!

N INTRODUCTION TO ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

/VE %DFORS -AGNUS 3ANDELL $ANIEL ,ANDSTRM *AN *AAP VAN DE "EEK &RANK 3JBERG

3EPTEMBER 

!BSTRACT 4HIS REPORT IS AN INTRODUCTION TO ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING /&$-  4HE FOCUS IS ON SIGNAL PROCESSING AREAS PURSUED BY OUR RESEARCH GROUP AT ,ULE 5NIVERSITY OF 4ECHNOLOGY 7E PRESENT AN HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND SOME FREQUENTLY USED SYSTEM MODELS 4YPICAL AREAS OF APPLICATIONS ARE ALSO DESCRIBED BOTH WIRELESS AND WIRED )N ADDITION TO THE GENERAL OVERVIEW THE ADDRESSED AREAS INCLUDE SYNCHRONIZATION CHANNEL ESTIMATION AND CHANNEL CODING "OTH TIME AND FREQUENCY SYNCHRONIZATION ARE DESCRIBED AND THE EdECTS OF SYNCHRONIZATION ERRORS ARE PRESENTED $IdERENT TYPES OF CHANNEL ESTIMATORS ARE DESCRIBED WHERE THE FOCUS IS ON LOW COMPLEXITY ALGORITHMS AND IN THIS CONTEXT ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF COHERENT AND DIdERENTIAL MODULATION ARE ALSO DISCUSSED #HANNEL CODING IS DESCRIBED BOTH FOR WIRELESS AND WIRED SYSTEMS AND POINTERS ARE INCLUDED TO EVALUATION TOOLS AND BITLOADING ALGORITHMS !N EXTENSIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY IS ALSO INCLUDED

#ONTENTS
 )NTRODUCTION  3YSTEM MODELS  #ONTINUOUS TIME MODEL       $ISCRETE TIME MODEL         ! TIME FREQUENCY INTERPRETATION  )MPERFECTIONS            3YSTEM ENVIRONMENTS  7IRELESS SYSTEMS         $OWNLINK         5PLINK           7IRED SYSTEMS           3UBSCRIBER LINE TRANSFER  .OISE AND CROSSTALK                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             

                    FUNCTION                   

 3YNCHRONIZATION  3YMBOL SYNCHRONIZATION        4IMING ERRORS          #ARRIER PHASE NOISE       3AMPLING FREQUENCY SYNCHRONIZATION  #ARRIER FREQUENCY SYNCHRONIZATION   &REQUENCY ERRORS        &REQUENCY ESTIMATORS    

 #HANNEL ESTIMATION  0ILOT INFORMATION                                    %STIMATOR DESIGN                                    0ERFORMANCE EXAMPLE                                  #HANNEL CODING  7IRELESS SYSTEMS            $IGITAL !UDIO "ROADCASTING  4RELLIS CODED /&$-      /THER SYSTEMS          #ODING ON FADING CHANNELS   7IRED SYSTEMS              "IT LOADING           "IT LOADING ALGORITHMS     #HANNEL CODING         $ISCUSSION ! 4IME FREQUENCY LATTICE                                                                                                                                                                                                                        

,IST OF &IGURES
 4HE CYCLIC PREX IS A COPY OF THE LAST PART OF THE /&$- SYMBOL          ! DIGITAL IMPLEMENTATION OF A BASEBAND /&$- SYSTEM #0 AND #0 DENOTE THE INSERTION AND DELETION OF THE CYCLIC PREX RESPECTIVELY             "ASE BAND /&$- SYSTEM MODEL                           4HE CONTINUOUS TIME /&$- SYSTEM INTERPRETED AS PARALLEL 'AUSSIAN CHANNELS  ! SYMBOLIC PICTURE OF THE INDIVIDUAL SUBCHANNELS FOR AN /&$- SYSTEM WITH TONES OVER A BANDWIDTH 6                                0ULSE SHAPING USING THE RAISED COSINE FUNCTION 4HE GRAY PARTS OF THE SIGNAL INDICATE THE EXTENSIONS                                 3PECTRUM WITH RECTANGULAR PULSE SOLID AND RAISED COSINE PULSE DASHED      $ISCRETE TIME /&$- SYSTEM                             ,ATTICE IN THE TIME FREQUENCY PLANE 4HE DATA SYMBOLS WJK ARE TRANSMITTED AT THE LATTICE POINTS                                  

             

    

4HE WIRELESS DOWNLINK ENVIRONMENT                 4HE WIRELESS UPLINK ENVIRONMENT                  .EAR END CROSSTALK .%84                      &AR END CROSSTALK &%84                       0OWER SPECTRAL DENSITY OF ATTENUATED SIGNAL .%84 AND &%84 

    

    

    

    

    

    

    

    

 %dECTS OF A FREQUENCY OdSET a%  REDUCTION IN SIGNAL AMPLITUDE p AND INTER CARRIER INTERFERENCE q                                   $EGRADATION IN 3.2 DUE TO A FREQUENCY OdSET NORMALIZED TO THE SUBCARRIER SPACING  !NALYTICAL EXPRESSION FOR !7'. DASHED AND FADING CHANNELS SOLID    !N EXAMPLE OF PILOT INFORMATION TRANSMITTED BOTH SCATTERED AND CONTINUAL ON CERTAIN SUBCARRIERS                                   !N EXAMPLE ON THE DIdERENCE BETWEEN COHERENT AND DIdERENTIAL  03+ IN A 2AYLEIGH FADING ENVIRONMENT                             

 /VERVIEW OF THE SYSTEM INVESTIGATED BY (HER ;=                  3LOW FREQUENCY HOPPING %ACH PROGRAM /H USES A BANDWIDTH ! AND CHANGES  FREQUENCY BAND AFTER 3GNO                               #HANNEL 3.2 LEFT AND CORRESPONDING NUMBER OF BITS ON EACH SUBCARRIER RIGHT   ! !MBIGUITY FUNCTION FOR A RECTANGULAR PULSE AND CYCLIC PREX WITH LENGTHS ~   AND 3BO   RESPECTIVELY                              

#HAPTER  )NTRODUCTION
4HE AIM OF THIS REPORT IS TWOFOLD 4HE RST AIM IS TO PROVIDE AN INTRODUCTION TO ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING /&$- SYSTEMS AND SELECTED PARTS OF ITS THEORETICAL BACK GROUND 4HE SECOND AIM IS TO DESCRIBE THE AREAS OF RESEARCH WITHIN /&$- THAT ARE PURSUED AT THE $IVISION OF 3IGNAL 0ROCESSING ,ULE 5NIVERSITY 4HIS ALSO INCLUDES A BY NO MEANS COMPLETE DESCRIPTION OF RELATED WORK THAT MAY BE OF INTEREST 4HE PRESENTATION IS IN THE FORM OF A SINGLE BODY WHERE WE DO NOT SEPARATE OUR OWN WORK FROM THAT BY OTHERS 4HE TECHNOLOGY WE CALL /&$- IN THIS REPORT IS USUALLY VIEWED AS A COLLECTION OF TRANSMIS SION TECHNIQUES 7HEN APPLIED IN A WIRELESS ENVIRONMENT SUCH AS RADIO BROADCASTING IT IS USUALLY REFERRED TO AS /&$- (OWEVER IN A WIRED ENVIRONMENT SUCH AS IN ASYMMETRIC DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINES !$3,  THE TERM DISCRETE MULTITONE $-4 IS MORE APPROPRIATE 4HROUGH OUT THIS REPORT WE ONLY USE THE TERM $-4 WHEN EXPLICITLY ADDRESSING THE WIRED ENVIRONMENT &URTHER THE TWO TERMS SUBCARRIER AND SUBCHANNEL WILL BE USED INTERCHANGEABLY 4HE HISTORY OF /&$- HAS BEEN ADDRESSED SEVERAL TIMES IN THE LITERATURE SEE EG ; = WHICH WE HAVE CONDENSED TO THE BRIEF OVERVIEW BELOW 4HE HISTORY OF /&$- DATES BACK TO THE MID S WHEN #HANG PUBLISHED HIS PAPER ON THE SYNTHESIS OF BANDLIMITED SIGNALS FOR MULTICHANNEL TRANSMISSION ;= (E PRESENTS A PRINCIPLE FOR TRANSMITTING MESSAGES SIMULTANEOUSLY THROUGH A LINEAR BANDLIMITED CHANNEL WITHOUT IN TERCHANNEL )#) AND INTERSYMBOL INTERFERENCE )3)  3HORTLY AFTER #HANG PRESENTED HIS PAPER 3ALTZBERG PERFORMED AN ANALYSIS OF THE PERFORMANCE ;= WHERE HE CONCLUDED THAT THE STRATEGY OF DESIGNING AN EbCIENT PARALLEL SYSTEM SHOULD CONCENTRATE MORE ON REDUCING CROSSTALK BETWEEN ADJACENT CHANNELS THAN ON PERFECTING THE INDIVIDUAL CHANNELS THEMSELVES SINCE THE DISTORTIONS DUE TO CROSSTALK TEND TO DOMINATE 4HIS IS AN IMPORTANT CONCLUSION WHICH HAS PROVEN CORRECT IN THE DIGITAL BASEBAND PROCESSING THAT EMERGED A FEW YEARS LATER ! MAJOR CONTRIBUTION TO /&$- WAS PRESENTED IN  BY 7EINSTEIN AND %BERT ;= WHO USED THE DISCRETE &OURIER TRANSFORM $&4 TO PERFORM BASEBAND MODULATION AND DEMODULATION 4HIS WORK DID NOT FOCUS ON PERFECTING THE INDIVIDUAL CHANNELS BUT RATHER ON INTRODUCING EbCIENT PROCESSING ELIMINATING THE BANKS OF SUBCARRIER OSCILLATORS 4O COMBAT )3) AND )#) THEY USED BOTH A GUARD SPACE BETWEEN THE SYMBOLS AND RAISED COSINE WINDOWING IN THE TIME DOMAIN 4HEIR SYSTEM DID NOT OBTAIN PERFECT ORTHOGONALITY BETWEEN SUBCARRIERS OVER A DISPERSIVE CHANNEL BUT IT WAS STILL A MAJOR CONTRIBUTION TO /&$- !NOTHER IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTION WAS DUE TO 0ELED AND 2UIZ IN  ;= WHO INTRODUCED THE CYCLIC PREX #0 OR CYCLIC EXTENSION SOLVING THE ORTHOGONALITY PROBLEM )NSTEAD OF USING AN EMPTY GUARD SPACE THEY LLED THE GUARD SPACE WITH A CYCLIC EXTENSION OF THE /&$- SYMBOL 

4HIS EdECTIVELY SIMULATES A CHANNEL PERFORMING CYCLIC CONVOLUTION WHICH IMPLIES ORTHOGONALITY OVER DISPERSIVE CHANNELS WHEN THE #0 IS LONGER THAN THE IMPULSE RESPONSE OF THE CHANNEL 4HIS INTRODUCES AN ENERGY LOSS PROPORTIONAL TO THE LENGTH OF THE #0 BUT THE ZERO )#) GENERALLY MOTIVATES THE LOSS /&$- SYSTEMS ARE USUALLY DESIGNED WITH RECTANGULAR PULSES BUT RECENTLY THERE HAS BEEN AN INCREASED INTEREST IN PULSE SHAPING ;  = "Y USING PULSES OTHER THAN RECTANGULAR THE SPECTRUM CAN BE SHAPED TO BE MORE WELL LOCALIZED IN FREQUENCY WHICH IS BENECIAL FROM AN INTERFERENCE POINT OF VIEW /&$- IS CURRENTLY USED IN THE %UROPEAN DIGITAL AUDIO BROADCASTING $!" STANDARD ;= 3EVERAL $!" SYSTEMS PROPOSED FOR .ORTH !MERICA ARE ALSO BASED ON /&$- ;= AND ITS APPLICABILITY TO DIGITAL 46 BROADCASTING IS CURRENTLY BEING INVESTIGATED ;    = /&$- IN COMBINATION WITH MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUES ARE SUBJECT TO SIGNICANT INVESTIGATION SEE EG ;    = /&$- UNDER THE NAME $-4 HAS ALSO ATTRACTED A GREAT DEAL OF ATTENTION AS AN EbCIENT TECHNOLOGY FOR HIGH SPEED TRANSMISSION ON THE EXISTING TELEPHONE NETWORK SEE EG ;   = 4HIS REPORT IS ORGANIZED AS FOLLOWS )N 3ECTION  WE PRESENT COMMON /&$- MODELS INCLUD ING CONTINUOUS TIME AND DISCRETE TIME %NVIRONMENTS IN WHICH /&$- SYSTEMS ARE EXPECTED TO WORK ARE SUMMARIZED IN 3ECTION  3YNCHRONIZATION PROBLEMS AND PROPOSED SOLUTION ARE PRESENTED IN 3ECTION  #HANNEL ESTIMATION IS ELABORATED ON IN 3ECTION  AND CODING IN BOTH WIRELESS AND WIRED /&$- SYSTEMS IS DISCUSSED IN 3ECTION  &INALLY IN 3ECTION  WE DISCUSS AND SUMMARIZE THE CONTENTS OF THIS REPORT

#HAPTER  3YSTEM MODELS

4HE BASIC IDEA OF /&$- IS TO DIVIDE THE AVAILABLE SPECTRUM INTO SEVERAL SUBCHANNELS SUBCARRI ERS  "Y MAKING ALL SUBCHANNELS NARROWBAND THEY EXPERIENCE ALMOST AT FADING WHICH MAKES EQUALIZATION VERY SIMPLE 4O OBTAIN A HIGH SPECTRAL EbCIENCY THE FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF THE SUBCHANNELS ARE OVERLAPPING AND ORTHOGONAL HENCE THE NAME /&$- 4HIS ORTHOGONALITY CAN BE COMPLETELY MAINTAINED EVEN THOUGH THE SIGNAL PASSES THROUGH A TIME DISPERSIVE CHANNEL BY INTRODUCING A CYCLIC PREX 4HERE ARE SEVERAL VERSIONS OF /&$- SEE EG ;  = BUT WE FOCUS ON SYSTEMS USING SUCH A CYCLIC PREX ;= ! CYCLIC PREX IS A COPY OF THE LAST PART OF THE /&$- SYMBOL WHICH IS PREPENDED TO THE TRANSMITTED SYMBOL SEE &IGURE  4HIS MAKES THE

&IGURE  4HE CYCLIC PREX IS A COPY OF THE LAST PART OF THE /&$- SYMBOL TRANSMITTED SIGNAL PERIODIC WHICH PLAYS A DECISIVE ROLL IN AVOIDING INTERSYMBOL AND INTERCARRIER INTERFERENCE ;= 4HIS IS EXPLAINED LATER IN THIS SECTION !LTHOUGH THE CYCLIC PREX INTRODUCES A LOSS IN SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO 3.2  IT IS USUALLY A SMALL PRICE TO PAY TO MITIGATE INTERFERENCE ! SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A BASEBAND /&$- SYSTEM IS SHOWN IN &IGURE 
4RANSMITTER
WK WK

#HANNEL
E MS

2ECEIVER
QS QXJ`

3 % # (

7 4 ,

4G

RXJ`

52

RS

F~ & S

25

4G

7 4 , $ #

XK XK

3 % #
X- ` K

W- ` K

&IGURE  ! DIGITAL IMPLEMENTATION OF A BASEBAND /&$- SYSTEM #0 AND #0 DENOTE THE INSERTION AND DELETION OF THE CYCLIC PREX RESPECTIVELY &OR THIS SYSTEM WE EMPLOY THE FOLLOWING ASSUMPTIONS 

q ! CYCLIC PREX IS USED q 4HE IMPULSE RESPONSE OF THE CHANNEL IS SHORTER THAN THE CYCLIC PREX q 4RANSMITTER AND RECEIVER ARE PERFECTLY SYNCHRONIZED q #HANNEL NOISE IS ADDITIVE WHITE AND COMPLEX 'AUSSIAN q 4HE FADING IS SLOW ENOUGH FOR THE CHANNEL TO BE CONSIDERED CONSTANT DURING ONE /&$SYMBOL INTERVAL 4HE DIbCULTIES IN A COMPLETE ANALYSIS OF THIS SYSTEM MAKE IT RATHER AWKWARD FOR THEORETICAL STUDIES 4HEREFORE IT IS COMMON PRACTICE TO USE SIMPLIED MODELS RESULTING IN A TRACTABLE ANALYSIS 7E CLASSIFY THESE /&$- SYSTEM MODELS INTO TWO DIdERENT CLASSES CONTINUOUS TIME AND DISCRETE TIME



