Hydromechanics-Chapter 1 Notes

Spring, 2013 Lawrence Technological University ECE 3523
Chapter 1 Notes.doc Notes by Nick Zager, P.E Page 1 of 17

Introduction, Definitions, and General Assumptions

Brief History:
- The science of fluid mechanics began with the need to control water for irrigation
purposes in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and India
- 250 B.C. Archimedes discovered and recorded the principles of hydrostatics and
flotation
o If a body which is lighter than a fluid is placed in this fluid, a part of the
body will remain above the surface (Prop. IV)
o If a body which is lighter than a fluid is placed in the fluid, it will be
immersed to such an extent that a volume of fluid which is equal to the
volume of the body immersed has the same weight as the whole body
(Prop. V)
o If a body which is lighter than a fluid is totally and forcibly immersed in it,
the body will have an upward thrust equal to the difference between its
weight and the weight of an equal volume of fluid (Prop. VI)
o If a body is placed in a fluid which is lighter than itself, it will fall to the
bottom(Prop. VII)
- 1500s Leonardo da Vinci had numerous inventions and ideas regarding fluids
including continuity principles, energy dissipation, maneuverability of ships, wind
vanes, theories of flight, etc.
- 1600s Galileo Galilei works with fluid dynamics as well as siphons
- 1600s Evangelista Torricelli formulated the famous equation gh v 2 =
(Torricellis Law), which describes the rate of flow from a draining tank.
- 1687 Sir Isaac Newton wrote Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy
or The Principia, which includes an entire book mostly dedicated to the
mathematical description of fluid statics and dynamics
- 1700s Daniel Bernoulli, Leonhard Euler, Louis deLagrange, Jean le Rond
dAlembert among others made significant contributions to the study of fluid
mechanics
- Early 1800s Claude Louis M. H. Navier and Sir George Gabriel Stokes
formulated the holy grail of fluid mechanics (independent of each other) called
in the U.S. as the Navier-Stokes Equations. These equations theoretically
completely describe all Newtonian fluid flow behavior. However, the solutions to
the general form of the Navier-Stokes equations are still unknown. In May of
2000 in Paris, the Clay Mathematics Institute of Cambridge, Massachusetts
announced a $1,000,000 prize for anyone that can solve these equations! (also
known as one of the seven Millennium Problems, which are considered to be the
seven most important unsolved problems of our time).
- Late 1800s Reynolds, Froude, Mach, Weber, and Strouhal developed their
numbers, which are used in dimensional analysis and modeling (chapter 8)
- Early to mid 1900s At the University of Michigan, Professor Streeter
developed much of the field of Hydraulic Transients, which describe the unsteady
fluid flow characteristics caused by sudden or abrupt changes to a pipe system


Chapter 1

- Definition of FLUID MECHANICS: The _______________ that deals with the
action of ___________________ on fluids.

- Nature of a fluid
There are three states of matter:
1. ___________________ state;
2. ___________________ state; and
3. ___________________ state.
The _____________ and _____________ state are collectively referred to as the fluid
state.

- Definition of a Fluid: In contrast to a solid, a fluid is a substance where the
particles easily move and change their position ________________ when subjected to
a shear stress no matter how ______________ that shear stress may be.

Important comments on the definition:
1. Nothing is said about the rate of deformation;
2. Deformation is continuous as long as shear stress is applied;
3. Deformation takes place even under the action of exceedingly small shear stress;
4. The keywords continuously and small distinguish fluids from solids and ideal
plastics;
5. In solids, shear stress is proportion to strain (or deformation); and
6. In fluids, shear stress is proportional to rate of shear strain or rate of angular
deformation

Solids
Liquids

The rate of deformation of the fluid is related to the applied shear stress by
_________________ (ex., honey vs. water)
(_______________ will be mathematically defined later but essentially as
________________ goes up, the velocity of the fluid goes down under the same shear
stress)

Molecular Distinction of Solids, Liquids, & Gases

- Distinction between Liquids and Gases:
Liquids Gases
1. May not fill a container completely 1.
2. 2. Compressible
3. 3.

- Surface and Body forces:
Since fluid mechanics deals with forces associated with fluids, it is necessary to define
the types of forces found in the study of fluid mechanics. There are 1) Surface forces,
which are forces applied at a particular point or distributed over a particular surface; and
2) Body forces which are forces considered to act throughout the body of a fluid.


Surface Forces Body Forces

- Continuum Concept
A fluid consists of molecules with characteristic molecular dimensions and separation
distances.

If we use the molecular picture for the analysis, it would pose some difficulties. In a
great many problems of engineering (all of them in this class) we are not interested in the
properties and behaviors of individual molecules, but in the statistical average properties
and behavior of a large number of molecules. This averaging is valid for most
applications on or near the earths surface.

So in fluid mechanics the actual molecular medium is replaced by a continuous
distribution of matter or a continuous medium, which is called a continuum.
For example, a property at a point, such as velocity, is the average property of all
molecules surrounding the point within a small sphere with radius . If we define as the
distance between molecules, then the sphere radius that we choose must satisfy >>.


