Design Source and Material

Students Reference Material
DSM/SRM/1
INDEX
Content Page Unit I............................................................................................................................................ 4 Lesson - 1: Tiles ............................................................................................................................. 5 Lesson - 2: Plastering .................................................................................................................... 7 Lesson - 3: Paint .......................................................................................................................... 11 Lesson - 4: Wallpaper ................................................................................................................. 21 Lesson - 5: Fabric and Other Wall Coverings .......................................................................... 24 Unit II ........................................................................................................................................ 29 Lesson - 6: Floor Finishes ........................................................................................................... 30 Lesson - 7: Bricks ........................................................................................................................ 35 Lesson - 8: Building Tiles ........................................................................................................... 46 Lesson - 9: Stone .......................................................................................................................... 53 Lesson - 10: Carpets and Rugs................................................................................................... 60 Lesson - 11: Resilient Floor Coverings ..................................................................................... 63 Unit III ...................................................................................................................................... 70 Lesson - 12: Fabric Construction and Fibres ........................................................................... 71 Lesson - 13: Vegetable Fibres..................................................................................................... 75 Lesson - 14: Man-Made Fibres .................................................................................................. 78 Lesson - 15: Upholstery Materials ............................................................................................. 86 Unit IV ....................................................................................................................................... 94 Lesson - 16: Accessories .............................................................................................................. 95 Lesson - 17: Wall Accessories..................................................................................................... 97 Lesson - 18: Sculpture and Table Ornaments ........................................................................ 103 Lesson - 19: Window Treatments ............................................................................................ 109 Lesson - 20: Types of Window Treatments ............................................................................ 113 Lesson - 21: Window Treatment Hardware ........................................................................... 124 Unit V ...................................................................................................................................... 128 Lesson - 22: Wood and Wood Based Products ...................................................................... 129
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Lesson - 23: Classification of Timber ...................................................................................... 132 Lesson - 24: Seasoning of Timber ............................................................................................ 136 Lesson - 25: Timber Trees of India ......................................................................................... 140 Lesson - 26: Wood Based Products ......................................................................................... 146 Lesson - 27: Glass Terminology ............................................................................................... 152 Lesson - 28: Glass ...................................................................................................................... 156 Lesson - 29: Application of Glass in Interiors ........................................................................ 162 Lesson - 30: Glazing .................................................................................................................. 166 Lesson - 31: Metals .................................................................................................................... 171 Lesson - 32: Aluminium ............................................................................................................ 173 Lesson - 33: Other Metals ........................................................................................................ 175 Lesson - 34: Plastics .................................................................................................................. 180 Supplementary Material / Reference Books ........................................................................... 193
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Unit I
Wall Treatments
Lesson-1: Tiles Lesson-2: Plastering Lesson-3: Paints Lesson-4: Wall Paper Lesson-5: Fabric and Other Wall Coverings
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Lesson - 1: Objectives:
Tiles
To examine the role of walls in a building and think of the various walls in their surroundings and state their function.
Structure:
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Introduction Wall Tile Ceramic tiles Mosaic tiles
1.0 Introduction
Typical wall systems include wood or metal studs, wood post and beam framing, steel and reinforced concrete framing, and masonry. Interior walls and partitions may be load bearing or non-load bearing. Wall surfaces must be able to accept desired finishes.
1.1 Wall Tile

A wall tile is any tile used primarily in applications other than floors. The most prevalent of these are "standard wall tiles," which also go by the term "four-and-a-quarter," since they are approximately 4 inches square, 6" and 8" are also popular. Four-and-a-quarter tiles are those which have been used in bathrooms since the advent of inside plumbing. Many companies make them, and thus there are myriad colours and textures available. Trim pieces or "shapes" are available for every style of standard wall tile made. This is important when it comes to building showers and other structures that require outside corners and edges. Four-and-a-quarter tiles are almost always formed from "slip," the white ceramic clay used in figurines. The tiles are water-resistant but not water-proof. There are a number of porcelain tiles which are also designed to be used on walls and surfaces other than floors.
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1.2 Ceramic Tiles

There are several options of glazed and unglazed ceramic tiles for surfacing walls. Wall tiles have low impact resistance and are typically glazed. Install tiles from floors to ceilings on wet walls, such as showers, and at least wainscot height behind lavatories and toilets is preferred.
1.3 Mosaic Tiles

Mosaics are any tiles, glazed or unglazed, that measures 2 inches square or less, although they don't necessarily have to be square. Some of them, in fact, are hexagonal in shape and others are rectangles. It doesn't matter what the tiles are made of, however most mosaics are made from porcelain, and most of them are left unglazed.
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Plastering
To provide a true, even, smooth and finished surface to the work and improve the appearance and protect the surface from atmospheric influences, to cover defective workmanship and to provide a covering for the unsound and porous material.
Structure:
2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Introduction Objectives of plastering Procedure of plastering Stucco plastering Pointing 2.4.1 2.4.2 Procedure of pointing Forms of plastering
2.0 Introduction
Plastering is an art of covering rough walls and uneven surfaces in the construction of houses and other structures with a plastic composition, called plaster. Plastering, in general, is not required for good brickwork, made of well-burnt bricks of neat stone masonry constructed of durable stones and good mortar.
2.1 Objectives of Plastering

The principal objectives of plastering are: 1. To provide a true, even, smooth and finished surface to the work and improve the appearance. 2. To protect the surface from atmospheric influences. 3. To cover defective workmanship. 4. To provide a covering for the unsound and porous materials.
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2.2 Procedure of plastering:

i. Preparation of surface: All the joints and surface of the masonry are well cleaned with a wire brush and care is taken to see that they are free from oil, grease, soot etc. Holes and hollows, if any, are properly filled and projections more than 1 cm beyond the general surface of the wall are knocked off to make the surface of the wall uniform. In case of old brick walls, the bricks are pricked over so as to expose a new rough surface. Finally the mortar joints and surface of the wall are washed, wetted with clean water and kept wet for at least 6 hours prior to the application of plaster. Ground work for plaster: To acts as a guide for the thickness of plaster, vertical strips or ledges, of plaster, called screed or bands are formed at the ends of the surface to be covered and at intervals of about 1.5 metres across it, and levelled upto strings stretched at the distance from the masonry. The screeds are usually 15 cm in width and extend from the top of the wall to the bottom. The screed thus formed form the ground work for the application of plaster. Application of plaster coats: The cement plaster may be applied either in one coat or two coats. The first or rough coat of plaster usually comprises of 1 part of Portland cement and 3 or 4 parts of sand by volume. The surface of the wall is first prepared as described for lime plastering and vertical screeds, 15 cms in width are formed on the wall surface at suitable intervals, The spaces or bays between the screeds are applied with cement plaster with mason's trowels and the plaster is levelled by means of flat wooden floats and wooden straight edges. Finally the surface is polished without sprinkling water. If second or fine or flushing coat is to applied, the surface of the first coat is not polished but roughened to give a key to the second coat of plaster. Second coat consists of a paste of pure Portland cement mixed with sufficient quantity of water and is applied in a thin layer over the moist and damp first coat, well trowelled and rubbed perfectly smooth. To develop adequate strength and hardness the finished plastered surface (whether one or two coats) is kept wet by sprinkling water for at least a week.
ii.
iii.
2.3 Stucco Plastering

Stucco plaster is mixture of lime, white stone, gypsum and oxides for colouring. The first coat is very coarse; the second is finer and forms a smooth even surface, while the final is the finishing coat. The usual proportions in the first two coats are: Cement 1 part, sand 3 parts, hydrated lime 10 per cent and in the final coat, cement 1 part, sand 2 parts, coloured cement 1 part or any metallic oxide for colour. It is an excellent decorative plaster used on both interior and exterior walls.
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2.4 Pointing
Pointing is the an of finishing the mortar joints of the walls or similar structure with either cement mortar or lime mortar in order to protect the joints from atmospheric agencies and also to improve the appearance of the structure. Pointing is restored to: i. ii. iii. iv. Where a uniform and smooth surface is not required. Where the exhibition of the natural beauty of the materials such as stone blocks, bricks etc., used in construction is to be made. Where the materials used in construction can withstand effects of weather. Where the workmanship is quite good.
2.4.1 Procedure of Pointing

Prior to pointing, all the mortar joints on the face are raked out by a special pointing tool to a depth of about 1 cm to provide an adequate key for the fresh mortar used for pointing. All the loose mortar and dust are then brushed out of joints and the wall surface is well washed, wetted with clean water and kept wet for a few hours. The joints after being prepared are filled with lime or cement mortar with a small trowel. The mortar is well pressed into the joints to ensure a solid contact with the internal old
2.4.2 Forms of Pointing

i. Struck joint pointing: Refer Fig. 6.5 (i). The upper portion is inside the face of masonry by 12 mm while the bottom portion of the pointing is flush with masonry. Tuck pointing: Refer Fig. 6.5 (ii):
ii.
The joint, after having been raked, is filled with cement mortar. A groove 6 mm wide and 3 mm deep is formed along the centre of the joint while the previously applied cement mortar is soft. The groove is filled with lime putty which projects by 3 mm. Lime putty is sometimes replaced by cement. The pointing gives a pleasing appearance. i. Recessed joint pointing: Refer Fig. 6.5 (iii). Mortar is pressed behind the walls.
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It is used for high-class masonry work. ii. Flush pointing: Refer Fig. 6.5 (iv) It is suitable for brick as well as stone masonry. The raked portion of the joint is filled with mortar and surface made flush to the masonry for trowelling. iii. V-groove jointing : Refer Fig. 6.5 (v) It derives its name for its shape. It is suitable for rubble and ashlar masonry work. iv. Keyed joint pointing: Refer Fig. 6.5 (vi) After filling the joint with mortar a semi-circle is formed inside the pointing by some tool. The pointing gives an elegant appearance. v. Weathered joint pointing: Refer Fig. 6.5 (vii) As the name suggests, this type of joint gives adequate protection against weathering. However, it requires comparatively large quantity of water.
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Paint
To provide pleasing, colourful and decorative appearance to the surfaces, to protect the surfaces from the weathering effects of the atmosphere and actions by other liquids, fumes and gases and to prevent corrosion of metallic surfaces
Structure:
3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Introduction Definition of paint Functions of paint Constituents of an oil paint 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 3.3.5 3.3.6 3.3.7 3.3.8 3.4 3.5 3.6 Base Vehicle Pigment Thinner Drier Inert filler Antiskinning agent Plasticizer
Preparation of an oil paint Characteristics of a good paint Types of paints 3.6.1 3.6.2 3.6.3 3.6.4 3.6.5 3.6.6 3.6.7 3.6.8 Oil paint Cement paint Emulsion paint Enamel paint Luminous paint Silicate paint Anti-corrosive paint Plastic paint
3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10
Painting a new woodwork Painting of old woodwork Painting of plastered surfaces General Precautions in the process of painting
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3.0 Introduction
The paints are (coatings of fluid materials) applied over the surfaces of timber and metals as protective coatings. Metals will corrode, wood will warp and decay, concrete and masonry may retain corrosive dust and finally disintegrate unless they are protected by some sort of coatings. In addition, coatings of paint also serve the purpose of decoration, sanitation and improved illumination. The varnishes are transparent or nearly transparent solutions of resinous materials and they are applied on unpainted furniture and other woodwork to decorate the surfaces and protect them against harmful effects of atmosphere. Painted surfaces are varnished to enhance the appearance of the paint and to increase its durability. The distempers are comparatively cheap decorative paints for walls and ceilings. They are less durable than oil or emulsion paints. They are applied on brickwork, cement and lime plastered surfaces and building boards such as plasterboard and insulating boards.
3.1 Definition of Paint

Paint, as usually defined, is a dispersion of pigments in a drying oil, with addition of driers and thinners, the former accelerate film formation and hardening, the latter to allow ease and uniformity in brushing and spraying. To reduce the defect of cracking in films formed by paints and also to get smooth film from paint plasticizers are also added.
3.2 Functions of Paints

The functions of applying coats of paints to the surfaces of timber, iron or steel work in the engineering field are as follows: 1. To protect the surfaces from the weathering effects of the atmosphere and actions by other liquids, fumes and gases. 2. To provide pleasing, colourful and decorative appearance to the surfaces. 3. To prevent decay of wooden members (by rot). 4. To prevent corrosion of metallic surfaces. 5. To provide a smooth surface for easy cleaning.
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3.3 Constituents of an Oil Paint and their Functions

Following are the constituents/ingredients of an oil paint:
3.3.1 Base
The base is a principal constituent of a paint and possess the binding properties. The commonly used bases are: white lead, zinc white, red lead, iron oxide, titanium white and lithopone. The base performs the following functions: i. ii. iii. iv. It gives body to the paint. It reinforces the film paint after it has dried i.e. makes the film of the paint harder and more resistant to abrasion. It minimises shrinking cracks usually formed in drying. It prevents penetration of the paint to the underlying surface.
3.3.2 Vehicle:
Vehicle or carrier is the liquid which carries solid materials of the base and helps them to spread evenly on the surface to be painted. It is also known as the drying oil. It acts as a binder to the base and pigment and allows it to be applied. It should dry out on exposure to atmosphere. The various vehicles are: Linseed oil, soyabean oil, dehydrated castor oil, fish oil, casein, latex emulsions, varnishes etc. The vehicle performs the following functions: i. ii. iii. iv. It holds the pigment to the surface. It forms a protective film by evaporating or by oxidation and polymerisation of the unsaturated constituents of the drying oil. It acts as a binder for the base and the pigment. It provides glow to the painted surface.
3.3.3 Pigment:
A colouring pigment or strainer is a finely divided solid material which provides required shade and colour to the paint. The best pigments do not change colour when exposed to heat. Following are the functions of a pigment: i. ii. It provides required shade and colour to the paint. It reduces the intensity of development of cracks due to drying of the vehicle.
3.3.4 Thinner:
A thinner or solvent is a volatile substance that is added to the paint to make its application easy and smooth. The various types of thinners used in the industry are: i. Aliphatic hydrocarbons such as mineral spirits, napthas and other petroleum fractions.
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ii. Aromatic hydrocarbons such as toluol, xylol, methylated naphthalene. iii. Turpentine and dipentine. Thinners perform the following functions: i. They dissolve the film forming material. ii. They suspend pigments. iii. They thin the concentrated paints for proper handling. iv. They evaporate quickly and thus facilitate the drying of paint.
3.3.5 Drier:
A drier is a substance which acts as catalyst and quickens the drying of the vehicle used in the paint. Driers used are heavy metallic soaps such as napthenates, resinates, octates, linoleats etc. of Co, Mn, Pb and Zn. Quantity used is very little.
3.3.6 Inert filler:

It is an adulterant usually mixed in an oil paint to modify its weight, to improve its durability and to effect economy in the cost of base used. The commonly used fillers are: Silica, charcoal, barytes, gypsum etc.
3.3.7 Antiskinning agent:

Antiskinning agents are used to prevent gelling and skinning of the paint. These are generally polyhdroxy phenols.
3.3.8 Plasticizer:
Plasticizers are used to give elasticity to the .film and they minimize or prevent cracking. Some oils are used as plasticizers.
3.4 Preparation of an oil Paint

The preparation of an oil paint involves the following steps: The base (usually white lead) is first thoroughly ground in the vehicle (linseed oil) so as to form a thick paste. The thick paste is then thinned down by adding a suitable quantity of the thinner/solvent to impart necessary workability to the paint. The colouring pigment well ground and mixed or with drier is then added in the base already prepared (as mentioned above) and thorough mixing is done to get the required paint. Grinding in roller mills is an important operation in the mixing of paints. While preparing an oil paint following precautions should be observed: i. ii. All the ingredients should be properly mixed so as to avoid spots on the work to be painted. Drier should not be added to a paint until it is about to be used.
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iii. iv. v.
Excess of drier should not be used in the paint as it injures the paint. The use of more than one kind of drier in the same paint should be avoided. In order to avoid the discolouring of litharge (oxide of lead), sulphate of manganese is frequently used with zinc paints.
3.5 Characteristics of a Good Paint

i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii. xiii. Following are the characteristics of a good oil paint. It should be able to resist the atmospheric conditions to which it will be put. It should have high hiding power and the required colour. It should dry fairly quickly. It should form a tough, elastic and durable film when dry. It should resist corrosion when applied on a metal. It should not crack on drying. The film produced by the paint should be glossy and washable. Paint should have necessary consistency for a particular purpose for which the paint is to be used. It should to be fluid enough to be spread in a thin coat with a brush. It should not show brush marks after drying. It should be free form defects of chalking, cracking and blistering. It should have lasting pleasing appearance.
3.6 Types of Paints

The different types of paints are:
3.6.1 Oil paint:

i. ii. iii. This is an ordinary paint, cheap and easy to apply. It is generally applied in three coats namely: Primes, undercoats and finishing coats. It possesses good opacity and low gloss.
Oil paint should not be applied during humid and damp weather.
3.6.2 Cement paint:

i. ii. iii. Cement paint consists of cement and hydrated lime mixed along with a colouring pigment. An inert filler (sand) is often added to make the paint economical. Cement paints are available in powder form and require mixing only in water before use.
Preparation of the paint: In order to prepare this type of paint, the cement is first intimately mixed with white and colouring pigments. The other ingredients are added by thoroughly stirring in a suitable container. Students Reference Material DSM/SRM/15
The cement paint is applied in two coats. Before the first coat is applied, the surfaces are wetted to even and control suction and to assist the hardening process of the cement paint. Liquid water should not be present on the surface when the paint is applied. The second coat is applied not less than 24 hours after the first coat. It is essential to keep the surface wet after the final coat for about two days by frequent splashing of water to get the best performance. Advantages of cement paints: Following are the advantages of cement paints: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. Can be applied with a brush or sprayer. Impart pleasing appearance to the structure. Can be applied over new and damp walls which cannot be painted over with oil paints until they are sufficiently dried. They can also be washed. They do not flake or peel off and are unaffected by climatic conditions. They provide a smooth mat finish without any brush mark. They prove to be economical as compared to the oil paints. They are suitable for painting fresh plaster having high alkalinity.
Uses: Cement paints .are now being commonly used as a lasting finish on outer surfaces of walls and ceiling in residential as well in public buildings etc.
3.6.3 Emulsion paint:

It consists of polyvinyl acetate and synthetic resin as binding materials. It is easy to apply and dries quickly (in about I~ to 2 hours) .The paint possesses excellent alkali resistance. The colour of the paint is retained for-a long period. The surface of paint is tough and it can be cleaned by washing with water. Uses: These paints are mostly employed for painting steel and woodwork which is to be built in masonry.
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3.6.4 Enamel Paint:

Enamel point consists of white lead or zinc white ground in a small quantity of oil and mixed with petroleum spirit and resinous matter. Properties: i. ii. iii. iv. v. It dries slowly and forms a hard and durable surface. It is not affected by cold and hot water. It is a little costlier but economical in the long run. It is resistant to steam, fumes, acids and alkalise. It is durable and forms a tough, elastic and glossy film.
Uses: Employed for painting door and window frames and protecting timber and other woodbased products. These paints are used for both external and internal works.
3.6.5 Luminous paint:

It contains calcium sulphide with varnish. The surface on which this paint is applied shines like radium dials of watches after the light source has been cut-off. Uses: The luminous paint is applied on the surfaces which are free from corrosion or any other lead paint.
3.6.6 Silicate Paint:

It is a prepared by mixing calcined and finely ground silica with resinous substances. The drier used with the paint should be of a special silicate drier type. Properties: i. ii. iii. iv. v. It can stand extreme heat. It adheres firmly to brickwork also. It is not affected by alkalise. The paint has no chemical action on metals. The paint when dried forms a hard durable surface.
Uses: The paint can be directly applied on brick, plaster or concrete surface; these surfaces should be made wet before the paint is applied. The surface should not be painted with silicate paint in hot weather.
3.6.7
Anti-corrosive paint:
It consists of oil and a strong drier. A pigment (such as chromium oxide or lead or red lead or zinc chrome) after mixing with some quantity of sand is added to the paint.
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Properties: i. ii. iii. It has a black appearance. It is durable. It is cheap.
3.6.8 Plastic paint:

The paint contains necessary variety of plastics. It is available in the market under different trade names. The plastic paint can be applied either by a painting brush or spray painting. Properties: i. ii. iii. The paint possesses pleasing appearance and is attractive. These paints are the finest types of paints. They provide durable film on drying.
Uses: These paints are widely used for auditoriums, show rooms, cinema halls etc. Following points are worth noting regarding the use of plastic emulsion paints: i. ii. iii. As these paints cannot resist the attack of enemies of paints (e.g. salts, dust, gases carried by air. fog, rain etc.), these should be mainly used for interior jobs. The surface to be painted should be cleaned of all dust particles and rubbed with sand paper if necessary, if required levelling putty may be applied. These paints are water based and hence they are not suitable for metallic surfaces. These paints are not water repellent and may develop some fungus growth in unfavourable circumstances. The thickness of coat should neither be too thin nor too thick. The painted surfaces need to be washed with wet cloth lightly at least once in a month, failing which the paint may loose its good appearance due to adherence of the dust particles.
iv. v.
3.7 Painting of New Woodwork