#ONTINUOUS TIME MODEL

4HE RST /&$- SYSTEMS DID NOT EMPLOY DIGITAL MODULATION AND DEMODULATION (ENCE THE CONTINUOUS TIME /&$- MODEL PRESENTED BELOW CAN BE CONSIDERED AS THE IDEAL /&$- SYSTEM WHICH IN PRACTICE IS DIGITALLY SYNTHESIZED 3INCE THIS IS THE RST MODEL DESCRIBED WE MOVE THROUGH IT IN A STEP BY STEP FASHION 7E START WITH THE WAVEFORMS USED IN THE TRANSMITTER AND PROCEED ALL THE WAY TO THE RECEIVER 4HE BASEBAND MODEL IS SHOWN IN &IGURE 
4RANSMITTER
W W W
K

#HANNEL
E MS

K

S S
`  S

RS

F~ & S

QS

2ECEIVER K + 3  S  S

`  S

X X X

K

K

` K

` K

&IGURE  "ASE BAND /&$- SYSTEM MODEL q 4RANSMITTER !SSUMING AN /&$- SYSTEM WITH - SUBCARRIERS A BANDWIDTH OF 6 (Z AND SYMBOL LENGTH OF 3 SECONDS OF WHICH 3BO SECONDS IS THE LENGTH OF THE CYCLIC PREX THE TRANSMITTER USES THE FOLLOWING WAVEFORMS J S  P 

3 `3

BO

6 DI { - JS 3BO IF S  : 3 <

`

OTHERWISE



WHERE 3  -6
3BO  .OTE THAT J S  J S
-6 WHEN S IS WITHIN THE CYCLIC PREX : 3BO < 3INCE J S IS A RECTANGULAR PULSE MODULATED ON THE CARRIER FREQUENCY J6-  THE COMMON INTERPRETATION OF /&$- IS THAT IT USES - SUBCARRIERS EACH CARRYING A LOW 

BIT RATE 4HE WAVEFORMS J S ARE USED IN THE MODULATION AND THE TRANSMITTED BASE BAND SIGNAL FOR /&$- SYMBOL NUMBER K IS
- `

RK S 

8
J (

WJK J S ` K3 

WHERE WK  WK     W- K ARE COMPLEX NUMBERS FROM A SET OF SIGNAL CONSTELLATION POINTS 7HEN AN INNITE SEQUENCE OF /&$- SYMBOLS IS TRANSMITTED THE OUTPUT FROM THE TRANS MITTER IS A JUXTAPOSITION OF INDIVIDUAL /&$- SYMBOLS
`

RS 

8


RK S 

8 -  8
 `

WJK J S ` K3 



K(`

K(` J (

q 0HYSICAL CHANNEL 7E ASSUME THAT THE SUPPORT OF THE POSSIBLY TIME VARIANT IMPULSE RESPONSE F ~  S OF THE PHYSICAL CHANNEL IS RESTRICTED TO THE INTERVAL ~  : 3BO< IE TO THE LENGTH OF THE CYCLIC PREX 4HE RECEIVED SIGNAL BECOMES Q S  FcR S  : 3BO


F ~  S R S ` ~ C~
M S  E



WHERE M S IS ADDITIVE WHITE AND COMPLEX 'AUSSIAN CHANNEL NOISE E q 2ECEIVER 4HE /&$- RECEIVER CONSISTS OF A LTER BANK MATCHED TO THE LAST PART :3BO 3 < OF THE TRANSMITTER WAVEFORMS J S  IE | J 3 ` S IF S  : 3 ` 3BO < J S     OTHERWISE
c

%dECTIVELY THIS MEANS THAT THE CYCLIC PREX IS REMOVED IN THE RECEIVER 3INCE THE CYCLIC PREX CONTAINS ALL )3) FROM THE PREVIOUS SYMBOL THE SAMPLED OUTPUT FROM THE RECEIVER LTER BANK CONTAINS NO )3) (ENCE WE CAN IGNORE THE TIME INDEX K WHEN CALCULATING THE SAMPLED OUTPUT AT THE JTH MATCHED LTER "Y USING    AND   WE GET : XJ  Q c J S JS(3  Q S J 3 ` S CS : 3 : 3BO : 3  8  F ~ S WJ J S ` ~ C~ J S CS
M 3 ` S J S CS E 3BO 3BO  J (
 ` `
 

7E CONSIDER THE CHANNEL TO BE XED OVER THE /&$- SYMBOL INTERVAL AND DENOTE IT BY F ~  WHICH GIVES
- `

XJ 

: WJ


t: 3BO


u F ~ J S ` ~ C~


: J S CS

J  (

BO

BO

M 3 ` S J S CS E
c

4HE INTEGRATION INTERVALS ARE 3BO  S  3 AND   ~  3BO WHICH IMPLIES THAT   S ` ~  3 AND THE INNER INTEGRAL CAN BE WRITTEN AS : 3BO : 3BO DI {J S ~ 3BO 6P F ~ J S ` ~ C~  F ~ C~ 3 ` 3BO   : DI {J S 3BO 6- 3BO P  F ~ D I {J ~ 6- C~ 3BO  S  3 3 ` 3BO 


4HE LATTER PART OF THIS EXPRESSION IS THE SAMPLED FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF THE CHANNEL AT FREQUENCY E  J 6-  IE AT THE J TH SUBCARRIER FREQUENCY u : 3BO t 6 GJ  & J  F ~ D I {J ~ 6- C~  
 


WHERE & E IS THE &OURIER TRANSFORM OF F ~  5SING THIS NOTATION THE OUTPUT FROM THE RECEIVER LTER BANK CAN BE SIMPLIED TO XJ : 3 DI {J S 3BO 6P  WJ GJ J S CS
M 3 ` S J S CS E 3 ` 3BO 3BO 3BO J ( : 3  8  WJ GJ J S J S CS
MJ  3BO J (
- `

8




WHERE MJ 

23 M 3 ` S J S CS 3INCE THE TRANSMITTER LTERS J S ARE ORTHOGONAL E 3BO : 3 : 3 I {J S 3BO 6- I {JS 3BO 6D D P P J S J S CS  CS  p :J ` J <  3 ` 3BO 3 ` 3BO 3BO 3BO
c


WHERE p :J< IS THE +RONECKER DELTA FUNCTION ;= WE CAN SIMPLIFY  AND OBTAIN XJ  GJ WJ
MJ  WHERE MJ IS ADDITIVE WHITE 'AUSSIAN NOISE !7'.  4HE BENET OF A CYCLIC PREX IS TWOFOLD IT AVOIDS BOTH )3) SINCE IT ACTS AS A GUARD SPACE AND )#) SINCE IT MAINTAINS THE ORTHOGONALITY OF THE SUBCARRIERS  "Y RE INTRODUCING THE TIME INDEX K WE MAY NOW VIEW THE /&$- SYSTEM AS A SET OF PARALLEL 'AUSSIAN CHANNELS ACCORDING TO &IGURE  !N EdECT TO CONSIDER AT THIS STAGE IS THAT THE TRANSMITTED ENERGY INCREASES WITH THE LENGTH OF THE CYCLIC PREX WHILE THE EXPRESSIONS FOR THE RECEIVED AND SAMPLED SIGNALS  STAY THE 2 SAME 4HE TRANSMITTED ENERGY PER SUBCARRIER IS JJ S J CS  3  3 ` 3BO  AND THE 3.2 LOSS BECAUSE OF THE DISCARDED CYCLIC PREX IN THE RECEIVER BECOMES 2-1KNRR  ` KNF  ` o  WHERE o  3BO 3 IS THE RELATIVE LENGTH OF THE CYCLIC PREX 4HE LONGER THE CYCLIC PREX THE LARGER THE 3.2 LOSS 4YPICALLY THE RELATIVE LENGTH OF THE CYCLIC PREX IS SMALL AND THE )#) AND )3) FREE TRANSMISSION MOTIVATES THE 3.2 LOSS LESS THAN  D" FOR o     

G W
K

K

M

K

X G ` M ` 
K K

K

W `
-

K

X `
-

K

&IGURE  4HE CONTINUOUS TIME /&$- SYSTEM INTERPRETED AS PARALLEL 'AUSSIAN CHANNELS
- RTAB@QQHDQR 2O@BHMF aE  6-

&IGURE  ! SYMBOLIC PICTURE OF THE INDIVIDUAL SUBCHANNELS FOR AN /&$- SYSTEM WITH TONES OVER A BANDWIDTH 6  &IGURE  DISPLAYS A SCHEMATIC PICTURE OF THE FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF THE INDIVIDUAL SUB CHANNELS IN AN /&$- SYMBOL )N THIS GURE THE INDIVIDUAL SUBCHANNELS OF THE SYSTEM ARE SEPARATED 4HE RECTANGULAR WINDOWING OF THE TRANSMITTED PULSES RESULTS IN A SINC SHAPED FRE QUENCY RESPONSE FOR EACH CHANNEL 4HUS THE POWER SPECTRUM OF THE /&$- SYSTEM DECAYS AS E   )N SOME CASES THIS IS NOT SUbCIENT AND METHODS HAVE BEEN PROPOSED TO SHAPE THE SPECTRUM )N ;= A RAISED COSINE PULSE IS USED WHERE THE ROLL Od REGION ALSO ACTS AS A GUARD SPACE SEE &IGURE  )F THE AT PART IS THE /&$- SYMBOL INCLUDING THE CYCLIC PREX BOTH
`

&IGURE  0ULSE SHAPING USING THE RAISED COSINE FUNCTION 4HE GRAY PARTS OF THE SIGNAL INDICATE THE EXTENSIONS )#) AND )3) ARE AVOIDED 4HE SPECTRUM WITH THIS KIND OF PULSE SHAPING IS SHOWN IN &IGURE  WHERE IT IS COMPARED WITH A RECTANGULAR PULSE 4HE OVERHEAD INTRODUCED BY AN EXTRA GUARD SPACE WITH A GRACEFUL ROLL Od CAN BE A GOOD INVESTMENT SINCE THE SPECTRUM FALLS MUCH MORE QUICKLY AND REDUCES THE INTERFERENCE TO ADJACENT FREQUENCY BANDS 

&IGURE  3PECTRUM WITH RECTANGULAR PULSE SOLID AND RAISED COSINE PULSE DASHED  /THER TYPES OF PULSE SHAPING SUCH AS OVERLAPPING ;= AND WELL LOCALIZED PULSES ; = HAVE ALSO BEEN INVESTIGATED



$ISCRETE TIME MODEL

!N ENTIRELY DISCRETE TIME MODEL OF AN /&$- SYSTEM IS DISPLAYED IN &IGURE  #OMPARED TO THE CONTINUOUS TIME MODEL THE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION ARE REPLACED BY AN INVERSE $&4 )$&4 AND A $&4 RESPECTIVELY AND THE CHANNEL IS A DISCRETE TIME CONVOLUTION 4HE CYCLIC PREX OPERATES IN THE SAME FASHION IN THIS SYSTEM AND THE CALCULATIONS CAN BE PERFORMED IN ESSENTIALLY THE SAME WAY 4HE MAIN DIdERENCE IS THAT ALL INTEGRALS ARE REPLACED BY SUMS
4RANSMITTER
WK WK

#HANNEL
E M:J<

2ECEIVER
Q :J<

3 % # (

7 4 ,

"/

R:J<

F:LJ<

"/

7 4 , $ #

XK XK

3 % #
X- ` K

W- ` K

&IGURE  $ISCRETE TIME /&$- SYSTEM &ROM THE RECEIVERS POINT OF VIEW THE USE OF A CYCLIC PREX LONGER THAN THE CHANNEL WILL TRANSFORM THE LINEAR CONVOLUTION IN THE CHANNEL TO A CYCLIC CONVOLUTION $ENOTING CYCLIC CON VOLUTION BY ] WE CAN WRITE THE WHOLE /&$- SYSTEM AS E XK  #%3 (#%3 WK ] FK
MK  #%3 (#%3 WK ] FK
MK  WHERE XK CONTAINS THE - RECEIVED DATA POINTS WK THE - TRANSMITTED CONSTELLATION POINTS F THE CHANNEL IMPULSE RESPONSE OF THE CHANNEL PADDED WITH ZEROS TO OBTAIN A LENGTH OF -  E AND MK THE CHANNEL NOISE 3INCE THE CHANNEL NOISE IS ASSUMED WHITE AND 'AUSSIAN THE TERM E MK  #%3 MK REPRESENTS UNCORRELATED 'AUSSIAN NOISE &URTHER WE USE THAT THE $&4 OF TWO CYCLICALLY CONVOLVED SIGNALS IS EQUIVALENT TO THE PRODUCT OF THEIR INDIVIDUAL $&4S $ENOTING 

ELEMENT BY ELEMENT MULTIPLICATION BY a THE ABOVE EXPRESSION CAN BE WRITTEN XK  WK a #%3 FK

MK  WK a GK
MK  WHERE GK  #%3 FK IS THE FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF THE CHANNEL 4HUS WE HAVE OBTAINED THE SAME TYPE OF PARALLEL 'AUSSIAN CHANNELS AS FOR THE CONTINUOUS TIME MODEL 4HE ONLY DIdERENCE IS THAT THE CHANNEL ATTENUATIONS GK ARE GIVEN BY THE - POINT $&4 OF THE DISCRETE TIME CHANNEL INSTEAD OF THE SAMPLED FREQUENCY RESPONSE AS IN  



! TIME FREQUENCY INTERPRETATION

4HE MODELS DESCRIBED ABOVE ARE TWO CLASSICAL MODELS OF /&$- WITH A CYCLIC PREX ! MORE GENERAL MODEL SUITABLE FOR EG PULSE SHAPING IS TO VIEW /&$- AS TRANSMISSION OF DATA IN A LATTICE IN THE TIME FREQUENCY PLANE #ONSIDER RST A TRANSMITTED /&$- SIGNAL R S 8 RS  WJK JK S 
JK

WHERE THE FUNCTIONS JK S ARE TRANSLATIONS IN TIME BY ~ AND IN FREQUENCY BY y OF THE PROTOTYPE FUNCTION O S  IE JK S  O S ` K~ DI {JyS  4HIS CREATES A TWO DIMENSIONAL  $ LATTICE IN THE TIME FREQUENCY PLANE ; = SEE &IGURE  5SUALLY THE PROTOTYPE FUNCTION IS CHOSEN AS THE RECTANGULAR WINDOW O S      v S v ~  ~
O

&IGURE  ,ATTICE IN THE TIME FREQUENCY PLANE 4HE DATA SYMBOLS WJK ARE TRANSMITTED AT THE LATTICE POINTS 4HE SPACING IN THE FREQUENCY DIRECTION IS THEN y   ~ ` 3BO  WHERE 3BO IS THE LENGTH OF THE CYCLIC PREX &OR A DISCUSSION ON THE IMPACT OF PROTOTYPE FUNCTIONS SEE !PPENDIX ! %ACH TRANSMITTED DATA SYMBOL IN THE LATTICE EXPERIENCES AT FADING SEE   WHICH SIMPLIES EQUALIZATION AND CHANNEL ESTIMATION 4HE CHANNEL ATTENUATIONS AT THE LATTICE POINTS ARE CORRE LATED AND BY TRANSMITTING KNOWN SYMBOLS AT SOME POSTIONS THE CHANNEL ATTENUATIONS CAN BE 

ESTIMATED WITH AN INTERPOLATION LTER ;  = 4HIS IS A  $ VERSION OF PILOT SYMBOL ASSISTED MODULATION WHICH HAS BEEN PROPOSED FOR SEVERAL WIRELESS /&$- SYSTEMS SEE EG ;  = ! MORE DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF /&$- CHANNEL ESTIMATION IS GIVEN IN 3ECTION 