Continuum Facts:
There are about __________ molecules in a cubic centimeter of air at standard conditions
The distance between molecules at 60 miles elevation is ______________.

- Boundary Conditions
Condition of No Slip: This is the important boundary condition of viscous fluid flow. It
is a fact that fluid particles immediately in contact with a solid surface adhere to the
surface and do not slip relative to it (Ludwig Prandtl, 1904).

Fundamental Dimensions and Basic Units
Newtons law of motion is stated in terms of five primary physical quantities, namely:
1. _______________ (M)
2. _______________ (L)
3. _______________ (T)
4. _______________ (F)
5. _______________ (t)
(Note, not all of these dimensions are independent of one another, for example, a force is
dimensionally equal to:
2
T
ML
F = )

There are three basic systems of dimensions, as follows:
(a) Mass (M), length (L), time (T), and temperature (t);
(b) Force (F), length (L), time (T), and temperature (t);
(c) Force (F), mass (M), length (L), time (T), and temperature (t).

Newtons law of motion may be stated as a proportionality:
ma F
or,
ma
g
F
c
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
1


in which g
c
is a dimensionless factor of proportionality with a value dependent upon the
system of units used. The value of g
c
does not depend on location. The acceleration term
can be any acceleration, such as the objects acceleration along a path, however for
objects not undergoing spatial acceleration, this value is considered to be local gravity.
This term obviously varies upon location.
Note: In this class we will only use the British Gravitational and SI system of units.
(Also, I will often misspeak and refer to the British Gravitation as English, but know that
there is a very subtle difference between the two)

System of Units Mass Length Time Force Value of g
c

English Engineering lb
m
ft s lb
f
32.2
British Gravitational slug ft s lb
f
1
SI (System International) kg m s N 1
Absolute Metric g cm s dyne 1

Some Unit conversions:
1 slug = 32.174 lb
m

1 lb
m
= 0.4536 kg
1 slug = 14.594 kg
1 N = 1
2
s
m kg

1 lb
f
= 1
2
s
ft slug

Example:
(a) Determine the weight in pounds of a 3 slug mass at a place where g = 31.7 ft/s
2
;
(b) Does the weight of a 20 N bag of salt denote the force or mass of the salt?
(c) What are the mass and weight of the 20 N bag of salt at a location where the
gravitational acceleration is 1/7 of the earths standard?



Example: Given the basic dimensions of M, L, T, and t for the quantities listed below,
determine (a) their dimensional representation; and (b) their typical units in S.I. and
British Gravitational (a.k.a. English or US customary units) systems.
(a) Flow rate =

(b) Power =

(c) Pressure =

(d) Pressure head =

(e) Velocity head =

(f) Momentum =


Fluid Properties
(a) Density, , is the mass per unit volume. The density of various fluids is given in
Tables 1.4 and 1.5 (inside front cover of text). The density of liquids is only slightly
dependent on temperature and pressure. However, the density of gasses varies
significantly with temperature and pressure. For most practical purposes, the density
of water is assumed to be _______________ kg/m
3
or _______________ slugs/ft
3

(b) Specific Volume, v, is a rarely used property and is equivalent to 1/ . It has units of
m
3
/kg or ft
3
/slug

(c) Specific Weight, , is the weight of fluid per unit volume. Since it is weight based,
this value depends on the local gravity and may be calculated as:
g =

(d) Specific Gravity, SG, of a fluid is defined as:
C at water of volume equal of weight or mass
fluid a of weight or mass
SG
=
4 ) (
) (

In the above definition, the density of water at 4C is used because water has its
maximum density at this temperature.

Question: Can you think of a physical explanation as to why lakes freeze on the top?


(e) Viscosity, , is the property of a fluid which causes a resistance to _______________
_______________. Viscosity is due primarily to interaction between fluid
molecules. Consider two very large parallel plates at a small distance L apart with a
fluid between them with the following assumptions.
Assumptions:
1. no gravitational force in the s-direction
2. no change of pressure in the s-direction
3. a Force F, is applied which keeps the upper plate moving at a constant
velocity, U
4. The velocity u(y), varies with distance from the stationary plate.

Shear motion between parallel plates can be derived by the following:
1. The fluid velocity, u(y), varies linearly from zero (no slip boundary) at y=0 to
u(y)=U at y=L.
2. Therefore, by similar triangles we can obtain:
L
U
y
y u
=
) (


This final equation (equation 1.8 in the book) is Newtons Law of Viscosity (published in
1687). It is taken as the definition of dynamic viscosity of Newtonian fluids where du/dy
is the velocity gradient of the velocity profile, while is the shear stress of the fluid at the
same location.

Question: What needs to be the units of for our equation to be dimensionally
homogeneous?

(f) Newtonian Fluid is a fluid with a constant viscosity . In other words (i) does not
depend on shear stress and (ii) does not depend on the rate of shear strain. It is
solely a property of the fluid itself (therefore viscosity may only change if the fluid
changes a property such as its temperature).

Rheological diagram is a plot of shear stress versus rate of shear strain for different
fluids or Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids.