Painting is the process of applying suitable paint with the help of painter's flat brush or " spraying. Painting' involves the following steps: i. Preparation of surface: Prior to the application of paint to any woodwork it should be seasoned thoroughly. .The surface to be painted should be carefully cleaned and rendered smooth. Knotting: It consists of covering up all the knots with substance through which the resin cannot come out. Priming Coat: it is also called primary or first coat of painting and is applied after the knotting is finished. It entails the following advantages:
ii. iii.
a) It provides protection to the surface from the corrosive action of the atmosphere.
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b) Due to this coat some of the paint sticks to the surface over which the subsequent coats can be applied smoothly. c) It form a hard and opaque covering, filling the pores of the wood. 1. Stopping: It is carried out after the priming coat is applied. It consists in rubbing down the primed surface with either pumice stone or glass paper and filling any holes or cracks with glazier's putty. 2. Application of succeeding coats of paints: After the steps mentioned above have prepared the surface, the woodwork is then painted by applying at least two (preferably three) coats pf paints. Prior to the application of any succeeding coat, the previous one is dried and is gently rubbed down with glass paper and rendered smooth. Each coat is applied in longitudinal direction and care is taken that brush marks are not left on the painted surface. The final coat is called the finishing coat.
3.8 Painting of Old Woodwork

Repainting of old woodwork consists of washing the surface thoroughly with soap and water, rubbing down smooth with pumice stone and stopping with putty all the holes and cracks. Two three coats of oil paint are then applied carefully so that no brush mark is visible on the surface. No succeeding coat is applied until the previous one gets dried.
3.9 Painting of Plastered Surfaces

Painting on a freshly plastered surface should be avoided for at least six months. The surface should be white or colour washed in the first instance otherwise the alkalise present in the plaster will destroy, bleach and discolour the paint and also prevent it from drying. On drying of the new-plastered surface, it should be treated with dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid and then washed with water. The surface is then given a coat of sizing (glue mixed with water). It will fill up the cracks and reduce the suction of the paint. Before applying the paint, the surface is may also be given a coat of linseed oil. After the absorption of the oil on the surface, filling of cracks if any, is done by preparing a paste of chalk powder, plaster of paris and the paint to be used the entire surface is then smoothened by rubbing it with sand paper. The surface thus prepared is then given four coats of paint The first two coats of the paint consist of white lead and boiled linseed oil. The third coat may be of white lead tinted to approach the desired colour and mixed with raw or boiled linseed oil. The last coat may consist of large proportion of turpentine oil with a little varnish. Note: Ready made or nearly mixed paints are also available in the market which can be applied directly on the newly plastered surfaces.
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3.10 General Precautions in the Process of Painting

While painting any surface, the following precautions should be observed: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. The surface to be painted should be perfectly clean and dry. Painting work should be carried out in dry, warm weather after a dry spell. Each coat of paint should be of moderate thickness for drying. The undercoats and first coats must invariably be allowed to dry properly before applying the final coat. Always rub down lightly between coats. For exposed works, boiled linseed oil should be used. The work should be planned in such a way that the specific part (door, ceiling) is completed in the same day.
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Wallpaper
Good substitute for the tapestries, brocades, carpet mountings, murals and panelling that were expensively and slowly worked upon for the wealthier houses.
Structure:
4.0 4.1 Introduction Types of papers
4.1.1 Lining paper 4.1.2 Pitch paper 4.1.3 Washable papers 4.1.4 Vinyl papers 4.1.5 Blown or Expanded Vinyl Papers 4.1.6 Foamed Polyethylene Coverings 4.1.7 Ready-Pasted Wallpapers 4.1.8 Finishing and decorative paper 4.1.9 Hand-made paper
4.0 Introduction
Wallpaper is typically used for residential projects due to its limited resistance to wear and maintenance. Originally wallpapers were developed to substitute for the tapestries, brocades, carpet mountings, murals and panelling that were expensively and slowly worked upon for the wealthier houses. After the advent of the printing press, techniques developed until the first black and white wallpapers were produced in the 16th Century. Today, apart from cost, there are other reasons for seriously considering wallpaper as an interesting and suitable decorative material, not least its ease of application and its relatively temporary nature, since ideas and occupation of premises seem to change with increasing rapidity. Besides the more common printed papers, thickly woven grass cloths, luminous metallic compounds and rich flocks, looking like velvet cloth, can be found among the seemingly limitless wallpaper stocks of today.
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4.1 Types of Papers 4.1.1 Lining Papers

Lining Papers are important. When used either vertically or horizontally (cross-lined) they form a good base on which to hang the finishing decorative wallpaper. As mentioned above, when the base wall is uneven, or the final paper is of a delicate nature, this helps to achieve a better finish and enhance its wear ability. With very heavy papers, or a particularly smooth and dry surface to start with, they can occasionally be dispensed with. Lining papers are available in various weights, and should butt jointed - edges should meet and not overlap.
4.1.2 Pitch Papers

Pitch Papers consist of a thin film of bitumen sandwiched between two sheets of tough brown paper, or cartridge paper coated with pitch, that are used to withhold or stop damp penetration.
4.1.3 Washable Papers

Washable Papers are ordinary wallpapers coated with a thin transparent glaze of PVA (polyvinyl acetate). They may have a matt or gloss finish and are ideal for kitchens or bathrooms as they can be washed down with a clean sponge and soapy water. They should not be scrubbed as this can damage the coating.
4.1.4 Vinyl Papers

Vinyl Papers consist of a layer of vinyl on which the design is printed. The printed design and vinyl are then fused by heat to give a tough, impervious paper ideal for kitchens, bathrooms and playrooms. Because they tend to trap moisture against the wall, they should be hung using a fungicidal paste.
4.1.5 Blown or Expanded Vinyl Papers

Blown or Expanded Vinyl Papers are thicker and more durable than ordinary vinyls, and suitable for use in areas subjected to heavier wear.
4.1.6 Foamed Polyethylene Coverings,

Foamed Polyethylene Coverings trade named "Novamura", are foam plastic coverings with no backing paper. They produce an attractive, lightweight wallcovering with a soft, warm finish, but are unsuitable for areas which take heavy wear.
4.1.7 Ready-Pasted Wallpapers

Ready-Pasted Wallpapers are now very common and, while naturally more expensive than normal wallpaper, are a real boon to the DIY decorator. A carefully calculated layer of adhesive already containing fungicide is applied to the back of the paper during manufacture, and it is then a simple matter to measure and cut the strips to size and immerse them in water for the duration
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recommended by the manufacturers before applying them directly to the wall, thus obviating the necessity for pasting brushes and tables, and the messy mixing and applying of adhesive. Borders have become almost an art form, allowing highly individual designs at low cost.
4.1.8 Finishing or Decorative Papers

Finishing or Decorative Papers generally have patterns which are either hand- or machineproduced and can be textured in some form. With hand-printing each pattern colour is done individually and allowed to dry. Wooden blocks or silk screens are used, and it is possible to tell the difference from the machine-printed type, which applies up to 20 colours at a time with no drying time in between, because, in the latter, merging occurs and the colour collects more thickly at the edges. The ground (the base colour) also tends to show through.
4.1.9 Machine-printed papers

Machine-printed papers are printed with rollers to give a consistent colour and pattern matching. The cheaper papers may stretch or distort when wet and shrink when drying.
4.1.10
Hand-made papers
Hand-made papers are more delicate, costly and awkward to hang. They may tear when wet and, as the hand-printing process is not as accurate as machine printing, they can be more difficult to match. Care should be taken to avoid paste smears on the surface.
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Lesson - 5: Objective:
Fabric and Other Wall Coverings
To list and compare wall treatments used in interiors.
Structure:
5.0 5.1 5.2 Introduction Wood panelling Gypsum board
5.0 Introduction
Fabric wall coverings can be beautiful wall finishes that are typically used in upscale spaces with low traffic. Conference rooms and areas that require speech privacy are good candidates for fabric wall coverings. The follow applies to fabric wall coverings: Fabric wall coverings usually require a paper or latex backing for stability and protection from glues seeping through the fabric. Install acoustical wall coverings in areas where acoustical properties are important. Upholstered wall coverings are a field installed wall finish in which the fabric covers a frame that attaches to the wall. The selected fabric should be compatible as a wall treatment. Designers should typically avoid nylon, rayon and viscose in these applications due to sagging.
5.1 Wood Panelling

Wood panelling is an expensive wall treatment, and therefore is usually applied to upscale spaces. Wood veneer wall coverings give luxurious looks without the expense of wood panelling. The veneer can be installed finished or unfinished, and since veneers are so thin, it is imperative that substrates be very smooth.
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5.2 Gypsum board

Gypsum board is installed as the wall substrate in most commercial interior projects. Gypsum board is also referred to as wallboard, sheet rock and drywall.
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Summary:
This unit involves the choice of wall finishes in interiors, factors such as: - personal tastes, condition of the walls, cost, use of the room, desired effect, size and shape of the room, maintenance, ease and cost of installation, decorative theme, and energy conservation and all about the texture, colour, scale, and wall treatments to determine the effect created in a room and construction and surfacing materials such as: panelling, plaster, wood, and masonry
Revision points:
Wall treatments that include the points such as: paint, wallpaper, fabric, cork, ceramic tile, mirror, wood panelling, brick, and glass. And about the texture, colour, scale, and wall treatments to determine the effect created in a room and construction and surfacing materials such as: panelling, plaster, wood, and masonry.
Key Words:
Ceramic Tiles: - ceramic tiles are glazed and unglazed tiles for surfacing walls. These tiles have low impact resistance and are typically glazed. Plastering: - Plastering is an art of covering rough walls and uneven surfaces in the construction of houses and other structures with a plastic composition, called plaster. Screed or bands: - vertical strips or ledges, of plaster, called screed or bands are formed at the ends of the surface to be covered and at intervals of about 1.5 metres across it, and levelled upto strings stretched at the distance from the masonry. The screeds are usually 15 cm in width and extend from the top of the wall to the bottom. The screed thus formed form the ground work for the application of plaster. Stucco Plastering:- Stucco plaster is mixture of lime, white stone, gypsum and oxides for colouring. It is an excellent decorative plaster used on both interior and exterior walls. Blistering:- this the development of local swelling on the finished sueface,due to residue unslaked lime nodules.. Cracking:- this is the development of one or more fissures in the plaster due to movement in the back ground or surrounding structure. Pointing:- the term pointing is applied to the finishing of mortar joints in masonry. It consist of raking of joints to a depth of 10 to 20 mm and filling it with better quality mortar in desired shape. Paints:- is the fluid paste prepared by dissolving a base into a vehicle(carrier) alongwith a colouring pigment. Wall paper:- wall paper are widely employed for developing finishing of interior walls. The wallpaper are made exclusively from paper or combined with other materials. They may be unprimed, primed, metal coated, embossed etc. Distempers:- distempers are comparatively cheap decorative paints for walls and ceilings. Distemper is composed of base, cement, colouring pigments and size. Distemper may be washable and non- washable types.
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Gypsum:- gypsum is a crystalline substance sparingly soluble in water. Gypsum item are good sound absorbers, incombustible, posses small bulk density and have poor strength in wet state.
Intext questions:
1. Explain in detail the different types of wall tiles available in the market today. 2. What is plastering? Explain in detail the objectives and procedure of plastering. 3. Define pointing and the reasons why it is required. 4. With the help of sketches explain the various types of pointings. 5. Define paint. What is the function of paint? 6. Explain in detail the various constituents of a paint. 7. What are the characteristics of a good paint? 8. What are the general precautions that should be observed during the process of painting? 9. Briefly discuss the history of wallpapers. 10. Explain in detail the various types of wallpapers. 11. Where would you use fabric wall coverings? 12. Visit your local market and find out all possible information with respect to the cost, variety available, method of production, advantages and disadvantages etc. of the following items: i. ii. iii. iv. Wall tiles. Paints Wallpapers Fabrics used as wall covering.
Terminal exercise:
Students have to visit local market and find out all possible information with respect to the cost, variety available, method of production, advantages and disadvantages etc. of the following items: Wall tiles. Paints Wallpapers Fabrics used as wall covering.
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Assignment /learning activities

Students have to prepare an assignment listing the different types of wallpaper and paint finishes and compare wall coverings for cost, suitability, maintenance, durability, and the newest trends in decorating walls. Students need to collect some samples of wall and ceiling coverings to illustrate and talk about the advantages and disadvantages of the different types of paint and wallpaper. Examine new techniques in the application of paint to create a variety of textures and other visual effects and have to collect different variety of wallpaper samples and compare the differences in appearance and quality.
Supplementary materials/suggested reading

1. Engineering materials by Surendra Singh 2. Engineering Materials by Rajput 3. Time Savers Standards for Interior Design and Space Planning 4. Building construction by Dr. B.C. Punmia
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Unit II
Floor and Floor Coverings
Lesson -6: Floor Finishes Lesson -7: Bricks Lesson -8: Building Tiles Lesson -9: Stone Lesson -10: Carpets and Rugs Lesson -11: Resilient Floor Coverings
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Floor Finishes
To outline the functions of floor covering in an interior.
Structure:
6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 Introduction Concrete Characteristics of good concrete Classification of concrete Ingredients of plain cement concrete Terrazzo
6.0 Introduction
Floor finishes are major design elements in interior spaces. These materials chosen are to be appropriate for the function of the space as well as aesthetically appropriate. Acoustical properties of floor finishes have great impact on noise levels, and the colors of the finishes impact the lightness or darkness in spaces. Extremely light colors, especially white, should be avoided in high traffic areas due to soiling and possible glare. Floor patterns or changes in floor finishes may be used to create circulation paths or separation between spaces. Of all finishes, floors will get the most wear and are usually the most expensive finish material. There are three basic categories of floor coverings: Hard surfaces concrete, wood, stone, ceramic, and terrazzo Resilient surfaces vinyl composition tile, sheet vinyl, rubber, and linoleum Soft surfaces carpet and area rugs
6.1 Concrete
Concrete is the basic structural material of floors in most new construction and, when scored, painted, stained, or glazed, can provide an aesthetically pleasing finish. Concrete is a mixture of cement (or lime), sand, brick or stone ballast and water, which when placed in forms and allowed to cure, becomes hard like stone. The hardening is caused by the chemical reaction between the cement and water. The cement and water form a paste which, upon hardening, binds the aggregates to a permanent mass. Cement is called the "binding material". The stone or brick ballast is called the "coarse aggregate" as distinguished from the "fine aggregate
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"which is sand. The mortar used in concrete is called "matrix". Cement concrete when used by itself is known as "mass concrete". Concrete is much stronger in compression than tension. In order to enable it to resist tensile stresses it is reinforced or strengthened with steel in the form of steel bars or wire netting etc. The concrete so obtained is called "Reinforced concrete".
6.2 Characteristics of Good Concrete

A good concrete should possess the following characteristics: 1. It should have high compressive strength (so that it can resist the heavy loads of (the structures). The compressive strength should not be less than 15.5 N/rnrn2. 2. On hardening, it should exhibit minimum shrinkage. 3. It must be adequately dense. The density of a good concrete should be about 24 kN/m3. 4. It should be economical for the desired strength. 5. It should be sufficiently hard and provide enough resistance to abrasion. This property is of paramount importance when concrete is to be used for making steps of stairs and road pavements. 6. It must be adequately durable to resist the effects of weathering agencies (e.g., rain, frost action, variations in temperatures etc.). 7. It should have minimum thermal expansion so as to provide good resistance to fire. 8. It should provide the required finish to the concrete structure. 9. It should have sufficient impermeability or water tightness (so that the water does not find its access inside the structure) 10. It should have minimum creep (creep, time yield or plastic flow is the continuous strain which the concrete undergoes due to application of external loads over a period of time.
6.3 Classification of Concrete

The concretes, according to design, are classified as follows:
1. Plain cement concrete

The cement concrete in which no reinforcement is provided is called plain cement concrete or mass cement concrete. It is considerably stronger in compression but weak in tension or shear. Uses: It is commonly used in the construction of columns foundation, bed blocks, massive gravity dams, heavy foundations etc.
2. Reinforced cement concrete (R.C.C.)

It is the cement concrete in which reinforcement is embedded for making tensile, excessive compressive or shear stresses. The usual proportions of ingredients are: 1 part Portland cement: 1 to 2 parts clean sand: 2 to 4 parts shingle or crushed stone. The steel reinforcement used is generally in the form of round bars, 6 mm to 32 mm dia. Expanded metal
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or steel fabric in the form of a mesh of steel rods, welded together, are also used as reinforcement in concrete walls etc. Uses: It is commonly used for the construction of beams, slabs, lintels, raft or mat foundations etc.
3. Pre-stressed cement concrete (P.C.C.)

It is the cement concrete in which high compressive stresses are artificially induced before its actual use. The high compressive stresses are induced by pre-tensioning the reinforcement before placing the concrete and the reinforcement is released when final setting of the concrete takes place. Here, high tensile steel is used as reinforcement. This type of concrete can take up high tensile and compressive stresses without development of cracks. By the use of this concrete, the quantity of concrete reinforcement can be considerably reduced. Uses: It is used where high stresses develop and it is uneconomical to use ordinary reinforced cement concrete.
6.4 Ingredients of Plain Cement Concrete

The various ingredients of plain cement concrete are enumerated and discussed below: 1) Cement Cement is used as a binding material in the concrete required for different engineering works where strength and durability are of significant importance. For this purpose ordinary Portland cement is commonly used. However, when work needs to be carried out quickly, rapid hardening cement is also used. The cement to be used should be as fresh as possible and should satisfy the latest specifications of Indian standard Institute. Functions: i. ii. iii. It makes the concrete impermeable by filling up the voids existing in the fine aggregate. It binds the aggregates into a solid mass (due to its setting and hardening properties, when treated with water). It imparts strength to the concrete.
2) Sand: It consists of small angular or rounded grains of silica (SiO2) and is formed by decomposition of sand stone under the effect of weathering agencies. It may be either natural sand (e.g., river sand, nalah sand, pit sand and sea sand) or al1ificial sand (prepared by crushing stones and gravels to powder form). Sand is commonly used as a fine aggregate in the plain cement concrete. Sea sand is not recommended for its use for concrete work which is to be exposed to view. It should be washed with fresh water before use, to remove its salts contents.
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Characteristics/ requirements Fine aggregate should be: i. ii. iii. iv. i. ii. iii. Clean, sharp and angular; Chemically an inert material; Highly siliceous and free from impurities such as clay, loam, dust, coal particles and organic matter; Hard strong and durable. It fills the voids present in the coarse aggregate. It assists in hardening of cement by allowing water to penetrate through its voids. It minimizes shrinking and cracking of concrete.
Functions
It prepares concrete economically, of any required strength, by varying its proportions. 3) Coarse aggregate: It acts as main filler, and forms the main bulk of concrete, around the surfaces of which the binding materials adhere in the form of a film. Broken stone, broken brick and gravel are generally used as coarse aggregates. Granite, trap and basalt give excellent coarse aggregates. The crushing strength and water tightness of concrete and its resistance to wear and tear depend upon the aggregates. Further the aggregates balance the shrinkage and volume changes of concrete. Characteristics/ requirements A good coarse aggregate should be: i. Hard and tough; ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. i. ii. iii. Angular or cubical in shape; Absolutely clean; Sound, fire resisting and durable; Free from chemicals or coating of clay; Free from organic matter; Pass through 75 mm IS sieve and entirely retain on 4.75 mm IS sieve. It imparts greater volumetric stability and durability to concrete (as compared to the cement paste alone). It makes a solid and hard mass of concrete (with cement and sand). It increases the crushing strength of concrete.
Functions
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iv.
It is cheaper than cement and hence directly helps in achieving economy in concrete manufacture. Size and grading of aggregate; Shape and surface texture; Specific gravity and bulk density; Strength; Water absorption and surface Bulking of sand; moisture; Deleterious substances; Soundness, durability including alkali-aggregate reactivity
The properties of concrete are greatly influenced by aggregate characteristics given below: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii.
4) Water: It plays an important role in mixing, laying, compaction, setting and hardening of concrete. .Water influences the strength development and durability of concrete. Ordinary drinking water can be used for preparing concrete. It should be free from certain chemicals injurious to cement. The quantity of water used should be just sufficient for chemical reaction and suitable workability of the concrete. Functions i. ii. iii. It wets the surface of the aggregates. It facilitates spreading of cement over the fine aggregate. It lubricates the surface of the aggregate which influences the workability and compaction of concrete during plastic stage (leading to the influence on the strength and durability of concrete). It chemically combines with various compounds in cement to form a binding medium for pieces of aggregates.
iv.
6.5 Terrazzo
Terrazzo is a flooring material of various sizes of marble chips in cement mortar. Metal divider strips are used as expansion joints. Terrazzo mixtures are typically installed two inches thick, but can be installed in thinner settings. This can be obtained in pre-cast form or laid in situ. Marble pieces mixed in white or tinted Portland cement, ground and polished, make a most attractive and rich-looking flooring and walling material; but this has a bad tendency to crack, with the crack line following the marble insets. Ebony, plastic or brass strips should be inserted to divide it into smaller areas which allow less expansion and contraction stresses. It is easy to keep clean and is impervious to damp, but can be rather noisy.
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Bricks
In this chapter construction material such as bricks, tiles refractory bricks, earthenware and stoneware will be discussed. All these materials are made from clay and are also know as clay products.
Structure:
7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 Introduction Comparison of stone and brick Constituents of brick Earth Function of Constituents of Brick Earth Harmful Ingredients in Brick Earth Requirements of Good Brick Earth Manufacture of Bricks Classification of Bricks
7.1 Introduction
The brick is the most commonly used building material, though tiles, refractory bricks, earthen wares and stone wares serve different construction purposes. The bricks are being commonly used for constructing walls, columns, roofs, paving floors and as coarse aggregate for concrete work in foundations, under-floors, etc. The bricks do not require dressing and the art of laying bricks is so simple that the bricks work can be carried out with the help of unskilled labourers. Thus, at places where stones are not easily available, but if there is plenty of clay suitable for the manufacture of bricks, the bricks replace stones.
7.2 Comparison of stone and brick

