Professional Documents
Culture Documents
PART I - IDS
I BACKGROUND
ճ traditional education in Qom; taught in seminaries there until exiled to Najaf (Iraq) in
1964
ճ Iran in 1960-1970s perceived as heading towards a Western style secular nationalism =>
fears that Iran was losing its religious identity
ճ Shah perceived as threat to Islamic identity by Ulama; to Iranian nation and culture by
lay intellectuals and socialists (worried about distribution of oil wealth, Westernized elite)
ճ Shah’s White Revolution: attended to implement a wide-ranging modernization program
ճ Growing autocratic rule and uncritical pace of modernization
ճ Primarily benefited urban areas and new modern middle class, did not include political
reforms
ճ Nixon doctrine of 1972: Iranian as guardian of Gulf =>Americanization of Iran
ճ Shah of Iran perceived as latter-day Ataturk: dragging his people into modernity
IV Political
ճ Conservative reformist of Iran and religious leader.
ճ Symbol and guide of the revolution
ճ Early outspoken critic of Shah, remained outspoken even in exile (began in1960s),
solidified his role as conscience of Islam and the Iranian people
ճ Lived in exile until return from France in 1979
ճ Speeches and writings were smuggled and widely distributed through the mullah-mosque
network
ճ Books
Kash al-Asrar (1941): criticizes the Pahlavi (Shah) state
Hukumat al-Islam (1969, while still in exile): exposition of the doctrine of velayat-i
faqih: “rule by the jurisprudent” => political rule by the religious scholar
New development in Shia thought. Until this point, the Shia ulama had never seen
their role as a political one => used to being the opposition of whomever was in
power
ճ Stated that in the absence of the hidden Imam, ulama could hold political authority
ճ He appealed to traditional Shia history: he compared the Shah toYazid, who was
responsible for killing Hussein: appealed to struggle between good vs. evil; symbolism of
Shiism exploited
ճ He condemned Western imperialism, Westernization of Muslim societies, and Israel
(which he regarded as outpost of American neocolonialism)
ճ Conservative in education, worldview, and lifestyle
ճ His lectures reiterated inseparability of Islam and politics
ճ His doctrine of jurist rule asserted that an Islamic govt. is one based upon Islamic law,
most qualified are those learned in Islamic texts
V Types of reform
ճ Early 20th century: imitative => attempts to imitate Western models: Islamic institutions
perceived as being “backward” and “outdated”
ճ After Iranian Rev. in 1979 => Islamic: interprets Islam as a political ideology, usually for
a nation state
ճ Khomeini and the religious clerics by themselves could not have pulled off the Iranian
Revolution: Needed wide spectrum of support from secularist, leftists, socialists
ճ Mid 1970s: increasingly repressive measure of Shaw induced a resistance movement
organized under umbrella of Islam, calling new political and social order
ճ Movement comprised of secularists, Islamic activists, liberal democrats, Marxists
ճ Revolutionary Spectrum
Center movement: Mehdi Bazargan and Liberation Movement of Iran => promoted
democratization and liberalization, also strong socialist message
Left: Ali Shariati, socialist in his interpretation of Shiism (Alid Shiism: social justice,
looking after poor and needy): appealed to women and youth
Right: Islamic Republican Party: led by Khomeini and his clerics
ճ Alliance evolved between the religiously oriented classes and modern intellectuals from
shared concerns over political freedom, danger of economic and military dependence on
U.S.