1. Shear-thinning fluids: blood, paper pulp in water, most slurries.
Viscosity decreases with increasing du/dy
2. Shear-thickening fluids: starch suspensions (not very common)
Viscosity increases with increasing rate of shear strain
3. Bingham plastic: toothpaste
The fluid behaves as a solid until a minimum yield stress (
y
) is exceeded and
subsequently exhibits a linear relation between stress and rate of deformation.

(g) Kinematic viscosity,
v =
(h) Temperature effects viscosity, , varies with temperature but is practically
independent of pressure, i.e.
= (T), i.e. a function of temperature, T, alone


What can we say about the changes in viscosity of a gas and of a liquid with temperature?
Answer:
As temperature increases:
i.
liquid
and
liquid
decreases
ii.
liquid
and
liquid
increases (but not as much as the decrease for liquids)
Note:
(1) For liquids, and have almost the same rate of change because the density ()
of liquids changes only slightly with temperature.
(2) For gases, the rate of increase of is more than that of because the density ()
of gases decreases considerably with increasing temperature. The viscosity of
gas depends on both pressure and temperature since
) , (
) (
temp p
temp
gas
gas
gas
v = =
(i) Dimensions for and :
Parameter S.I. Br. Grav. Or US customary FLTt system
N s/m
2
lb
f
s/ft
2
FT/L
2
m
2
/s ft
2
/s L
2
/T


Example: A block of mass of 2 kg has a length/width dimensions of 0.2 m. It slides
down a smooth incline on a thin film of oil. The slope is 30 from the horizontal. The oil
is SAE 30 at 20C, the film is 0.02mm thick, and the velocity profile may be assumed
linear. Calculate the terminal speed (i.e. maximum speed) of the block.
Solution:

Vapor Pressure (p
v
)

Liquids have a tendency to vaporize. At the free surface of a liquid (liquid-gas interface)
there is a continual interchange of molecules. Some go from liquid to gas and some go
from gas to liquid (evaporation more molecules leave liquid, condensation more
molecules enter liquid)

The vapor pressure is the pressure, at a given temperature, when liquid changes state to
gas (i.e. water boiling). This is when the pressure of the vapor reaches the same pressure
of the surrounding air. Tables B.1 and B.2


The vapor pressure is considered the partial pressure combined with partial pressures of
the surrounding gases. The vapor pressure will continue to rise until the partial pressure
is at equilibrium (the rate of molecules leaving the liquid equals the rate entering). This
is the saturation vapor pressure and no further evaporation occurs.

It is possible to boil water at room temperature. The pressure just needs to be low enough
above the liquid.

Water at room temperature has vapor pressure = 0.4 psi
Water at 100C is 14.7 psi (atmospheric pressure)

Why is this important?

Very low pressure can develop in flowing fluids (i.e. in a pipe) to the point where it can
begin to form bubbles. When it suddenly comes into contact with a high pressure area,
the bubbles will collapse, which can actually cause structural damage to valves. This is
known as cavitation.

Note: relative humidity is the ratio of vapor pressure to saturated vapor pressure

Surface Tension ()
Surface tension effects occur on the surface of liquids when the surfaces are in contact
with another fluid or a solid.

They depend basically upon the relative magnitudes of intermolecular cohesive and
adhesive forces (cohesion between fluid molecules, adhesion between a fluid molecule
and a solid molecule).

Consider a liquid medium with a free surface. Inside the liquid the intermolecular forces
of attraction and repulsion are balanced in all directions. For liquid molecules at the free
surface there is no such cancellation of forces because the free surface has gas molecules

above and liquid molecules below. This situation results in a net inward force on the free
surface molecules.

The interplay of the various forces mentioned above explains the well known physical
phenomenon of capillary rise or depression.


Compressibility (E)
The elasticity of volume or bulk modulus of a fluid is a measure of its compressibility. It
is defined as:
( )
( )
i
i f
i f
v
Vol
Vol Vol
p p
d
dp
E

= =

Values of E
v
for various fluids are tabulated in Tables 1.4 and 1.5 (see inside cover of
text).

Why is Bulk Modulus important?

An expression for the speed of sound in a liquid or gas is:
v
E
c =

Example: Calculate the speed of sound in water and in kerosene at 20C. (E
kerosine
=
1.43x10
9
N/m
2
and SG
kerosene
= 0.82)

Solution:

Perfect Gas (Ideal Gas Law)
Perfect gas is defined as a gas that satisfies the equation of state,
RT p =
In which p = the absolute pressure, = the density, R = gas constant of the particular gas
and T = absolute temperature.


Commonly used units for these parameters (see Tables 1.6 and 1.7) are:
p R T
psf slugs/ft
3
ft-lb
f
/slug-R R=F+460
N/m
2
kg/m
3
N-m/kg-K K=C+273

c is proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature for ideal gases

Disturbances such as closing valves are small so it can be assumed that the process is
isentropic, which means there is negligible heat transfer.

Note: because water is nearly incompressible, speed of sound is higher in water than in
air

Hydromechanics-Chapter 1 Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Hydromechanics-Chapter 1 Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Spring, 2013 Lawrence Technological University ECE 3523

Chapter 1 Notes.doc Notes by Nick Zager, P.E Page 1 of 17

You might also like