Comparison of stone and brick is given in the following table:
S.No.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Stone
It is heavier than brick It is obtained from rocks. Free form clay holes and flaws Hard and tough It absorbs heat more than a brick Water absorption less than 5%
Brick
It is lighter than stone Made from clay Free from lumps, flaws and cracks Hard and sound It absorbs less heat comparatively Water absorption less than 16%
It is uniform in colour and can be Uniform in colour, shape and size shaped to the desired size.
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8.
It has high durability which Its durability is less than that of stone. depends upon its chemical composition and its physical structure. Particularly suitable for Acid and smoke resistance is good but construction work in industrial area less than that of stone as it is acid and smoke proof. Quarrying dressing transportation costly. Labour cost for laying is high. and Overall cost of manufacture less than Stone Easily laid to form walls of required uniform thickness, labour cost for brick masonry much less.
9.
10. 11.
7.3 Constituents of brick Earth

Brick earth is derived by the disintegration of igneous rocks. Potash felspars, orthoclase or microcline mainly responsible for yielding clay minerals in the earth. This mineral decomposes to yield kaolinite a silicate of alumina which on hydration gives a clay deposit AL2O3.2H2O known as kaolin. A good brick earth should be such that can be easily moulded and dried without cracking and wraping.
7.4 Function of Constituents of Brick Earth

Functions of various constituents/ingredients of brick earth are described below:
1.
Alumina or clay
It is the principal constituent of every kind of brick earth. It provides plasticity to the earth and makes the brick hard. If not mixed with sand shrinkage and warping results.
2.
Silica or sand
It exists in brick earth either in chemical combination with alumina as alumina or mechanically mixed with caly as sand. silicate of
If silica in suitable proportion is added to clay it imparts hardness to the brick and checks it shrinkage, cracking and warping on drying. But if added in greater proportions makes the brick brittle. Addition of silica also increases hardness, durability and resistance to heat.
3.
Lime
It helps silica to melt at lower temperature and binds the particles of the bricks together It also reduces shrinkage of bricks.
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It should be present in finely divided state otherwise the lumps on burning will change to quick lime and disintegrate the brick on absorbing moisture.
4.
Iron Oxide
A small quantity of iron oxide present in brick earth, acts as a flux, helps grains of sand to melt and binds the particles of clay together. It imparts pleasing red colour to the brick. Its excess percentage (8 to 11) makes the brick dark blue.
5.
Magnesia
Small quantities of magnesia in brick earth make the bricks of yellowish colour and reduce shrinkage. But excess of magnesia leads to the decay of bricks.
6.
Manganese
Manganese in small proportions along with iron makes the brick darker (or even black)
7.5 Harmful Ingredients in Brick Earth

Limestone and kankar nodules: The presence of limestone and kankar nodules in the brick earth is harmful and corps up serious troubles. In heating limestone is converted into lime which on contact with water swells and cases the brick to split and crumble to pieces. But however, a certain quantity of limestone is desirable in brick earth as it binds the particles of brick together and reduces shrinkage on drying. It is essential that limestone must be present in a finely divided state and not in lumps. 1. Alkalise: If alkalise are present in the brick earth, they lower the fusion point of clays and cause the brick to fuse, twist and warp during burning. Alkaline salts if present in finished bricks absorb moisture from the atmosphere and create damp conditions which are detrimental to health. Further when the moisture dries up a greyish white deposit is left behind which spoils the appearance of the structure, the effect being known as efflorescence. 2. Pebbles of stone and gravel: They do not exercise any harmful effect chemically, but do not permit the caly to be thoroughly mixed and thus impair the uniformity of a brick. 3. Iron pyrites: Iron pyrites, if present in the earth decompose and oxidize in the brick and cause the brick to split. 4. Kallar or reh: It consists of sulphate of soda mixed with common salt and carbonate of soda. These salts prevent the bricks from being properly baked. Its presence in the earth has the effect as that of alkalise. 5. Vegetation and organic matter: The presence of vegetation and organic matter in brick assists in burning. But if such matter is not completely burnt, the bricks become porous (this is due to the fact that the gases will be evolved during the burning of the carbonaceous matter and it will result in the formation of small pores).
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7.6 Requirements of Good Brick Earth

A good brick earth should fulfil the following requirements. 1. It must have proper proportions of sand, silt and clay. 2. It must be homogeneous. 3. It should have sufficient plasticity (so that the bricks can be properly and conveniently moulded with sharp and well defined edges). 4. It must be free from lumps of lime or nodules of kankar. 5. It must be free from earth containing alkaline salts, kankar or reh etc. 6. It must be free from pebbles, grits and lumps of earth. 7. It must not contain vegetable and organic matter. 8. It should not be mixed with salty water.
7.7 Manufacture of Bricks

The manufacture of bricks involve the following steps: 1. Preparation of clay 2. Moulding of bricks 3. Drying of bricks 4. Burning of bricks. Preparation of Clay (i) Selection of site and unsoiling: The site selected for the manufacture of bricks must have suitable soil available in sufficient quantity; otherwise unnecessary labour and cost of digging and transportation of the soil would be involved. Generally, for making soil suitable for brick making, certain materials are required to be mixed with the soil. Therefore, the availability of such materials near the site of brickmaking is amply important. It is also necessary that water fuel like coal and wood are easily available in adequate quantities. The site should be selected after giving due consideration to suitability of soil and location of the water table. Site should be so selected that the water table during breaking session is at least I meter below the floor of the kiln. After selecting the site, the top layer of soil, about 200 mm in depth is taken out and thrown away. They clay in top soil is full of impurities, (e.g. Roots of grass, vegetation etc), and hence it is to be rejected for the purpose of preparing bricks.
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(ii) Digging and cleaning: The soil below 200 mm is dug out preferably before rains. It is then cleaned off stones, pebbles, vegetable matter etc. All the lumps of soil should be broken into powder form. (iii) Weathering and blending: The earth is then spread out to a depth of 600 to 1200 mm and left to the atmospheric action; this process being known as weathering. It extends from a few weeks to some months and imparts plasticity and strength to the clay. IT is this stage during which different types of earths such as sandy or calcarious clays could be mixed in suitable proportions with little quantities of coke, ash, etc., to develop the essential qualities needed for moulding, drying and burning of bricks. The whole mass is mixed uniformly and proportionate quantity of water is added. The earth is covered up with cloth or mats. This process of mixing ingredients is called blending. (iv) Tempering: Tempering process consists is kneading the earth under feet of men or cattle to make it stiff and plastic. Addition of water is made from time to time and tempering is continued till homogenous mass of earth is obtained. A soft plastic clay could be prepared by about 25 to 30 percent of water. This method is adopted for the majority of common hand made bricks but in case of superior bricks needed on large scale tempering is carried out with help of a pug mill. Moulding of Bricks After the earth or clay is prepared the moulding of the bricks is carried out either by hand or by machine. Hand moulding: Hand moulding usually adopted in India is of the following two types: i. Ground moulding: The process of moulding bricks on the ground by manual labour is known as ground moulding and it is carried out as follows: The moulder places his mould (wooden or steel box as shown in Fig 3.2a, b) flat in one corner of the ground which is already levelled, plastered and sprinkled with sand. He then lifts a lumps of prepared clay over his head with both hands, dashes it into the mould and forces it with hands in order to fill the corners of the mould. He then strikes of the superfluous clay above the level of the mould with a piece of wood or iron called a strike (fig3.4) or a wire on a bow and throws the cut off clay on the ground to be mixed again with earth to be prepared. The mould is then lifted off leaving the brick on the ground and again placed by the side of the brick thus made. A second brick is moulded then and so on. The moulder moulds bricks lying flat in rows till the whole ground is covered. Each moulder can mould about 600 to 1000 bricks on an average per day. Students Reference Material DSM/SRM/39
In this process bricks are made directly on the ground and so their lower faces are very rough and moreover they can have no frog. Comparatively better type of ground-moulded bricks could be prepared by using two pallet boards of thin wooden pieces, one at the base of the mould and other on top of it. After the brick is moulded it is carried between the pallet boards and placed on its longer side face. Leaving the brick there for drying the pallets are brought back for further moulding.
Frog or impression
It is an indentation mark left on the face of a brick during moulding process. It serves the following two purposes: a) It indicates the name of the person or the firm who manufactures the bricks. b) It provides a key for mortar for developing a structure grip when used. Frog in the brick is formed by providing a projection or fillet on the corresponding face of mould (usually of the lower pallet board) (ii) Table moulding: The process of moulding bricks on a table by manual labour is known as table moulding and it is carried out as follows: The moulder stands behind the table and places his mould either on the table itself, in which case the bottom of the brick is flat or generally on a board fixed on the table called stock board of the same size as the inside measurement of the mould and carrying projection for the frog. The mould in the last case is to be made deeper than the thickness of the brick by 37.5 mm which is the thickness of the stock board. The mould is placed to fit the stock board, filled up with earth, superfluous earth removed (as described above) a thin pallet board is placed on the mould, and then mould, pallet board and brick are lifted together smartly off the stock board inverting it as he does so. Then he (moulder) places the whole on the page (fig 3.4) on his left side with pallet board downwards and lifts up the mould leaving the brick on the pallet board. A boy places another pallet board on the brick and carries it away between two boards to the drying ground, where it is placed on its edge. Pallet boards are removed. The second brick moulded is placed next to the first and this is repeated until the whole space is covered.
Machine Moulding
This brick making method proves quite useful when a large number of bricks have to be manufactured quickly. Machine moulding can be performed by the following two methods. i. Plastic method: The clay in plastic condition is formed through an opening of dimensions equal to the length and the breadth of the bricks in a rectangular plastic band from which the bricks of required thickness are cut with wires or knives fixed in a frame. This is quick press of manufacturing bricks. It proves economical when bricks are required on a large scale.
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ii.
Dry process method: Superior bricks which are to withstand heavy pressure are made by compressing under great pressure moist powdered clay into well shaped bricks called pressed bricks. The bricks made by this method are dense, smooth and more uniform in the shape. The bricks produced by this method are much stronger than ordinary bricks and do not necessitate drying and can be directly fed into the kiln for burning.
Due to heavy initial cost of machine moulding method, it is not presently popular in our country.
Drying of Bricks
After the bricks are moulded, they are dried by the following two methods: (i) Natural drying: It is also called hack drying and consists in arranging the wet bricks in rows on their edges on a slightly raised ground called hacks. Little space for circulation of air is kept for each brick. It should be ensured that no sudden drying is caused by direct exposure to sun and wind and a portable cover is provided to protect the bricks from rain. In certain places where temperature variations are too much temporary sheds are erected for drying purpose. The air and sun dried bricks are adequately strong and durable and produce good results when employed for construction of simple structure. Artificial drying. This method is used when bricks are required on a large scale and at a rapid rate. The heating of the bricks is carried out in special driers such as tunnels or chambers which receive heat from special furnaces built for the purpose, hot flue gases form the cooling chambers of a kiln and waste steam from the engines of driving machinery.
(ii)
Burning of Bricks
Bricks after being moulded and dried are burnt in the kilns. The purpose of burning is two fold: i. ii. To impart hardness and strength to the bricks; To increase the density of the bricks so that they will absorb less quantity of water.
Types of kilns: The bricks may be burnt in anyone of the following kilns :
Clamp or open kiln:

It is also known as Pazawah. It is suitable for burning only ordinary bricks, i.e. ground moulded bricks of inferior type. This method of burning is usually adopted in rural areas where transport charges of bricks from urban areas are high. Furthermore as the number of bricks required for construction of ordinary building is small, it is not felt necessary to set up bigger kilns which entail a huge expenditure.
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The size of the clamp depends upon the number of bricks to be burnt. For one lakh bricks its size should be 15m (length) x 13 m (breadth) x 5 m (height) These clamps are sometimes also made trapezoidal in form. A slight slope of 15 degrees is usually given to the ground length wise. In a brick clamp, fuel and bricks are laid in alternate layers as shown in Fig. 3.6. On the sides and on top of the clamp, a coating of earth provides some protection. The air dried bricks are arranged in a criss-cross pattern on their edges with a gap of about 5 cm between them to ensure proper circulation and upward draught of the hot gases from below. After the kiln is started it takes two to six months for burning and cooling the bricks. This clamp is a temporary structure for burning and is built again for the next burning of raw bricks.
Advantages:
i. ii. iii. iv. v. Burning of bricks is cheap and economical. Considerable saving of fuel. Bricks produced are tough and strong (since the burning and cooling of bricks is gradual). Skilled labour and supervision are not required for the construction and making of the clamps. The clamp is not liable to injury from high wind or rain.
Disadvantages:
i. ii. iii. iv. Very slow process. The quality of bricks is not uniform. The bricks are not of regular shape (due to the settlement of bricks when fuel near bottom is burnt and turned to ashes). The bricks are liable to burn unevenly (since it is not possible to regulate the fire).
Intermittent kilns (overground kilns):

These kilns are permanent one as opposed to clamps which are temporary structures, and can be put to use again for burning the bricks. Here the burning is not continuous. These are made rectangular or circular in shape and may be of 'upward draught' or 'down draught' type.
Qualities of Good Bricks

The good bricks which are to be used for the construction of important engineering structures should possess the following qualities/characteristics:
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1. Size and shape: A good brick should be uniform in size (standard) and should have rectangular plane surfaces with parallel sides and sharp straight right-angled edges. Its surface should not be too smooth or, otherwise, the mortar will not stick to it. Figure 3.9 shows details of a standard brick. According to ISI specification, size of the brick should be 190 mm X 90 mm x 90 mm and the depth of the frog should be between 10 to 20 mm. Length and width of frog [Fig. 3.9(b)] should be 100 mm and 40 mm respectively. Thickness of mortar should be 5 mm on each surface of each brick. So the dimensions of the each brick including mortar joint will be 200 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm. A standard brick weighs nearly 30 N.
2. Colour: The bricks should be table-moulded, well burnt in kilns, copper coloured, free from cracks and with sharp and square edges. The colour should be uniform and bright. 3. Structure: A good brick should show fine, compact and uniform structure in broken form. 4. Soundness: A good brick should give a clear metallic ringing sound when struck with another brick. 5. Hardness: A good brick should be so hard that finger nails should not be able to make any impression on its surface when scratched. 6. Porosity: A good brick should not absorb more than 20 per cent of its dry weight of water when kept immersed for 24 hours. 7. Strength: A good brick should have minimum crushing strength of 10.5 N/mm2. Ordinarily it should not break when dropped flat on hard ground from a height of about 1 m. 8. Resistance to fire: A good brick should have adequate resistance to fire. Ordinary bricks can resist temperature upto 1200 C. Bricks to be used for lining of furnaces, etc., should be of special quality (known as fire bricks). 9. Efflorescence: A good brick should not contain much alkaline salts, which may cause efflorescence on its surface and decay the brick. 10. Durability: A good brick should be able to resist the effects of weathering agencies like temperature variations, rain, frost action, etc.
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7.8 Classification of Bricks

Conventionally, the bricks are classified in the following two types: 1. Sun dried or katcha bricks: These bricks are dried with the help of heat received from the Sun after the process of moulding. These bricks are not burnt in camp or kiln. These bricks can only be used in the construction of temporary and cheap structures. Such bricks should not be used at places exposed to heavy rains. 2. Burnt or pacca bricks: The bricks which are burnt in a clamp or kiln after moulding and drying are called burnt or pacca bricks. These bricks are hard, strong and durable and are generally used in permanent works. These bricks are further classified into the following four types: a) First class bricks: these bricks are table-moulded and they are burnt in kilns. Characteristics: The following are the characteristics of a first class brick: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii. A first class brick is well burnt and regular in shape. Edges are sharp and well defined. It is sufficiently hard and sound. Its surface is smooth, clean and free from cracks. A fractured surface shows a uniform compact structure (free from lumps or grits and holes). Water absorption shall not be more than one sixth of its weight of water when kept immersed for sixteen hours. When two bricks are struck against each other, a metallic ringing sound is produced. When soaked in water for 24 hours and dried in shade does not show efflorescence. It should not break when dropped from a height of 1 to 2 meters. It has specific gravity of 1.8. It is so hard that no mark can be produced on it with finger nails. It has a minimum crushing strength of 10.5 N/mm2.
Uses: For flooring and walling purposes. As ballast for R.C. work. Shaped bricks are used in carvings, arches and copings. b) Second class bricks: There bricks are ground moulded and they are burnt in kilns.
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Characteristics:
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. A second-class brick is well-burnt but irregular in shape and size. It has a rough surface. Its edges are neither straight nor well defined. It is not free from lumps and cracks. It does not have a uniform colour. It has fine, compact and uniform texture. It shall produce a ringing sound when struck with one another. It shall have a minimum crushing strength of 7 N/mm2.
Uses: Such types of bricks are used in unimportant situation and for internal walls (where the bricks are generally hidden from view. c) Third class bricks: The bricks which are under burnt and are not uniform in shape and size are called third class or pilla bricks. These bricks are ground-moulded and then are burnt in clamps.
Characteristics:
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. A third class brick has a light yellowish colour. It is not well-burnt. It is soft, When two bricks are struck a dull sound is emitted It is associated with flaws and cracks. Its edges are irregular and surface quite rough.
Uses: Third class bricks are used in inferior and temporary building. d) Over burnt or jhama bricks: These are over burnt bricks with irregular shape and dark colour.
Characteristics:
i. ii. iii. iv. v. They are overburnt, vitrified and distorted bricks. They are irregular in shape and size and are available in the form of lumps. They are dark in lumps. They are strong and hard. They produce metallic ringing sound.
Uses: these bricks are used as aggregates for making concrete to be used in foundations, floors, etc. and as road metal.
DSM/SRM/45
Building Tiles
To study hard flooring finishes in various building and rooms.
Structure:
8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 Introduction Characteristics of a good tile Types of Tiles Earthenware and Stoneware Glazing 8.5.1 Transparent Glazing 8.5.2 Opaque Glazing or Ship Glazing
8.1 Introduction
Tiles are thin slabs of brick earth, burnt in a kiln. These are thinner than bricks and have a greater tendency to crack and warp in drying and burning than ordinary bricks and are more liable to breakage. Therefore, a greater care should be taken in their manufacture. They should be dried in shade, burnt and cooled gradually in specially made kilns.
8.2 Characteristics of a good tile:

A good tile should possess the following characteristics: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. It should possess uniform colour. It should be properly burnt. It should be free from cracks, flaws and bends. It should be hard and durable. It should have proper shape and size. When placed in position, it should fit well. Its broken surface should exhibit even and compact structure. It should give a clear ringing sound when struck with light hammer or with another tile.
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8.3 Types of Tiles

The tiles, according to their use, are divided into the following five types: 1. Roofing tiles: These tiles should be strong, durable and perfectly leak proof. Alth The tiles, according to their use, ough expensive in first cost, they need less maintenance cost. Roofing tiles may be common tiles, encaustic tiles, manglore tiles and country tiles. The commonly used roofing tiles are described below: a) Flat tiles: These tiles are rectangular in shape and are of various dimensions. They are laid in cement or lime mortar. The different types of flat tiles are discussed below: 1. Slate tiles: The sizes available are: 60 cm x 30 cm x 15 mm and 50 cm x 25 cm x 10 mm. These tiles should be reasonably straight, of uniform colour, texture, free from veins, cracks, fissures, white patches etc. The water absorption after 24 hours immersion in cold water should be maximum 21 per cent by weight. 2. Burnt clay flat terracing tiles: These tiles should be uniform in shape, size and be tree from irregularities, (e.g. bends, twists, cracks etc.). The water absorption should not exceed 20 percent by weight. The compressive strength should not be less than 7.5 N/mm2. a) Pot tiles or country tiles: These tiles are also sometimes called pan tiles. They are hand moulded, first into a flat tile, then to the required shape on wooden pattern and burnt in a kiln after drying. These tiles are semi-circular in section (refer Fig 3.14). These are used either alone or with flat tiles. These tiles are less liable to be displaced by the birds. These tiles are laid on sloped roofs along with the concave side up and longer end towards the ridge. Then another row of same tiles with convex side up and small end towards the ridge is laid covering the adjoining edges of every pair of tiles below. These tiles are extensively used in the rural areas. b) Allahabad tiles: These tiles are of different shapes. They are generally laid side by side and joints are then covered with half round tile. They should not absorb water more than 20 per cent by weight. They are used for making good and pleasing roofs.
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c) Corrugated tiles: These tiles have corrugations and when they are placed in position, a side lap of one or two corrugations is formed. .The placing of such tiles on a roof gives an appearance of corrugated galvanized iron sheets. They are very good in appearance, but can be easily blown away by a violent wind. d) Manglore tile: These tiles are red in colour and made of double chanelled Basel Mission Manglore pattern. They are of flat pattern and are provided with suitable projections so that they interlock with each other, when placed in position. The life of these tiles is about 25 years with replacement of about 5 per cent per year. e) Ridge, valley and lip tiles: These tiles are made from good earth, and are specially shaped. f) Encaustic tiles: These tiles are used for decorative purpose and consist of three layers: i. ii. iii. The face is a thin coat of pure clay of the colour required. The body is of coarse clay; and The back is formed with a thin layer of clay different from the body, as it is to prevent warping.
1. Flooring tiles: These tiles are flat and usually square or rectangular in shape. These can be made in any colour and of any geometrical shape. They should give a ringing sound when struck with each other. They should not absorb water more than 24 per cent by their weight. The fractured surface of the tile should be clean, dense and sharp at the edges. .They should show maximum resistance to impact. Common sizes of flooring tiles are: 15 cm (length) x 15 cm (width) x 18 mm (thickness); 20 cm x 20 cm x 20 mm; 22.5 cm x 22.5 cm x 22 mm.
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2. Wall tiles: These are similar to the floor tiles except for their design and degree of burning. They are burnt comparatively at a low temperature, glazed and burnt again at a still lower temperature. They can be made in different designs and colours and be built to any size. Uses: These are used on face work; to some extent on arches and for architectural ceilings, etc. 3. Drain tiles: These tiles are usually long curved sections of various shapes and sizes such as semi-circular, a segment of a circle or circular. Uses: They are generally used for draining wastewater. If they are to be employed for carrying sewage, glazed tiles should be used. 4. Glazed earthenware tiles: These tiles are of earthenware. having top surface glazed and underside unglazed so that tile may adhere properly to the base. These tiles are made in two sizes: 149 mm x 149 mm and 99 mm x 99 mm, having thicknesses 5 mm, 6 mm and 7 mm. The joint thickness is 1mm. They should not absorb more than 18 percent of water. Uses: These tiles and associated fittings are generally used for finishing the surfaces of wails and floors of water closets, bathrooms, kitchens, hospitals etc, (where cleanliness is important).
8.4 Earthenware and Stoneware Earthenware