)MPERFECTIONS

$EPENDING ON THE ANALYZED SITUATION IMPERFECTIONS IN A REAL /&$- SYSTEM MAY BE IGNORED OR EXPLICITLY INCLUDED IN THE MODEL "ELOW WE MENTION SOME OF THE IMPERFECTIONS AND THEIR CORRESPONDING EdECTS q $ISPERSION "OTH TIME AND FREQUENCY DISPERSION OF THE CHANNEL CAN DESTROY THE ORTHOGONALITY OF THE SYSTEM IE INTRODUCE BOTH )3) AND )#) ;= )F THESE EdECTS ARE NOT SUbCIENTLY MITIGATED BY EG A CYCLIC PREX AND A LARGE INTER CARRIER SPACING THEY HAVE TO BE INCLUDED IN THE MODEL /NE WAY OF MODELLING THESE EdECTS IS AN INCREASE OF THE ADDITIVE NOISE ;= q .ONLINEARITIES AND CLIPPING DISTORTION /&$- SYSTEMS HAVE HIGH PEAK TO AVERAGE POWER RATIOS AND HIGH DEMANDS ON LINEAR AMPLIERS ;= .ONLINEARITIES IN AMPLIERS MAY CAUSE BOTH )3) AND )#) IN THE SYSTEM %SPECIALLY IF THE AMPLIERS ARE NOT DESIGNED WITH PROPER OUTPUT BACK Od /"/  THE CLIPPING DISTORTION MAY CAUSE SEVERE DEGRADATION 4HESE EdECTS HAVE BEEN ADDRESSED IN EG ;   = 3PECIAL CODING STRATEGIES WITH THE AIM TO MINIMIZE PEAK TO AVERAGE POWER RATIOS HAVE ALSO BEEN SUGGESTED SEE EG ;  = q %XTERNAL INTERFERENCE "OTH WIRELESS AND WIRED /&$- SYSTEMS SUdER FROM EXTERNAL INTERFERENCE )N WIRELESS SYSTEMS THIS INTERFERENCE USUALLY STEMS FROM RADIO TRANSMITTERS AND OTHER TYPES ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT IN THE VINCINITY OF THE RECEIVER )N WIRED SYSTEMS THE LIMITING FACTOR IS USUALLY CROSSTALK WHICH IS DISCUSSED IN MORE DETAIL IN 3ECTION  )NTERFERENCE CAN BE INCLUDED IN THE MODEL AS EG COLORED NOISE



#HAPTER  3YSTEM ENVIRONMENTS

4WO MAJOR GROUPS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS ARE THOSE WHO OPERATE IN WIRELESS AND WIRED ENVIRONMENTS &OR INSTANCE WHEN DESIGNING A WIRELESS /&$- SYSTEM THE FADING CHANNEL IS USUALLY A MAJOR OBSTACLE WHILE FOR A WIRED /&$- AKA $-4 SYSTEM CROSSTALK AND IMPULSIVE NOISE ARE MORE DIbCULT TO HANDLE )N THE FOLLOWING SECTIONS WE BRIEY DISCUSS THE WIRELESS AND WIRED ENVIRONMENTS



7IRELESS SYSTEMS

)N WIRELESS SYSTEMS RADIO SYSTEMS  CHANGES IN THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT CAUSE THE CHANNEL TO FADE 4HESE CHANGES INCLUDE BOTH RELATIVE MOVEMENT BETWEEN TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER AND MOVING SCATTERERSREECTORS IN THE SURROUNDING SPACE 7HEN DEVELOPING NEW STANDARDS FOR WIRELESS SYSTEMS CHANNEL MODELS ARE USUALLY CLASSIED ACCORDING TO THE ENVIRONMENT IN WHICH THE RECEIVER OPERATES 4HESE ENVIRONMENTS ARE OFTEN DESCRIBED IN TERMS LIKE 2URAL AREA "USINESS INDOOR ETC -ODELS OF THIS TYPE ARE SPECIED BY EG THE %UROPEAN TELECOMMUNICATIONS STANDARDS INSTITUTE %43) ; = )N THEORETICAL STUDIES OF WIRELESS SYSTEMS THE CHANNEL MODELS ARE USUALLY CHOSEN SO THAT THEY RESULT IN A TRACTABLE ANALYSIS 4HE TWO MAJOR CLASSES OF FADING CHARACTERISTICS ARE KNOWN AS 2AYLEIGH AND 2ICIAN ;= ! 2AYLEIGH FADING ENVIRONMENT ASSUMES NO LINE OF SIGHT AND NO XED REECTORSSCATTERERS 4HE EXPECTED VALUE OF THE FADING IS ZERO )F THERE IS A LINE OF SIGHT THIS CAN BE MODELLED BY 2ICIAN FADING WHICH HAS THE SAME CHARACTERISTICS AS THE 2AYLEIGH FADING EXCEPT FOR A NON ZERO EXPECTED VALUE /FTEN PROPERTIES OF A THEORETICAL MODEL ARE CHARACTERIZED BY ONLY A FEW PARAMETERS SUCH AS POWER DELAY PROLE AND MAXIMAL $OPPLER FREQUENCY 4HE POWER DELAY PROLE | a DEPENDS ON THE ENVIRONMENT AND A COMMON CHOICE IS THE EXPONENTIALLY DECAYING PROLE | ~  D ~ ~QLR 
`

WHERE ~ IS THE TIME DELAY AND ~QLR IS THE ROOT MEAN SQUARED 2-3 VALUE OF THE POWER DELAY PROLE 3EVERAL OTHER CHOICES ARE POSSIBLE SEE EG ;= 4HE MAXIMAL $OPPLER FREQUENCY ECvd CAN BE DETERMINED BY U ECvd  EB  B WHERE THE CARRIER FREQUENCY IS EB (Z THE SPEED OF THE RECEIVER IS U MS AND THE SPEED OF LIGHT IS B {  b # MS )SOTROPIC SCATTERING IS COMMONLY ASSUMED IE THE RECEIVED SIGNAL POWER 

IS SPREAD UNIFORMLY OVER ALL ANGLES OF ARRIVAL WHICH RESULTS IN A 5 SHAPED $OPPLER SPECTRUM 4HIS IS USUALLY REFERRED TO AS A *AKES SPECTRUM ;= AND IS DETERMINED BY THE MAXIMAL $OPPLER FREQUENCY "EFORE WE START DISCUSSING THE DIdERENT SCENARIOS ENCOUNTERED IN WIRELESS SYSTEMS THERE ARE A FEW THINGS THAT MAY BE SAID ABOUT /&$- ON FADING CHANNELS IN GENERAL  4HE INTER CARRIER SPACING OF THE SYSTEM HAS TO BE CHOSEN LARGE COMPARED TO THE MAXIMAL $OPPLER FREQUENCY OF THE FADING CHANNEL TO KEEP THE )#) SMALL ; = 4HIS IS FURTHER DISCUSSED IN !PPENDIX !  )F THE ORTHOGONALITY OF THE SYSTEM IS MAINTAINED THE BASIC /&$- STRUCTURE DOES NOT NECESSITATE TRADITIONAL EQUALIZING (OWEVER TO EXPLOIT THE DIVERSITY OF THE CHANNEL PROPER CODING AND INTERLEAVING IS REQUIRED ;= 7E HAVE CHOSEN TO DISCUSS THE WIRELESS ENVIRONMENT IN TWO CONTEXTS THE TRANSMISSION FROM A BASE STATION TO MOBILE TERMINALS DOWNLINK AND THE TRANSMISSION FROM MOBILE TERMINALS TO A BASE STATION UPLINK  4HE REASON FOR THE CHOSEN CONTEXTS IS THAT ONE OR BOTH USUALLY ARE REPRESENTED IN EVERY WIRELESS SYSTEM AND THEY REQUIRE QUITE DIdERENT DESIGN STRATEGIES 4HE MOST FREQUENTLY DISCUSSED WIRELESS /&$- SYSTEMS ARE FOR BROADCASTING EG DIGITAL AUDIO AND DIGITAL VIDEO AND ONLY CONTAIN A DOWNLINK SINCE THERE IS NO RETURN CHANNEL #ELLULAR SYSTEMS ON THE OTHER HAND HAVE BOTH A DOWNLINK AND AN UPLINK



$OWNLINK

! SCHEMATIC PICTURE OF THE DOWNLINK ENVIRONMENT IS SHOWN IN &IGURE  )N THIS CASE MOBILE TERMINAL NUMBER M RECEIVES THE SIGNAL R S TRANSMITTED FROM THE BASE STATION THROUGH ITS OWN CHANNEL FM S  AND THE RECEIVED SIGNAL QM S IS GIVEN BY QM S  R c FM S 

#H AN NE L

NEL  #HAN

#HAN NEL +

4ERMINAL 

"ASE STATION

4ERMINAL +

4ERMINAL 

&IGURE  4HE WIRELESS DOWNLINK ENVIRONMENT 4HIS ENVIRONMENT IMPLIES THAT EACH RECEIVER TERMINAL ONLY HAS TO SYNCHRONIZE TO THE BASE STATION AND FROM ITS POINT OF VIEW THE OTHER TERMINALS DO NOT EXIST 4HIS MAKES SYNCHRONIZATION RELATIVELY EASY AND ALL PILOT INFORMATION TRANSMITTED FROM THE BASE STATION CAN BE USED FOR CHANNEL ESTIMATION AND SYNCHRONIZATION 

4HE DOWNLINK ENVIRONMENT HAS BEEN THOROUGHLY INVESTIGATED SEE EG ;    =  ,ARGE PORTIONS OF WORK PRESENTED ON SYSTEMS OF THIS KIND HAVE BEEN CONCERNED WITH DIGITAL AUDIO SEE EG ;    = AND DIGITAL VIDEO SEE EG ;      = BROADCASTING



5PLINK

! SCHEMATIC PICTURE OF THE UPLINK ENVIRONMENT IS SHOWN IN &IGURE  )N THIS CASE THE BASE STATION RECEIVES THE TRANSMITTED SIGNAL RM S FROM MOBILE TERMINAL M THROUGH CHANNEL FM S  AND THE TOTAL RECEIVED SIGNAL Q S AT THE BASE STATION IS A SUPERPOSITION Q S  OF SIGNALS FROM ALL MOBILE TERMINALS
NEL  #HAN
* 8

RM c FM S

M(

#HAN NEL

#H AN NE L

4ERMINAL 

"ASE STATION

4ERMINAL +

4ERMINAL 

&IGURE  4HE WIRELESS UPLINK ENVIRONMENT 4HE MAJOR PROBLEM HERE IS THE SUPERPOSITION OF SIGNALS ARRIVING THROUGH DIdERENT CHAN NELS &OR THE BASE STATION TO BE ABLE TO SEPARATE THE SIGNALS FROM EACH RECEIVER A SUbCIENT ORTHOGONALITY BETWEEN RECEIVED SIGNALS FROM DIdERENT TERMINALS HAS TO BE ACHIEVED 3EV ERAL METHODS FOR OBTAINING THIS HAVE BEEN PROPOSED 4HESE INCLUDE COMBINATIONS OF /&$AND CODE DIVISION TIME DIVISION AND FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS #$-! 4$-! AND &$-! RESPECTIVELY  !LL THREE HAVE BEEN PROPOSED IN ;= AND &$-!/&$- IS CURRENTLY UNDER INVESTIGATION IN EG ;  = )NDEPENDENT OF THE METHOD CHOSEN TO SEPARATE SIGNALS FROM DIdERENT TERMINALS THE SYSTEM SYNCHRONIZATION IS ONE OF THE MAJOR DESIGN ISSUES 4O AVOID INTERFERENCE ALL MOBILE TERMINALS HAVE TO BE JOINTLY SYNCHRONIZED TO THE BASE STATION &URTHER IF COHERENT MODULATION IS USED AS IN ;  = THE DIdERENT CHANNELS FROM THE USERS HAVE TO BE ESTIMATED SEPARATELY



7IRED SYSTEMS

7HEN STUDYING WIRED COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS AND TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF CABLES A DISTINCTION IS OFTEN MADE BETWEEN SHIELDED CABLES LIKE COAXIAL CABLES AND UNSHIELDED CABLES LIKE TWISTED WIRE PAIRS  #OAXIAL CABLES HAVE MUCH BETTER TRANSMISSION PROPERTIES FOR BROAD BAND SIGNALS THAN DO WIRE PAIRS %XCEPT FOR COMPUTER NETWORKS COAXIAL CABLES AND WIRE PAIRS CURRENTLY EXIST IN TWO BASICALLY DIdERENT NETWORK TOPOLOGIES 

7IRE PAIRS ARE THE DOMINATING CABLE TYPE IN TELEPHONE ACCESS NETWORKS THAT ARE BUILT FOR POINT TO POINT AND TWO WAY COMMUNICATION #OAXIAL CABLES ARE USUALLY FOUND IN CABLE 46 SYS TEMS A NETWORK TOPOLOGY THAT IS PRIMARILY INTENDED FOR BROADCASTING AND NOT FOR POINT TO POINT COMMUNICATION 4HE CABLE 46 SYSTEMS SOMETIMES CONTAIN AMPLIERS THAT MAKE BIDIRECTIONAL COMMUNICATION ALMOST IMPOSSIBLE (OWEVER CABLE 46 NETWORKS ARE CURRENTLY BEING UPGRADED TO SUPPORT BIDIRECTIONAL COMMUNICATION 7E FOCUS ON WIRE PAIRS AND WILL NOT DISCUSS COAXIAL CABLES FURTHER 4HE COPPER WIRE PAIR DOES NOT CHANGE ITS PHYSICAL BEHAVIOR SIGNICANTLY WITH TIME AND IS THEREFORE CONSIDERED A STATIONARY CHANNEL ;= 4HIS MAKES IT POSSIBLE TO USE A TECHNIQUE CALLED BIT LOADING ;= SEE 3ECTION   WHICH MAKES GOOD USE OF THE SPECTRALLY SHAPED CHANNEL 7HEN BIT LOADING IS USED IN A WIRED /&$- SYSTEM IT IS OFTEN REFERRED TO AS $-4 3INCE /&$- IN COMBINATION WITH BIT LOADING MAKES EbCIENT USE OF AVAILABLE BANDWIDTH IT HAS BECOME A GOOD CANDIDATE FOR DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE $3, SYSTEMS $3, IS ANOTHER NAME FOR DIGITAL HIGH SPEED COMMUNICATION IN THE TELEPHONE ACCESS NETWORK 7HEN THE BIT RATE OdERED IN DOWNSTREAM DIRECTION TO THE SUBSCRIBER IS LARGER THAN THE BIT RATE IN UPSTREAM DIRECTION TO THE BASE  IT IS CALLED AN ASYMMETRIC DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE !$3,  !$3, IS SUITABLE FOR APPLICATIONS LIKE VIDEO ON DEMAND GAMES VIRTUAL SHOPPING INTERNET SURNG ETC WHERE MOST OF THE DATA GOES FROM THE BASE TO THE SUBSCRIBER )N THE 53! THERE EXISTS AN !$3, STANDARD THAT SUPPORTS DOWNSTREAM BIT RATES FROM  TO  -BITSS ;= 4HE BIT RATES OF THE UPSTREAM RETURN PATH USUALLY RANGES BETWEEN  AND  KBITSS ;= 3TANDARDS FOR SYMMETRICAL $3,S HAVE ALSO EMERGED TO SUPPORT VIDEO CONFERENCING AND OTHER SERVICES WITH HIGH DATA RATE IN THE UPSTREAM DIRECTION 4HE RST SYMMETRIC $3, SYSTEM WAS CALLED HIGH BIT RATE DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE ($3, ;= WHICH CURRENTLY SUPPORTS BIT RATES BE TWEEN  AND  -BITSSEC IN BOTH DIRECTIONS ; = &OR DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINES WITH HIGHER BIT RATES THAN ($3, AND !$3, THE TERM VERY HIGH BIT RATE DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE 6$3, IS USED



3UBSCRIBER LINE TRANSFER FUNCTION

4HE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WIRE PAIR CHANNEL HAVE BEEN STUDIED IN A NUMBER OF PAPERS ;  = ! THOROUGH DESCRIPTION OF THE TRANSFER FUNCTION OF COPPER WIRES AND NOISE SOURCES IS GIVEN BY 7ERNER IN ;= &OR $3,S USING A LARGE FREQUENCY RANGE SEVERAL -(Z OR HIGHER THE ATTENUATION FUNCTION CAN THEN BE APPROXIMATED AS J' E C J  D CJ E 
O `

