Unit 3:

Agenda 1. Review: Syntax of our Language for SL

2. Truth-functional semantics for our five sentential operators

Language of SL
1. Sentential Constants Every capital letter is a sentential constant. E.g.: A, B, C, . . .
Sentential constants are used to abbreviate simple sentences. E.g.: Peter is tall. abbreviated as -- P

2. Sentential Operators
Sentential Operator
(conjunction)

Symbolization
(dot)

___and___
(disjunction)

( ___ ___ )
(wedge)

___or___
(conditional)

( ___v___ )
(horseshoe)

If___then___
(biconditional)

( ______ )
(triple bar)

___if and only if ___

(negation)

(______)
(tilde)

not____

~___

Terminology
(conjunction)

p and q
(disjunction)

p and q are conjuncts

p or q
(conditional)

p and q are disjuncts

If p then q

p is the antecedent and q the consequent

3. Syntax: Recursive Definition of a Well-Formed Formula (Sentence-formation Rules for SL):

1. Base Clause: Any statement constant (capital letter) is a wff (i.e.,sentence in SL). 2. Recursion Clause: If p and q are any wffs, then all the following are also wffs: (p q); (p v q); (p q); (p q); ~ p. 3. Closure Clause: Nothing will count as a wff unless it can be constructed according to clauses 1 and 2.

Applying the definition of a well-formed formula: (((Av B) C) (A (C v D)))

Applying the definition of a well-formed formula: (((Av B) C) (A (C v D)))

1. A, B, C, and D are well-formed formulas (Base Clause).

Applying the definition of a well-formed formula: (((Av B) C) (A (C v D)))

1. A, B, C, and D are well-formed formulas (Base Clause). 2. (A v B) and (C v D ) are well-formed formulas (Recursion Clause).

Applying the definition of a well-formed formula: (((Av B) C) (A (C v D)))

1. A, B, C, and D are well-formed formulas (Base Clause). 2. (A v B) and (C v D ) are well-formed formulas (Recursion Clause). 3. ((A v B) C) and (A (C v D)) are well-formed formulas (Recursion Clause)

Applying the definition of a well-formed formula: (((Av B) C) (A (C v D)))

1. A, B, C, and D are well-formed formulas (Base Clause). 2. (A v B) and (C v D ) are well-formed formulas (Recursion Clause). 3. ((A v B) C) and (A (C v D)) are well-formed formulas (Recursion Clause) 4. (((A v B) C) (A (C v D))) is a well-formed formula (Recursion Clause).

Two notions
Major operator: Determines the overall form of a formula. The major operator is the operator last introduced into a formula.
Subformula: Any well-formed formula that is part of a larger formula.

Unit 3: Truth functional semantics for our five sentential operators

Task
We need to know what our five sentential operators mean logically. More precisely, we need to know how they affect the truth-values of the compound sentence formed with them.
We call this: truth-functional semantics

Truth Tables
p
We specify the meanings of our sentential operators with the aid of truth tables: T T

q
T F

p op. q

F
F

T
F

Truth Tables for the Five Sentential Operators

1. Conjunction
and A conjunction is true if and only if both of its conjuncts are true.

p
T T

q
T F

(p q)
T F

F
F

T
F

F
F

2. Disjunction: or A disjunction is true if and only if at least one of its disjuncts is true. In symbolic logic, we use the inclusive or. Exclusive or: (p v q) ~ (p q)

p
T T

q
T F

(p v q)
T T

F
F

T
F

T
F

3. Biconditional:
If and only if

p
T T

q
T F T

(p q)
T F F

A biconditional is true if and only if both components have the same truthvalue.

4. Negation: not

p T

~p F

A negation is true if and only if the non-negated sentence is false.

5. Conditional: (material conditional) if, then

p
T T

q
T F T

(p q)
T F T

A conditional is false if and only if the antecedent is true and the consequent false.

Conditional
If I study hard, then I will pass the exam. 1. I study hard T I study hard T I dont study hard F I pass the exam. T I do not pass the exam. F I pass the exam. T

2.

3.

(I might actually pass the exam, even though I dont study hard. Say, if the exam is easy.) 4. I dont study hard F I do not pass the exam. F

Paradoxes of the Material Conditional

(1)

If my cat sleeps a lot, then 5+7=12.

Antecedent and consequent are completely independent. No causal connection.

(2)

If Gore was elected in 2000, then NASA will land on Pluto in 2001.

Both, antecedent and consequent are false, but the conditional is true.

(3)

If cats speak all Western European languages, then they do not speak French.

Both, antecedent and consequent, contradict each other. But the entire conditional is true.

Computing Truth-Values of Compound Sentences 1. We write the truth-value of a sentence immediately above the sentence letter. 2. We write the truth-values of subformulas under their major operator, starting with the smallest subformulas.

Step 1:
T F T F F T ((A v B) (C v D)) (B A)
Note: You dont need to care about how we assign truthvalues to the individual sentence letters. Later on, we will develop a procedure that allows us to do this systematically.

Step 2:
T F T F F T ((A v B) (C v D)) (B A) T T T

Step 2: T F T F F T ((A v B) (C v D)) (B A) T T T T

Step 2: T F T F F T ((A v B) (C v D)) (B A) T T T T T

Compute!

1.
T F F T F T ((~A B) (C D)) v (B D) 2.

T T F F T T ((A B) v A) ((C A) B)

Homework for W 01/16

Please learn the truth-tables for our five operators.
Do the starred exercises from problem sets 1 to 3 on p. 49/50.