The clay product which is manufactured from ordinary clay mixed with sand, crushed pottery. etc., by burning at low temperature is known as earthenware. The earthenwares are generally soft and porous. They are liable to damage by atmospheric action. They should not absorb water more than 18% by weight. When glazed, the earthenwares become impervious to the water and they are not affected by acids or atmospheric agencies. Uses: Earthenwares are used for making ordinary drain pipes, partition blocks and electrical cable conduits. Glazed earthenware tiles are used in finishing floors and walls of kitchens, bathrooms, water closets, hospitals, etc, where cleanliness is an important criterion.
Terra-cotta
Terra cotta is a kind of high quality earthenware which is used as a substitute for stone for ornamentation of buildings.
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Manufacture: It is made from a finely ground mixture of refractory brick clay and shale or refractory clay and impure clay which is mixed with ground brick or other burnt clay product to reduce shrinkage. It is then ground to a fine powder, put into a large water tub and thoroughly mixed with a spade. Water is then run off from the tub. This clay is thoroughly pugged when dry enough to make it fit for moulding. Moulding is done by pressing the clay carefully in moulds in a manner similar to brick moulding. After being moulded the terra-cotta pieces are slowly dried to avoid warping and burnt (in special kilns without coming in contact with fire) with utmost case to prevent distortion or discolouration by flames and gases. The maximum temperatures attained are 1100 C to 1200 C. Porous terra-cotta is made by mixing sawdust in the clay.
Advantages:
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. Can be cleaned easily. Light in weight. Strong and durable material. Available in several colours. Can be moulded into desired shapes easily. Being fireproof, it can be used with R.C.C work conveniently. Not affected by acids and atmospheric agencies Cheaper than ordinary finely dressed stones.
Uses: Used for all sorts of ornamental work, and as building material in the form of shaped blocks.
Porcelain
The term porcelain is used to indicate fine earthenware which is white, thin and semi-transparent; it is sometimes referred to as whiteware. It is prepared from clay, felspar, quartz and minerals. The constituents are finely grounded and then are thoroughly mixed in liquid state. The mixture is given the desired shape and is burnt at high temperature. The various types of porcelains available are used for various uses such as sanitary-wares, electric insulators, crucibles, reactor chambers, etc.
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Low voltage porcelain is prepared by dry process and is mainly used for lamp sockets, switch blocks, etc. High voltage porcelain is prepared by wet process.
Stoneware
It is the clay product which is manufactured from refractory clay mixed with crushed pottery, powdered stone, etc, by burning at a high temperature. The clay is prepared carefully and moulding is done accurately to the required shape. It is then dried and the material burnt in a kiln, raising the heat gradually to a high temperature and maintaining this for one to three days depending upon the size of kiln and the articles in it. The burnt stoneware is allowed to cool down gradually. It is impervious to moisture, hard, closed grained and durable The stoneware is more compact and dense than earthenware. The stonewares can be kept clean easily. When glazed, the stonewares become impervious to the water and they are not affected by acids or atmospheric agencies. Uses: These are employed for drain and sewer pipes, sanitary wares and vessels or jars to hold chemicals, etc.
8.5 Glazing
It is the process of forming some transparent film over the surfaces of bricks, tiles, earthenware or stoneware to improve upon their appearance and also to protect them from the action of weather, sewage, chemicals or other destroying agents. A glaze is a glassy coat of thickness about 0.1 to 0.2 mm applied on the surface of an item and then fused into place by burning at high temperature. Glazing should be such that it does not craze (formation of fine cracks on the surface of clay) when the article is exposed to any change of temperature. Glazing may be transparent like glass or opaque like enamels. For obtaining coloured glazes, the oxides and salts of various metals or special refractory colouring agents are added.
8.5.1 Transparent Glazing

Transparent glazing is of two types i. Salt glazing: In this method, common salt (sodium chloride) is thrown into the kiln, containing the articles to be glazed at the close of the burning operation when the temperature reaches to about 1300 degrees. The salt vaporizes and attaches itself chemically to all exposed surfaces of the clay products, thus forming a thin layer of transparent gloss over the surface. The quantity of salt and throwing at proper time
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should be done with extreme care. This method is useful for sanitary pipes and chemical stoneware. ii. Lead glazing: lead glazing is preferred to salt glazing for getting articles of better quality. In this method, hot article to be glazed is dipped in a bath containing oxide of lead and tin when particles of these materials adhere to the article dipped. The article is then withdrawn and reburnt when high temperature of the finance melts it forming a film of glass over the exposed surface. In this method of glazing, the glaze does not penetrate into the body of the ware and as a matter of fact, it can be easily detached from the surface of the ware. Uses: This method is used for terra-cotta, earthen wares and fire-clay wares.
8.5.2 Opaque Glazing or Ship Glazing

The glazing materials consist of quartz, felspar, boric oxides, oxide of tin, zinc, lead, china clay etc. A mixture of these materials is prepared and ground to fine paste (known as slip) in the presence of water. The clay product to be glazed is first dried and dipped into the slip and then fired into the furnace at a temperature of about 120 degrees. During the process of firing the composition of the glaze gets completely vitrified and forms a uniform layer over the surface of the burnt clay product. In this glazing process, burning and glazing of the clay products are simultaneously achieved. Uses: Opaque glazing is used where it is desired to give the whole or any part of the article a better appearance than that presented by the burnt material. Basins, dishes, cups, etc., are opaque glazed.
DSM/SRM/52
To study about different stones.
Stone
Structure:
9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 Introduction Classification of Rocks Characteristics of Good Building Stones Properties of Some Common Building Stones
9.1 Introduction
Stone floors include slate, granite, marble, limestone, and travertine among others. Stone is available in a variety of colors and finished in polish this requires high maintenance, has poor slip resistance, and should not be used in heavy traffic areas, especially adjacent to building entrances. All stone may be used in interior or exterior applications; however, some stone, such as slate, requires applied sealants when used indoors. Granites are very durable surfaces that can be used in most applications. Marbles range from hard to soft and are classified as such. Marbles usually require the most maintenance. The stones are derived from rocks which form the earth's crust and have no definite shape or chemical composition but are mixtures of two or more minerals. The mineral is a substance which is formed by the natural inorganic process and possesses a definite chemical composition and molecular structure. Following are some important uses of stones in Interior Designing: 1. Flooring material for residential and public buildings. 2. Construction of residential and public buildings. 3. Facework of structures where massive appearance, solidity of construction and ornamental features are the primary requirements. 4. Used as aggregate for concrete. 5. Used in the form of veneers for decorative front and interior of buildings.
9.2 Classification of Rocks

The rocks from which stones are obtained are classified in the following four ways:
a) Geological classification:
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Geologically the rocks are classified into three different types: 1. Igneous Rocks: The cooling of molten lava on or inside the earths surface during the volcanic eruption forms igneous rocks. The portion of lava, which comes outside the surface, cools quickly and forms the rock of non-crystalline nature cal1ed as Trap or Basalt. The rest of the portion which remains inside the earth undergoes cooling at a slow rate and results in formation of rock of crystal1ine variety known as Granite.
2. Sedimentary rocks: Sedimentary rocks are formed by gradual deposition of disintegrated rocks (due to the atmospheric action such as rain, wind and temperature), vegetable matter and clay at the bottom of rivers, lakes or sea. These are also called stratified because these rocks are formed in layers. Lime stone and sand stone belong to this category of rocks.
3. Metamorphic Rock: When sedimentary or even igneous rocks are subjected to great heat and pressure inside the earth, a new variety of rock is formed which is known as metamorphic rock. This change of structure is cal1ed metamorphism. For example, limestone changes to marble, slate changes to gneiss, etc.
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b) Physical classification:
The basis of this classification are physical properties of rocks, the manner and arrangement of different particles and mass forming a stone. Physically the rocks are classified as: 1. Stratified Rocks: are those which exhibit distinct layers which can be separated. The plane along which the separation of the layers can be carried out is called cleavage plane. Lime stone, slate and sandstone are the examples of this kind of rock. 2. Unstratified rocks: these do not show any sign of strata and cannot be easily split into slabs. Examples are granite, trap, marble, etc.
c) Chemical classification:
The chemical constituents of the rocks are the basis of this classification. Chemically the rocks are classified as: 1. Siliceous: In case of siliceous rocks silica is the main constituent. The silica in free state is called sand and in combined state silicate. The rocks containing silica in free form are harder, while those having silica in combined forms are likely to be disintegrated. Sand stone and quartzite are examples of siliceous rocks. 2. Argillaceous: In Argillaceous rocks clay or alumina is the main constituent. Slate, laterite, kaolin, etc., belong to this category. 3. Calcareous: these rocks have calcium carbonate or lime as their leading constituent. These rocks are readily acted upon by even dilute hydrochloric acid. Limestone and all the marbles are some of the important examples.
d) Practical classification:
Practical classification is based on the usage. Practically stones have been classed as: Granites, basalts. Laterites, marbles. limestones, sandstones, slates.
9.3 Characteristics of Good Building Stones

Stones find their applications in the construction of heavy structures such as dams, docks and harbours, weirs, bridge piers, buildings, etc. To find the suitability of stones under different conditions, the following characteristics should be considered: 1. Appearance and colour: The stones which are to be employed for decoration work should have uniform and appealing colour and should be free from flaws and clay holes. The use of stones containing too much iron should be discouraged as the formation of iron oxide disfigures them and brings about disintegration. The stones should also have the ability to receive good polish. 2. Weight: The specific gravity hence the weight of the good building stone should be high as heavier stones can resist the force of bigger magnitude. A heavy stone possesses more compactness and less porosity. 3. Porosity and absorption: Porosity (which is decided by the number of pores) exists in all the stones but if it is present in greater extent it makes the stone unsuitable for building construction because during rain, water seeping into pores contains acids and fumes
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(absorbed from atmosphere) which destroy the stone. When the climate is cold, water entering the pores may even freeze and split the stone. 4. Fineness of grain: The stones which are fine grained are suitable for moulding works. If the stones are non-crystalline they are likely to disintegrate under the action of natural agencies. 5. Compactness: Stone's durability is decided by their compactness or density of composition. A compact stone can withstand the effects of external agencies effectively. 6. Resistance to fire: For resistance against fire, the stone should have homogeneous composition and should also be free from calcium carbonate or oxide of iron. 7. Electrical resistance: The electrical resistance of a stone decreases when it gets wet. Thus to have steady and high electrical resistance, the stone must be non-absorbent like slate. 8. Strength: Stones used in the structures are usually subjected to compression; so they should have sufficient strength to cope with the requirements. Generally all the stones possess a reasonable degree of strength as far as their use in building work is concerned, but for heavy structures only those stones are suitable which have high strength comparatively. 9. Durability: A stone is more durable in case it is compact, homogeneous and free from any material affected by dilute hydrochloric and sulphuric acids. It should also have negligible water absorption. 10. Dressing: The art of shaping a stone is known as dressing. Stones should possess uniform texture and softness so that they may be easily dressed; if it is too hard, finish will be poor and dressing uneconomical. 11. Cost: The cost is an important consideration in the selection of building stone. Other things being equal the cost of a stone depends upon the ease with which it can be quarried out, the proximity of the quarry to the place of use, and the transportation facilities available. The subsequent cost of dressing a stone, before it is placed directly in the structure, should also be low. 12. Seasoning: Good stone must also be free from quarry sap. To ensure this, the stones after quarrying and dressing should be left for a period of 6 to 12 months for proper seasoning, before using in construction work.
9.4 Properties of Some Common Building Stones

1. Granite: it is an igneous rock, and its main constituents are quartz, felspar and mica. Characteristics: i. ii. iii. iv. v. Its specific gravity is 2.64 and absorption less than 1 %. It has a mottled appearance. Significantly strong and durable. Finely grained granite and takes a fine polish Crushing strength varies from 110 to 140 MN/m2.
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vi. vii. Uses: i. ii. iii. iv.
It has least fire resistance as it cracks under a strong fire. Its colour depends upon that of felspar. Fine grained granite is suitable for ornamental columns, plinth, etc., as it takes good polish. Owing to the hardness, weight and durability of granite it is considered most suitable for the construction of sea walls, light houses, bridge piers, etc. Large pieces are used as building blocks, the smaller as road metals or railway ballast and the chippings for the manufacture of concrete or artificial stone. Occurrence: Jhansi (U.P), Jabalpur (M.P.), Ajmer (Rajasthan), Dalhousie and Kangra (Himachal). The best specimens are available in Secunderabad (Andhra Pradesh). 2. Basalt or trap: It is an igneous rock (silicious variety). The main constituents are silica, alumina and felspar.
Characteristics: i. ii. iii. iv. v. Uses: i. ii. iii. Suitable for paving sets and as a road metal. Used for the manufacture of artificial stone. Used as aggregate in concrete. Very hard and tough. Heavier than granite Has greenish grey to dark grey colour. Crushing strength varies from 70 to 80 MN/m2. Specific gravity = 2.96
Occurrence: Madhya Pradesh and Deccan traps (along the western Coast) and Rajmahal trap (Bihar). 3. Slate: It is a metamorphic rock (Argillaceous variety). It is composed of alumina mixed with sand or carbonate of lime. Characteristics: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. Its specific gravity is 2.8. A good slate is hard, tough and fine grained. It has grey or dark blue colour. It can be split into thin sheets. Its crushing strength varies from 60 to 70 MN/m2. It is non-absorbent. When struck with a light hammer, it produces a sharp metallic ring.
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viii. Uses: i. ii.
Its durability is good. Used for making electrical switch boards. Because of its non-absorbent property, it is suitable for use in cisterns, urinals partitions, etc.
Occurrence: Gurgaon (Haryana), Gurdaspur (Punjab), Cuddadh (Andhra Pradesh), Chanda (Maharashtra), Chindwara (M.P.), Bijapur (Mysore), Alwar (Rajasthan), Chamba, Shimla, Kangra, (Himachal Pradesh), Baroda (Gujarat). Sandstone: It is a sedimentary rock of silicious variety. It contains sand or quartz cemented by lime, mica, magnesium, aluminium, oxide of iron or by a mixture of these materials. Sometimes fragments of limestone, mica, or felspar are also present. Characteristics: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. Uses: i. ii. The fine grained and compact variety is suitable for ashlar work, mouldings, carvings, etc. The rough and coarse-grained stone is employed for rubblework. Its structure shows sandy grains. Its usual colours are white, grey, brown, pink, etc. Its specific gravity is 2.25. Crushing strength varies from 35 to 40 MN/m2. Fine grained stones are strong and durable. The sandstone of thin-bedded variety is called flagstone. It splits easily into large slabs along the bedding. The rock composed of angular sharp edged sand grains is called grit; it is adequately strong and heavy and is used in heavy engineering works. The sand stone that can be cut easily with mallet and hammer into blocks for building is referred as free stone. Its durability depends upon the nature of cementing material. The quantity of sandstone is poor if it is porous or contains lime.
Occurrence: The best variety stones which can easily be quarried in large flawless blocks are available in Mirzapur, Chunar, Fatehpur Sikri, Gwalior (M.P), Hemanagar near Ahmedabad (Gujarat), Nag pur (Maharashtra), Kangra and Dharamsala (H.P.), Shahpur and Kasauli Rajpur, and Jabalpore, Dehri, Mandhum and Ranchi (Bihar), Cut tack and Mysore. 5. Limestone: It is sedimentary rock of calcarious variety. When in pure state it contains CaCOj but frequently is mixed with MgCOJ and small amount of silica and alumina. When both MI!CO'l and CaCO'l are present nearly in equal proportion it is known as 'Dolomite'.
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Characteristics: i. ii. iii. Its specific gravity is 2.6. It is available in brown, yellow and dark grey colours. Crushing strength = 52 MN/m2. Uses: i. ii. iii. It is used in large quantities in blast furnaces, bleaching, tanning and other industries. If compact and fine grained it may be used as stone masonry for walls and paving set in floor. It is used as road metal (when better materials like trap, basalt or granite are not available.)
Occurrence: It is found in Alwar (Rajasthah), Hoshiarpur (Punjab), Simla (H.P.), Mirzapur, Ranchi (Bihar) and Mysore, etc. 6. Marble: It is metamorphic rock of calcarious variety. It is changed from limestone. It is crystalline hard compact stone having CaCO3 as the main constituent. Characteristics: i. ii. iii. iv. v. Uses: i. ii. It can be used for carving and decoration work. It is also used for steps, wall linings, electrical switch boards, table slabs and columns. Occurrence: white marble of high purity are found in Jodhpur and Ajmer (Rajasthan) and Jabalpur (M.P). Green marble is found in Baroda (Gujarat), black marble in Jaipur and yellow stone in Jaisalmer (Rajasthan). It is available in white, yellow, grey, green, red, blue and black colours. It is very hard and takes a fine polish. Its specific gravity is 2.72. Crushing strength varies from 50 to 60MN/m2. It can be easily worked.
DSM/SRM/59

To investigate soft floor covering.
Carpets and Rugs
Structure:
10.1 10.2 10.3 Introduction Benefits of Carpets and Rugs Selecting Carpet
10.1 Introduction
Carpet is a popular floor finish that is manufactured in broadloom rolls or carpet tiles. There are two processes for constructing carpet tufting and weaving. The tufted process is more common involving yarns tufted into a backing then covering the backing with latex to secure the yarns. Woven carpet is a strong, heavy carpet in which the pile and backing yarns are woven together. Carpet, of good quality, is popular because of its durability, soft touch and appearance, and acoustic properties. It aids in sound reduction more than any other floor finish. The following apply when selecting and installing carpet: Provide reducers, metal strips, or other edging in areas where carpet abuts other floor surfaces. Patterned carpets help to mask soiling in traffic areas. Choose patterned carpets with distinguishable designs of two or more different colors. Tone on tone color combinations do not hide soil.
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10.2 Benefits of Carpets and Rugs

Carpet - nothing looks like it, feels like it or performs like it. Carpet is a key decorative and functional element in a home or business. Carpet - It just feels better.
Comfort Insulation
Carpet provides an added measure of warmth and insulation with its millions of fibres and places between them to hold warmth or to insulate against extreme heat or cold. It's warmer to sit on or work on, providing more stable temperatures for foot and leg comfort near the floor. In colder climates or seasons, it retains warm air longer, an important benefit in our energy-conscious world. In warm climates, it also insulates against invasive heat.
Aesthetics - The Foundation of Decorating

Because carpet is a foundation of decorating, covering a large quantity of the surface of our living spaces, it is an important consideration in the overall scheme of colour and texture. It can provide simplicity and casualness for softness and liveability; or it can provide pizzazz with vibrant colour and heavier textures for making a decorating "statement." Carpet can be one of the easiest ways to personalize an environment - its colour can be a neutral foundation "in the background," or it can be a vibrant focal point.
Safety from Slip/Fall

Especially for small children, seniors, and generally the entire family, safety in the home is a primary focus. We seek a stable, non-slick walking surface that prevents slips and falls and for the time when someone does trip, a surface that protects from bruises and other injuries. Carpet is great for cushioning our footsteps, minimizing slips and minimizing injuries from falls. It's hard to watch a toddler take his first steps on a cold hard floor. Carpet's softness and cushioning nature is ideal for family activity - whether it is the first steps of a toddler, the slow steps of the grandparent, or the fast action of the mother or teen-ager.
Sound Reduction Qualities of Carpet