ճ Revolution did not start as religious one: deep social, political and economic causes
ճ Turning point: Islamic scholars become heads of state, role of religion in Middle E. is
rethought
ճ Emergence of theocracy in Iran, redefined Iran in Islamic terms; idealized version of
Islam in attempts to create heaven on earth
ճ After fall of the Shah, sharp differences among revolutionary factions surfaced
Role of clergy and religious law is questioned
ճ Khomeini prevailed: consolidated power in govt., parliament, judiciary, military,
Revolutionary Guards, the press and media
ճ Censorship of press, ideological control of university curricula, prohibitions on alcohol,
gambling, drug use, and sexual offenses were enforced
ճ As head of the Islamic Republic, Khomeini defined nature and limits of Iran’s Islamic
identity and ideology, oversaw its implementation
ճ He advocated a universal Islamic revolution to liberate all the oppressed, used to justify
the incitement of revolts in Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Iraq => ultimate goal was to have
Islamic nations unify as one power
Malcolm X (1965)
I Most famous convert Malcolm Little (converted in prison). Upon joining the Nation called
himself Malcolm X (X symbolized that he was an ex-smoker, ex-drinker, ex-slave, ex-
Christian)
ճ Gives a speech in which identifies Islam = religion of black people, Christianity = white
people
Response to KKK and its association with Christianity to promote white supremacy
II In 1964 breaks with the Nation
ճ Questions Elijah’s ethical views (Elijah had affairs with many women)
ճ Pilgrimage to Mecca challenges racial stereotyping
discovers that races can come together
the problem is not race, the problem is American society
III Founded Muslim Mosque Inc
ճ changes name to El-Hajj (indicates he was on the pilgrimage) Malik el-Shabazz
ճ Starts to preach conservative Sunni Islam
ճ Redefines what it is to be Muslim, not in racial terms
ճ Understands his own group is one within a larger Islamic family
Moves to multiracial, multicultural ideology
IV Assassinated in 1965; 2 members of Nation of Islam (probably against the shift of the Nation
and understanding of races coming together) were convicted of crime
Eljah Muhammad
ճ 1934 - Elijah Muhammad (Elijah Poole before) takes over leadership of Nation of Islam
after founder disappears
Considers Black nation to be a nation of Islam
Was thought to be last messenger of God, not Muhammad, in Nation
ճ Elijah Muhammad identifies himself as a prophet and Fard to be Allah
Interpreting symbols differently than traditional sense
ճ Temple of Islam, schools, Fruit of Islam, paramilitary force: strict behavior/dress code
Strong social network
Dress code: western 3-piece suit, bowtie, no alcohol, no drugs
II His organization: Nation of Islam
ճ Preached that blacks weren’t Americans and had no loyalty to state (blacks were Muslims
first and foremost)
ճ Race based ideology of nationalism; anti-white
ճ African Americans separate nation; demanded separate piece of land for their nation
ճ Principal objective to restore dignity and self-confidence via equality, justice, freedom,
etc
III Has affairs which drives away famous convert of his group, Malcolm X
IV Son takes over Nation of Islam, but views it in different way than father
Muhummad Abduh:
I Egyptian religious scholar, reformer, and Islamic rationalist
ճ Studied at the Al-Azhar University in Cairo
II Founder of Islamic modernism and nationalism
ճ Wanted to liberate Muslims from colonialism
ճ Led 19th century movement to modernize Muslim institutions.
III Strongly influenced by Sufism and his mentor al-Afghani
IV Advocated Pan-Islamism to resist European colonialism
V Studied under Jamal al-din al-Afghani
ճ In 1884, he moved to Paris to help al-Afghani publish The Firmest Bond, which
advocated Muslim unity against Western imperialism
VI He argued that humans can in principle know good and evil by reason alone (Itjihad-
independent thinking), but most failed to do so.
VII Promoted the idea of salafiyya (pious forefathers).
ճ Salafism asserts that the Islam of the forefathers was rational and practical; sought
inspiration in the example of virtuous early Muslims.
VIIICalled for a return of early Islam and reinterpretation of the Qur’an and Sunna to adapt to
modern times.
ճ Laws should be updated and serve interest of common good.
IX Believed that borrowing some western ideas was okay
ճ Advocated the integration of Western sciences with local sciences at the University
X Returned to Egypt in 1888 and became a judge on the National Courts
ճ Eleven years later he became Grand Mufti
ճ Used his position to champion liberal reforms in Islamic law, administration and
education.
