humidity may be frequently between 90 and 100%. Breezes in high humidity allow people to feel cooler because of evaporation from their skin. This is why ceiling fans make people feel cooler. Breezes also replace indoor air with fresh, keeping humidity levels from building up as people exhale both moisture and heat. But when the temperature of air is higher than skin temperature, the cooling effect by Ventilation

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evaporation is not possible even though the relative humidity is less than 100% 3 Buildings that rely on natural qualities for comfort need to be thoughtfully planned. Their location, orientation, and plants nearby matter. They also need to be shaped to avoid direct sunlight and catch breezes. Buildings that use the following strategies can be comfortable.

Catch the breeze: Locate on a hill or

rise above the ground, at a 20- 408 angle to the prevailing breezes.

Don't block the breeze: Spaces

buildings out, and add breezeways in them. Build 18 m downwind from a 3 m height building to allow breezes in.5

Make rooms breezy: Each room

needs 2 exterior walls, with many windows or vents, including low openings. Verandahs with outside stairs obstruct breezes much less than interior halls.

Make outdoor areas breezy: Keep

them open to warmer season

Use vents as well as windows: If

necessary use mosquito netting curtains inside walls of pen work or vent blocks. Windows or shutters on

Sustainable Architecture for Tropical Climates one or two sides can block breezes on cool evenings. afternoon sun heat up walls,

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especially during the hottest season. Be sure you are considering whether the sun is in the northern or southern sky at this time of year.

Screen porches or verandahs to

allow openings to unscreened windows in the center of the building.

Cover openings on west and east

ends. Use few windows and doors. For openings use vertical sunscreens, climbing vines, or shrubs to reduce heat gain on western walls.

Pull breezes in with wing-walls, and

shutters or casement windows that open outward. Although jalousie windows allow ventilation by keeping rain out while they are open, casements under an overhang can be helpful to catch breezes. A sturdy adjustable shutter that pivots vertically in the center of the window sill may be able to secure a building and catch breezes too.

Use white or light colors that stay

cooler on sunny walls, roof, and pavement. Planting

Let plants cool you. Tall trees can

Shading shade roofs and reduce temperatures. Trees, shrubs and vines that shade the ground or buildings in the afternoon reduce the local temperature. Plants cool by evaporating moisture as well as by shading, like natural air conditioners. Use trees like palms that are open underneath on the breezy side.

Keep sunlight off of building walls:

After aiming the building to catch the breeze, try to face the long sides (with most of the windows) towards the south and north so the roof overhang shades walls and windows in the middle of the day.

High ceilings let hot air rise above

the people so the room feels cooler to its occupants.

Don't make sun traps of heavy walls

around sunny paved areas. Locate plantings between walls and other paved areas when possible.

Shade in the afternoon: Keep west

and east sides short to let less of the hot, low angle morning and

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Use green walls for breezy west

walls. Vines block breezes and will grow over openings. A green wall of low-growing plants can lower the wall temperature. Plants can be planted into concrete vent blocks filled with soil after construction. The wall itself should be waterproof, because the wall may need some irrigation.

Use light-weight or well-insulated

materials so the building won't feel hot. There are two different ways people look at the landscape they build in- as a problem or as a gift. People in dry or cold areas improve their comfort by buildings and land shaping that controls the climate. The land is a problem to be overcome. Living in the humid tropical area should teach that nature is a gift. True comfort comes from breezes which we cannot control, and the shade of a multitude of plants. The best locations are often hilltops with shallower or fragile soils. Construction in hot, humid areas needs to cooperate with nature to use the available materials, breezes, soils, and plants. People in temperate regions can prepare for unpleasant weather by removing trees to let the sun in, stockpiling fuel, and building larger, sealed homes. People of the drier hot regions prepare by digging fountains and pools, and building thick house and courtyard walls to keep hot, dusty winds out. Today people from most parts of the world define buildings as the spaces they enclose and control. In hot, humid areas trying to shut out the unpleasant weather does not work well. Electricity for fans or air conditioning is unreliable and condensation from

Funnel breezes with building walls

or plants: Breezes are slowed by friction. If buildings must be close together, use them to aim and speed up the breeze. Insulation

Keep attic heat out by using a

vented roof and an insulated ceiling. If air can flow up inside the roof and out vents above, the roof stays cooler. Reflective foil draped across the rafters help, or insulation made of materials that don't soak up humidity.

Keep coolness out of the walls: Use

insulation at the base of masonry walls to stop them being cooled by the soil below, which causes condensation.

Sustainable Architecture for Tropical Climates humidity causes more problems than the heat. Opening to the breezes is much more effective. Peoples of hot, humid regions can define buildings as roofs with spaces blending from indoors to out through screens instead of walls, allowing breezes in. A sense of security and enclosure may come more from people or a compound or courtyard wall than the building walls themselves.

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Sustainable Architecture for Tropical Climates

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Bibliography
Architects, G. L. (2006, 20 june). Sustainable/ "Green" Design in Tropical climates FAQ/ Guide. Retrieved from Gerard Lee Architects: http://www.gleearchitects.com/sustainablefaqtropic1.htm Bamboo Buildings. (n.d.). Retrieved from InspirationGreen: http://inspirationgreen.com/bamboo-buildings.html Chia Sok Ling, M. H. (2007). The Effect of Geometric Shape and Building Orientation on Minimising Solar Insolation on High-Rise Buildings in Hot Humid Climate. Journal of Construction in Developing Countries. Christian OHalloran, M. J. (n.d.). Glenhope House . Retrieved from Joharchitects: http://www.joharchitects.com.au Council, C. R. (n.d.). Sustainable Tropical Building Design: Guidelines for Commercial Buildings. House on the rocks. (2009, December 30). Retrieved from world architecture news: http://www.worldarchitecturenews.com Lauber, W. (n.d.). Building Materials in the Tropics. Setting an example. (2012, September 6). Retrieved from world architecture news: http://www.worldarchitecturenews.com Stouter, P. (2008, November). Shaping Buildings for the Humid Tropics: Cultures, Climate, and Materials. Retrieved from green home building: http://www.greenhomebuilding.com/