Carpet is as Easy on Your Ears as Your Feet With the introduction of computers, speaker telephones, big screen TV's and video games, our homes have become a lot noisier. Fortunately, the solution to this problem of airborne sounds can be found right below our feet -- carpet. Carpet not only serves as a beautiful floor covering, it also provides sound insulation. Additionally, carpet creates an aesthetic ambiance conducive to lowered voices and heightened privacy. The sound-reducing qualities of carpet include: Carpet absorbs sound Recently, homebuilders have moved towards reshaping the home by combining all of the living area rooms into one big, open space. This layout promotes the family togetherness, but also creates a noisy atmosphere. With the addition of carpet, sound is absorbed rather than bounced off the floor and back onto the walls and furniture. Results from tests show that there is a pronounced "hush" in carpeted rooms. Carpet and cushion reduces noise better
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Carpet serves as an effective noise-reducer because it absorbs the sound of foot traffic within the home. These results are even more pronounced with the addition of carpet cushion. Research shows that properly specified carpet and cushion combinations produce better noise-reduction than carpet alone. Carpet cushion also increases comfort and ergonomic qualities, adds insulation, and extends the life of your carpet by protecting it against wear and tear. Carpet and cushion insulate between floors Carpet works as a sound barrier between floors by helping to block sound transmission to rooms below. Carpet and carpet cushion are especially effective in masking the "hollow" sound from foot traffic often associated with staircases.
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Resilient Floor Coverings
To consider resilient floor covering as an option for flooring.
Structure:
11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 Introduction Types and Characteristics of Resilient Floor Coverings Selecting Resilient Floor Coverings Linoleum Cork Tile Rubber Tile Asphalt Tile Plastic Floorings
11.0 Introduction
The term resilient as used here, refers to the underfoot comfort of the floor covering, its ability to recover from indentations from foot traffic and other loads of short duration. The base of the floor coverings to be discussed in this part of the text is a resilient material such as cork, asphalt, plastic, or rubber. This material is combined with a binding cement to produce the finished floor covering. The composition varies with each type of floor covering, and the particular combination of base and binder determines the characteristics of the floor covering and the area in which it should be used. At one time, resilient floor coverings were used only in kitchens and bathrooms. Today you will find the various types of these floor coverings used in every room of the home: laundry room, dining room, den, recreation room, play room, workshop, and nursery. Often you will find them in living rooms and bedroom, where with throw rugs of the right design, colour, and size, some very interesting effects can be achieved.
11.1 Types and Characteristics of Resilient Floor Coverings

There are two types of resilient floor coverings. The first and the most common consists of a finished material applied in thin sheets, strips, or small units such as squares, rectangles, and other shapes. Included in this type are asphalt, rubber, and cork tile, and linoleum. The second type consists of a mix which is troweled to a finish. In the discussions that follow, only the first type will be covered, since only that one will be of interest in decoration or redecorating. Most of the resilient floor coverings are available in a wide variety of colours and patterns, or designs, making them adaptable to just about any conceivable decor. The only exception to the available variety would be in the cork tiles, which are available only in varying shades of brown. The most important characteristics of resilient floor coverings are cleanliness and comfort. The degree of resilience and quietness varies with the thickness of the flooring, the top surface, and the base on which the surface is applied.
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11.2 Selecting Resilient Floor Coverings

In selecting resilient floor covering, you must consider the same factors that you would consider in selecting carpet-functionality, wear, cost, design, and the effect in the overall decor. Functionality is of the utmost importance. The floor covering must serve a definite purpose or it is not functional. Todays available floor coverings can be used in just about any room in the house. One or more of the available coverings are almost certain to be functional. The wear that a floor receives has a definite bearing on how long it will retain its utility and beauty. All of the coverings to be discussed in the next few pages have varying degrees of resilience. Thus, one is likely to be more suitable than the others for a particular purpose. Cork tile is the most resilient, followed by rubber tile. Asphalt tile is the least resilient, and it is apt to show marks more readily than the other materials. The resilience of the covering is closely related to its gauge, or thickness. Basically, the thicker the covering, the greater will be its resilience. The thicker covering will also be more attractive, and its comfort, value, and quietness will be greater. Cost, of course, is always important. Todays resilient floor coverings come in a wide range of prices. But bear in mind that, when all the factors are considered, the most expensive covering is usually the cheapest in the long run. Pattern, design, and colour, and their effect on the overall decor, must be given every possible consideration. The wrong pattern or the wrong colour can easily ruin the overall decor. Bold patterns can easily detract from the other furnishings by drawing to themselves more than their rightful share of eye attention. The wrong colours can do the same thing. On the other hand, the same illusionary effects obtainable with carpet and rugs are also obtainable with resilient floor coverings.
11.3 Linoleum
Of the resilient floor covering, linoleum is one of the oldest and perhaps the most commonly used. There are different kinds of linoleum and each kinds produced in various thickness. The most common of these are battleship, plain, jaspe, marbleized, inlaid, linoleum tile, and felt-base. With the exception of linoleum tile, linoleum comes in sheet form, usually in roll width that can be cut to size. Linoleums are available in wide rage of colours and patterns. It may be of interest to note that architects and contractors recommend that linoleums should not be installed on floors that are even with or below the outside landscaping, but rather only on suspended floors that are above the grading. Battleship linoleum was first manufactured in large quantities to meet United States Navy specifications for warship flooring. Normally it is produced in heavy gauge (1/8 inch thick). It comes in rolls of varying widths, and is laid in strips as wide as possible, except where joints are required for the sake of designs. It is often made in special design that include borders and strips. Although battleship linoleum is especially useful in areas of extremely heavy traffic, such as school corridors, laboratories, and offices, it is also appropriate for kitchen, bath rooms, and living rooms. Plain linoleum has the same composition and uses as battleship linoleum, but it comes in both heavy gauge and standard gauge (3/32 inch thick). Jaspe Linoleum, has the same composition and uses as plain linoleum. It is available in both heavy and standard gauges. The surface pattern of jaspe linoleum was developed so that the
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discoloration caused by dirt, slight irregularities in laying, and the monotony of a single tone would not be noticeable. Also, parts subjects to constants traffic and use do not show wear so readily. Jaspe linoleum is much used in solid colours with plain borders. Marbleized linoleum is currently popular. Marbleized linoleum gets its name form the fact that it reproduces the colours, distinctive veining, and other characteristics of marble. Marbleized linoleum has the same composition as plain and jaspe linoleums. It comes in heavy, standard, and light (1/16 inch thick) gauges. In inlaid linoleum the designs extend from the surface through to the backing. Inlaid linoleums are popular, particularly for areas of heavy traffic such as the kitchen, because no matter how much they become worn the colour and pattern remain. Embossed inlaid linoleum; the difference is that the spaces, or joints, between the designs are depressed, thus making the designs stand out. Available in all the standard gauges, embossed inlaid is used to imitate slate, tile and wood planking. Felt-base floor covering is often referred to as painted linoleum. It has a felt backing and is produced only in the very thin gauges. The design is printed on the surface only. Felt-base floor covering is used in locations where economy is the main consideration. The body and surface of individual tiles are the same as those of the regular, or roll-type, linoleums. Linoleum, tile can be better adjusted to any irregularities in the floor than can the rolltype linoleum. Most important, if and when repairs are required, a few tiles can be easily and quickly replaced. Linoleum tile is available in various colours in plain, jaspe, or marbleized surfaces, and in standard and light gauges. The usual sizes are 9 by 9 inches and 6 by 12 inches. Linoleum tile costs less than most of the other resilient floor coverings.
11.4 Cork Tile

Cork tile is made of first-quality pure cork. Its composition is the same from face to back, and it is evenly bonded with a special binder. It is accurately cut in sizes of 6 by 6, 6 by 12, 9 by 12 and 12 by 24 inches and in thicknesses of 1/8, 3/16, and 5/16 inch. There are several shades of cork tile, varying from light to dark brown. Different shades may be used together to produced interesting designs. Cork tile is the most resilient of the floor tiles. Because of its close texture, it can be readily washed. It is used primarily where people gather, such as family room, kitchen, or corridor. You should not, however, use cork in entrance halls or vestibules where the surface may be spoiled by sand and grit. Cork should never be used outdoors.
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Waxing cork tile after it is laid will increase the life of the flooring and will bring out the full beauty of the natural cork colour. Nearly all cork tile is now finished at the factory with an initial coat of wax. Cork tile can be laid on any type of suspended subfloor. It can be laid over concrete, provided the grade slopes away from the foundation of the house and the tile is laid with a waterproof adhesive.
11.5 Rubber Tile

Rubber tile is made of a rubber composition that is free of objectionable odours and contains well-dispersed reinforcing fibres and fillers. The colour and design extend through to the back of the tile, except for those tiles which are mounted on a special sponge-rubber backing. Rubber tile is made in plain and marbleized colour and in two or more tones. The choice of colours is almost as wide as that of the linoleums. The usual thicknesses of rubber tile are 1/8 and 3/16 inch, but other gauges upto 1/2 inch can be obtained for special purposes. Sizes include 6 by 6, 9 by 9, 12 by 12, and 18 by 36 inches. Special shapes for various designs can be obtained from the manufacturers. Because of its durability, its resistance to ordinary stains, such as ink and grease, and its high degree of resilience, rubber tile is particularly suitable for use in the kitchen, bathroom, and family room. It is used most widely, however, in commercial structures - banks, churches, stores offices, and reception rooms in large buildings. Rubber tile can be used on suspended subfloors; and with the proper cements it can be used on floors that are either on grade or below grade. The wiping up of spilled water or other materials is made easier by this type of floor. Most important, the resiliency of the tile makes it comfortable to walk on, while maintaining the desired quietness.
11.6 Asphalt Tile

Asphalt tile is generally composed of inert materials, such as asbestos fibre, with a natural asphalt binder and mineral pigment. The pigment provides the colour, which extends through the thickness of the tile. The usual thicknesses of asphalt tile are 1/8 and 3/16 inch, but other thickness are available, though in fewer colours. The usual size in 9 by 9 inches, but it can be had in the 18 by 24 inch size. An initial coat of wax is usually applied at the factory.
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Asphalt tile comes in a wide range of colours; it also includes many of the marbleized effects found in linoleum and rubber tile. Asphalt tile is recommended for use in basements and on grade level concrete floors, because it is not affected by dampness, and there is nothing in its composition to cause rotting or deterioration. It is resistant to fire and to heavy wear, and it will withstand the action of mild acids and alkalis. There are special grease proof types of asphalt tile for use where resistance to grease, oils, or fats must be considered. Besides basements, asphalt tile is used in a wide variety of designs and colours for such locations as corridors, kitchens, bathrooms and recreation rooms.
11.7 Plastic Floorings

A flexible plastic flooring that is composed of vinyl resins, other plastic compounds and alkali resisting pigments is made in sheet or tile form. The material is dense, resilient, and highly resistant to abrasion, grease, and solvents. The sheet form has a backing of resin-saturated felt and is slightly more than 1/16 inch thick. The tile form does not have a backing; it is accurately cut with square edges, and it comes in thickness of 1/18 and 3/32 inch. Sometimes the sheet form is cut into tile sizes. Vinyl plastic tile can withstand a furniture load of 200 pounds per square inch without being deformed in any way. In general, plastic tile should be laid only on suspended subfloors. The better quality, however, can be installed on subfloors below grade. There is a tile formed of a completely blended composition of vinyl plastic resins, asbestos fibres, and alkali-resisting pigments and fillers which is suitable for use on any type of subfloor. This vinyl asbestos tile is made in thicknesses of 1/8 and 1/10 inch. It is extremely durable and highly resistant to alkaline moisture, oil, grease, and household chemicals. Thus, vinyl asbestos tile is particularly suitable for use in kitchens. Like most tiles, plastic tile can be had in a wide range of colours and patterns.
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Summary:
Unit discussed above have notes about different floor covering their warmth, sound absorption, and definition of space. We have discussed two types of floor coverings: resilient, and soft and the factors that contribute to the life and durability of flooring. Floors such as: plastic laminate, wood, and soft coverings such as carpets and rugs.
Revision points:
Two type of floor coverings i.e. soft and resilient. Soft covering includes:- carpet and rugs and resilient floor covering includes plastic floor coverings,linoleum,rubber, asphalt etc. Soft flooring refers to carpets and rug. . Carpet is a key decorative and functional element in a home or business. Carpet is a popular floor finish that is manufactured in broadloom rolls or carpet tiles. There are two processes for constructing carpet tufting and weaving. Carpet have few beneficial point such as: - insulation, Aesthetic looks, safety from slip and fall, sound reduction quality etc. Carpets are available with different texture and pattern and with different piles. Oriental rugs are hand-woven item produced primarily in the Islamic world, although oriental rugs are also made by non-Islamic peoples in the Far East and by non-Muslim minority weavers throughout the Islamic world. Machine-made rugs of any sort are not "oriental rugs" in the established sense, but are better referred to as "oriental-design rugs." The term resilient as used here, refers to the underfoot comfort of the floor covering, its ability to recover from indentations from foot traffic and other loads of short duration.
Key words:
Carpet: - Carpet is a popular floor finish that is manufactured in broadloom rolls or carpet tiles. There are two processes for constructing carpet tufting and weaving. Cut pile: Loops are cut, leaving individual yarn tufts. Still one of today's most popular constructions, its durability is achieved with factors including the type of fibre, density of tufts, and the amount of twist in the yarn. Rugs: - Oriental rugs are hand-woven item produced primarily in the Islamic world, although oriental rugs are also made by non-Islamic peoples in the far east and by non-Muslim minority weavers throughout the Islamic world. Machine-made rugs of any sort are not "oriental rugs" in the established sense, but are better referred to as "oriental-design rugs." Resilient flooring:- The term resilient as used here, refers to the underfoot comfort of the floor covering, its ability to recover from indentations from foot traffic and other loads of short duration.
Intext questions:
1. Explain in detail the benefits of using carpets and rugs. 2. What points would you keep in mind while selecting a carpet?
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3. What are the different types of piles in carpet construction? Explain in detail with the help of sketches. 4. Discuss in detail the various fibres used in carpet manufacture. Give the advantages and disadvantages of each. 5. What are oriental carpets? Explain in detail. 6. Discuss in detail the various categories of oriental rugs. 7. Explain in detail the various types and characteristics of Resilient floor coverings. 8. What points would you keep in mind while selecting a resilient floor covering?
Terminal exercise
Students have to collect samples or pictures of floor coverings, and have to different visit a retail flooring stores of their areas and Illustrate how size illusion can be created by the choice of flooring. and the effect of using one colour and one type of flooring in all rooms vs. a different colour and texture in each room of the house. Compare costs of various types of floorings which includes soft and resilient floor coverings.
Assignments/learning activities
Students have to complete an assignment in which they will List up all the advantages and disadvantages of two types of floorings:-soft and resilient flooring. Discuss the various kinds of materials, fiber content and construction, and the suitability of each. With proper samples and written report.
Supplementary material/suggested reading

1. Time Savers Standards for Interior Design and Space Planning 2. Building construction by sushil kumar
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Unit III
Textiles and Fabrics in Interiors
Lesson -12: Fabric Construction and Fibres Lesson -13: Vegetable Fibres Lesson -14: Man-Made Fibres Lesson -15: Upholstery Materials
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Fabric Construction and Fibres
To examine the role of textiles and fabrics in interiors.
Structure:
12.1 12.2 Introduction Animal Fibres 12.2.1 Wool 12.2.2 Mohair 12.2.3 Silk
12.1 Introduction
Any woven fabric, whether it is hand-made or manufactured on any particular type of loom, has at least a warp and a weft (alternatively known as woof). There may be further elaborations, which will be explained later, but these are the two basic requirements with which to form any fabric material. The warp is the lengthwise yarn or series of yarns that interlace with the weft yarns that go across the width of the material. The warp should always be the stronger, although a reasonable balance should be maintained. Yarns are made up of fibres that are animal, vegetable, and man-made or a combination of these. Fibres all have certain natural properties and have to go through different processes before being spun into yarn. These processes therefore are very important for classification, purification and special treatments to ensure that the particularly desired results are obtained as far as possible. Special treatments are also carried out at later stages, during the spinning, weaving or even dyeing stages, as we shall see later.
12.2 Animal Fibres