XI His followers, mostly consisting of teachers and lawyers, continued with stronger anti-
Western ideas
ճ They set the tone for Egypt’s strong liberal nationalism until the revolt
XII His work, Risalat al-Tauhid (The Theology of Unity), is the most important portrayal of his
thinking
PART II – PASSAGES
1) "The prayer was in two halves like a kola-nut; the first, a plea for salvation, was
recited in Arabic, the language consecrated by God. The second was spoken in
Malinke, because it dealt with material things: giving thanks for sustenance, for
health, for having eluded the bad luck and evil spells that scorch the black man
blacker under the suns of Independence; asking for a mind and hear free of cares
and temptations, and filled with peace today, tomorrow and always."
2) "'The Western materialists hate us,' Ali said. 'Papa, how could you love something which
hates you?'
Ali didn't need to think. He addressed his father fluently, as if Parvez were a rowdy crowd
that had to be quelled and convinced. The Law of Islam would rule the world: the skin of
the infidel would burn off again and again; the Jews and Christers would be routed. The
West was a sink of hypocrites, adulterers, homosexuals, drug-takers and prostitutes."
Hanif Kureishi’s “My Son the Fanatic” is a short story replete with implications and
contradictions. In the depictions of a Muslim father and son who call England home, it presents
two opposing sides of the experiences of immigrants or individuals who do not share the same
cultural background as the rest of society. Simultaneously, it offers two distinct personal reactions
to the many difficulties and challenges posed by Western values. Balking at narrative
conventions, Kureishi refuses to present yet another story in which a rebellious youth resists the
conservative values and principles of his parents. Instead, Parvez, the father, leads the life of a
younger man, exhibits a juvenile and carefree temperament, and disobeys the basic tenets of his
religion. Ali, the humorless son, ascribes to a severely conservative branch of Islam and
condemns the actions and moral transgressions of his father. In the personalities and lifestyles of
the two characters, the writer implies that both modes of being are the direct results of the cultural
challenges inflicted upon the characters by Western society. Their lifestyles are the ways in which
they confront the difficulties of a land that is not truly their home. “They preferred to work at
night, the roads were clearer and the money better. They slept during the day, avoiding their
wives,” the reader is informed of Parvez and his fellow taxi drivers. English society is obviously
not a welcoming one. The father’s preference to work under the cover of the night and to ignore
the daily realities of the day paints him as someone who prefers to deny or ignore his life’s
problems. His alcoholic tendencies are in accordance with this view of the character. Parvez is a
man who constantly attempts to mask the insecurities that have resulted from his marginalized
state in Western society. “His dreams of doing well in England would have come true. Where had
he gone wrong?” the writer describes the father’s constant preoccupation with staying afloat in a
foreign world. The incessant questioning of his mistakes evinces his deep insecurities. He keeps
close a close vigil of a son who he fears is being corrupted by English society. Parvez’s personal
answer to the struggles of living in a foreign land is the rejection of the religion of his parents and
his attempt to assimilate. His predilection for vices, his close acquaintances with prostitutes, and
his consumption of pork are all inclinations that violate the laws of his parents’ religion. His
efforts to assimilate by conforming to stereotypically Western activities and vices provide
comfort and solace in an unwelcoming land.
Diametrically opposed to his father’s dealing with Western society, Ali’s proposes a
defiant response to the unkindness of a society that treats him as a foreigner despite not being one
Although not explicitly stated, Ali appears to have been born in England and yet fervently
condemns his fathers attempts at integration. “Papa, how can you love something which hates
you?” he asks and at the same time indicates that his experiences as a young Muslim and non-
white man growing up in Western society have been marked by intolerance and
misunderstandings. His affirmation that “Western education cultivates an anti-religious attitude”
makes clear that his newly found religious and conservative convictions are reactionary. His
views are the products of his dealings with a narrow-minded English society. Whereas his father
has chosen to assimilate, Ali instead attacks the society that rejects him. “The West was a sink of
hypocrites, adulterers, homosexuals, drug-takers and prostitutes,” is his repudiation of English
society. In the characters of Parvez and Ali, the damages resulting from prejudiced societies are
apparent. Although their worldviews might differ, they are both highly insecure men without a
nation to call home. Their exiled state compels one to reject his origins and causes the other to
become as bigoted as the society he denounces.