WHERE C IS THE LENGTH OF THE CABLE AND J IS A CABLE CONSTANT 4HIS MODEL IS OFTEN USED WHEN 6$3, AND ($3, SYSTEMS ARE ANALYZED ; =



.OISE AND CROSSTALK

4HE MOST IMPORTANT NOISE SOURCES IN THE SUBSCRIBER LINE ENVIRONMENT ARE CROSSTALK FROM OTHER WIRE PAIRS IN THE SAME CABLE RADIO FREQUENCY 2& NOISE FROM NEARBY RADIO TRANSMITTERS AND IMPULSE NOISE FROM RELAYS SWITCHES ELECTRICAL MACHINES ETC !7'. IS GENERALLY NOT A LIMITING FACTOR IN DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINES FOR SHORT CABLES BUT BECOMES MORE IMPORTANT WITH INCREASING 

CABLE LENGTH )N EG ;= !'7. IS INCLUDED IN THE CHANNEL MODEL WITH A SPECTRAL DENSITY OF P ` D"M(Z x6 (Z  )MPULSE NOISE IS DIbCULT TO CHARACTERIZE COMPLETELY BUT SOME EdORTS HAS BEEN MADE TO MODEL THIS KIND OF DISTURBANCES ; = 4HE NORMAL WAY TO MITIGATE THE EdECTS OF IMPULSE NOISE ON A $-4 SYSTEM IS TO ADD   D" TO THE SYSTEM MARGIN ;= AND TO USE SPECIALLY DESIGNED CODES ;= )T SHOULD BE NOTED THAT $-4 IS MORE RESISTANT TO IMPULSE NOISE THAN SINGLE CARRIER SYSTEMS SUCH AS CARRIERLESS AMPLITUDEPHASE #!0 MODULATION ;= 4HE IMPACT OF 2& NOISE ON A $3, SYSTEM CAN BE REDUCED SIGNICANTLY WITH /&$- AND BIT LOADING ;= 2& NOISE CAN BE MODELLED AS NARROWBAND DISTURBANCE WITH KNOWN SPECTRAL DENSITY AND THE BIT ERROR RATE "%2 CAN BE PRESERVED BY TRANSMITTING FEWER SOMETIMES ZERO BITS ON THE DISTURBED SUBCHANNELS 4HERE ARE BASICALLY TWO DIdERENT FORMS OF CROSSTALK NEAR END CROSSTALK .%84 AND FAR END CROSSTALK &%84  .%84 OCCURS AT THE CENTRAL ObCE BASE STATION WHEN THE WEAK UPSTREAM SIGNAL Q S  IS DISTURBED BY STRONG DOWNSTREAM SIGNALS R S  SEE &IGURE  &%84 IS CROSSTALK FROM ONE TRANSMITTED SIGNAL R S  TO ANOTHER Q S  IN THE SAME DIRECTION SEE &IGURE  AND APPEARS AT BOTH ENDS OF THE WIRE LOOP

&IGURE  .EAR END CROSSTALK .%84 

&IGURE  &AR END CROSSTALK &%84  4HE SPECTRAL DENSITY OF .%84 IS MODELLED IN ;= AS /- E  /R E J- E   AND THE SPECTRAL DENSITY OF &%84 AS /% E C  /R E J% E  J' E C J C  /R E J% E  D
`CJ O



C



WHERE /R E IS THE SPECTRAL DENSITY OF THE TRANSMITTED SIGNALS J- AND J% ARE CONSTANTS DE PENDING ON THE TYPE OF CABLE HOW WELL BALANCED THE CABLES ARE AND THE NUMBER OF DISTURBING COPPER PAIRS ;= .OTE THAT .%84 DOES NOT DEPEND ON THE LENGTH OF THE WIRE PAIR )N &IGURE  WE DISPLAY AN EXAMPLE OF THE SPECTRAL DENSITY OF A RECEIVED SIGNAL .%84 AND &%84 


/

2 J ' E  CJ - E



NEXT

=  " D N I Z  (  7 ; Y  T I S N E D  L A R T C E P S  R E W O 0 


% E C FEXT

 

&REQUENCY ;-(Z=



&IGURE  0OWER SPECTRAL DENSITY OF ATTENUATED SIGNAL .%84 AND &%84



#HAPTER  3YNCHRONIZATION
/NE OF THE ARGUMENTS AGAINST /&$- IS THAT IT IS HIGHLY SENSITIVE TO SYNCHRONIZATION ERRORS IN PARTICULAR TO FREQUENCY ERRORS ;= (ERE WE GIVE AN OVERVIEW OF THREE SYNCHRONIZATION PROBLEMS SYMBOL CARRIER FREQUENCY AND SAMPLING FREQUENCY SYNCHRONIZATION !LSO THE EdECTS OF PHASE OdSETS AND PHASE NOISE ARE DISCUSSED




3YMBOL SYNCHRONIZATION
4IMING ERRORS

! GREAT DEAL OF ATTENTION IS GIVEN TO SYMBOL SYNCHRONIZATION IN /&$- SYSTEMS (OWEVER BY USING A CYCLIC PREX THE TIMING REQUIREMENTS ARE RELAXED SOMEWHAT 4HE OBJECTIVE IS TO KNOW WHEN THE SYMBOL STARTS 4HE IMPACT OF TIMING ERRORS HAS BEEN ANALYZED IN ; = ! TIMING OdSET GIVES RISE TO A PHASE ROTATION OF THE SUBCARRIERS 4HIS PHASE ROTATION IS LARGEST ON THE EDGES OF THE FREQUENCY BAND )F A TIMING ERROR IS SMALL ENOUGH TO KEEP THE CHANNEL IMPULSE RESPONSE WITHIN THE CYCLIC PREX THE ORTHOGONALITY IS MAINTAINED )N THIS CASE A SYMBOL TIMING DELAY CAN BE VIEWED AS A PHASE SHIFT INTRODUCED BY THE CHANNEL AND THE PHASE ROTATIONS CAN BE ESTIMATED BY A CHANNEL ESTIMATOR )F A TIME SHIFT IS LARGER THAN THE CYCLIC PREX )3) WILL OCCUR 4HERE ARE TWO MAIN METHODS FOR TIMING SYNCHRONIZATION BASED ON PILOTS OR ON THE CYCLIC PREX !N ALGORITHM OF THE FORMER KIND WAS SUGGESTED BY 7ARNER AND ,EUNG IN ;= 4HEY USE A SCHEME WHERE THE /&$- SIGNAL IS TRANSMITTED BY FREQUENCY MODULATION &-  4HE TRANSMITTER ENCODES A NUMBER OF RESERVED SUBCHANNELS WITH KNOWN PHASES AND AMPLITUDES 4HE SYNCHRONIZATION TECHNIQUE WITH MODICATIONS IS APPLICABLE TO /&$- SIGNALS TRANSMITTED BY AMPLITUDE MODULATION 4HEIR ALGORITHM CONSISTS OF  PHASES POWER DETECTION  COARSE SYNCHRONIZATION AND NE SYNCHRONIZATION 4HE RST PHASE POWER DETECTION DETECTS WHETHER OR NOT AN /&$- SIGNAL IS PRESENT BY MEASURING THE RECEIVED POWER AND COMPARE IT TO A THRESHOLD 4HE SECOND PHASE COARSE SYN CHRONIZATION IS USED TO ACQUIRE SYNCHRONIZATION ALIGNMENT TO WITHIN f SAMPLES 4HIS PER FORMANCE IS NOT ACCEPTABLE BUT THIS PHASE SERVES TO SIMPLIFY THE TRACKING ALGORITHM WHICH CAN ASSUME THAT THE TIMING ERROR IS SMALL  4HE COARSE SYNCHRONIZATION IS DONE BY CORRELATING THE RECEIVED SIGNAL TO A COPY OF THE TRANSMITTED SYNCHRONIZATION SIGNAL 4O ND THE PEAK OF THIS CORRELATION WITH ENOUGH ACCURACY A DIGITAL LTER IS USED TO PROVIDE INTERPOLATED DATA VALUES 

AT FOUR TIMES THE ORIGINAL DATA RATE )N THE LAST PHASE NE SYNCHRONIZATION OF THE SYNCHRO NIZATION THE SUBCHANNELS WITH PILOTS ARE EQUALIZED WITH THE ESTIMATED CHANNEL OBTAINED FROM PILOTS 3INCE THE COARSE SYNCHRONIZATION GUARANTEES THAT THE TIMING ERROR IS LESS THAN f THE CHANNEL IMPULSE RESPONSE IS WITHIN THE CYCLIC PREX 4HE REMAINING PHASE ERRORS ON THE PILOT SUBCHANNELS ARE DUE TO TIMING ERROR AND CAN BE ESTIMATED BY LINEAR REGRESSION 4HERE ARE ALSO SYNCHRONIZATION ALGORITHMS BASED ON THE CYCLIC PREX )N ;= THE DIdERENCE BETWEEN RECEIVED SAMPLES SPACED - SAMPLES APART IS FORMED Q J ` Q J
-  7HEN ONE OF THE SAMPLES BELONGS TO THE CYCLIC PREX AND THE OTHER ONE TO THE /&$- SYMBOL FROM WHICH IT IS COPIED THE DIdERENCE SHOULD BE SMALL /THERWISE THE DIdERENCE BETWEEN TWO UNCORRELATED RANDOM VARIABLES WILL HAVE TWICE THE POWER AND HENCE ON AVERAGE WILL BE LARGER "Y WINDOWING THIS DIdERENCE WITH A RECTANGULAR WINDOW OF THE SAME LENGTH AS THE CYCLIC PREX THE OUTPUT SIGNAL HAS A MINIMUM WHEN A NEW /&$- SYMBOL STARTS 4HIS IDEA IS MORE FORMALLY ELABORATED IN ;  = 4HE LIKELIHOOD FUNCTION GIVEN THE OBSERVED SIGNAL Q J WITH A TIMING AND FREQUENCY ERROR IS DERIVED IN ; = 4HIS FUNCTION IS MAXIMIZED TO SIMULTANEOUSLY OBTAIN ESTIMATES OF BOTH TIMING AND FREQUENCY OdSETS 7ITH NO FREQUENCY OdSET THE LIKELIHOOD FUNCTION WITH RESPECT TO A TIMING OdSET t IS
t +`

c t 

8
J (t

2-1  1D FQ J Q J
- G ` JQ J ` Q J
- J 2-1
 2-1

c

&OR MEDIUM AND HIGH 3.2S 2-1   A MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD -, ESTIMATOR BASED ON c t ESSENTIALLY APPLIES A MOVING AVERAGE TO THE TERM JQ J ` Q J
- J  IE THE SAME AS THE ESTIMATOR IN ;= (OWEVER FOR SMALL 3.2 VALUES THE CROSSCORRELATION Q J Q J
- ALSO HAS TO BE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT ! SIMILAR PROCEDURE IS USED IN ;= WITH THE DIdERENCE THAT THE INPHASE AND QUADRATURE PARTS OF THE OBSERVED SIGNAL Q J ARE QUANTIZED TO  BIT BEFORE t IS ESTIMATED 4HIS YIELDS A SYMBOL SYNCHRONIZER WITH A LOW COMPLEXITY THAT CAN BE USED IN AN ACQUISITION MODE 3YNCHRONIZATION IN THE UPLINK IS MORE DIbCULT THAN IN THE DOWNLINK OR IN BROADCASTING 4HIS IS DUE TO THE FACT THAT THERE WILL BE A SEPARATE OdSET FOR EACH USER 4HIS PROBLEM HAS NOT YET BEEN GIVEN MUCH ATTENTION IN THE LITERATURE (OWEVER A RANDOM ACCESS SEQUENCE IS USED TO SYNCHRONIZE THE MOBILE AND THE BASE STATION IN ;= )NTERFERENCE DUE TO NON SYNCHRONIZED TRANSMISSION HAS BEEN INVESTIGATED IN ;=
c



#ARRIER PHASE NOISE

#ARRIER PHASE NOISE IS CAUSED BY IMPERFECTIONS IN THE TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER OSCILLATORS &OR A FREQUENCY SELECTIVE CHANNEL NO DISTINCTION CAN BE MADE BETWEEN THE PHASE ROTATION INTRODUCED BY A TIMING ERROR AND A CARRIER PHASE OdSET ;= !N ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF CARRIER PHASE NOISE IS DONE IN ;= 4HERE IT IS MODELLED AS A 7IENER PROCESS t S WITH $ Ft S G   AND h i $ t S
S ` t S   {n JSJ WHERE n IN (Z DENOTES THE ONE SIDED  D" LINEWIDTH OF THE ,ORENTZIAN POWER DENSITY SPECTRUM OF THE FREE RUNNING CARRIER GENERATOR 4HE DEGRADATION IN 3.2 IE THE INCREASE IN 3.2 NEEDED TO COMPENSATE FOR THE ERROR CAN BE APPROXIMATED BY t u  n $R # D" { {  KM  6 - 

WHERE 6 IS THE BANDWIDTH AND $R - IS THE PER SYMBOL 3.2 .OTE THAT THE DEGRADATION INCREASES WITH THE NUMBER OF SUBCARRIERS $UE TO THE RAPID VARIATIONS OF THE PHASE NOISE IT MAY CAUSE LARGE PROBLEMS !NALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF PHASE NOISE IN CODED SYSTEMS HAS BEEN DONE IN ;=



3AMPLING FREQUENCY SYNCHRONIZATION

4HE RECEIVED CONTINUOUS TIME SIGNAL IS SAMPLED AT INSTANTS DETERMINED BY THE RECEIVER CLOCK 4HERE ARE TWO TYPES OF METHODS OF DEALING WITH THE MISMATCH IN SAMPLING FREQUENCY )N SYNCHRONIZED SAMPLING SYSTEMS A TIMING ALGORITHM CONTROLS A VOLTAGE CONTROLLED CRYSTAL OSCIL LATOR IN ORDER TO ALIGN THE RECEIVER CLOCK WITH THE TRANSMITTER CLOCK 4HE OTHER METHOD IS NON SYNCHRONIZED SAMPLING WHERE THE SAMPLING RATE REMAINS XED WHICH REQUIRES POST PROCESSING IN THE DIGITAL DOMAIN 4HE EdECT OF A CLOCK FREQUENCY OdSET IS TWOFOLD THE USEFUL SIGNAL COM PONENT IS ROTATED AND ATTENUATED AND IN ADDITION )#) IS INTRODUCED )N ;= THE BIT ERROR RATE PERFORMANCE OF A NON SYNCHRONIZED SAMPLED /&$- SYSTEM HAS BEEN INVESTIGATED )T IS SHOWN THAT NON SYNCHRONIZED SAMPLING SYSTEMS ARE MUCH MORE SENSITIVE TO A FREQUENCY OdSET COMPARED WITH A SYNCHRONIZED SAMPLING SYSTEM &OR NON SYNCHRONIZED SAMPLING SYSTEMS IT WAS SHOWN THAT THE DEGRADATION IN D" DUE TO A FREQUENCY SAMPLING OdSET DEPENDS ON THE SQUARE OF THE CARRIER INDEX AND ON THE SQUARE OF THE RELATIVE FREQUENCY OdSET %RRORS IN THE SAMPLING FREQUENCY FOR $-4 SYSTEMS HAVE BEEN ANALYZED IN ;=




#ARRIER FREQUENCY SYNCHRONIZATION

&REQUENCY ERRORS

&REQUENCY OdSETS ARE CREATED BY DIdERENCES IN OSCILLATORS IN TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER $OPPLER SHIFTS OR PHASE NOISE INTRODUCED BY NON LINEAR CHANNELS 4HERE ARE TWO DESTRUCTIVE EdECTS CAUSED BY A CARRIER FREQUENCY OdSET IN /&$- SYSTEMS /NE IS THE REDUCTION OF SIGNAL AM PLITUDE THE SINC FUNCTIONS ARE SHIFTED AND NO LONGER SAMPLED AT THE PEAK AND THE OTHER IS THE INTRODUCTION OF )#) FROM THE OTHER CARRIERS SEE &IGURE  4HE LATTER IS CAUSED BY THE LOSS OF ORTHOGONALITY BETWEEN THE SUBCHANNELS )N ;= 0OLLET ET AL ANALYTICALLY EVALUATE THE DEGRADATION OF THE "%2 CAUSED BY THE PRESENCE OF CARRIER FREQUENCY OdSET AND CARRIER PHASE NOISE FOR AN !7'. CHANNEL )T IS FOUND THAT A MULTICARRIER SYSTEM IS MUCH MORE SENSITIVE THAN A SINGLE CARRIER SYSTEM $ENOTE THE RELATIVE FREQUENCY OdSET NORMALIZED BY THE SUBCAR % RIER SPACING BY aE  6-  WHERE a% IS THE FREQUENCY OdSET AND - THE NUMBER OF SUBCARRIERS 4HE DEGRADATION # IN 3.2 IN D" CAN THEN BE APPROXIMATED BY  # D" { {aE  KM 