12.2.1 Wool Wool is strong and, being among the most resilient of all the fibres, resists abrasive wear and is suitable for carpets and upholstery. Its quality depends on the original raw material obtained from various species of sheep, and the longer the fibre the coarser the wool. Lengths vary from 1.5" - 15" (3.75cms - 37.5cms), with Merino from Australia and South Africa being the finest, with most 'crimps' per inch. The East Indian or Scottish Black Face is tougher and coarser and particularly suitable for carpets. Moquette, a distinctly textured upholstery material, is traditionally all wool, as clothes do not become shiny on contact. Sometimes, however, cotton is used for the cheaper varieties.
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The most important of the fibres of animal origin wool is the hair of the sheep (Ovis ales). The characteristics of wool fibres differ depending on the breed and general condition of the sheep. Wool, the hair of various breeds of sheep, is a warm springy fibre. Its scaly structure led in the past to unwanted felting (matting of fibres) and shrinkage in laundering but modern finishing treatments have now overcome these difficulties; similarly, attack by the clothes moth is no longer a problem. Wool has a natural crimpiness, which gives it good elasticity, bulk, crease-resistance and durability. Its strength when wet is less than when it is dry. Important properties of wool are a dry strength of 11.5 to 13 cN/tex, a breaking elongation of 30 to 40% and a moisture regain of 16 to 18%. Technologically, the diameter, or fineness, of the wool fibre is probably the most important property. It is determined to a large extent by the grade assigned to a lot, or batch, of wool. Diameters range from 16 microns in the finest Merinos to over 40 microns in the coarsest longwool types. Staple length generally increases with increasing fibre diameter, ranging from four to eight centimetres for fine Merino up to 35 centimetres for coarse Cotswold wool. Staple length is lower than mean fibre length because of the crimp that results in a helical configuration in an individual fibre and an uni-planar wave in the staple. All wool initially contains impurities. Collected dust, dirt and grease from the sheep's pores make up about half the weight of the fleece, and therefore the raw wool has to be cleaned, scoured and sorted into grades of length and quality. Steeped in diminishing solutions of soda, ash and soap and finally warm water, wool in this form can be spun into woollen or Worsted. Both woollen and Worsted (named after the town in Norfolk that introduced the original weave) are of wool fibres spun on machines in the same way as flax, cotton and other fibres, but are classified as such because woollen fibres lie in all directions, thereby giving a coarser, rougher finish, while Worsted fibres lie parallel and are more carefully selected since it is necessary to have long fibres to twist tightly into a fine yarn.
12.2.2 Mohair
Mohair from the Angora goat, has fibres similar to wool except that the 'scales' are smoother, giving a silky, lustrous fibre from 4" - 15" (10cms - 37.5cms) in length. Since it needs mothproofing (as does wool), proprietary chemical brands are usually used by the manufacturer to deal with this. It is excellent for plush pile fabrics (see later) that depend on sheen to impart a feeling of richness, opulence and quality. Students Reference Material DSM/SRM/72
12.2.3 Silk
Silk is the only natural fibre obtained in a continuous filament, so the 'fibre' definition is not strictly accurate except when the 'left-overs' are reduced to a staple (standard) length of 3" (7.5cms) and then spun as for wool, the resulting material then being known as spun silk. Very lustrous and able to preserve its elasticity due to its structure, it is very expensive and tends to be used only in exclusive contracts. It burns with an unsteady, flickering flame, leaving a crushable cinder. Afterwards there is a smell like burning hair, which indicates its difference from rayon or nylon, which are also continuous but man-made filaments. In Old English, silk was sioloc. The name is thought to have originated from the Greek seres, meaning the people from Eastern Asia i.e. the Chinese. The term sericulture derives from this Greek root. Silk has a long and fascinating history, starting over 4000 years ago with the development by the Chinese of the art of rearing silkworms to make a textile fibre. Since that time silk has remained highly valued for its luxurious qualities but, because its main uses have been in very expensive apparel and other luxury goods, demand has been considerably more variable than for many other fibres. There are several species of silk producing worms but most of the worlds silk results from the worm of the moth Bombyx mori which lives exclusively on the leaves of Morus alba the white mulberry tree. Other silkworms include the wild or semi-wild varieties, such as Atlas, Eri, Tussah and Muga, which are found mainly in India and Asia. The silkworms are reared in large numbers at silk farms, where plantations of bush-like mulberry trees are cultivated to provide leaves which are fed to the worms in special rearing rooms. From the day it hatches to the time it stops feeding, a period of 25 to 30 days, the worm gains in weight about 10,000 times. During this time it eats some 22g of leaves and converts more than 70% of its intake of nitrogenous material into silk. To produce 1kg of raw silk about 6.25 kg of fresh cocoons are necessary, while for raising 6.25 kg of cocoons about 104 kg of mulberry leaves containing 26 kg of solid matter are required. On average 75% of the fresh green cocoon, by weight is chrysalis. The outer layer of floss and the inner layer are collected as silk waste and used in spun silk manufacture. Wild silks such as Tussah are also generally used for spun silk as the cocoons are seldom in a reelable condition. Tussah, a kind of wild silkworm, comes in two varieties monovoltine and bivoltine. It lives and multiplies wherever oak trees or leaves of the Mongolian oak, rubber trees or Chinese toon trees are available. There is one main type of tussah silkworm, Antheraea pernyi, and one general type of oak tree on which it feeds, Quercus serrata.
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Silk is a fairly strong fibre and although it does not compare with nylon and polyester in this respect its strength makes it suitable for use in sewing thread in high quality articles, particularly those made from silk. Silk absorbs more moisture from the surrounding air than do most of the synthetic fibres, and this property confers considerable advantages; it prevents a clammy feeling where fabric is in contact with the skin, since moisture can be absorbed without the fibre becoming noticeably damp, and transmitted through the material and into the atmosphere. Silk has a fairly high natural resistance to creasing. Attempts to improve on this and also to apply easy-care treatments have not been very successful, as they impair the unique handle, or feel, of silk which is one of its most valuable properties. The environmental impact of silk processing is relatively minor in its initial stages when compared to cotton or wool. The cocoons are cooked to kill off the insects and then the fibre is washed in synthetic detergents to remove most of the sericin (gum) in readiness for dyeing. Subsequent processing, through spinning, weaving, dyeing and finishing have an impact on the environment similar to most of the other fibres. Noise and dust is produced in weaving and a complex effluent with variable BOD/COD, pH and solids content is produced in finishing. Most silk comes from China, Japan, India and Italy, and is unfortunately produced by the mass destruction of silk moth larvae (silkworms), whose sad contribution to the worlds of fashion and interior design is due to the fact that they spin cocoons of particularly fine quality. The process of sericulture involves the moth larvae being killed by heat before breaking out of the cocoon, which is softened in water and has some gum removed. While in the hot water tank several perfect filaments are taken from each and brought together through a guide. Half a dozen or so filaments are then reeled together and given a slight twist to form silk yarn by a complicated process called throwing.
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Vegetable Fibres
To describe the types of fabrics used in interiors.
Structure:
13.1 Introduction 13.2 Flax 13.3 Cotton 13.4 Jute
13.1 Introduction
Yarns are made up of fibres that are animal, vegetable, man-made or a combination of these. Fibres all have certain natural properties and have to go through different processes before being spun into yarn. These processes therefore are very important for classification, purification and special treatments to ensure that the particularly desired results are obtained as far as possible. Special treatments are also carried out at later stages, during the spinning, weaving or even dyeing stages, as we shall see later. Vegetable fibres are those fibres which are obtained from natural resources like plants, vegetables etc.
13.2 Flax
Flax is the strongest natural fibre known, and is used to produce linen. Smooth and straight, it is very resistant to dirt and abrasion. It has a natural lustre but not much resilience, and therefore needs processing to improve its tendency to creasing. As it dries quickly and is stronger wet than dry, it is therefore good for loose covers as it stands up to laundering. Its dimensional stability, however, depends on the weave. Flax is the most important of the bast fibres in textile use. The fibres occur in the stem of the flax plant (Linum usitatissimum) where they are grouped in some 30 bundles round a woody core. The word flax is derived from the Old English fleax. The Teutons referred to it as flakso, coming from the Teutonic root fleh, to plait. The term flax is applied to fibre and yarn, whilst the name for the sewing threads and fabrics is linen.
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Each bundle contains 10 to 14 individual fibres, on average 20 to 30mm in length and 15 to 20mm in diameter. After retting, the fibre bundles are separated from the cortex and woody tissue by scutching, which is a mechanical process. A certain amount of cortical tissue is left adhering to the fibre bundles and gives the characteristic colour to the raw flax strands. About 80% of the total world flax crop is grown in the former USSR and other Eastern bloc countries, whilst France, Belgium and Holland are the main flax-growing countries in Western Europe. Flax fibre is stronger than cotton. It readily absorbs moisture (12% moisture regain) and so is extensively used in the towel trade; this property also contributes to the comfort of linen clothing. Chemically, the flax polymer is the same as the cotton polymer; both are cellulose polymers. Physically, the flax polymer differs from the cotton polymer, in that it has a degree of polymerisation of about 18000. This means the flax polymer is made up of about 18000 celloboise units. It is about 18000 nm long and about 0.8 nm thick. This makes it the longest known, linear textile polymer. The polymer system of flax is more crystalline than that of cotton. Flax fibres therefore tend to be stronger, crisper and stiffer to handle, and textile materials of linen wrinkle more readily than those of cotton fibres. Flax is grown in very densely planted fields to draw the height of the stem up to 3' (90cms), and then pulled by hand. Sometimes fibres are drawn through hot water to soften the natural gum that binds them, when the strands become like flaxen hair after the woody part has been 'scutched' (beaten until it falls away).
13.3 Cotton
Cotton fibres are the seed hairs of the plant Gossypium. They are usually off-white in colour although some varieties have been bred to incorporate a natural colour. Each fibre is formed by the elongation of a single cell from the surface of the seed. The word cotton is derived from its Arabic name pronounced kutan, qutn or qutan depending on the dialect. Under a microscope, a cotton fibre appears as a very fine, regular fibre, looking like a twisted ribbon or a collapsed and twisted tube. These twists are called convolutions. Almost half of the worlds requirements for textile fibres are met by cotton. It is grown in many parts of the world where a hot dry climate is to be found, the main producers being USA, the former USSR, China, India, Egypt, Africa and South America. Cotton consists typically of between 88 to 96% cellulose with the rest being protein, pectic substances (congealed gum-like carbohydrates), ash and wax. After scouring and bleaching, cotton is then about 99% cellulose. The fibres are weakened and destroyed by acids but are resistant to alkalis.
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The fibre length varies with the type and quality, within the range 10 to 65mm; the fibre diameter ranges from 11 to 22 m. Cotton is a relatively strong fibre with a strength of 25 to 35 cN/tex and a breaking elongation of 7 to 9%. It is stronger when wet. Cotton also absorbs moisture readily, which makes cotton clothes comfortable to wear in warm weather (water retention of 50%, moisture regain of 7%). Cotton fibre burns readily and is not inherently resistant to oxidising agents, and biodegradation, as well as acids. Despite these shortcomings cotton has a good wear life. Its properties can also be readily modified by chemical finishes which provide enhanced performance, e.g. crease resistance and flame resistance. It is used in both 100% form and in blends with other fibres for household textiles and apparel. Synthetic fibres have largely replaced its use in industrial textiles. Cotton is by far the most popular fibre in use today, at least in terms of volume of production. The most widely used class of dyestuff on cotton are reactive dyes, which unfortunately are also the most poorly exhausted, producing a more coloured effluent. Colour consents on discharges have therefore been enforced in certain areas where there are significant numbers of cotton dyers. Cotton is warmer than linen because of its slight hairiness, although it has a limper handle (simply its feel when handled). Long fibres are used to produce strong materials, it has a good affinity for dyes, and can be Mercerized to give a sheen. Cotton has a natural twist, and the short fibres, compressed and not spun, can be used as a backing in textural fabrics. These short fibres lack strength and can only be used in the weft, held firmly or closely woven with other weft yarns. The material thus produced has little resistance to abrasion, but is often of noticeable interest due its coarseness. Short fibres can also be used to make cotton felt for bedding and upholstery.
13.4 Jute
Jute is not resistant to abrasion and does not drape at all well. It is used mostly with other fabrics for backing to linos and carpets since it makes a very coarse fabric. It is little used now for anything other than utility purposes, although is still seen stretched onto backing board for exhibition and museum display backgrounds, and occasionally used in upholstery techniques. It is usually easily recognized, having a coarse appearance and a 'sacking' type smell.
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Man-Made Fibres
To describe the types of fabrics used in interiors.
Structure:
14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 Introduction Acrylic Rayon Viscose Polyester Nylon Polythene
14.1 Introduction
Fibres once chemically treated whether its animal or vegetable fibre called man made fibres example: -acrylic, rayon, viscose etc. The term acrylic is derived from the Latin word acryl meaning bitter, pungent or irritating, and is descriptive of the compound, acrylic acid. Acrylonitrile is chemically related to acrylic acid and the term acrylic is short for polyacrylonitrile.
14.2 Acrylic
Research to develop synthetic fibres of the acrylic type was under way in the early 1940s, chiefly at the DuPont laboratories in the USA. In 1948 the trade name Orlon was announced. As produced initially, Orlon was characterised by high tenacity, rivalling nylon and polyester fibres, but it was extremely difficult to dye. The reason was that the first type of Orlon consisted of a homopolymer of acrylonitrile which does not take up dyestuffs. By 1952 a new way was found to exploit acrylonitrile by adding a second molecular constituent to the polymer chain, so forming a co-polymer. The nature and proportion of the second component used is rarely discussed but a large number of co-polymers have been described in the patent literature. Vinyl acetate, vinyl chloride, methyl acrylate and 2-vinyl-pyridine are among the monomers which are probably used commercially. The co-polymer fibres were found to be pleasantly soft, in fact more wool-like than any other synthetic fibre. Also their chemical structure could be designed to enable them to dye like wool.
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Eventually more success resulted from modifying monomers to make the fibre dye with basic and disperse dyes. Production of acrylic fibre is a complex process, requiring advanced engineering and control systems. In Western Europe acrylic fibre has been very popular; however, on a world basis nylon and especially polyester are ahead of acrylic fibres in production. The mechanical properties of acrylic fibres are modest when compared with fibres like nylon and polyester. The fibre strength is often only half that of nylon, but the breaking extension is usually so high at about 40% that this gives a relatively tough fibre. Acrylic fibres are easy to bend and deform, and recover well, although less well than nylon. However, the soft open structure of many of the products made from acrylic fibres is helpful in avoiding the incidence of sharp creases. Acrylic fibres are not affected by humid air but soften and weaken in hot water so that washing in mild conditions is recommended. Acrylic fibres are generally resistant to chemicals and are used for some types of protective clothing. The fibres are quite resistant to acids and most types of common organic solvent. They generally have good resistance to oxidising agents but are discoloured by alkalis. Moths, carpet beetles and mildew are resisted by the fibre, causing at most only superficial harm. As with the other major synthetic fibres, acrylonitrile the base component for acrylic fibre is a product of the petroleum industry. Another example of a nonrecoverable and dwindling resource being used to produce, what has become, an important textile. In the production of the fibre from the polymer, solvents are used to dissolve the polymer prior to extrusion and spinning, this differs from the production of polyester and nylon fibre which is melt spun.
14.3 Rayon
Rayon comes in viscose and acetate varieties, both being derived from spruce pulp and other alternative materials such as cotton linctus.
14.4 Viscose
Viscose fibres together with acetate fibres represent manmade fibres made from cellulosic (wood pulp) sources. These fibres were developed around 1900. Viscose is stronger than acetate and is therefore suitable for upholstery, although linings should still be used. Acetate, which has a softer handle, is sheer to look at and resembles pure silk; but generally it should only be used for curtains and bed covers. It is not very resistant to sun and therefore needs
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care in positioning. Since both viscose and acetate lose strength when wet, areas in which they would soil quickly need to be avoided to save constant laundering.
There are two other man-made regenerated fibres, namely cuprammonium and modal (polynosic). Standard-type viscose fibres have moderate strength and are relatively stiff compared with fibres such as cellulose acetate and nylon. Strength is reduced in wet conditions, so that heavy duty end uses would not be expected. Viscose is a limp handling fibre because its polymer system is so very amorphous. Its polymers are not sufficiently long for a more satisfactory alignment, and so do not allow the formation of more hydrogen bonds which would result in a more rigid polymer system and thus a crisper handle to the fibre and textile. The very amorphous polymer system of viscose, as well as its polar polymers, make viscose the most absorbent fibre in common use. The slightly more crystalline polynosic rayon is somewhat less absorbent than viscose. As would be expected, viscose and the other regenerated cellulosics have somewhat similar thermal and chemical properties to cotton. However, the shorter polymers and the very amorphous nature of regenerated fibres are responsible for their much greater sensitivity to acids, alkalis, bleaches, sunlight and the weather. Whereas all fibre making processes are governed largely by their inherent costs and the utility of the product, three additional factors assume great importance; raw material supply, energy requirements, and environmental impact of the production process. The use of raw material, wood pulp, in the viscose process means that a renewable resource is involved, and this is produced from softwoods growing in northern latitudes on land unusable for other forms of agriculture, or from hardwoods growing at a phenomenal rate in sub-tropical areas. The production time of 10 to 20 years for wood compares with 100 million years for the nonrenewable fossil fuels such as oil used as feedstock for synthetic polymer production. Further, the use of wood pulp for the viscose process is only a small fraction of total pulp usage, and in general pulp production keeps up with demand. Other materials required for the viscose process are caustic soda, sulphur chemicals and salts, and these are in abundant supply. The considerable pollution of air, watercourses, and land associated with older viscose plants, and current health fears over carbon disulphide air pollution, have been significant problems. Technological advances are however, making possible complete recovery and recycling of many chemical materials used in the process.
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In general, the status and prospects for continuous filament viscose have declined and there were many plant closures in the 1970s. However, the fact that the source of raw material is renewable, and the desirable properties of the product in which comfort and moisture are prominent, point to a more promising future. Problems with relatively high energy costs and high manpower requirements are still being investigated to ensure investment in viscose plant. Rayons tend to shrink and therefore ample hems should be specified to allow for this eventuality. There is also a problem with too high temperatures since viscose rayon can stand boiling water and hot irons, whereas acetate rayons would melt under these conditions. Nevertheless they do comprise a very useful and comprehensive group of textiles, being available in all kinds of weaves and fibre combinations to produce practically any type of material required. To identify continuous filament rayon, the yarn should be rubbed between the fingers, when the fibres separate into fine and continuous 'hairs'. The material drapes well and is resistant to moths, rot and mildew.
14.5 Polyester
Polyester is one of the major synthetic fibres. Its name must be familiar to most shoppers; 100% polyester is seen often on the labels of ladies and mens outerwear, while the blend polyester/cotton is very common in shirts and bed sheets. Another very common blend, polyester/wool is popular in dress fabrics and mens suits. There are a number of reasons for this wide use of polyester. Most important are its properties of easy care and toughness, while its relatively low price obviously has a marked influence on its universal acceptance.
The raw material for the production of polyester is oil. Polyester is similar to nylon in many respects in that fibres formed from both of them are strong with high abrasion resistance and low moisture absorption. They are also resistant to rot and chemicals and can be set into shapes by the application of heat. Polyester, however, even with the possible disadvantage of its later commercial development, has become probably the most important synthetic fibre. This has happened because of relatively slightly but important differences in its properties compared with those of other synthetics, and production costs lower than those of nylon.
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One of the most important properties of the fibre is its resistance to stretching. The handle or feel of the fabric is more influenced by the modulus of the fibres i.e. their resistance to small extensions and bending. The modulus of polyester is about double that of nylon, which tends to give fabrics containing polyester a crisper handle and good dimensional stability. The ability of polyester fabrics, after heat setting, to retain a flat shape by shedding accidental creases but also to retain pleats and fashion creases set into the fabric is a major advantage. Because of its high melting point polyester has good thermal stability. It softens at about 200 C and will not easily burn. Unless supported in a fabric by another fibre it will melt away from heat rather than burst into flame. At a temperature of 150 C it retains about 50% of its tenacity and has good long term resistance to heat in the absence of strong chemicals. Polyesters easy care properties are helped by a very low value of moisture absorption. Under normal atmospheric conditions it absorbs only about 0.4% water compared with 4% for nylon and 7% for cotton. Its strength is little affected when wet and it also has the added advantage of drying very quickly. World production figures illustrate the dominance of polyester as the current main synthetic fibre. In 1970 nylon had the highest production value of all synthetics, at a level of 40%, with polyester second at 34%. Since 1975, however, when nylon had fallen to 33% and polyester had passed it to a level of 45%, polyester continued to grow on a percentage basis so that in 1998 it had reached 58% of world synthetic fibre production, mainly at the expense of nylon, which had fallen to less than 15% (acrylics account for most of the remaining production). These changes occurred at a time when production shifted from the USA and Western Europe to developing countries, which now produce the lions share of polyester fibre. The environmental impact of the production of polyester is relatively small, or at least looks that way, since the polymer once formed is just heated until molten before being formed into fibres with no effluent being produced. However, other factors such as high energy consumption, and process emissions generated in both the production of the constituent chemicals and polymer have also to be considered. The oil required for all of this process being a non-recoverable resource. It can therefore be argued that the production of polyester, and indeed any other synthetic fibre where the polymer is generated from petroleum, is not sustainable. In terms of the world consumption of chemical feedstock then the production of man-made fibres, of which polyester is the greatest, accounts for about 5% of the total. When dyeing polyester, dye carriers are required to help achieve complete dye penetration. Many of these chemicals tend to be toxic in nature and some are carcinogenic. Those with a higher risk have already been effectively banned from use. The setting of synthetics such as polyester, produces a characteristic blue stenter haze from the oils being driven off the fabric. The emissions from this process can be quite odorous and so textile finishers are finding that local authorities are insisting that abatement systems are installed to remove the fume.
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14.6 Nylon
Nylon is suitable for most textiles, at least as an additive, including carpets and upholstery fabrics, having great strength and resistance to abrasion as we have already seen. It is easy to clean and, although slightly less strong when wet, is crease-proof and vermin-proof, and will not catch fire even though it melts in flame. Plenty of allowance should be made when making up curtains etc. since it has a tendency to fray; but the earlier difficulties concerning the build-up of static electricity, especially in carpets, have been largely eliminated. Nylon stockings were first shown to the public by the American Dupont company at the New York Worlds Fair in 1939. Using phrases like as strong as steel and as fine as a spiders web to help describe the sheer but tough properties of these new silk like but affordable stockings a huge demand was soon generated. The nylon developed by Dupont is formed by the thermal polycondensation of hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid. This is called nylon 6.6. The properties that ensured the early success of nylon, and which maintain their continued success; are that it is very strong (weight for weight stronger than steel wire), it is very tough, it has outstanding abrasion resistance, its recovery from stretch is better than that of most other fibres, and it can be spun as fine as silk. In addition to its high breaking strength nylon stretches appreciably before it breaks so that a lot of energy is expended before rupture. This makes nylon suitable for use in ropes, harnesses, arresting cables and parachute fabric. Coupled with its low retention of water after spin drying (about 15%, compared with 50% for cotton and 44% for wool) and its ability to shed accidental creases easily, especially when damp, it is very easy to launder, much reducing the domestic wash-day burden. Any fibre that has exceptional strength and toughness, that can be dyed to bright colours, and can be spun as fine as silk obviously has a wide range of uses. Most of the environmental problems associated with polyester also apply to the production of nylon. The main difference being that nylon can be dyed using acid and metal complex dyes as well as the disperse dyes which are used solely on polyester fibres.
14.7 Polythene
Polythene (polyethylene) and P.V.C. (polyvinyl chloride) are durable and easy to clean but, while having a certain amount of decorative quality, need care in detailing to make the most of their appearance.
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Summary:
This unit gives u ideas such as: Fabric structure, Type of fibre, Colour, texture and pattern, effect of light, heat and maintenance. Various types of fabrics like animal, vegetable and man made fabrics and give a description for each.
Revision points:
Various types of fabrics like animal, vegetable and man made fabrics and give a description for each. The advantages and disadvantages of the types of fibres and where they are used etc.
Key words:
Weave: - Any woven fabric, whether it is hand-made or manufactured on any particular type of loom, has at least a warp and a weft (alternatively known as woof) is called weave. Warp and weft: - The warp is the lengthwise yarn or series of yarns that interlace with the weft yarns that go across the width of the material. Vegetable fibres: - Vegetable fibres are those fibres which are obtained from natural resources like plants, vegetables etc Animal fibres:- are those fibres which we obtain from animals like wool we obtain from sheep, silk from silkworms. Man made fibres:- fibres once chemically treated are called man made fibres example:acrylic,rayon,viscose etc.
Intext Question:
i. ii. iii. iv. v. What is a weave? Explain in detail Discuss in detail the various types of animal fibres used for fabric construction. Discuss in detail the various types of vegetable fibres used for fabric construction. Discuss in detail the various types of man-made fibres used for fabric construction. How important is it for an Interior Designer to have a thorough knowledge of fabrics and textiles? Explain with the help of examples.
Terminal Exercise:
i. ii. iii. iv. The students should collect sample of the following Vegetable fibers: cotton, jute etc. Animal fibers: wool, silk, leather etc. Man made fibers: nylon, rayon, etc. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the types of fibers and where they are used.
Assignment/ Learning Activities:

List the factors involved in the choice of fabric finishes in interiors. Discuss factors such as: personal tastes, cost, use of the room, desired effect, size and shape of the room, maintenance, ease and cost of installation, decorative theme. Examine the texture, colour, scale, and line of sample fabric to determine the effect created in a room.
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Supplementary Material/ Suggested Reading:

i. ii. iii. iv. Manufacturers Details Engineering materials (Surendra Singh) Relevant I.S.Codes Building Construction (Mackay, 4 Volumes)
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Lesson - 15 Objective:
: Upholstery Materials
To identify the types of fabrics used as upholstery material in interiors and choosing between various materials, styles and patterns, maintenance & care.
Structure:
15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8 Introduction Fibre Content Construction Colour Fastness Texture Wearability and Functionality Pattern Upholstery Fabrics 15.8.1 Brocade 15.8.2 Brocatel 15.8.3 Damask 15.8.4 Cretonee 15.8.5 Chintz 15.8.6 Tapestry 15.8.7 Jacquard fabrics 15.8.8 Denim 15.8.9 Linen 15.8.10Speciality fabrics 15.8.11Plastic and leather 15.8.12Velvet Inner Construction of Upholstered Furniture
15.9
15.1 Introduction
Upholstery fabric may be defined simply as a material used on furniture. The choice of material, however, should never be haphazard. In a well-planned decor, the upholstery material attains untold importance; its importance can never be overstressed. Your choice of material can actually enhance the overall decor, or it can ruin it. In choosing upholstery material, there are certain factors, or points, which you should consider very carefully. Among these are such items as fibre content, construction, colourfastness, texture, wearability, functionality, and pattern.
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15.2 Fibre Content