3) “The tensions between the pragmatic and ethical perspectives, both forming part of
Islam, can be detected even in the Quran, and both perspectives have left their mark on
some of the formal rulings on women and marriage made in the ensuing period. Thus some
Quranic verses regarding marriage and women appear to qualify and undercut others that
seemingly establish marriage as a hierarchical institution unequivocally privileging men.
Among the former are the verses that read: 'Wives have rights corresponding to those
which husband have, in equitable reciprocity' (Sura 2:229). Similarly, verses such as those
that admonish men, if polygamous, to treat their wives equally and that go on to declare
that husbands would not be able to do so--using a form of the Arabic negative connoting
permanent impossibility--are open to being read to mean that men should not be
polygamous."
4) “When God commanded Satan: Bow down before Adam, Satan answered: I will not bow
down before any other than Thee. Of all the dwellers in Heaven there was no champion of
God’s Unity so strict as Satan. Moses met Satan on the side of Sinai, and asked of him:
“Satan, why wouldst thou not bow down?” “Because I believed that only One is to be
adored,” said Satan. “Disregarding God’s command?” “That was Trial.” Satan said, “and
not Command.”
• Sufism
o Different way to express view religion
o Makes things in religion beautiful, expresses zeal for religion
o Ultimate goal is to reach divine unity
o Compared to forms of mysticism
Seek personal experience with God
Believe in Itjihad-individual interpretation- of Islam
o Poetry is very symbolic
Wine=divine love
Drunkenness=mystical intoxication
o Sufism seek a more spiritual connection with God
o Selfless love of god
o Practices are closely associated to arts, dance, music, poetry
o Some claim it is not intrinsically Islamic and are borrowed from other religions
o Some see it as the essence of Islam
It’s the “good” Islam the one that should be promoted; instead of
Wahhabi Islam
Ismail is a young Egyptian man who was raised by his conservative, very religious family around
the temple of Umm Hashim. His parents send him to England to study medicine for seven years;
when he returns, his faith has been replaced by a complete trust in Western science.
In this excerpt, Ismail has just returned and he views his homeland with a Western eye. His
mother treats his fiancé and cousin, Fatima’s diseased eyes with holy oil from the lamp of Umm
Hashim. Ismail, who recognizes the disease and knows that hot oil will make the disease worse
rather than better. In this scene, he and his mother fight over who has the right cure—traditional
faith or Western science.
This question of faith versus science is at the core of anti-colonial nationalist and revival
movements. Egypt saw a rise of Islamist revival movements by leaders such as Hassan al-Banna,
who founded the Muslim Brotherhood. Al-Banna’s approach is to reject Western ideas and to use
Islam as a political ideology for reform. Western ideas corrupt the morality of Egyptian society.
Haqqi takes a more moderate approach. He believes that religion is at the root of the Egyptian
identity. Unlike al-Banna, he believes that the West does not have a monopoly on reason and
science. Egypt should embrace science. Science without faith will not survive in Egypt.
However, science fortified by faith will heal Egypt, as it did Fatima.
PART III
1. "To say 'and Muhammad is the Messenger of God' is to commit oneself to a belief, not
about the person of Muhammad, but about the validity of what he brought. The personality
of Muhammad is essentially irrelevant." Discuss why and how you feel this to be an
accurate or inaccurate generalization in view of the role of the Prophet Muhammad in
varied aspects of the Islamic tradition (e.g. Islamic jurisprudence, Shi'i Islam, Sufism,
modern reform movements, popular and/or folk practices, personal piety). Be specific,
supporting your discussion with examples.
