Phys 300/301 Physics: Algebra/Trig Eugene Hecht, 3e.

Prepared 01/05/06

9.2

Density

Matter is not always packed with equal density. This is clear in the case of lead vs. feathers. A kilogram of lead is infinitely smaller than a kilogram of feathers. When dealing with matter, we define density as the mass per unit volume.

m V

(9.1)

The Greek letter (rho) is the symbol for density and it has units of

kg m3

. In fluids, which we

will deal with almost exclusively, density is constant because fluid is nearly incompressible.

9.3

Liquids

Liquids have the ability to flow continuously into any shape that they are introduced to. This is one of the most unique and powerful properties that matter can possess. The ability to flow varies with the cohesive force of the substance. That is, water has a property called Viscosity. Viscosity is the internal resistance, caused by friction, imparted on an object as it moves through a fluid. Gases and liquids can be group together in a subcategory known as fluids. Fluids, like the name indicated, flow. Their atoms and molecules move relatively freely, allowing fluids to form an array of shapes. 9.4 Hydrostatic Pressure

Rather than forces acting at a specific point on a body, like we talked about in mechanics, fluids have distributed forces that act over a larger area. Pressure (P) is defined as the scalar values of the force acting perpendicularly to, and distributed over, a surface, thus divided by the area of the surface.

P=

F A

(9.2)

Although Force is a vector quantity, since we are describing only the effects of perpendicular Forces, Pressure is a scalar quantity. At any point, it is only magnitude. Its units are N / m2 or pascals (Pa). The reason why pressure is defined so obscurely is that fluid is abstract. Imagine fluid in a cup, gravity pulls down on it like any other object and the normal force at the bottom of the cup pushes back. Since liquids are fluid, pressure is also exerted on the side of the cup, perpendicular to the surface, to hold the liquid inside. Since fluids are not rigid, force exerted by a fluid at rest acting on any rigid surface is always perpendicular to that surface. This force is known as hydrostatic pressure (pressure of resting water).

Chapter 9: Fluid Mechanics

Gravity is the principle cause of hydrostatic pressure. Imagine a postage stamp in a glass of water parallel to and below the surface at a distance h. Since fluids apply forces perpendicularly, the pressure on the stamp must be due only to the weight of water that in the column directly above it. The mass of the water is given by its volume (V) multiplied by its density (). The weight, or force, of the water is given by its mass multiplied by gravity (F = mg).

P=

F A mg A

P=

P=

Ahg
A
(9.3)

P = gh

The pressure of water only depends on how deep you are in the water because the density of water () and gravity (g) are both constants. The amount of water does not contribute. However, as might be expected, the total pressure at any point in the liquid is the sum of all the contributing pressures, including surface pressure Ps.

P = Pl + Ps P = gh + Ps
(9.4)

As shown previously, the pressure at any point at a given horizontal level in a fluid at rest is the same. Regardless of the shape of the container or where the point is in the container, the pressure at any given height is consistent. Even if there is very small amount of liquid directly above the point, the pressure of the fluid is determined only by its height in reference to the surface. Just because the world likes to make things complicated, we must define the difference between absolute pressure and gauge pressure. Gauges like tire pumps and compressed gas tanks are set to read a value of zero pressure in open air, neglecting atmospheric pressure. Pressure calculated in a perfect vacuum is known as absolute pressure. Absolute pressure is given as the sum of gauge pressure and atmospheric pressure:

P = PA + PG

(9.5)

This relationship is important within the medical profession to measure pressure in veins, lungs and chest. For example, intravenous medications must be delivered with a pressure greater than blood pressure or the blood would leave the body. IV pouches are raised to a specific height above the arm to increase the pressure of the fluid so that it will flow properly.

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Chapter 9: Fluid Mechanics 9.6 Buoyant Force

A completely submerged body displaces a volume of liquid equal to its own volume. Experience also tells us that an object appears lighter when submerged since the waters pushes it upward, supporting it. Archimedes formulated this phenomenon with a Buoyancy Principle. It states that an object immersed in a fluid will be lighter by an amount equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces. The upward force exerted by the fluid is known as the buoyant force. A 10-N body that displaces 2N of water will appear to weight only 8N while submerged. Buoyant force is caused by gravity acting downward on the fluid. It stems from the difference in between the pressure at top of an object in the liquid and the pressure below it. From our understanding of hydrostatic pressure, we know if there is an object immersed in a liquid that the pressure of the water above the object is less than the pressure on the liquid below the object. That difference in pressure leads to the buoyant force.