Years ago all fabrics were of cotton, wool, or silk, or of one of the many bast fibres, that is, fibres made from the stems of certain plants, such as hemp and jute. However, drastic changes have taken place in the last 20 to 30 years. Cotton, called the king of fibres, remains the most used of all fibres. Wool is still in great demand. Silk, once a widely used fibre for every kind of fabric, has all but priced itself out of the consumer market. This does not mean that silk goods are no longer available. Silk has retained its title as queen of fibres, but the price of silk prohibits its use for any but the most luxurious of fabrics. It is used in those fabrics where its characteristics - fineness, strength, and lustre - are highly desired by the consumer. Most luxurious silk goods today are priced beyond the means of the average family. The advent of the synthetic, or man-made, fibres has brought about the drastic changes just mentioned. Rayon was first introduced to the consumer in the early thirties. It was developed as a replacement for silk, and at times was erroneously called artificial silk, the term proved to be wrong; rayon never achieved any resemblance to silk. But new uses were found for the fibre, causing its importance to increase by leaps and bounds. Its price, quite comparable to that of cotton, was the reason. Today, rayon is still unexcelled for many purpose, and it is used extensively in all types of materials. After rayon came acetate, nylon, Orlon, Dacron, Kodel, Arnel, Acrilan, and on, to a list of some 40 to 50 different fibres, each of which has characteristics that make it applicable to specific uses. Acetate and nylon are perhaps the best known of the newer synthetics. Acetate gives a crisp hand, or feel, to fabrics, a characteristic long desired for certain uses but previously unattainable without special chemical finishes. Nylon, of course, is best know for its strength and elasticity. Today, you will find fabrics made with just about every known synthetic. The synthetics are also often used in blends with the natural fibres. As an example, a fabric made with wool and nylon will be far stronger than the same fabric made only with wool. Other blends are also used. In the years to come there will undoubtedly be countless other synthetics made available. Perhaps some day the chemists and research organisations will develop a replacement for cotton.
15.3 Construction
All upholstery materials, excepting the leathers, imitation leathers, and plastics, are woven on power looms. For that reason, the construction of the material becomes important. No matter what fibres were used in making the material, the material is poor if it is not constructed properly. Beware of any material that appears to be loosely woven; this is an indication of poor wearing qualities. Fabrics with loose, straggly appearing yarns should be avoided. A wellconstructed fabric will always be firm and will always serve the purpose for which it was intended.
15.4 Colour Fastness

Once a highly troublesome characteristic in fabrics, colourfastness is achieved today in practically all of them. Methods of dyeing and printing have been improved to such an extent that a fabric dyed and guaranteed colourfast will generally be just that. Here again, however, the reliability of the dealer becomes important.
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Colourfastness is essential in upholstery fabrics, especially where the furniture is exposed to sunlight. When fastness is assured, the colour retains its brightness; the colour will not fade and become dull.
15.5 Texture
Texture is very important today. The wide range of available textures in upholstery fabrics gives the decorator the opportunity to achieve the desired effects in the decor. You can actually perform what might be called miracles, simply by taking advantage of the possibilities offered by fabric of the right texture. One point you must bear in mind though - the texture of the upholstery material, as well as that of the drapery material, must agree with the mood and style of the room. In other words, if you decorate with period furniture, the upholstery material must conform to the same period. Although variety in texture is permissible, extremes must be avoided. Cottons are popular with homely country styles and with Early American and simple French styles, Elegant Georgian furnishings call for shinny fabrics, such as satins and brocades. Nubby, rough textures go best with modern furniture.
15.6 Wearability and Functionality

Although colour and pattern often predominate over wearability and functionality, these last qualities are extremely important. As was said previously, tightly woven fabrics always wear better than loosely woven ones. Bear in mind also that flat fabrics, such as satin, brocatel, and brocade, will not wear as well as frieze, a pile fabric with uncut loops, and other similar fabrics. Nylon fabrics or fabrics containing nylon in proper percentage will generally outwear similar fabrics made with other fibres. Functionality is essential, that is, the fabric must be suitable for use as upholstery. You certainly would not think of using broadcloth as upholstery; it just would not serve the purpose intended.
15.7 Pattern
The decision as to whether to use a pattern or to purchase upholstery fabric without a pattern depends primarily on how much pattern is already used in the room. The rules to follow are simple. If there are patterns in the rug or wall, there should not be any pattern the upholstery material or in the draperies. Appropriate texture can be used to advantage in these instances, but patterns should be avoided. On the other hand, if the room appears to be dull or drab, it can be made interesting and colourful through the use of patterned upholstery and drapery materials. In choosing a suitable pattern, bear in mind that large patterns will tend to distract; it is much more appropriate to choose a small pattern that will blend into the overall decor effectively without drawing too much attention to itself. A large room can accommodate pattern design. In a small room it is usually best to limit pattern design to one or, at the most, two areas, or to stay entirely with solid colours. Small floral and fruit designs are popular for Early American decors; pastoral scenes, scrollwork and floral designs are associated with French styles stripes and leaf designs go with classical decors.
15.8 Upholstery Fabrics

The following list of upholstery fabrics by no means complete, but it does include the more important fabrics. There is a brief description for each.
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15.8.1 Brocade.
The name brocade very likely comes from the Spanish Brocade, which is derived from the Latin Brocade, which means to figure. The fabric is characterised by a compact background with embossed or embroidered effects used in construction to make the motif or figure. Motifs may be flowers, foliage, scrollwork, pastoral scenes, or other designs. Brocade is used extensively for curtains, pillows, and upholstery.
15.8.2 Brocatel.
This fabric is recognised by its smooth raised figure. True brocatel is a double cloth made of silk and linen, but rayon replaces silk in the present day material. While classed as a flat fabric, brocatel shows patterns which stand out in high relief, a sort of blistered effect.
15.8.3 Damask.
Another figure fabric, damask is made on the intricate Jacquard loom. It is one of the oldest and most popular staple cloths found today. Made with all known fibres, it belongs to the same group of fabrics as brocade, brocatel, and Jacquard. Elaborate designs are possible in this fabric. Damask has a high lustre, as evidenced by the fabric when used for tablecloths and napkins. It is very durable and its price varies over as great a range as any fabric possibly could, from cheap to very costly.
15.8.4 Cretonee.
This is another staple cloth always in demand for many uses. As with damask, the price and quality vary considerably. The background of cretonne is often such that the entire surface is covered with design. Much foreign matter, such as pieces of leaves and twigs, is seen in this fabric when it is made of cotton, but this matter is not considered detrimental to the cloth; in fact, it seems to add to the appearance and tone of the finished goods. Printed cretonne has no lustre. The fabric is strong, stout, and substantial, and it provides good wear. All types of designs are used.
15.8.5 Chintz.
Chintz is a glazed fabric, generally made of cotton, often printed with gay figures and large floral designs. There are several types of glaze: wax, starch, and resin. Wax and starch glazes will wash out in laundering. Raisin glaze is very durable and will withstand laundering and cleaning.
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15.8.6 Tapestry.
This is a picture material, woven tightly or loosely; the design is part of the actual fabric rather than being embroidered onto the cloth. Tapestry may be hand-woven or woven on power looms. It is extremely popular for use with almost all period furnishings.
15.8.7 Jacquard fabrics

These are any of numerous fabrics woven on the Jacquard loom. Jacquard weaving produces elaborate designs. It is used for numerous purposes.
15.8.8 Denim.
This is another highly staple cloth which is rugged and serviceable. It is recognised by a lefthand twill on the face of the cloth. Although it is the most important fabric in the work clothes group, denim is also popular in the upholstery and furniture trades. It is often used on modern furniture.
15.8.9 Linen.
Real linen is made from flax, a fine, soft bast fibre. Today, however, many other fabrics are given a simulated linen finish. On simulated linen the reflection is given by the finish, which is not permanent. In real linen, light is reflected by the natural surface. Real linen is an absorbent material; it gives off moisture very rapidly by evaporation, making it a cool fabric.
15.8.10 Speciality fabrics.

A speciality fabric is any of a number of fabrics specially designed and woven for the upholstery and furniture trades.
15.8.11 Plastic and leather.

Leather on furniture has always suggested luxury. It can be easily washed, it wears well, and hair and lint do not stick to it. Today you can have the luxurious appearance of leather with the same ease of maintenance by using plastic. Plastic is available in a larger range of colours and if it is backed with fabric it sometimes outwears leather. Leather or plastic is specially good where a masculine appearance is desired.
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15.8.12 Velvet Velvet has been popular from time to time, but it is
seldom used today in either period or modern decors because it is not practical. It looks soiled when rubbed the wrong way. It attracts lint and dust and is difficult to keep clean.
15.9 Inner Construction of Upholstered Furniture

An upholstered chair can only be as good as its inner construction, regardless of how beautifully it is shaped and covered. The inner construction consists of frame, springs, and filling. The best frames are made of elm, hard maple, ash, or birch. These woods are strong and will take glue well. On the best furniture, all joints are secured by dowels, reinforced with hardwood corner blocks that are screwed and glued into position. The base that supports the springs may be made of cloth, steel, or wood slats. The cloth webbing is of heavy burlap strips, about four inches wide, attached firmly to the wood framework and passing alternately over and under strips running in the other direction. This is called Italian webbing. When steel is used it is in the form of rods, or suspension bars. The bottoms of the springs should be firmly interlocked with the rods so that they cannot move or slide horizontally. Cloth webbing or steel rods are superior to wood slats for the support of springs.The coiled springs should be of enamelled tempered steel, and they should be tied with strong hemp twine to the adjacent springs and to the frame. A layer of heavy canvas or burlap goes over the springs and the filling, and stuffing goes over that layer. The stuffing in cheap upholstered furniture is often shredded wood or even old rags or straw, Curled horse hair, feathers and down, or rubberised hair make fine, resilient stuffing and are usually covered with a layer of thick cotton or foam rubber. Foam rubber is replacing many of the materials conventionally used in stuffing and is very often used in backs, over the arms and in the seat cushions. In lightweight furniture, foam rubber is sometimes substituted for the filling and a simpler structure of metal or wood is substituted for the webbing and springs.
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Summary:
Upholstery fabric may be defined simply as a material used on furniture. The choice of material, however, should never be haphazard. In a well-planned decor, the upholstery material attains untold importance; its importance can never be overstressed. Your choice of material can actually enhance the overall decor, or it can ruin it. Various types of fabrics used in interiors. such as: Tapestry and other woven and non-woven materials.Properties, qualities of the various materials used as upholstery fabric. Upholstery material include the requirements of different income groups the colour, design, texture and pattern of the fabric, the cost and construction of the various materials.Cleaning and maintenance of upholstery fabrics.
Revision points:
Upholstery material include the requirements of different income groups the colour, design, texture and pattern of the fabric, the cost and construction of the various materials.Cleaning and maintenance of upholstery fabrics. Cushioning Materials Construction: Webbing use of Cardboard or perforated plywood, Springs Tying of springs determines the shape of the seat., Burlap used to cover springs, Edge Rolls to provide padding in layers for extra. This could be hair, moss, tow or PU foam etc. and many other points which gives us detailed explanation about coushning materials.
Key words:
Upholstered fabric: - Upholstered fabric may be defined simply as a material used on furniture. In choosing upholstery material, there are certain factors, or points, which you should consider very carefully. Among these are such items as fibre content, construction, colourfastness, texture, wear ability, functionality, and pattern. Tapestry. This is a picture material, woven tightly or loosely; the design is part of the actual fabric rather than being embroidered onto the cloth. Tapestry may be hand-woven or woven on power looms. It is extremely popular for use with almost all period furnishings.
In text question:
i. ii. iii. iv. What is the importance of upholstery fabrics in any interior space? What points would you keep in mind while choosing an upholstery material? Explain in detail. Discuss any five types of upholstery materials in detail. With the help of a sketch explain the inner construction of upholstered furniture.
Terminal exercise:
Students have to do a detailed market survey of the upholstery materials available in the market today.
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Assignment/ learning activities:

Prepare a detailed report highlighting the cost, materials, and availability of these products in your area.
Supplementary material/ suggested reading:

i. ii. iii. iv. Manufacturers Details Engineering materials (Surendra Singh) Relevant I.S.Codes Building Construction (Mackay, 4 Volumes)
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Unit IV
Accessories
Lesson -16: Accessories Lesson -17: Wall Accessories Lesson -18: Sculpture and Table Ornaments Lesson -19: Window Treatments Lesson -20: Types of Window Treatments Lesson -21: Window Treatment Hardware
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Accessories
To increase awareness of the use of accessories in creative expression and individuality.
Structure:
16.0 16.1 Introduction Arranging Accessories
16.0 Introduction
Just as jewellery, a decorative handbag or belt, and other accessories can enhance the beauty of a suit or dress, so too can the accessories in room enhance the decor. The accessories you put into a room can do more to express you than the furniture does Great care must be exercised, however, to prevent accessories from becoming excessories. Do not overdo it. You would not want to appear overdressed and you certainly do not want the rooms in your home to be overdressed. Remember the middle ground between the extremes of too much and too little. Accessories are the finishing touches that express the personality of the people who live in the home and that enhance the beauty and character of the decor. As such they must be appropriate to the decor. Even in selecting the smallest item, such as an ashtray, you must consider the appropriateness of the colour, design, and texture of the article. In choosing accessories you can spend as much as you want to or as little as you have to. Stores, from dime stores to the finest gift and antique shops, are filled with items that can enhance all types of decors, if selected carefully. The colours, textures, and period or national style of even the smallest accessory should agree with (although it need not match) the colours, textures, and styles of the other accessories and the overall decor. Accessories can usually be sharper in colour than the larger areas in a room. The strongest colours should ordinarily be on small accessories. But too many small accessories of different strong colours will make a room look spotty. A small area of strong colour balances a larger area of light or dull colour.
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The orient has long been a source of inspiration to designers. Simple oriental styles are never dated and there is some element characteristic of the orient that you can adopt to every type of decor. You might choose a bamboo window shade, a lantern -like sphere to light the hall or bedroom, a lacquered commode for the living room, a simulated jade vase, a Chinese figurine, an Oriental miniature scene, or a Ming tree. A stack of square thick pillows to scatter around the floor for seating, Oriental style, makes an interesting decoration in a modern living room or recreation room. A touch or two of the Orient gives zest and flavour to an otherwise drab room.
16.1 Arranging Accessories

Furniture arrangement is usually limited by the proportions and space available in a room, especially in todays smaller homes. The arrangement of accessories, however, can be a challenge to your imagination and sense of design. Formal balance was the rule in most rooms in the past. Formal balance is the precise equalisation of lines and areas. Matching lamps on matching small tables on each side of a sofa provide a good example of formal balance. It was customary in the past to hang a picture or mirror over a fireplace and place a fairly low object in the centre of the mantel. Identical hurricane lamps or candles would then be placed on the two ends of the mantel. Such formal balance has a stilted and uncomfortable appearance. Today, whether decorating in a period or modern style, informal balance is often preferred. Instead of mirrors being centred over dressers, a tall mirror may be placed to the left of centre. A lamp, large bowl, or vase of flowers, or a hanging light fixture toward the other side, gives informal balance. There is still a feeling of balance because the objects have the appearance of being about equal in weight. Informal balance is visual balance or balance of areas according to visual weight. A figurine placed to each side of a bowl of flowers would constitute formal balance. But if the bowl of flowers was placed off centre and the figurines paired next to it, one a little father back then the other, you would have informal balance. A bright-coloured small balances a dull or light coloured larger object. Two small objects balance one larger one. If the smaller objects appear lighter in visual weight than the larger one, place them farther away from the centre and they may then appear to balance. Think of the centre of a given area as being the fulcrum of a pair of scales on which weights must be distributed for balance. Think of balance in terms of equalising visual weights rather than of matching objects of the same size or kind.
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Wall Accessories
Pictures are the most popular form of wall decoration. A simple picture of a bowl of fruit or flowers might be pretty enough, but there are likely to be many other subjects that will show more imagination and contribute more effectively to the decor of a room.
Structure:
17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6 17.7 17.8 Pictures Framing pictures Other types of pictures Arranging and Hanging Pictures Wall Mirrors Sculptured Reliefs Wall shelves Wall and shelf clocks
Introduction
Pictures are the most popular form of wall decoration. They can and often do establish the mood or theme of a room. It would be to your advantage to make at least a brief study of art appreciation in order to know something of artists past and present and what they were or are trying to show in their paintings. Then you will be better able to select, from the many paintings you might like, the one that best expresses the feeling that you want to create in a room.
17.1 Pictures
A simple picture of a bowl of fruit or flowers might be pretty enough, but there are likely to be many other subjects that will show more imagination and contribute more effectively to the decor of a room. When you think of Early American rooms you associate them with historical events, such as the landing of the Pilgrims, their activities, and their struggle for survival. There are pictures that convey these thoughts and establish the chronological period on which your decor is based. A classical decor is enhanced by scenes symbolic of ancient Greece and the Roman Empire or scenes of the periods during which the classical styles flourished in Europe and the United States. The popular Louis XV and French Provincial styles are emphasised by romantic scenes that suggest gay court file, powdered wigs, and the elaborate coiffures and gowns of the period. Students Reference Material DSM/SRM/97
Decor featuring late Colonial and Federal styles are enhanced by patriotic scenes showing such events as the signing of the Declaration of Independence, or depicting victories in the battle for independence. Currier and Ives paints are delightful in any informal, traditional decor and can be used for attractive groupings. Audubon bird prints or other pictures of wildlife, or even pictures of single flowers, make pleasing arrangements in any room, depending on how they are framed and arranged. For a modern room, abstracts or primitives, or sophisticated scenes by artists past or present, are desirable. Reproductions of paintings by Dali, Picasso, Dufy, or Kandisky might suit your taste, or you might like the sophistication of the paintings of ballet dancers by Degas or of Paris night life by ToulouseLautrec. Scenes of the western frontier by Frederick Remington are at home in the recreation room or den, while landscapes and water scenes can be used in the living room, bedroom, or dining room. Most religious pictures are more appropriate in the bedroom than in living room or dining room. Ships at sea, with the ship featured, are considered more masculine than are plain seascapes. Flowers are particularly feminine. Of course, pictures that are neither heavily masculine nor frivolously feminine are preferred in the living room. A sea painting is in good taste in any room and it will give an outdoor feeling and make a room seem larger than it is. Anyone who possibly can afford it should own at least one original painting. It is usually possible to get a good painting at a reasonable price by buying directly from the artists. Visit exhibits and artists studios and make contacts with recognised art schools. But if you cannot buy an original, buy good-quality reproductions, in colour, of paintings by outstanding artists. Such reproductions are sold in art stores, art supply stores, department stores, and large museums. These fine art reproductions are not the same as calendar art, photographs, or commercial illustrations. Remember that outdoor scenes that show deep space will make a room seem more spacious than will a still life or portrait. Family photographs and religious pictures belong in the bedroom, not in the living room. However, paintings of members of the family or of pets are appropriate in the bedroom, dining room, or living room. A picture should help to carry out the colour scene of a room. Any strong colour in a picture should be duplicated by an area of the colour somewhere in the room. For example, a painting of the sea may have large areas of blue and highlights of reflected bright yellow. A large area of the same blue on a chair or drapery, and another accessory of the bright yellow, will help to unify the room and pull all of the elements together.
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17.2 Framing pictures

The subject matter of the picture should be in harmony with the period style and colour scheme in a room, and the frame should harmonise with the room and the picture. A plain wood frame finished to match the wood in the room or painted to harmonise with the colours is always in good taste. Carved, gilded frames should be used only in elaborate Georgian or other formal rooms; they should never be used in modern or country-style decor. Leather frames are popular. Though they are usually quite informal and masculine, they can be finished in very refined style. Lacy filigreed frames are very feminine. For an ultramodern effect, pictures can be hung with glass in front of them, without frames. Special brackets can be purchased at art supply stores for this purpose. An antiqued wood finish is achieved by staining the wood the desired colour, then going over it with white lead paste or oil paint, working white into the grain and wiping it off quickly. A frame finished this way is ideal for scenes of the west, most modern pictures, country scenes, and pictures of animals, and it is suited to any informal decor, modern or traditional. A suitable picture in an Antiqued wood frame is ideal in a den, recreation room, or a boys bedroom. Water colours, pastels, and charcoal, pencil, and ink drawings are framed with a border formed by a mat which goes between the picture and the glass in the frame. The mat keeps the picture from pressing against the glass. Mat board is available with various surface textures, and if it may be any colour that harmonises with the picture and the room. White, off white and very light colours are usually preferred. The mat may be narrow or it may be wide to give prominence to a small picture. The bottom should be a little wider than the top or sides. Etchings and other types of prints are usually framed with mats too. Certain definitions should be offered here to enable you to understand the various names of prints. An etching is a print made from a plate, usually of steel, which is engraved by burning with an acid into all the areas that are not to be printed. A lithograph or litho, is made from a smooth sheet of stone on which the drawing to be reproduced is done with a greasy substance. The impression is made from the greasy areas only, because the ink is absorbed by the untouched areas. Mechanical printing methods are often erroneously called lithography. Block prints are impressions from wood, or sometimes from linoleum block, on which the areas that are not be reproduced are cut and carved out, either by hand or mechanically. In the home original oil paintings never have mats or glass over them, but reproductions are sometimes covered with glass for protection. You can make a reproduction of an oil painting look like an original by varnishing it and framing it without glass. First mount the print on stiff cardboard with rubber cement. Use a board that is larger than the print, trimming it after the print is in place. Use a good clear varnish, preferably a quick drying type that does not contain a lot of oil to stain the paper. White damer or clear damar, is good and is available in art supply and Students Reference Material DSM/SRM/99
hardware stores. The varnish should be applied in two thin coats. To give texture to the surface, you can place a sheet of window screen or net or any textured cloth such as burlap over the wet surface and lift it up quickly. Do not move it on the surface.
17.3 Other types of pictures