SALAFI – The original Muslims, the first followers of Muhammad. Salafism is a reform
movement trying to get Islam back to what it was in the first two centuries – they reject
everything since as “foreign invasions.” This emphasizes the importance of Muhammad, as they
follow those who knew Muhammad (thus, it is not just what he said that was important, but his
personality as well). Important figure - Ibn al-Taimiyya (1328) (20 NOV lecture)
SUNNAH –
-“The ways of the prophet” –written in Hadith
-In Sunni Islam – the Ulama, or religious authority, use sunnah (through Hadith) to
determine Shari’ah, or Islamic law. Some examples are in Islamic hygiene rules – nothing is
written in the Qu’ran about these rules, but they are derived from Hadith (what the prophet did).
Some go so far as to try to brush their teeth like the prophet did. Sunnis use Hadith from the
prophet’s companions rather than from his family.
-In Sh’ia Islam – Shi’ites follow the family of Muhammad, rather than his companions.
One could probably argue that, in this respect, the personality of Muhammad is transmitted
through his family.
Qu’ran
-Verses in the Qu’ran emphasize that Muhammad is not important in and of himself, but
only in transmitting the message of God.
Poetry
(URDU)
-Professing love for Muhammad
-Trying to please Muhammad
(SINDHI)
-Image of bride-to-be and marriage with Muhammad (romance as allegory)
SUFFISM
-Suffism is the mystical side of Islam – trying to obtain a direct connection with God, not
through the Qur’an or Hadith. Many forms are used – song, dance, recitation, etc.
-In this sense, Muhammad’s personality is irrelevant – they are not trying to connect to
God through Muhammad, but are trying to obtain a direct connection.
In a nutshell – you can argue either way. Muhammad is often important in folk culture, and
Hadith is certainly important for Islamic jurisprudence. At the same time, the Qur’an is not of
Muhammad, but of God – thus he is not important, and in many religious practices Muhammad is
nothing but a messenger. As the Prof Asani has tried to stress – Islam is not one thing, it changes
in political/cultural/historical context, and the personality of Muhammad changes with it.
3. What has been called 'sharia-minded’ piety has often been held up by most Muslim ‘ulama –
both Sunni and Shi’i alike – as normative for Muslims, in contrast to Sufi and/or popular
forms of piety. They have equated the Islam of Sunni and Shi’i theological and legal
interpretations with “true” Islam. Correspondingly, they have treated Sufi piety on the one
hand, and popular practices (saint veneration, tomb visitation, the incorporation of elements
from local culture) on the other, as aberrations from "true Islam." What is the basis of this
debate? How does each group formulate its arguments in support of its positions on what
constitutes "true Islam"? Discuss as specifically as you can citing material you have studied
during the semester.
Sufism arose as an ascetic movement dismayed at the luxurious lifestyle of the Umayyad courts,
which emphasized worldly enjoyment. It was also a response to the increasing formalism and
religious legalism in the 8th and 9th centuries. Islam was increasingly becoming a set of laws and
regulations determined by a class of religious scholars, the ulama. Sufism rose in contrast to
“sharia-minded” piety.
Sufi masters challenged the ulama and political authorities. After reconciliation of Sufism with
Sunni and Shia islam, Sufi practices spread like wildfire, especially at popular level. By the 18th
century, most expressions of Muslim life influenced by Sufism.
In the 19th and 20th centuries, revival movements blame incorrect practice for the political and
socio-economic weakness in modern Muslim countries. They draw up stricter standards for what
is correct practice and try define what is and what is not Islam.
As we saw in the Wedding of Zein, Sufism can be seen as the purest form of Islam, where people
focus on spirituality and not the routine of Islam. Sufism has been used as a reactive force
against the existing religious institutions.
Egypt
Hassan Al-Banna, Egyptian social reformer and founder of the Muslim Brotherhood. Was a Sufi
master, and incorporated Sufi hierarchy in the Brotherhood (forbade dissent, had complete
authority over followers). Believed that Egyptian ulama had strayed from the straight path and
proselytized in coffeehouses to reach the masses. Islam is an integrated and comprehensive
system to be understood exclusively from religious texts (Quran and Sunnah). He aimed to
reinforce Islamic knowledge and culture, rebuild the Muslim community, and redress the balance
of power between Muslim countries and the West.