$R   -  KM 

- a a% { 6

u

$R  -

.OTE THAT THE DEGRADATION IN D" INCREASES WITH THE SQUARE OF THE NUMBER OF SUBCARRIERS IF a% AND 6 ARE XED )N ;= -OOSE DERIVES THE SIGNAL TO INTERFERENCE RATIO 2(1 ON A FADING AND DISPERSIVE CHANNEL 4HE 2(1 IS DENED AS THE RATIO OF THE POWER OF THE USEFUL SIGNAL TO THE POWER OF THE 

&IGURE  %dECTS OF A FREQUENCY OdSET a%  REDUCTION IN SIGNAL AMPLITUDE p AND INTERCARRIER INTERFERENCE q  INTERFERENCE SIGNAL h AND ADDITIVE NOISE  (E ASSUMED THAT ALL CHANNEL ATTENUATIONS GJ HAVE )#) i THE SAME POWER $ JGJ J  !N UPPER BOUND ON THE DEGRADATION IS $ 
 -R RHM {aE    # D" v  KNF RHMB aE WHERE RHMB W  RHM {W  {W  4HE FACTOR  IS FOUND FROM A LOWER BOUND OF THE SUMMATION OF ALL INTERFERING SUBCARRIERS )N &IGURE  THE DEGRADATION IS PLOTTED AS A FUNCTION OF THE NORMALIZED FREQUENCY OdSET aE IE RELATIVE TO THE SUBCARRIER SPACING 4HE SYNCHRONIZATION

&IGURE  $EGRADATION IN 3.2 DUE TO A FREQUENCY OdSET NORMALIZED TO THE SUBCARRIER SPAC ING  !NALYTICAL EXPRESSION FOR !7'. DASHED AND FADING CHANNELS SOLID  REQUIREMENTS FOR AN /&$- SYSTEM HAVE BEEN INVESTIGATED IN ;= 4HE CONCLUSION THEREIN IS 

THAT IN ORDER TO AVOID SEVERE DEGRADATION THE FREQUENCY SYNCHRONIZATION ACCURACY SHOULD BE BETTER THAN  



&REQUENCY ESTIMATORS

3EVERAL CARRIER SYNCHRONIZATION SCHEMES HAVE BEEN SUGGESTED IN THE LITERATURE !S WITH SYMBOL SYNCHRONIZATION THEY CAN BE DIVIDED INTO TWO CATEGORIES BASED ON PILOTS OR ON THE CYCLIC PREX "ELOW FOLLOWS A SHORT OVERVIEW OF SOME OF THEM 0ILOT AIDED ALGORITHMS HAVE BEEN ADDRESSED IN ;= )N THAT WORK SOME SUBCARRIERS ARE USED FOR THE TRANSMISSION OF PILOTS USUALLY A PSEUDO NOISE 0. SEQUENCE  5SING THESE KNOWN SYMBOLS THE PHASE ROTATIONS CAUSED BY THE FREQUENCY OdSET CAN BE ESTIMATED 5NDER THE ASSUMPTION THAT THE FREQUENCY OdSET IS LESS THAN HALF THE SUBCARRIER SPACING THERE IS A ONE TO ONE CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN THE PHASE ROTATIONS AND THE FREQUENCY OdSET 4O ASSURE THIS AN ACQUISITION ALGORITHM MUST BE APPLIED )N ;= SUCH AN ALGORITHM IS CONSTRUCTED BY FORMING A B FUNCTION WHICH IS SINC SHAPED AND HAS A PEAK FOR E ` E   )T WAS FOUND THAT BY EVALUATING THIS FUNCTION IN POINTS 3 APART AN ACQUISITION COULD BE OBTAINED BY MAXIMIZING THAT FUNCTION 4HIS ACQUISITION SCHEME WAS CONRMED BY COMPUTER SIMULATIONS TO WORK WELL BOTH FOR AN !7'. CHANNEL AND A FADING CHANNEL ! RELATED TECHNIQUE IS TO USE THE CYCLIC PREX WHICH TO SOME EXTENT CAN BE VIEWED AS PILOTS 4HE REDUNDANCY OF THE CYCLIC PREX CAN BE USED IN SEVERAL WAYS EG BY CREATING A FUNCTION THAT PEAKS AT ZERO OdSET AND NDING ITS MAXIMIZING VALUE ; = OR BY DOING MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD ESTIMATION ;   = )N ;= IT IS ASSUMED THAT THE CYCLIC PREX HAS THE SAME SIZE AS THE /&$- SYMBOL IE THE USEFUL SYMBOL IS TRANSMITTED TWICE  IN ;= AVERAGING IS PERFORMED TO REMOVE THE DATA DEPENDENCE AND IN ;= DECISION DIRECTION IS USED )N ;= THE LIKELIHOOD FUNCTION FOR BOTH TIMING AND FREQUENCY OdSETS IS DERIVED BY ASSUMING A NON DISPERSIVE CHANNEL AND BY CONSIDERING THE TRANSMITTED DATA SYMBOLS WJ UNCORRELATED "Y MAXIMIZING THIS FUNCTION A SIMULTANEOUS ESTIMATION OF THE TIMING AND FREQUENCY OdSETS CAN BE OBTAINED )F THE FREQUENCY ERROR IS SLOWLY VARYING COMPARED THE /&$- SYMBOL RATE A PHASE LOCKED LOOP 0,, ;= CAN BE USED TO REDUCE THE ERROR FURTHER )T IS INTERESTING TO NOTE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TIME AND FREQUENCY SYNCHRONIZATION )F THE FREQUENCY SYNCHRONIZATION IS A PROBLEM IT CAN BE REDUCED BY LOWERING THE NUMBER OF SUBCARRIERS WHICH WILL INCREASE THE SUBCARRIER SPACING 4HIS WILL HOWEVER INCREASE THE DEMANDS ON THE TIME SYNCHRONIZATION SINCE THE SYMBOL LENGTH GETS SHORTER IE A LARGER RELATIVE TIMING ERROR WILL OCCUR 4HUS THE SYNCHRONIZATIONS IN TIME AND FREQUENCY ARE CLOSELY RELATED TO EACH OTHER





#HAPTER  #HANNEL ESTIMATION

-ODULATION CAN BE CLASSIED AS DIdERENTIAL OR COHERENT 7HEN USING DIdERENTIAL MODULATION THERE IS NO NEED FOR A CHANNEL ESTIMATE SINCE THE INFORMATION IS ENCODED IN THE DIdERENCE BETWEEN TWO CONSECUTIVE SYMBOLS 4HIS IS A COMMON TECHNIQUE IN WIRELESS SYSTEMS WHICH SINCE NO CHANNEL ESTIMATOR IS NEEDED REDUCES THE COMPLEXITY OF THE RECEIVER $IdERENTIAL MODULATION IS USED IN THE %UROPEAN $!" STANDARD ;= 4HE DRAWBACKS ARE ABOUT A  D" NOISE ENHANCEMENT ;= AND AN INABILITY TO USE EbCIENT MULTIAMPLITUDE CONSTELLATIONS (OWEVER DIdERENTIAL SCHEMES CAN BENET FROM ASSISTANCE BY A CHANNEL ESTIMATOR ;= !N INTERESTING ALTERNATIVE TO COHERENT MODULATION IS DIdERENTIAL AMPLITUDE AND PHASE SHIFT KEYING $!03+ ;   = WHERE A SPECTRAL EbCIENCY GREATER THAN THAT OF $03+ IS ACHIEVED BY USING A DIdERENTIAL CODING OF AMPLITUDE AS WELL 4HIS REQUIRES A NONUNIFORM AMPLITUDE DISTRIBUTION #OHERENT MODULATION HOWEVER ALLOWS ARBITRARY SIGNAL CONSTELLATIONS AND IS AN OBVIOUS CHOICE IN WIRED SYSTEMS WHERE THE CHANNEL HARDLY CHANGES WITH TIME )N WIRELESS SYSTEMS THE EbCIENCY OF COHERENT MODULATION MAKES IT AN INTERESTING CHOICE WHEN THE BIT RATE IS HIGH AS IN DIGITAL VIDEO BROADCAST $6" ; = 4HE CHANNEL ESTIMATION IN WIRED SYSTEMS IS FAIRLY STRAIGHTFORWARD AND IS NOT DISCUSSED IN DETAIL BELOW 7E CONCENTRATE ON CHANNEL ESTIMATION IN WIRELESS SYSTEMS WHERE THE COMPLEXITY OF THE ESTIMATOR IS AN IMPORTANT DESIGN CRITERION 4HERE ARE MAINLY TWO PROBLEMS IN THE DESIGN OF CHANNEL ESTIMATORS FOR WIRELESS /&$SYSTEMS 4HE RST PROBLEM CONCERNS THE CHOICE OF HOW PILOT INFORMATION DATASIGNALS KNOWN AT THE RECEIVER SHOULD BE TRANSMITTED 4HIS PILOT INFORMATION IS NEEDED AS A REFERENCE FOR CHANNEL ESTIMATION 4HE SECOND PROBLEM IS THE DESIGN OF AN ESTIMATOR WITH BOTH LOW COMPLEXITY AND GOOD CHANNEL TRACKING ABILITY 4HESE TWO PROBLEMS ARE INTERCONNECTED SINCE THE PERFORMANCE OF THE ESTIMATOR DEPENDS ON HOW PILOT INFORMATION IS TRANSMITTED



0ILOT INFORMATION

#HANNEL ESTIMATORS USUALLY NEED SOME KIND OF PILOT INFORMATION AS A POINT OF REFERENCE ! FADING CHANNEL REQUIRES CONSTANT TRACKING SO PILOT INFORMATION HAS TO BE TRANSMITTED MORE OR LESS CONTINUOUSLY $ECISION DIRECTED CHANNEL ESTIMATION CAN ALSO BE USED ;= BUT EVEN IN THESE TYPES OF SCHEMES PILOT INFORMATION HAS TO BE TRANSMITTED REGULARLY TO MITIGATE ERROR PROPAGATION 4O THE AUTHORS KNOWLEDGE THERE IS VERY LITTLE PUBLISHED ON HOW TO TRANSMIT PILOT INFORMA 

TION IN WIRELESS /&$- (OWEVER AN EbCIENT WAY OF ALLOWING A CONTINUOUSLY UPDATED CHANNEL ESTIMATE IS TO TRANSMIT PILOT SYMBOLS INSTEAD OF DATA AT CERTAIN LOCATIONS OF THE /&$- TIME FREQUENCY LATTICE 4HIS CAN BE VIEWED AS A GENERALIZATION OF PILOT SYMBOL ASSISTED MODULATION 03!- IN THE SINGLE CARRIER CASE 03!- IN THE SINGLE CARRIER CASE WAS INTRODUCED IN ;= AND THOROUGHLY ANALYZED IN ;= !N EXAMPLE OF THIS IS SHOWN IN &IGURE  WHERE BOTH SCATTERED AND CONTINUAL PILOT SYMBOLS ARE SHOWN )N A PRELIMINARY DRAFT OF THE %UROPEAN $6" STANDARD ;= PILOT INFORMATION IS SPECIED TO BE TRANSMITTED ON BOOSTED SUBCARRIERS BOTH SCATTERED AND AS CONTINUAL PILOT CARRIERS "OOSTED SUBCARRIERS MEANS THAT PILOT INFORMATION IS TRANSMITTED AT HIGHER POWER THAN THE DATA

&IGURE  !N EXAMPLE OF PILOT INFORMATION TRANSMITTED BOTH SCATTERED AND CONTINUAL ON CERTAIN SUBCARRIERS )N GENERAL THE FADING CHANNEL CAN BE VIEWED AS A  $ SIGNAL TIME AND FREQUENCY  WHICH IS SAMPLED AT PILOT POSITIONS AND THE CHANNEL ATTENUATIONS BETWEEN PILOTS ARE ESTIMATED BY INTERPOLATION 4HIS ENABLES US TO USE THE  $ SAMPLING THEOREM TO PUT LIMITS THE DENSITY OF THE PILOT PATTERN ;= (OWEVER AS IN THE SINGLE CARRIER CASE ;= THE PILOT PATTERN SHOULD BE DESIGNED SO THAT THE CHANNEL IS OVERSAMPLED AT THE RECEIVER



%STIMATOR DESIGN

!SSUMING THAT THE PILOT PATTERN IS CHOSEN THE OPTIMAL LINEAR CHANNEL ESTIMATOR IN TERMS OF MEAN SQUARED ERROR -3% IS A  $ 7IENER LTER +NOWING THE STATISTICAL PROPERTIES OF THE CHANNEL SUCH AN ESTIMATOR CAN BE DESIGNED USING STANDARD TECHNIQUES ;= 4HE COMBINATION OF HIGH DATA RATES AND LOW BIT ERROR RATES NECESSITATES THE USE OF ESTIMATORS THAT HAVE BOTH LOW 

COMPLEXITY AND HIGH ACCURACY 4HESE TWO CONSTRAINTS ON THE ESTIMATORS WORK AGAINST EACH OTHER -OST ESTIMATORS WITH HIGH ACCURACY SUCH AS THE  $ 7IENER LTER HAVE A LARGE COMPUTATIONAL COMPLEXITY WHILE ESTIMATORS OF LOWER COMPLEXITY USUALLY PRODUCE A LESS ACCURATE ESTIMATE 4HE ART IN DESIGNING CHANNEL ESTIMATORS IS NDING A GOOD TRADE Od BETWEEN COMPLEXITY AND PERFORMANCE 4HE ISSUE OF REDUCING THE COMPUTATIONAL COMPLEXITY WHILE MAINTAINING MOST OF THE PERFOR MANCE HAS BEEN ADDRESSED IN SEVERAL PUBLICATIONS )N ;= SEPARABLE LTERS ARE APPLIED INSTEAD OF A  $ NITE IMPULSE RESPONSE &)2 LTER 4HE USE OF SEPARABLE LTERS INSTEAD OF FULL  $ LTERS IS A STANDARD TECHNIQUE USED TO REDUCE COMPUTATIONAL COMPLEXITY IN MULTIDIMENSIONAL SIGNAL PROCESSING ;= 5SING THIS TECHNIQUE THE ESTIMATION IS RST PERFORMED IN THE FREQUENCY DIRECTION USING A  $ &)2 LTER AND THEN IN THE TIME DIRECTION USING A SECOND  $ &)2 LTER 4HIS RESTRICTS THE OBTAINABLE  $ IMPULSE RESPONSES TO THOSE THAT ARE THE OUTER PRODUCT OF TWO  $ LTERS 4HIS RESULTS IN A SMALL PERFORMANCE LOSS BUT THE GREATLY REDUCED COMPLEXITY USUALLY MOTIVATES THE USE OF SEPARABLE LTERS ; = ! SECOND APPROACH IN THE REDUCTION OF COMPUTATIONAL COMPLEXITY IS BASED ON USING TRANS FORMS THAT CONCENTRATE THE CHANNEL POWER TO A FEW TRANSFORM COEbCIENTS THUS ALLOWING EbCIENT CHANNEL ESTIMATION TO BE PERFORMED WITH LITTLE EdORT IN THE TRANSFORM DOMAIN ,OW COMPLEXITY ESTIMATORS OF THIS TYPE BASED ON BOTH THE $&4 ;  = AND ON OPTIMAL RANK REDUCTION ; = HAVE BEEN PROPOSED 4HIS TECHNIQUE USUALLY YIELD ESTIMATORS OF HIGH PERFORMANCE AND LOW COMPLEXITY BUT MAY RESULT IN AN IRREDUCIBLE ERROR OOR UNLESS SPECIAL CARE IS TAKEN 4HESE EdECTS ARE ANALYZED IN DETAIL IN ; = ! COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF PILOT BASED ESTIMATORS PRESENTED IN ;= SHOWS THAT THE COMBI NATION OF SEPARABLE LTERS AND LOW RANK APPROXIMATIONS CAN GIVE HIGH PERFORMANCE ESTIMATORS OF LOW COMPLEXITY WHERE THE GREATEST PORTION OF THE REDUCED COMPLEXITY STEMS FROM THE USE OF SEPARABLE LTERS