Fb = AP

Fb = A f gh
Since the area (A) multiplied by the height (h) is the volume, it leads that:

Fb = p f Vg Fb = m f g
The buoyant force equals the weight of the fluid that was displaced. Buoyant force shows why objects can float in fluids. When an object weighs less than the total volume of the fluid it can displace, it settles downward until the buoyant force equals the weight of the object. At that point, the object floats, partially submerged. Submarines use buoyant force to hover at a certain depth without moving. When an objects weight is equal to the total amount of fluid it can displace, it hovers in static equilibrium. Conversely, when an object weighs more than the total volume of fluid it can displace, the object will sink. (9.6)

9.7

Fluid Dynamics & Flow

The motion of fluid through pipes show that there are two distinctive types of fluid flow: laminar and turbulent. Laminar flow occurs when a fluid moves such that the velocity at any point is consistent and fixed. We call this steady-state motion. In laminar flow, particles of fluid move in clear, orderly procession, each following the one directly before it. These lines of flow are called streamlines. The tighter the streamlines are together the higher the speed. Perpendicular to the streamlines there is no fluid flow and no streamlines will ever intersect. This type of smooth streamline is referred to as laminar flow.

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Chapter 9: Fluid Mechanics

Turbulent flow occurs when fluid moves such that the velocity at any point is chaotic with frequently changing motion. As the speed of the fluid flow increases, its ability to follow contours of objects fails and whirlpools and curls develop. A boundary layer is a transition layer close to a solid surface in which fluid speed decreases. The layer of fluid in contact with the solid surface actually adheres to that surface and remains at rest. When fluid flow is over a solid object, the difference in speed between the fluid on the solids surface and the speed of the fluid passing over it is great. Fluid cannot make a smooth transition from rest to the normal fluid speed and the result is turbulent flow. For most of the examples in this course, we will use laminar flow due to its consistency.

9.8

The Continuity Equation

Since the density of a flowing fluid is consistent, a fundamental relationship can be formed regarding the progress of liquids through pipes of different areas. Suppose a certain volume of a fluid entered a tube of area A with a specific velocity v. During any length of time t the volume of fluid travels a distance vt. Since the volume entering equals the volume exiting, a relationship can be developed with the ratios.

A1v1 t = A2 v 2 t
[Continuity equation]

A1v1 = A2 v 2

(9.7)

As the cross-sectional area increases, the speed decreases and vice versa. Water flowing in a river slowly will increase its speed if the river narrows. Conversely, if water flowing in a river slowly and the river expands, the water will slow down even further. If you have ever played with a garden hose you have had this experience. Normally, the crosssectional area that the water uses to flow out of the garden hose is about the size of a quarter. If you cover some of that area with your thumb, the water flows much more quickly. This is a direct example of the continuity equation.

9.9

Bernoullis Equation

Daniel Bernoulli developed the central equation of all fluid mechanics by doing what no other physicist of his time thought to do; he suggested that a fluid that undergoes a pressure change undergoes an energy change. You can visualize this clearly in present day by shaking a can of soda. When you increase the pressure by releasing gas inside the can, you increase the energy that the resulting explosion gives. Pressure acting on a fluid does work on it that appears as a change in energy, whether it is kinetic or potential.

W = KE + PE
To determine W one must determine the amount of Force applied over a distance d. Hydrostatic force is defined as F = PA, the amount of pressure multiplied by the area it is acting over.

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Chapter 9: Fluid Mechanics

The change work done on the system is defined by the difference between work done by the pressure as the fluid enters a tube and when the fluid leaves the tube.

W = F1 d1 F2 d 2 W = P1 A1 d1 P2 A2 d 2
Using the fact that d = vt, along with the continuity equation, A1 v1 = A2 v 2 , we get:

W = P1 A1v1 t P2 A2 v 2 t W = Avt ( P1 P2 )
Since the mass of the liquid is defined as m = V = (Avt):

W =

( P1 P2 )

(9.8)

The liquid, moving from a region of higher pressure to a region of lower pressure has positive work done on it by the surrounding fluid. The result of that work is a change in kinetic energy.

KE =

1 2

2 m ( v 2 v 12 )

A chance in potential energy also occurs as the fluid raises up to a level above the starting point.

PE = mg ( y 2 y1 )
Given that work is the change in energy, with a little work Bernoullis equation follows.

W = KE + PE m
2 ( P1 P2 ) = 1 m(v 2 v12 ) + mg ( y 2 y1 ) 2
2 ( P1 P2 ) = 1 (v 2 v12 ) + g ( y 2 y1 ) 2 2 P1 + 1 v12 + gy1 = P2 + 1 v 2 + gy 2 2 2

[Bernoullis Equation] [Bernoullis Theorem]

(9.9) (9.10)

P + 1 v 2 + gy = constant 2

Bernoullis Theorem is much more important on a conceptual basis because is tells us that along a streamline, the energy equation remains constant. Suppose the velocity of the fluid increases in a tube when it narrows Bernoullis equation insists that the pressure of the fluid must decrease at the point where it begins to speed up.

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