Iran (Shia)
In Iran, the nation-state tries to control its religious institutions. It tries to define “Islam”
and the one correct interpretation of religious texts. It also invents a historical, “pure” form of
Islam implemented at a perfect time (golden age) in the past.
The state formulates Shari’ah as “Islamic Law.” Pre-modern conceptions of shariah
recognized its fluid nature; plurality associated with a variety of communities of interpretations.
However, faced with encroaching westernization and secularization and the advent of modernity,
Muslim reformers and administrators sought to cast Shariah into a Western constitution-like
mold. Contemporary concept of shariah as a divinely ordained, monolithic, rigid, unchanging
and immutable body of laws encompassing lives and actions of Muslims is by and large a
creation of the 19th century.
The state does not recognize Sufi sources of authority, nor the Sufi approach to religion.
Controversy: compromise of monotheism. Sufi saints or “God-friends” are people who can
intercede on behalf of devotees. He or she conveys barakah, or “spiritual blessing, power.” Thus,
people build shrines around the tombs of saints. According to popular practice, praying by the
tombs of these God-friends can strengthen your appeal go God. They do not lose their power
after death because they have been united with God. This raises questions of monotheism—if
you pray to God-friends for intercession, are you worshipping false idols?
Controversy: popular shrines. In Pakistan, Hindu women visiting shrine. Is Sufism Islamic?
Critics say: Mostly women who visit tomb-shrines. They are uneducated and are not practicing
Islam correctly.
Controversy: music and dance. Although the Quran does not explicitly forbid music, by qiyas,
anything that has an intoxicating effect and takes away rationality, the ability to distinguish
between right and wrong, should be banned. Thus, music is dangerous and ought to be banned.
In Sufism, music is spiritual and allows us to access the world of the spirit or soul. In fact, some
say that music has a strong impact on people because it reminds the soul of the time before birth
when it was united with God. Example: contemporary Pakistan Sufi rock band, Junoon.
4. Is self-identification as a Muslim in the United States and Europe a declaration that one is
an outsider to American or European societies? Answer this question by comparing and
contrasting at least three individual Muslims and/or Muslim communities discussed in the
secondary and primary source readings as well as in lectures.
• Introduction
o Question of identity and the race of religion / Question of integration vs
assimilation
o Declaring oneself Muslim is not necessarily a self-declaration of not being an
American or European
Some Muslims don’t identify themselves as Muslim first
For some it is: e.g. Malcolm X because they see themselves as
Muslim first
For others, it is not, but society sees them as outsiders via this
declaration
o America is diverse by nature and has a lot of immigrants, so we’re more
accepting than Europe of Muslims
9/11, though, caused some to see Muslims as outsiders that hurt the
US
Europe is a pluralist in make-up but not in spirit.