0ERFORMANCE EXAMPLE

&IGURE  SHOWS AN EXAMPLE ON THE DIdERENCE IN CODED BIT ERROR RATE BETWEEN COHERENT AND DIdERENTIAL MODULATION 4HE SIMULATIONS ARE PERFORMED FOR A WIRELESS  SUBCARRIER /&$SYSTEM WITH A  SAMPLE CYCLIC PREX 4HE CHANNEL IS 2AYLEIGH FADING WITH  RELATIVE $OPPLER FREQUENCY AND THE SYSTEM USES TRELLIS CODED MODULATION WITH  PHASE SHIFT KEYING  03+ ACCORDING TO ;= 4HE DIdERENTIAL MODULATION IS PERFORMED IN THE FREQUENCY DIRECTION SINCE THE FREQUENCY CORRELATION IS GREATER THAN THE TIME CORRELATION ;= 4HE PERFORMANCE OF COHERENT MODULATION IS PRESENTED FOR BOTH KNOWN CHANNEL AND WITH A LOW COMPLEXITY ESTIMATOR ;= 4HE LOW COMPLEXITY CHANNEL ESTIMATOR USES A  PILOT SYMBOL DENSITY AND REQUIRES ONLY  MULTIPLICATIONS PER ESTIMATED CHANNEL ATTENUATION 4HIS GURE ILLUSTRATES THAT COHERENT MODULATION WITH LOW COMPLEXITY CHANNEL ESTIMATION CAN OUTPERFORM DIdERENTIAL MODULATION %VEN THOUGH THE CHANNEL CORRELATION IN THE FREQUENCY DIRECTION IS LARGE IN THIS CASE THE BEGINNING OF AN ERROR OOR FOR THE DIdERENTIAL MODULATION IS CLEARLY VISIBLE FOR $A - GREATER THAN ABOUT  D" 4HIS ERROR OOR IS OF THE SAME TYPE AS THE ONE EXPERIENCED IN THE SINGLE CARRIER CASE WHEN THE CHANNEL IS FADING ;=



&IGURE  !N EXAMPLE ON THE DIdERENCE BETWEEN COHERENT AND DIdERENTIAL  03+ IN A 2AYLEIGH FADING ENVIRONMENT



#HAPTER  #HANNEL CODING

4HIS CHAPTER DESCRIBES CODING IN /&$- SYSTEMS 4HE CODING PROBLEM IS QUITE DIdERENT FOR THE WIRELESS AND THE WIRED CASE )N THE LATTER CASE THE CHANNEL IS STATIC AND TECHNIQUES LIKE BIT LOADING AND MULTIDIMENSIONAL CODING ARE APPROPRIATE /N A FADING CHANNEL THE MAIN DIdERENCE BETWEEN AN /&$- SYSTEM AND A SINGLE CARRIER SYSTEM IS THE INTERLEAVING 7E WILL GIVE A SHORT OVERVIEW OF CODING ON BOTH WIRELESS AND THE WIRED CHANNELS



7IRELESS SYSTEMS

5SING A TIME DOMAIN EQUALIZER IT IS POSSIBLE TO OBTAIN AN , BRANCH DIVERSITY IF THE CHANNEL CONSISTS OF , RESOLVABLE PATHS ;= )N /&$- THE EQUALIZER DOES NOT GIVE YOU ANY DIVERSITY SINCE ALL SUBCHANNELS ARE NARROWBAND AND EXPERIENCE AT FADING ;= (OWEVER THE STRUCTURE OF /&$- OdERS THE OPPORTUNITY TO CODE ACROSS THE SUBCARRIERS )N ;= IT IS SHOWN THAT WITH AN , PATH CHANNEL IT IS POSSIBLE TO OBTAIN AN , BRANCH DIVERSITY THROUGH CODING (ENCE IN THIS DIVERSITY CONTEXT A MULTI CARRIER SYSTEM IS COMPARABLE TO A SINGLE CARRIER SYSTEM "ESIDES COMBATING FADING CODING HAS ALSO BEEN PROPOSED TO DEAL WITH LONG ECHOES THAT CAUSES )3) BETWEEN SUBSEQUENT /&$- SYMBOLS ;= 4HE DESIGN OF CODES FOR /&$- SYSTEMS ON FADING CHANNELS FOLLOWS MANY OF THE STANDARD TECHNIQUES 7HAT IS SPECIAL ABOUT /&$- IS THE TIME FREQUENCY LATTICE AND THE POSSIBILITY TO USE TWO DIMENSIONS FOR INTERLEAVING AND CODING 4O ILLUSTRATE HOW TO USE THIS STRUCTURE WE GIVE AN OVERVIEW OF TWO SYSTEMS THE %UROPEAN $!" STANDARD AND A TRELLIS CODED SYSTEM BY (HER 4HE $!" SYSTEM USES DIdERENTIAL MODULATION WHICH AVOIDS CHANNEL ESTIMATION WHILE THE OTHER SYSTEM USES A MULTIAMPLITUDE SIGNAL CONSTELLATION WHICH REQUIRES CHANNEL ESTIMATION



$IGITAL !UDIO "ROADCASTING

$IGITAL BROADCASTING TO MOBILE RECEIVERS WAS UNDER CONSIDERABLE INVESTIGATION IN THE LATE %IGHT IES ; = 4HE STANDARD FOR $!" WAS SET IN %UROPE TO USE /&$- ;= WHILE IT IS STILL UNDER INVESTIGATION IN THE 53! ;= 4HE %UROPEAN $!" SYSTEM USES DIdERENTIAL QUADRATURE PHASE SHIFT KEYING $103+ TO AVOID CHANNEL ESTIMATION !N ARGUMENT FOR THIS IS BASED ON SIMPLE AND INEXPENSIVE RECEIVERS FOR CONSUMERS 4HE CHANNEL ENCODING PROCESS IS BASED ON PUNC TURED CONVOLUTIONAL CODING WHICH ALLOWS BOTH EQUAL AND UNEQUAL ERROR PROTECTION ;= !S A MOTHER CODE A RATE  CONVOLUTIONAL CODE WITH CONSTRAINT LENGTH  AND OCTAL POLYNOMIALS 

 IS USED 4HE PUNCTURING PROCEDURE ALLOWS THE EdECTIVE CODE RATE TO VARY BETWEEN  AND  )NTERLEAVING IS PERFORMED IN BOTH TIME AND FREQUENCY 4HE FORMER IS A KIND OF BLOCK INTER LEAVING AFTER WHICH THE BITS ARE MAPPED TO 103+ SYMBOLS 4HE FREQUENCY INTERLEAVER WORKING WITH THE 103+ SYMBOLS FOLLOWS A PERMUTATION RULE OF THE  SUBCARRIERS )N ONE OF THE THREE TRANSMISSIONS MODES THIS PERMUTATION RULE IS e  e M    e M ` 
 LNC   M       

4HIS PERMUTATION DENES THE SET Fe   e   e       e  G  F       G ACCORDING TO WHICH THE INTERLEAVING PATTERN IS CHOSEN !FTER THE FREQUENCY INTERLEAVING THE 103+ SYMBOLS ARE DIdERENTIALLY MODULATED ON EACH SUBCARRIER



4RELLIS CODED /&$-

!S AN EXAMPLE OF A MULTIAMPLITUDE COHERENT AND CODED /&$- SYSTEM WE GIVE A SHORT OVERVIEW OF A SYSTEM INVESTIGATED BY (HER 4HE ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION ;= ADDRESSES A DIGITAL AUDIO BROADCASTING SCENARIO BUT THE CONCEPT IS MORE GENERAL (HERS INVESTIGATION IS THEREFORE ONE OF THE MOST REFERENCED PAPERS ON /&$- (IS SYSTEM IS A POWER AND BANDWIDTH EbCIENT CONCATENATED CODING SYSTEM FOR DATA TRANSMISSION ON TIME AND FREQUENCY SELECTIVE MOBILE FADING CHANNELS ! CONCATENATED CODING IS USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH DOUBLE INTERLEAVING AND SLOW FREQUENCY HOPPING TO PROVIDE DIVERSITY !N OVERVIEW OF THE SYSTEM IS DEPICTED IN &IGURE  4HE OUTER CODES ARE RATE COMPATIBLE PUNCTURED CODES 2#0# DERIVED FROM THE RATE 

&IGURE  /VERVIEW OF THE SYSTEM INVESTIGATED BY (HER ;= CODE   WITH CONSTRAINT LENGTH  4HE OUTER INTERLEAVING SCHEME IS APPLIED TO BREAK UP ERROR BURSTS FROM THE INNER CODING SYSTEM 3INCE THESE BURSTS ARE TYPICALLY MUCH SHORTER THAN THE FADING BURSTS THE OUTER INTERLEAVING CAN BE MUCH SIMPLER THAN THE INNER INTERLEAVING 4HE INNER CODE IS BINARY TRELLIS CODED MODULATION 4#- WITH ONE DIMENSIONAL SIGNAL CON STELLATION 4HE REASON FOR THIS CHOICE IS THAT THEY WERE FOUND TO PROVIDE A GOOD DIVERSITY FACTOR 

AT A VERY LOW DECODER COMPLEXITY ;= 4HE CODE USED IS A ONE DIMENSIONAL  STATE CODE WITH  LEVEL UNIFORM PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION  0!-  4HE  0!- OUTPUT SYMBOLS ARE THEN COMBINED TO A  SYMBOL QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION  1!- CONSTELLATION AND INTER LEAVED TO BREAK UP CHANNEL MEMORY )N THE RECEIVER THE 6ITERBI ALGORITHM 6! IS USED FOR DECODING 4HIS ALGORITHM IS CAPABLE OF USING THE CHANNEL STATE INFORMATION OBTAINED FROM A PILOT SEQUENCE SEE 3ECTION  4HE DECODING IS PERFORMED BY MINIMIZING THE METRIC ) 8 n n nB n  nGM n JXM ` WM J 
M

WHERE B M IS THE CHANNEL ESTIMATE XM IS THE DEINTERLEAVED OBSERVATION AFTER EQUALIZATION THE REAL G OR IMAGINARY PART AND WM IS A POTENTIAL CODEWORD "ECAUSE OF THE OUTER CODE THE 6! SHOULD BE MODIED TO PROVIDE RELIABILITY ESTIMATES TOGETHER WITH THE DECODED SEQUENCE 4HIS ENABLES SOFT DECODING OF THE OUTER CODE AS WELL "Y APPLYING A SOFT OUTPUT 6ITERBI ALGORITHM 3/6!  AN IMPROVEMENT OF ABOUT  D" IS OBTAINED ;= 4OGETHER WITH INNER CODING MULTICARRIER SIGNALLING AND SLOW FREQUENCY HOPPING THE INTERLEAVER PROVIDES DUAL TIMEFREQUENCY DIVERSITY !N EXAMPLE OF SLOW FREQUENCY HOPPING IS DEPICTED IN &IGURE  %ACH PROGRAM CONSISTS OF A

&IGURE  3LOW FREQUENCY HOPPING %ACH PROGRAM /H USES A BANDWIDTH ! AND CHANGES FREQUENCY BAND AFTER 3GNO  NUMBER OF SUBCARRIERS AND /&$- SYMBOLS THE PARAMETERS ! AND 3GNO ARE CHOSEN TO MAXIMIZE THE DIVERSITY OF THE SYSTEM ! SIMILAR BUT SOMEWHAT MORE GENERALIZED HOPPING SCHEME IS PRESENTED IN ;=



/THER SYSTEMS

4HERE HAVE BEEN OTHER CODED /&$- SYSTEMS PROPOSED AND ANALYZED IN THE LITERATURE )N ; = AN /&$-&- SYSTEM IS INVESTIGATED AND SIMULATED /&$- IS PROPOSED IN %UROPE AS THE TRANSMISSION TECHNIQUE FOR THE NEW $6" SYSTEM ;= WHERE A MULTIRESOLUTION SCHEME IS USED TOGETHER WITH JOINT SOURCECHANNEL CODING ; = 4HIS ALLOWS SEVERAL BIT RATES AND THEREBY A GRACEFUL DEGRADATION OF IMAGE QUALITY IN THE FRINGES OF THE BROADCAST AREA 



#ODING ON FADING CHANNELS

#ODES FOR FADING CHANNELS HAVE BEEN INVESTIGATED FOR A LONG TIME AND THE SEARCH FOR GOOD CODES IS STILL GOING ON !N OVERVIEW OF THIS SUBJECT IS FOUND IN ;= $ESIGN OF CODES HAS BEEN ANALYZED IN ;   = AND FOR TRELLIS CODED MULTIPLE 03+ IN ; = !SYMMETRIC 03+ CONSTELLATIONS ARE CONSIDERED IN ;= AND CODE DESIGN FOR 2ICIAN FADING CHANNELS IS INVESTIGATED IN ;= 0ERFORMANCE BOUNDS HAVE BEEN DERIVED FOR 2AYLEIGH FADING CHANNELS IN ;      = AND FOR 2ICIAN FADING CHANNELS IN ;  = 5SUALLY PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF CODES ASSUMES PERFECT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CHANNEL (OWEVER IN ; = AN ANALYTICAL METHOD WAS INTRODUCED THAT ALLOWS NON IDEAL CHANNEL INFORMATION 4HIS WAS LATER GENERALIZED TO INCLUDE NON IDEAL INTERLEAVING ; = 4HIS METHOD HAS BEEN USED TO ANALYZE A CODED /&$- SYSTEM WITH PILOT BASED CHANNEL ESTIMATION ON 2AYLEIGH FADING CHANNELS ;= ! MAJOR BENET OF USING ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR EVALUATION OF CODED SYSTEMS IS THAT A CODED BIT ERROR RATE CAN BE OBTAINED QUICKLY AFTER SYSTEM MODICATIONS WITHOUT TIME CONSUMING SIMULATIONS



7IRED SYSTEMS

!N IMPORTANT DIdERENCE BETWEEN A WIRED AND A WIRELESS SYSTEM IS THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CHANNEL )N THE WIRED CASE THE CHANNEL IS OFTEN CONSIDERED STATIONARY WHICH FACILITATES A NUMBER OF TECHNIQUES TO IMPROVE THE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM #HANNEL CODING IN COMBINATION WITH A TECHNIQUE CALLED BIT LOADING IS OFTEN EMPLOYED FOR THIS PURPOSE -ULTIDIMENSIONAL TRELLIS CODES ARE WELL SUITED FOR THE CHANNEL CODING 7HEN USING BIT LOADING THE SUBCHANNELS ARE ASSIGNED INDIVIDUAL NUMBERS OF BITS ACCORDING TO THEIR RESPECTIVE 3.2S !N /&$- BASED COMMUNICATION SYSTEM USING BIT LOADING IS OFTEN REFERRED TO AS A $-4 SYSTEM



"IT LOADING

"IT LOADING IS A TECHNIQUE THAT IS USED FOR MULTICARRIER SYSTEMS OPERATING ON STATIONARY CHANNELS ;= ! STATIONARY CHANNEL MAKES IT POSSIBLE TO MEASURE THE 3.2 ON EACH SUBCHANNEL AND ASSIGN INDIVIDUAL NUMBERS OF TRANSMITTED BITS ! SUBCHANNEL WITH HIGH 3.2 THUS TRANSMITS MORE BITS THAN A SUBCHANNEL WITH LOW 3.2 &IGURE  SHOWS A SCHEMATIC PICTURE OF 3.2 AND HOW THE NUMBER OF BITS ON EACH SUBCHANNEL VARY ACCORDINGLY
3.2 "ITS