• Europe doesn’t have history of diff. religious groups living
side by side
• No tradition of immigration
• Idea of being something (e.g. German) via ethnic
background
• integration vs. assimilation into European society while being Muslim –difficult
o Youth trying to be accepted since many don’t feel they have a country
• 2 ways to go about this of religion vs. culture
o a) Islam needs to be reinterpreted within European context
distinction between religion and cultural identity
o b) Islam is perceived as being wedded to historical jurisprudential framework
(shariah)
• Cultural expressions are important to “Islamic” identity
• Cannot participate in western/European culture and be truly
Muslim
Examples
• Malcolm X
o By declaring himself a Muslim within the Nation of Islam he basically
declared that he did not belong to America
The followers of the initial Nation saw themselves as Black
Muslims, not Americans
• To him, American passport “signifies the exact opposite of
what Islam stands for” (autobio)
However, they did not follow the typical Islamic patterns of prayer,
the five pillars, knowing Arabic, etc
o After Malcolm X’s pilgrimage, he realized that all races could be Muslim and
decided that separatism away from the white man was not necessary
o His following of Islam as those at Mecca (w/ the 5 pillars and prayer, and
promotion of Islamic brotherhood) actually became a declaration that he was
not an American outsider because he did not hate on the white man anymore,
just on the structure of American society itself
• Muslims in France
o Overall: Islam = foreign religion that is a threat to French culture
Many suggest acculturation (vs. multicultural approach as in US),
but some others do argue they should develop a distinct French
Muslim identity
• Regardless, Muslim citizens are seen as Muslim first, then
French (if even)
o France has largest Muslim population in Europe
o Muslims declaring themselves so is not a declaration of being an outsider
However, without integrating, the French system sees it so (because
they see Islam as a threat to their own identity)
• Outlawed the wearing of headscarf by Muslim female
students
o Said it violated secular constitution/tradition
Also, there’s antiforeign rhetoric
• Accusations of stealing French jobs
• Support increase for idea to force the expulsion of 3 million
immigrants, and priority for native French in jobs, housing,
welfare benefits
Gov. crushed Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) parliamentary and
municipal sweep, saying Islamists were using elections to “hijack
democracy”
• Ali (son) in “My Son the Fanatic”
o Overall Idea: By declaring himself Muslim, Ali sees himself as an outsider of
his oppressive country
Similar to Malcolm X who saw himself as Muslim against
oppressive white supremacy
o After he finds Islam, he begins to give up his possessions and the secular way
of life
He loses understanding that others may believe otherwise
• Father drinks, but says to father: “Drinking is forbidden.”
Becomes an outsider; quote directed toward Parvez, father: “You are
too implicated in Western civilzation.”
• Parvez’s response: “But we live here.” emphasizes how
Parvez feels about Islam (read below)
Sees Muslims vs. West
• “The Western materialists hate us…how can you love
them?”
• Refers to “us” and “our people” = Muslims
• Ali: “Western education cultivates an anti-religious attitude”
o Parvez (father)
Is not Muslim and therefore believes he is part of the culture (has
assimilated)
• Believes that he is enjoying life his way
• Orders wife to cook pork: “You’re not in the village now,
this is England. We have to fit in!”
• Belief: Because he did not follow Islam, because one does
not need to follow Islam in England, he had integrated
• Britain – Hanif Kureishi
o In “The Rainbow Sign”: “The British complained incessantly that the
Pakistanis wouldn’t assimilate. This meant they wanted the Pakistanis to be
exactly like them.” (76)
Question: Can one be Muslim without the implication of being an
outsider?
• Must the declaration follow society’s direction (so if they
don’t believe, can’t declare Muslim to be part of society), or
must it only be self-justified?
o Felt that he had to give up Muslim identity to fit in European mainstream
culture
Faced an inability to integrate and didn’t want to assimilate
• Therefore, separatism seemed good
o Going against the world that doesn’t accept you
Similar to Malcolm X and Ali
o Ultimately rejects this because could still identify
with England
-Back to the Fundamentals Reform Movement: seek reinterpretation of the Quran and Sunnah
using a variety of interpretative tools; spectrum of movements can range from being ultra
conservative to liberal/progressive; old ways are inappropriate for modern times (the ulama of
past times can’t be used); depending on the tools used, you can come up with either very liberal
interpretations or ultra conservative viewpoints
Prof Tariq Ramadan, grandson of Hassan al-Banna, founder of Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt
-Binary vision has to be replaced by unversalism
-Europe as dar al-Shahadah (where one is allowed to practice one’s fath)
-Muslims cannot define identity through “otherness”
-Islam not tied to any particular culture; has to be defined from within spiritual/moral attitudes
towards God, not against the other
-Cultural baggage has to be abandoned, allowing distinctive European forms to emerge
America is the land of Immigrants: Muslim Presence in America not much different from the
presence of other religious communities
-Why come to America?
-Jobs: upward socio-economic mobility
-Forced migration: slavery
-Political, religious, social persecution
-Aesthetic Reasons
Barbara’s Kitchen. Same ingredients, put in different places, come up with completely different
dishes.
Who rules? Khomeini introduces rule by the religious scholar to legitimize his political office.