3UBCARRIER

3UBCARRIER

&IGURE  #HANNEL 3.2 LEFT AND CORRESPONDING NUMBER OF BITS ON EACH SUBCARRIER RIGHT  7HEN PERFORMING BIT LOADING ONE USUALLY OPTIMIZES FOR EITHER HIGH DATA RATE LOW AVERAGE TRANSMITTING ENERGY OR LOW ERROR PROBABILITY 4YPICALLY TWO OF THESE ARE KEPT CONSTANT AND THE 

THIRD IS THE GOAL FOR THE OPTIMIZATION 7HICH PARAMETER SHOULD BE OPTIMIZED DEPENDS ON THE SYSTEM ITS ENVIRONMENT AND ITS APPLICATION 7HEN THERE IS ONLY ONE SYSTEM OPERATING ON A CABLE THIS SYSTEM NEITHER INTERFERES WITH NOR IS INTERFERED BY OTHER SYSTEMS 4HIS MEANS THAT CONTROLLING THE TRANSMITTING POWER TO REDUCE CROSSTALK IS NOT NECESSARY 'IVEN A DATA RATE AND A BIT ERROR PROBABILITY WHATEVER TRANSMISSION ENERGY NEEDED TO ACHIEVE THESE GOALS CAN BE USED WITHIN REASONABLE LIMITS  )N A MULTI SYSTEM ENVIRONMENT WHERE THERE ARE SEVERAL SYSTEMS TRANSMITTING IN THE SAME CABLE THE PROBLEM IS MORE COMPLICATED SINCE THE SYSTEMS EXPERIENCE CROSSTALK 4HE LEVEL OF CROSSTALK IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE TRANSMITTING POWER IN THE SYSTEMS SEE  AND   )T IS THEREFORE DESIRABLE TO HAVE AN EQUAL TRANSMISSION POWER IN ALL SYSTEMS TO OBTAIN EQUAL DISTURBANCE SITUATIONS )N A MULTI SYSTEM ENVIRONMENT THE AVERAGE TRANSMITTING POWER IS USUALLY XED AND THE OPTIMIZATION IS FOR EITHER HIGH DATA RATE OR LOW BIT ERROR RATE



"IT LOADING ALGORITHMS

4HERE ARE SEVERAL TECHNIQUES FOR BIT LOADING IN $-4 SYSTEMS AND SOME OF THESE ARE DESCRIBED IN ;   = !S MENTIONED EARLIER THERE ARE SEVERAL PARAMETERS THAT ONE CAN OPTIMIZE FOR -OST ALGORITHMS OPTIMIZE FOR HIGH DATA RATE OR LOW BIT ERROR RATE 'IVEN A CERTAIN DATA RATE AND AN ENERGY CONSTRAINT THE (UGHES (ARTOGS ALGORITHM PROVIDES THE BIT LOADING FACTORS THAT YIELD MINIMAL BIT ERROR RATE SEE EG ;= 4HE IDEA BEHIND THE (UGHES (ARTOGS ALGORITHM IS TO ASSIGN ONE BIT AT A TIME TO THE SUBCHANNELS 4HE ALGORITHM CALCULATES THE ENERGY COST TO SEND ONE BIT MORE ON EACH SUBCHANNEL 4HE SUBCHANNEL WITH THE SMALLEST ENERGY COST IS THEN ASSIGNED THE BIT 4HIS PROCEDURE IS REPEATED UNTIL A DESIRED BIT RATE IS OBTAINED #HOW HAS SHOWED THAT COMPLEXITY OF THE (UGHES (ARTOGS ALGORITHM IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE NUMBER OF SUBCHANNELS AND THE NUMBER OF BITS TRANSMITTED IN A $-4 FRAME ;= (E ALSO SUGGESTS A SUBOPTIMAL ALGORITHM OF LOWER COMPLEXITY IN ;= !N ALGORITHM THAT MAINTAINS AN EQUAL BIT ERROR PROBABILITY OVER ALL SUBCHANNELS GIVEN A DATA RATE AND AN ENERGY CONSTRAINT IS PRESENTED BY &ISCHER IN ;= ! SUBOPTIMAL WAY OF PERFORMING BIT LOADING TO ACHIEVE A HIGH DATA RATE WHILE MAINTAINING A CONSTANT SYMBOL ERROR PROBABILITY ACROSS ALL SUBCHANNELS IS PRESENTED BY 4U ;= )N HIS ALGORITHM THE BIT LOADING FACTORS ARE CALCULATED ACCORDING TO t u $J FJ oC AJ  KNF
 ` KNF "   *}J WHERE AJ IS THE NUMBER OF BITS CARRIED BIT LOADING FACTOR ON SUBCARRIER J $J THE AVERAGE  SYMBOL TRANSMISSION ENERGY FJ THE CHANNEL ATTENUATION AND }J THE NOISE VARIANCE 4HE CODING GAIN IS DENOTED oC AND THE CONSTELLATION EXPANSION FACTOR DUE TO CODING IS DENOTED " &URTHER TO OBTAIN A DESIRED SYMBOL ERROR RATE OF /D  THE DESIGN CONSTANT * IS CHOSEN TO v t uw /D  * 0   -D
`

WHERE -D IS THE NUMBER OF NEAREST NEIGHBORS %XPRESSION  CAN BE VIEWED AS THE UNION BOUND FOR A 1!- CONSTELLATION WITH SOME MODICATIONS FOR CODING WHERE * IS THE 3.2 REQUIRED TO OBTAIN AN ERROR PROBABILITY /D  4HE  CHANNEL 3.2 INCLUDING CODING  $J FJ oC }J  IS DIVIDED BY THE 3.2 REQUIRED TO TRANSMIT ONE 

BIT &INALLY THE NUMBER OF BITS NEEDED IN THE CODING KNF " IS SUBTRACTED TO GET THE NUMBER OF BITS CARRIED BY SUBCHANNEL J )F THE NUMBER OF SYSTEMS TRANSMITTING IN A CABLE VARY THE AMOUNT OF CROSSTALK WILL VARY ACCORDINGLY 4O HANDLE THE SITUATION WHERE THE NUMBER OF TRANSMITTING SYSTEMS VARY ONE CAN EITHER DO THE BIT LOADING FOR A WORST CASE OR EMPLOY ADAPTIVE BIT LOADING #HOW ;= PRESENTS SUCH AN ADAPTIVE ALGORITHM CALLED THE BIT SWAP ALGORITHM WHICH IS DESIGNED FOR THE CASE WHEN A XED DATA RATE IS SPECIED 7HEN TRYING TO MAXIMIZE THE DATA RATE WITH A CONSTANT TRANSMITTING POWER IT IS OPTIMAL TO ALLOW BIT LOADING FACTORS TO SPAN A CONTINUOUS RANGE OF VALUES 4U PRESENTS SOME RESULTS IN ;= ON HOW THE GRANULARITY OF BIT LOADING FACTORS AdECTS THE OBTAINED DATA RATE IN SUCH A SYSTEM /NE WAY TO GET NON INTEGER BIT LOADING FACTORS IS TO USE MULTIDIMENSIONAL CODES -ULTIDIMENSIONAL CODES ALLOW A FRACTIONAL NUMBER OF BITS PER  $ SYMBOL TO BE TRANSMITTED ON EACH SUBCHANNEL &OR  $  $ AND  $ CODES THE GRANULARITIES BECOME  BIT  BITS AND  BITS PER  $ SYMBOL RESPECTIVELY !NOTHER TECHNIQUE REFERRED TO AS ENERGY LOADING IS TO ALLOW SOME SORT OF NE TUNING OF THE TRANSMITTED ENERGY ON THE SUBCHANNELS IE ADJUSTING THE ENERGY $J IN  SO THAT IT CORRESPONDS TO ONE OF THE SUPPORTED BIT LOADING FACTORS (OWEVER ENERGY LOADING ONLY WORKS IF THE TUNING IS SMALL WHICH REQUIRES MANY BIT LOADING FACTORS AND A SIDE EdECT IS THAT A MORE COMPLEX SIGNAL CONSTELLATION MAPPERDEMAPPER IS REQUIRED



#HANNEL CODING

#ODING IN $-4 HAS BEEN ANALYZED IN EG ; = ! TYPICAL CODING SCHEME FOR $-4 CONSISTS OF AN OUTER CODE AN INTERLEAVER AND AN INNER CODE $UE TO THE TYPE OF APPLICATIONS THAT $-4 IS DESIGNED TO CARRY SEE 3ECTION  IT IS APPEALING TO KEEP A LOW DELAY BETWEEN TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER 4HIS LIMITS THE INTERLEAVING DEPTH AND AdECTS THE CHOICE OF ERROR CORRECTING CODES 4HE CODING SCHEME ANALYZED IN ;= USES AN OUTER 2EED 3OLOMON CODE AND AN INNER TRELLIS CODE 4HE 2EED 3OLOMON CODE AND INTERLEAVING ARE DESIGNED TO REDUCE ERRORS DUE TO IMPULSE NOISE "Y USING ONLY ONE CODER THAT CODES ACROSS SUBCARRIERS THE DELAY IS SMALL COMPARED TO THE CASE WHERE ONE TRELLIS CODE IS USED FOR EACH SUBCARRIER 4HIS IS DUE TO THE 6ITERBI DECODERS NEED FOR A CERTAIN DECISION DEPTH TO MAKE A GOOD DECISION )N THE INVESTIGATED SYSTEM THE AMOUNT OF DATA SENT IN ONE $-4 FRAME IS ENOUGH FOR THE 6ITERBI ALGORITHM TO MAKE A DECISION -ULTIDIMENSIONAL CODES ARE WELL SUITED FOR $-4 SYSTEMS "Y USING SEVERAL  $ CONSTELLA TIONS ON DIdERENT SUBCHANNELS IT IS EASY TO CREATE MULTIDIMENSIONAL CONSTELLATIONS !S DESCRIBED EARLIER THE MULTIDIMENSIONAL CODES ALLOW FRACTIONAL BITS TO BE TRANSMITTED WHICH REDUCES THE GRANULARITY OF THE BIT LOADING FACTORS



#HAPTER  $ISCUSSION
4HIS SECTION IS BOTH A DISCUSSION AND A SUMMARY OF THE MATERIAL PRESENTED EARLIER IN THIS REPORT /NE OF THE MAJOR ADVANTAGES OF /&$- IS ITS ROBUSTNESS AGAINST MULTIPATH PROPAGATION (ENCE ITS TYPICAL APPLICATIONS ARE IN TOUGH RADIO ENVIRONMENTS /&$- IS ALSO SUITABLE IN SINGLE FREQUENCY NETWORKS SINCE THE SIGNALS FROM OTHER TRANSMITTERS CAN BE VIEWED AS ECHOES IE MULTIPATH PROPAGATION 4HIS MEANS THAT IT IS FAVORABLE TO USE /&$- IN BROADCASTING APPLICATIONS SUCH AS $!" AND $6" 4HE USE OF /&$- IN MULTIUSER SYSTEMS HAS GAINED AN INCREASING INTEREST THE LAST FEW YEARS 4HE DOWNLINK IN THOSE SYSTEMS IS SIMILAR TO BROADCASTING WHILE THE UPLINK PUTS HIGH DEMANDS ON EG SYNCHRONIZATION 4HE FUTURE OF /&$- AS A TRANSMISSION TECHNIQUE FOR MULTIUSER SYSTEMS DEPENDS ON HOW WELL THESE PROBLEMS CAN BE SOLVED )N WIRED SYSTEMS THE STRUCTURE OF /&$- OdERS THE POSSIBILITY OF EbCIENT BIT LOADING "Y ALLOCATING A DIdERENT NUMBER OF BITS TO DIdERENT SUBCHANNELS DEPENDING ON THEIR INDIVIDUAL 3.2S EbCIENT TRANSMISSION CAN BE ACHIEVED !LTHOUGH OTHER SYSTEMS HAVE BEEN PROPOSED /&$- IS THE DOMINATING TECHNIQUE ON EG DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINES .OTE THAT /&$- OFTEN GOES UNDER THE NAME $-4 WHEN USED IN WIRED SYSTEMS WITH BITLOADING 4HERE ARE ALSO PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH /&$- SYSTEM DESIGN 4HE TWO MAIN OBSTACLES WHEN USING /&$- ARE THE HIGH PEAK TO AVERAGE POWER RATIO AND SYNCHRONIZATION 4HE FORMER PUTS HIGH DEMANDS ON LINEARITY IN AMPLIERS 3YNCHRONIZATION ERRORS IN BOTH TIME AND FRE QUENCY DESTROY THE ORTHOGONALITY AND CAUSE INTERFERENCE "Y USING A CYCLIC PREX THE TIMING REQUIREMENTS ARE SOMEWHAT RELAXED SO THE BIGGEST PROBLEMS ARE DUE TO HIGH FREQUENCY SYN CHRONIZATION DEMANDS $EGRADATION DUE TO FREQUENCY ERRORS CAN BE CAUSED BOTH BY DIdERENCES IN LOCAL OSCILLATORS AND BY $OPPLER SHIFTS ! GREAT DEAL OF EdORT IS THEREFORE SPENT ON DESIGNING ACCURATE FREQUENCY SYNCHRONIZERS FOR /&$- !S IN ANY DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM THERE ARE TWO ALTERNATIVES FOR MODULATION CO HERENT OR DIdERENTIAL 4HE %UROPEAN $!" SYSTEM USES DIdERENTIAL 103+ WHILE THE PROPOSED SCHEME FOR $6" IS COHERENT  1!- $IdERENTIAL 03+ IS SUITABLE FOR LOW DATA RATES AND GIVES SIMPLE AND INEXPENSIVE RECEIVERS WHICH IS IMPORTANT FOR PORTABLE CONSUMER PRODUCTS LIKE $!" RECEIVERS (OWEVER IN $6" THE DATA RATE IS MUCH HIGHER AND LOW BIT ERROR RATES ARE DIbCULT TO OBTAIN WITH DIdERENTIAL 03+ ! NATURAL CHOICE FOR $6" IS THEREFORE MULTIAMPLITUDE SCHEMES $UE TO THE STRUCTURE IN /&$- IT IS EASY TO DESIGN EbCIENT CHANNEL ESTIMATORS AND EQUALIZERS 4HIS IS ONE OF THE APPEALING PROPERTIES OF /&$- WHICH SHOULD BE EXPLOITED TO ACHIEVE HIGH SPECTRAL EbCIENCY #ODING IN WIRELESS /&$- SYSTEMS DOES NOT DIdER MUCH FROM CODING IN WIRELESS SINGLE CARRIER 

SYSTEMS 4HE MAIN DIdERENCE IS THAT INTERLEAVING IN /&$- ALLOWS SYMBOLS TO BE SPREAD IN BOTH TIME AND FREQUENCY 4HE POSSIBILITY TO INTERLEAVE IN FREQUENCY OVERCOMES THE DRAWBACK OF NOT OBTAINING DIVERSITY FROM THE EQUALIZER 3INCE EACH SUBCHANNEL EXPERIENCES AT FADING CODE DESIGN AND PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS DEVELOPED FOR AT FADING CHANNELS CAN BE USED $ECODING CAN BE PERFORMED WITH A 6ITERBI DECODER WHERE THE METRIC DEPENDS ON THE ESTIMATED CHANNEL ATTENUATIONS 4HIS MEANS THAT SYMBOLS ARE WEIGHED WITH THEIR RESPECTIVE CHANNEL STRENGTH 4HIS REDUCES THE EdECT OF ERRORS CAUSED BY SYMBOLS TRANSMITTED DURING A FADE

!CKNOWLEDGEMENTS
4HE AUTHORS WOULD LIKE TO EXTEND THEIR GRATITUDE TO THE STAd AT 4ELIA 2ESEARCH !" ,ULE AND THE COLLEAGUES AT THE $IVISION OF 3IGNAL 0ROCESSING ,ULE 5NIVERSITY OF 4ECHNOLOGY FOR PROVIDING VALUABLE COMMENTS AND CORRECTIONS



!PPENDIX ! 4IME FREQUENCY LATTICE

)N THIS APPENDIX WE GIVE A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE EdECTS OF PULSE SHAPING 7E ONLY CONSIDER TIME AND FREQUENCY DISPERSION AND EXCLUDE CHANNEL NOISE IN THIS ANALYSIS 7E DESCRIBE THE /&$SIGNAL AS 8 RS  WJK JK S  !
JK

WHERE THE FUNCTIONS JK S ARE TRANSLATIONS OF A PROTOTYPE FUNCTION OS S  JK S  OS S ` K~ DI {Jy S  !

4HIS ALLOWS US TO INTERPRET THE PULSE SHAPING PROBLEM 4HE RECEIVER USES THE FUNCTIONS JK S THAT ARE TRANSLATIONS OF A POSSIBLY DIdERENT PROTOTYPE FUNCTION OQ S  JK S  OQ S ` K~ DI {Jy S  )N /&$- THESE FUNCTIONS FULL HJK S  J K S I  p :J ` J  K ` K < 
 

WHERE Ha aI DENOTES THE %UCLIDEAN INNER PRODUCT ;= (ENCE THE TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER FUNCTIONS ARE BI ORTHOGONAL ;= 4HIS SIMPLIES THE RECEIVER SINCE : HR S  JK S I  R S JK S CS  WJK 
 c `

(OWEVER A TIME OR FREQUENCY DISPERSIVE CHANNEL DESTROYS THIS ORTHOGONALITY "Y CAREFULLY CHOOSING OS S AND OQ S  THE EdECTS OF THE LOSS OF ORTHOGONALITY CAN BE KEPT LOW !N /&$SYSTEM MUST BE SUbCIENTLY RESISTANT TO BOTH TIME AND FREQUENCY DISPERSION 4HE FORMER CAN DEALT WITH BY INTRODUCING A GUARD SPACE USUALLY IN THE FORM OF A CYCLIC PREX  WHILE THE LATTER IS OFTEN APPROACHED BY PULSE SHAPING )N SYSTEMS WITH A CYCLIC PREX AND NO PULSE SHAPING THE FUNCTIONS OS S AND OQ S ARE CHOSEN AS THE RECTANGULAR PULSE ALTHOUGH OF DIdERENT LENGTHS 4HE RECEIVER PROTOTYPE FUNCTION OQ S IN THIS CASE IS SHORTER THAN THE TRANSMITTER PROTOTYPE FUNCTION OS S  WHICH CORRESPONDS TO THE REMOVAL OF THE CYCLIC PREX ! COMMON PROPAGATION MODEL IS OBTAINED BY ASSUMING THAT THE CHANNEL CONSISTS OF A NUMBER OF ELEMENTARY PATHS ;= WHERE EACH PATH IS DESCRIBED BY A DELAY A FREQUENCY OdSET AND A 

COMPLEX ATTENUATION 4HUS BY INVESTIGATING THE EdECTS OF A STATIC DELAY AND FREQUENCY OdSET THE SENSITIVITY TO A FADING MULTIPATH CHANNEL CAN BE EVALUATED ;= 4HIS ANALYSIS CAN BE MADE WITH THE CROSS AMBIGUITY FUNCTION ;= OF THE PROTOTYPE FUNCTIONS OS S AND OQ S : OS S OQ S ` ~ D I {E S CS ~ E 
 c ` `

WHICH CAN BE VIEWED AS A CROSSCORRELATION FUNCTION IN THE TIME FREQUENCY PLANE 4HE BI ORTHOGONALITY OF JK AND JK S REQUIRES THAT : I {LK~ HJK S  JLKM S I  D OS S OQ S ` M~ D I {Ly S CS !
 ` c ` `

 D

`I {LK~

M~  Ly  p :M L< 

4HIS IS A CONDITION ON THE SAMPLES OF THE CROSS AMBIGUITY FUNCTION AT POSITIONS M~ Ly  4HE CROSS AMBIGUITY FUNCTION SHOULD BE ZERO FOR ALL M L     BUT A DELAY OR FREQUENCY OdSET WILL DESTROY THE ORTOGONALITY SINCE ~ E IS NOT SAMPLED AT ITS ZEROS 7ITH A DELAY a~ AND A FREQUENCY OdSET ay THE SIGNAL POWER IS J a~ ay J AND THE INTERFERENCE POWER CAN BE UPPER BOUNDED BY  ` J a~ ay J ;= 4HIS BOUNDS THE SIGNAL TO INTERFERENCE RATIO 3)2 FROM BELOW AS J a~ ay J 3)2 w   ` J a~ ay J 4HUS THE CROSS AMBIGUITY FUNCTION IS A MEASURE OF THE INTERFERENCE IN THE SYSTEM CAUSED BY A DELAY OR A FREQUENCY OdSET )N ;= A PROTOTYPE FUNCTION IS CREATED WHICH IS CLAIMED TO HAVE A NEAR OPTIMUM CROSS AMBIGUITY FUNCTION 4HE CROSS AMBIGUITY FUNCTION FOR A RECTANGULAR PULSE IN A SYSTEM WITH CYCLIC PREX IS SHOWN IN &IGURE ! .OTE THAT THE SYSTEM IS INSENSITIVE TO A

&IGURE ! !MBIGUITY FUNCTION FOR A RECTANGULAR PULSE AND CYCLIC PREX WITH LENGTHS ~   AND 3BO   RESPECTIVELY TIME DELAY LESS THAN 3BO   SINCE THE CROSS AMBIGUITY FUNCTION IS AT AT THE TOP 

4HE MAIN PROBLEM WITH CHOOSING O S AS A RECTANGULAR PULSE IS THAT IT IS NOT WELL LOCALIZED IN FREQUENCY $ENOTE THE TIME AND FREQUENCY WIDTHS RESPECTIVELY OF THE UNIT ENERGY SIGNAL O S BY :  aS  S JO S J CS :  aE  E  J/ E J CE
 `  `

P WHERE / E IS THE &OURIER TRANSFORM OF O S  4HEN aS  ~  AND aE   FOR THE RECTAN GULAR PULSE 4HIS FREQUENCY SPREAD OF ENERGY IS THE REASON FOR )#) IN THE CASE OF TRANSMISSION OVER FREQUENCY DISPERSIVE CHANNELS ;= 4HUS OTHER PULSES HAVE BEEN SOUGHT TO OVERCOME THIS  PROBLEM 3INCE THE 'AUSSIAN PULSE O S  D {S HAS A MINIMAL TIME BANDWIDTH PRODUCT ;= IT HAS BEEN USED TO FORM SUITABLE FUNCTIONS ; = 0ROLATE SPHEROIDAL WAVE FUNCTIONS ;= HAVE ALSO BEEN USED TO MINIMIZE OUT OF BAND ENERGY IN PULSES UNDER CERTAIN CONDITIONS ; =
`





"IBLIOGRAPHY
;= 2ADIO BROADCASTING SYSTEMS $IGITAL !UDIO "ROADCASTING $!" TO MOBILE PORTABLE AND XED RECEIVERS %43   %43) %UROPEAN 4ELECOMMUNICATIONS 3TANDARDS )NSTITUTE 6ALBONNE &RANCE &EB  ;= $IGITAL BROADCASTING SYSTEMS FOR TELEVISION SOUND AND DATA SERVICES %UROPEAN 4ELECOM MUNICATIONS 3TANDARD PR%43   $RAFT VERSION   !PR  ;= 4RANSMISSION AND RECEPTION 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT '3- 2ECOMMENDATION  VERSION  %43) 6ALBONNE &RANCE -AR  ;= 7ORKING DOCUMENT TOWARDS %423-'  SELECTION PROCEDURES FOR THE CHOICE OF RADIO TRANSMISSION TECHNOLOGIES OF THE UNIVERSAL MOBILE TELECOMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM 5-43  4ECHNICAL 2EPORT $423-'  %43) 6ALBONNE &RANCE  ;= - !LARD AND 2 ,ASSALLE 0RINCIPLES OF MODULATION AND CHANNEL CODING FOR DIGITAL BROAD CASTING FOR MOBILE RECEIVERS %"5 2EVIEW 4ECHNICAL   !UG  ;= * " !NDERSEN AND " , !NDERSEN &IRST ORDER FREQUENCY SELECTIVE EdECTS ON PHASE MODULATIONS IN A FADING CHANNEL 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT #/34  4$   %52/#/34 &IRENZE *AN  ;= * * VAN DE "EEK / %DFORS 0 / "RJESSON - 7AHLQVIST AND # STBERG ! CON CEPTUAL STUDY OF /&$- BASED MULTIPLE ACCESS SCHEMES 0ART  #HANNEL ESTIMATION IN THE UPLINK 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT 4DOC  %43) 34# 3-' MEETING NO  (ELSINKI &INLAND -AY  ;= * * VAN DE "EEK / %DFORS 0 / "RJESSON - 7AHLQVIST AND # STBERG ! CONCEP TUAL STUDY OF /&$- BASED MULTIPLE ACCESS SCHEMES 0ART  0ERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF A CODED SYSTEM 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT 4DOC  %43) 34# 3-' MEETING NO  $SSELDORF 'ERMANY 3EPT  ;= * * VAN DE "EEK / %DFORS - 3ANDELL 3 + 7ILSON AND 0 / "RJESSON /N CHANNEL ESTIMATION IN /&$- SYSTEMS )N 0ROC )%%% 6EHIC 4ECHNOL #ONF VOLUME  PAGES  #HICAGO ), *ULY  ;= * * VAN DE "EEK - 3ANDELL AND 0 / "RJESSON -, ESTIMATION OF TIMING AND FREQUENCY OdSET IN MULTICARRIER SYSTEMS 2ESEARCH 2EPORT 45,%!  $IVISION OF 3IGNAL 0ROCESSING ,ULE 5NIVERSITY OF 4ECHNOLOGY  

;= * * VAN DE "EEK - 3ANDELL - )SAKSSON AND 0 / "RJESSON ,OW COMPLEX FRAME SYNCHRONIZATION IN /&$- SYSTEMS )N 0ROC )NT #ONF 5NIVERSAL 0ERSONAL #OMMUN PAGES  4OKYO *APAN .OV  ;= $ "ENGTSSON AND $ ,ANDSTRM #ODING IN A DISCRETE MULTITONE MODULATION SYSTEM -ASTERS THESIS ,ULE 5NIVERSITY OF 4ECHNOLOGY !PR  ;= * ! # "INGHAM -ULTICARRIER MODULATION FOR DATA TRANSMISSION !N IDEA WHOSE TIME HAS COME )%%% #OMMUN -AG    -AY  ;= % & #ASAS AND # ,EUNG /&$- FOR DATA COMMUNICATION OVER MOBILE RADIO &- CHANNELS 0ART ) !NALYSIS AND EXPERIMANTAL RESULTS )%%% 4RANS #OMMUN    -AY  ;= % & #ASAS AND # ,EUNG /&$- FOR DATA COMMUNICATION OVER MOBILE RADIO &- CHANNELS 0ART )) 0ERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT )%%% 4RANS #OMMUN    !PR  ;= * #AVERS AND 0 (O !NALYSIS OF THE ERROR PERFORMANCE OF TRELLIS CODED MODULATION IN 2AYLEIGH FADING CHANNELS )%%% 4RANS #OMMUN    *AN  ;= * + #AVERS !N ANALYSIS OF PILOT SYMBOL ASSISTED MODULATION FOR 2AYLEIGH FADING CHAN NELS )%%% 4RANS 6EHIC 4ECHNOL    .OV  ;= 2 7 #HANG 3YNTHESIS OF BAND LIMITED ORTHOGONAL SIGNALS FOR MULTICHANNEL DATA TRANS MISSION "ELL 3YSTEM 4ECH *  $EC  ;= ! #HINI -ULTICARRIER MODULATION IN FREQUENCY SELECTIVE FADING CHANNELS 0H$ THESIS #ARLETON 5NIVERSITY /TTAWA #ANADA  ;= ! #HINI - 3 %L 4ANANY AND 3 ! -AHMOUD 4RANSMISSION OF HIGH RATE !4- PACKETS OVER INDOOR RADIO CHANNELS )%%% * 3ELECT !REAS #OMMUN    !PR  ;= 0 3 #HOW "ANDWIDTH OPTIMIZED DIGITAL TRANSMISSION TECHNIQUES FOR SPECTRALLY SHAPED CHANNELS WITH IMPULSE NOISE 0H$ THESIS 3TANFORD 5NIVERSITY #! -AY  ;= 0 3 #HOW . !L $HAHIR AND * - #IOb ! MULTICARRIER % ($3, TRANSCEIVER SYSTEM WITH CODED MODULATION %UR 4RANS 4ELECOMMUN 2EL 4ECHNOL    -AY  ;= 0 3 #HOW * - #IOb AND * ! # "INGHAM ! PRACTICAL DISCRETE MULTITONE TRANSCEIVER LOADING ALGORITHM FOR DATA TRANSMISSION OVER SPECTRALLY SHAPED CHANNELS )%%% 4RANS #OMMUN    &EB  ;= , * #IMINI !NALYSIS AND SIMULATION OF A DIGITAL MOBILE CHANNEL USING ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING )%%% 4RANS #OMMUN #/-    *ULY  ;= & #LASSEN AND ( -EYR &REQUENCY SYNCHRONIZATION ALGORITHMS FOR /&$- SYSTEMS SUITABLE FOR COMMUNICATION OVER FREQUENCY SELECTIVE FADING CHANNELS )N 0ROC )%%% 6EHIC 4ECHNOL #ONF VOLUME  PAGES  3TOCKHOLM 3WEDEN *UNE  ;= , #OHEN 4IME FREQUENCY ANALYSIS 0RENTICE (ALL .EW *ERSEY  

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)NDEX
!$3, SEE DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINES AMPLIER LINEAR  !7'. SEE NOISE BASE STATION   BIT LOADING     FACTOR  BIT ERROR RATE    BROADCASTING    CABLE  #!0 SEE MODULATION #$-! SEE MULTIPLE ACCESS #HANG  CHANNEL !7'.   ESTIMATION     MODEL  MULTIPATH  #HOW  CLIPPING DISTORTION  CODE   CONCATENATED  DESIGN   JOINT SOURCECHANNEL  MULTIDIMENSIONAL  PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS   PUNCTURED   CROSS AMBIGUITY FUNCTION  CROSSTALK       FAR END &%84   NEAR END .%84   CYCLIC CONVOLUTION  CYCLIC EXTENSION  CYCLIC PREX      $!" SEE DIGITAL AUDIO BROADCASTING  $!03+ SEE DIdERENTIAL AMPLITUDE AND PHASE SHIFT KEYING DECISION DIRECTION   DECODING  DEMODULATION   $&4 SEE DISCRETE &OURIER TRANSFORM DIdERENTIAL AMPLITUDE AND PHASE SHIFT KEYING $!03+   DIGITAL AUDIO BROADCASTING $!"      DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE $3,    ASYMMETRIC !$3,    HIGH BIT RATE ($3,   VERY HIGH BIT RATE 6$3,   DIGITAL VIDEO BROADCASTING $6"    DISCRETE &OURIER TRANSFORM $&4    INVERSE  DISCRETE MULTITONE $-4          DIVERSITY    $-4 SEE DISCRETE MULTITONE $OPPLER SHIFT  DOWNLINK   DOWNSTREAM  $3, SEE DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE $6" SEE DIGITAL VIDEO BROADCASTING %BERT  ENVIRONMENT WIRED    WIRELESS  EQUALIZATION  ERROR OOR  ERROR PROTECTION EQUAL  UNEQUAL  ESTIMATOR MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD -,   

MINIMUM MEAN SQUARED ERROR --3%   %43) SEE %UROPEAN TELECOMMUNICATIONS STAN DARDS INSTITUTE %UCLIDEAN INNER PRODUCT  %UROPEAN TELECOMMUNICATIONS STANDARDS IN STITUTE %43)   FADING CHANNEL   AT    2AYLEIGH    2ICIAN   &$-! SEE MULTIPLE ACCESS &%84 SEE CROSSTALK LTER BANK   NITE IMPULSE RESPONSE &)2   SEPARABLE  7IENER  &)2 SEE LTER &ISCHER  &- SEE MODULATION GUARD SPACE  (HER   (ARTOG  ($3, SEE DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINES (UGHES  )#) SEE INTERCHANNEL INTERFERENCE )$&4 SEE DISCRETE &OURIER TRANSFORM INTERCHANNEL INTERFERENCE )#)          INTERLEAVING   INTERSYMBOL INTERFERENCE )3)       )3) SEE INTERSYMBOL INTERFERENCE *AKES  LATTICE   ,EUNG  LOCALIZATION  ,ORENTZIAN POWER DENSITY SPECTRUM  LOW RANK APPROXIMATION  METRIC  

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