"Pictures" to be considered as accessories are not limited to scenes, still life and portraits. An interesting collection of such things as leaves, butterflies, or coins can be mounted and displayed like pictures. Such items can often express your personality better than conventional pictures. Record album covers framed or unframed, a cork bulletin board for clipping and snapshots, school pennants, or colourful travel posters are often used with striking effectiveness in recreation rooms or teenagers rooms. Enlargements of gag cartoons or caricatures that strike a note of appropriateness are ideal in the recreation room. Any photo shop can make them for you. Fairy tale scenes can sometimes be taken right out of childrens books and enlarged for the nursery or a childs room. Farmed or mounted maps and enlarge copies of documents such as the Declaration of Independence make original and distinctive decoration in place of more conventional Pictures. `Either a map or a document should have some relation to the decor of the room. Such documents as personal diplomas or legal certificates or testimonials may be hung in the bedroom, home office, or den, in a library or study, and sometimes in the dinning room. But personal documents many be considered to be in poor taste in the living room. Do not make the mistake of displaying stuffed, mounted animals or fish, or parts of animals such as head or skins. These trophies may be highly prized by the man of the house, but they are extremely distasteful to animal lovers and also to people who dislike being surrounded by dead creatures. If they must be shown at all, they should be limited to a den that is the exclusive territory of their proud possessor.
17.4 Arranging and Hanging Pictures

Pictures should always be as flat against the wall as possible and the wires that hold them up should be concealed. There are many ways to arrange pictures to show them off and to make them contribute to the overall effect in a room. Pictures that are the same size and related in subject matter can be placed in groups, either vertically or horizontally. It is not a good idea to place pictures in "step" arrangements, diagonally, expect on a wall next to a stair case. When pictures are used in groups, the frames should either match or harmonise with each other. A vertical arrangement of pictures can be used in a space that is higher than its width and a horizontal arrangement can be used in a long area, such as the wall behind a sofa. A picture or a group of pictures can be used over a low piece of furniture to balance a higher piece of furniture in the same room, usually on the opposite wall.
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When they are used singly, different types of pictures in different kinds of frames can be used in the same room. One large picture on the wall and two or three smaller ones on another wall make a good, balanced arrangement. But if you use small pictures near a large one they will detract from the large one. A picture hung alone, or a row of pictures placed horizontally, should be at the eye level of an adult standing in the room. When walls are patterned, the subject matter of a picture becomes particularly important. A lot of fine detail in the picture will conflict with the patterned background. Subjects that have large areas of one colour, such as pictures featuring water or sky, are always good. If there is considerable detail, as there usually is in scenes that include people, flowers or fruit, a wide mat with a smooth or textured surface in a solid colour will usually provide adequate separation between the picture and the background. The very wide, protruding frames, called shadow-box frames, that were so popular a few years ago do not serve th same purpose as a wide mat or a wide, almost flat frame; nor are they considered to be in good taste today. If you have a long narrow piece of furniture in a room, as, for example, a buffet or sideboard in a dinning room, and you want to hang two or three pictures vertically over it, you do not have to centre them. You can hang them off centre, near one end of the piece of furniture. To achieve formal balance you would then hang a matching row over the other end and place something in the centre of the buffet. However, as mentioned previously, formal balance looks stilted, a tall lamp, or a statue or vase of flowers, if proportioned correctly, can balance your vertical row of pictures informally.
17.5 Wall Mirrors

Mirrors can make a room look large and they are also a very useful accessory if placed conveniently. Mirrors can be hung unframed, with clear Lucite frames, or with wood picture frames in modern rooms. With period styles the frames should be similar to those that were actually used with the furniture during the period when it was designed. Mirrors should be large enough to be of real use. a large mirror placed at one side of a narrow room or hallway will add width, placed over a small piece of furniture, it will reflect and balance a larger piece on the other side of the room. Mirrors should not be used as substitutes for pictures. They have a function to perform and should be located conveniently for use, except for mirror walls, which are primarily decorative. A hall way entering into the main rooms of the house is one ideal place for a mirror. A mirror located near the main doorway enables you to catch a glimpse of yourself just as you enter or leave the house and also shows consideration for your guest.
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17.6 Sculptured Reliefs

A sculptured relief is something between a picture and a statue. It is a figure or sculptured plaque that hangs on the wall and may be made of wood, stone, metal, or any other solid material. Smaller, simplified birds and fish, and simulated musical instruments of wood, are popular in modern rooms, individually and in groups of two or three.
17.7 Wall Shelves

Wall shelves built into the wall have become increasingly popular since the time many homeowners started adding wood or other types of panelling to walls. It is a simple matter to make provision for them when walls are panelled. The shelves should preferably be adjustable, that is, they should be separate. Metal tracks should be built into each side of the shelf case so that the shelves can be raised or lowered. Shelves in room dividers and various types of cabinet book cases are available. Books should, of course, be chosen for their content and not for their decorative values. They can, however, be arranged to form interesting patterns of colour and size. For a balanced appearance it is usually best to place the tallest book on the low shelves and to place together books of one colour or style, such as volumes that comprise a set. Avoid crowding shelves. If possible, leave an empty space or place a figure or plant on a shelf among the books. If you have a secretary, a room divider, or built-in bookcase and you have few books to put on the shelves, you can put objects on them instead of, or along with, the books.
17.8 Walls and Shelf Clocks

Just as books should be chosen for their content, wall clocks should be selected to show the time. They are designed to suit various types of decorating schemes and they should, when used in homes, be attractive accessories. But the design of a clock should never detract from its primary function as a timepiece.
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Sculpture and Table Ornaments
To understand the basic use of sculptures and table ornaments in decorating.
Structure:
18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 Introduction Lamps Other accessories Birds and fish Bedspreads
18.0 Introduction
Figure made of stone, marble, wood, metal, glass, or ceramic clay are useful in the decorating plan. Like all other items in the room, they should be in keeping with the overall decor, and they should usually be from 8 to 18 inches high to be in proportion to the room. Anyone who can, should buy original sculpture. Exhibits and art schools are good sources of supply, especially of pieces for modern interiors. Mobile sculpture, which is comprised of light, small forms that are delicately balanced on wire, hang freely, and move almost continuously, are in good taste in ultramodern rooms. wire sculptures, which may stand free or hang on a wall, can have merit, but they must appear balanced and in good proportion to the room. for period statues you can often find good pieces in gift or antique shops. Reproductions of fine sculpture are available and can be ordered through art museums or art supply stores. Ask an art dealer in your area to let you see an illustrated catalogue descriptions of the pieces usually tell you about the dimensions, material as well as the reproductions available. The reproductions are scaled to be in good proportion to the rooms in a home. Wood and stone sculpture should be compact and solid without protruding parts that look as though they would break off easily. A sculptured figure, for example, should either be without arms or should have arms attached to, or close to, the body. Sculpture that is formed in mould, such as bronze sculpture, or modelled by hand, such as clay or ceramic, can have softer, more rounded and fluid lines that stone, which must be chipped from a solid block of the material used and the subject of the sculpture must be adaptable to the material. Delicate textures such as chiffon and delicate subjects such as flowers may be interpreted effectively in ceramic but have no place in stone sculpture. Figurines less than 5 inches high are simply knick-knacks. Any object that cannot be identified from any part of the room is usually unsatisfactory as an accessory. Sometimes a group of three or five, knick-knacks related in subject can be used on a shelf in a fairy small, informal room, but as a rule it is better to concentrate on one or perhaps two fine, well-proportioned pieces.
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An important piece of sculpture piece of sculpture should be given a prominent position in the room. Ideally it should stand on its own, perfectly plain pedestal, but it can be placed on top of piece of furniture that is not too small for it. Less significant pieces such as figurines can stand on shelves or end tables.
18.1 Lamps
Lighting is a very important element in the overall decor. Lamps are both fixtures to give light and decorative accessories, but the decorative element should never defeat the efficiency of the lamps. The wall candles, which are often used in traditional decors, are usually purely decorative, but they can be burned on special occasions. Sometimes they are electrified with small, flame shaped bulbs, often with an appropriately styled shade over them. The desk or table lamp is based on a Directoire style and would be suitable in a Colonial or any traditional room. Table lamps are more popular today than floor lamps, but the floor lamp has won favour in recent years. Floor-to-ceiling shafts without the base, as well as various styles of shades, are available. The lights can be turned in any direction, for reading, for indirect lighting, or for spotlighting an important piece of furniture or an accessory. A classical-styled modern lamp should be at least 28 inches high. Many table lamps with nonadjustable tops are too low to be of any practical value and too small in proportion to most rooms. Lamp shades today are usually washable. They should never be used with the cellophane wrappers they come in. If you want an authentic piece of Early American, you should like the fine copies of hurricane lamps. These lamps throw beautiful and colourful flecks of light.
18.2 Other Accessories

Colourful pillows are used liberally in modern rooms. The colours and textures should be consistent with the rest of the room. Sometimes pillows in bright colours are scattered about a sofa to provide the colour accents in a room. Although pillows, which are seldom used for anything but decoration, are a modern innovation, they can also be used in traditional rooms. Pillows with sheeny silk covers and sometimes striped covers go with elegant, formal decors. Corduroy, gabardine, and other coarse fabrics in solid colours are better with modern furniture. Satin or velvet pillows with flowers or sentimental scenes painted on them are gaudy and have no place in todays home Lacy doilies should not be used either on chair arms and backs or on table tops. Students Reference Material DSM/SRM/104
Plants make attractive accessories. A low plant, such as the popular velvety-leafed African violets, are good on low tables such as cocktail tables. Hanging ivy plants look good on wall shelves. Large-leafed plants, such as the exotic rubber-tree plant, are ideal in a large vase or pot on the floor in a corner. Next to a piece of furniture or near a window. Be sure that your plants are chosen to be placed where they will receive the amount of light they need. Any plant holder can be attractive in design and colour; but it should look like a plant holder and not like a swan or an animal. Basket holders lined with metal, glass, or pottery are attractive in informal rooms. Plastic containers on tripod bases are also modern, and colourful. Copper, wood, or milk glass containers are good with early American decors. Silver and glass should be chosen for more formal rooms. Brass boxes make good plant holders in any decor. Chinese porcelains or good copies, and copper or decorated plates, are often displayed on shelves over the mantel in traditional and early American rooms, but this should not be overdone. A few choice pieces can be effective; a lot of them will attract too much attention. Translucent glass can be very pleasing and eye-catching when displayed on glass shelves in front of a window. Cigarette holders and ash trays are available in a wide variety of styles. They may come in matched sets of crystal, copper and other metals, or ceramic, or of many other materials. The Hyalyn Porcelain Company of Hickory, North Carolina, makes smart sets in porcelain. Choose the style and material that will go best with your decorating plan. The Fostoria Glass Company makes a set in lead glass that goes beautifully with Early American. There are also baroque styles in silver, styles made with ceramic tile, and Oriental styles with lacquer bases. The Ronsom Corporation and other manufactures make table lighters of various material and styles. Decorative silver ones are ideal for formal rooms, especially if silver or crystal items are used elsewhere in the room. Very plain style or dull and shiny patterned surfaces are better in modern rooms. The colour of the metal should harmonise with the decor. Ash trays should be deep enough to prevent accidents with lighted cigarette and they should be designed to look like ash trays. Animals forms or hollow figurines are not in good taste. Leaf-shaped or plain rounded ash trays are excellent and many of them, depending on the colour and materials, are good in any decor. There are so many varieties of miscellaneous accessories from pillows to ash trays that it would be impossible to illustrate and describe even representative assortment of them, but at this point you should have a good idea of what type of decoration and styling to look for, for the decorating plan you want to follow. Candy dishes and fruit bowls, tall pitchers and other serving pieces, and vases can be good accessory items. They should be harmonious with the decor both in colour and in style, whether they are in use or just displayed to decorate the room. Coffee and tea sets and cocktail mixers and sets are available in numerous styles; if these are well designed and are consistent with the decor, they make ideal cocktail table or buffet decorations.
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18.3 Birds and Fish

When you are planning the accessories for your decor, do not overlook the decorative value of colourful tropical fish or birds. If you like an outdoor atmosphere in your home, they can contribute more than pictures or anything else. Of course they do not harmonise with a very elegant, formal room, but in any informal room they can be a charming centre of attention. Bird cages are available in many styles and all of them blend with decors that include a straw accessory or modern, rough textures, such as grasstextures wallpaper. Colourful canaries and parakeets are amusing as well as attractive. Plain square tanks, or aquariums of clear glass, are best for fish. The tiny round bowl that are often used for goldfish are not attractive as accessories; more important, they are not satisfactory for their purpose. A tank of colourful fish and accessory items such as seaweed, stone or glass bridges, multicoloured gravel or rocks, and possibly a few shells, and with a light over or behind it, lends itself beautifully to a modern room. Aquariums should be equipped with filters and thermostats. Both fish and birds require some care, but with modern equipment, upkeep is no problem.
18.4 Bedspreads
All that has been said in reference to accessories applies to bedrooms. A bedspread is on accessory that is used only in the bedroom. Ruffle-flounced spreads should be used only in Early American and traditional decors. The colours patterns, and fabrics should be in accord with the decorative style of the room. Straight sides and little or no design are in order in modern rooms. Matched bedspreads and draperies are available and are satisfactory if the colours are not too strong and if there is not too much pattern. A bed is a large piece of furniture and a spread that is too ornate will make it look bigger.
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Summary:
The unit tells us how to apply design principles to create a pleasing environment, To develop an appreciation for personal and cultural aspects in designing an interior, To make informed consumer decisions when selecting materials and equipment for interior development, To create an awareness of accessories and how they personalize an interior, To achieve a pleasing and safe interior by applying the design fundamentals, To strengthen consumer knowledge and understanding of accessories.
Revision points:
The guidelines in hanging pictures. Consider Hanging pictures at eye level, Balancing the proportions of picture, wall space, and furniture, Complementing the wall colour, texture, Taking advantage of lighting, Grouping the pictures, Using appropriate hardware. List of accessories: Plants and floral arrangements, Pictures and wall hangings, Book shelves and books, Ornaments, Collections, Candles etc.
Key words:
Pictures:- Pictures are the most popular form of wall decoration. They can and often do establish the mood or theme of a room. Informal balance: - Informal balance is visual balance or balance of areas according to visual weight Formal balance: -Formal balance is the precise equalisation of lines and areas.A figurine placed to each side of a bowl of flowers would constitute formal balance. knick-knacks:- Figurines less than 5 inches high are simply knick-knacks.
Intext questions:
1. What is the role of accessories in the overall dcor of a room? 2. What points would you keep in mind while choosing accessories for a room?
3. Discuss in detail the various types of wall accessories. 4. How important is the frame in a picture? Discuss
5. Write short notes on the following: Sculptures Informal balance Birds and fish as accessories Bedspreads Plants
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Terminal exercise
Students have to categorize accessories as decorative or functional or both. And have to visit stores or show rooms to view the use of different accessories and they will examine accessories for quality and function. And compare price and quality.
Assignment/ learning activities

Students will examine accessories for quality and function and compare price and quality. Visit stores to look at the different accessories available and their quality and have to prepare a complete report of their related market survey and Students have to prepare a collage showing different accessories with different effects like paintings with different hanging style, different size sculptures etc.
Supplementary material / suggested reading

1. Engineering materials by Surendra Singh 2. Engineering Materials by Rajput 3. Time Savers Standards for Interior Design and Space Planning 4. Trade magazines
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Lesson 19: Objective:
Window Treatments
To identify and evaluate the functions of windows in interiors.
Structure:
19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 Introduction History Fabric Covering a Window Selection Criteria for Window Treatments
19.1 Introduction
Creative window treatments are a key element in decorating any home. Stylishly dressed windows make a room seem complete and add the finishing touch to the overall decor. Some treatments are dramatic and become the focal point of a room while others are subtle and complement existing decorating features. With a century of creative ideas as reference, the options for todays window treatments seem limitless. Window treatments serve various functions in addition to their aesthetic qualities. They can control light, affect air circulation, insulate against weather and noise and provide privacy. They can also enhance a beautiful view or camouflage an unpleasant one. When selecting a window treatment, carefully consider which function(s) should be the first priority.
19.2 History
New building construction and the remodelling of older buildings keep the demand and interest for updated and practical window treatments in the forefront of interior design. Historically, fabric window treatments meant pinch-pleated draperies. Then four-inch rod pocket curtains came into style and were soon followed by more options in decorative rods and poles. This trend led to an emphasis on tab-top curtain treatments. Now the trend is turning toward shirred curtains and scarves. Unique window treatments are now possible simply by selecting different combinations of curtains, top treatments and accessories. Blinds and shades have also changed over the years. Venetian blinds and Austrian shades of the 1950's gave way to Roman and fabric shades. Puffy balloon and cloud shades were replaced with mini, vertical and micro blinds. Today, horizontal two-inch wood blinds are enjoying a revival. Many designers now use a combination of blinds and shades with fabrics, especially top treatments.
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19.3 Fabric
The end of the 20th century features window treatments that are soft and layered with sheer curtains and scarves often used to achieve this look. Interesting colour, texture and pattern combinations show up in both casual and formal styles. Many choices in fabrics are available; including printed formal and plaid sheers, embroidered and crushed voiles, fancy batistes and a variety of laces. These fabrics are often layered with sheer curtain over sheer curtain or tiered with more classic forms, such as crisp panels or non-fabric treatments.
Pattern choices in fabrics are limitless. Popular themes found in fabric motifs include: Floral and fruit patterns with an occasional butterfly. Classical and Renaissance motifs, softened by draping the fabric and accenting with scarves, trims and accessories. Prehistory or ancient history motifs include fossils, engravings and ancient drawings. Classic stripes, simple plaids and tone-on-tone solids in interesting textures that mix well with other fabrics and add dimension to the soft looks. Polyester and cotton are dominant fibres used in window fabrics. Sheer curtains are most often 100% polyester with special chemical treatments sometimes used to create iridescent or soft faux suede finishes. Both 100% cotton fabric and blends combining cotton with polyester, linen, silk, or rayon are popular choices. Cotton finishes vary widely and may include a sateen finish, brushed for a soft hand, and dramatically woven into damasks or brocades. Other options, such as wool and plush velvets, are seasonal favourites or used for special areas.
19.4 Covering a Window:

There are a number of reasons why a window needs to be covered. Some of these are follows: Aesthetics: one of the major reasons for covering a window is to add to the beauty of the room. Window coverings can form the main focal point of a rooms decorating scheme. Privacy: though windows are a very good source of natural light, and these also serve as a means of providing an outside view from a room, they also prove to be an obstacle
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when privacy is desired in a room. Window coverings help us to overcome this problem by providing us with a way of covering the window when required. Energy Conservation: these help us to conserve energy by cutting down on the amount of heat or cold coming through the window, in summers and winters. Light Control: using window coverings can control the amount of natural light coming in through a window. Depending on the material of the window covering you can regulate the entrance as well as exit of light through a window.
19.5 Selection Criteria for Window Treatments

The following points should be kept in mind while selecting a window covering for a room: Fenestration design, arrangement and proportioning of windows: Placement of windows on the interior walls of room often impacts type of covering used. The type of window covering used is affected by the location of air vents, furniture placement, and the need to operate windows. View of windows from street often dictates the selection. Windows should offer continuity and similarity in both style and colour. Quantity of light: the selection of the window covering will depend a great deal on the amount of light desired in a room. The quantity of light in a room is governed by the following factors: o Degree of light or glare penetrating room: this is effected by the size and shape of the window as well as its location. o Direction or Orientation: the amount of light entering a room due to its orientation according to the sun. o Exterior shade trees or overhang: whether a window is getting any exterior shade because of a tree or overhanging structure also effects the amount of light coming in through a window. o How room is used: the amount of light required from a window will also depend on the usage of the room. If the room is to be used as a study or playroom it will require more light as compared to when it is to be used as a bedroom. Structural Factors: by structural factors we mean the structural composition of the window. The structure of a window can effect the choice of a window covering in the following ways: o The direction of the operable window has a big impact on the type of window coverings that can be used. o The operating mechanism can also be a problem, especially for inside mount blinds. o Problem windows include: Casement French doors, sliding doors Bays and bows, architectural shapes Function: Functional considerations for the selection of a window covering include:
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o Degree of privacy required: this is a major factor effecting the window covering selection, if little or no privacy is required then you can go in for a very light and transparent window covering material. If the privacy is required in the evenings only then again you dont have to go in for a very heavy weight material. But if on the other hand total privacy is needed the choice of window covering will have to reflect this. Sometimes you may need to screen an objectionable view, and may need to choose the window covering accordingly. o Reduction of interior noise: window coverings can help you to reduce noises from the interiors as well as the exterior of a house. For doing this you will need to study the sound absorbing qualities of materials, fabric construction also impacts the degree of sound absorption properties of window coverings. o Need for ventilation: along with doors and ventilators, windows are the major source of ventilation in a room. For the purpose of ventilation windows have to be operable and operable windows determine the type of window covering used. The style of the window can also limit the choice of window treatments.
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Types of Window Treatments
To increase awareness of window treatments and their functions
Structure:
20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 Introduction Draperies Curtains Fabric Shades Top Treatments 20.5.1 Soft Top Treatments 20.5.2 Hard Top Treatments Alternative Treatments
20.6
20.1 Introduction
Window treatments can broadly be classified into the following two categories. Soft: draperies, curtains, fabric shades Alternative: shutters, blinds, screens
20.2 Draperies
Draperies are made with pleats. They are hung with drapery hoods onto carriers of conventional, architectural, or decorative traverse rods or into the rings of wood rods or cafe curtain rods; or they may thread onto spring-system traverse rods. Generally draperies are either hung straight to the floor or tied back. Thus they operate, or draw, by opening and closing with a cord or a wand or by hand. The exception is tied-back draperies, which sometimes are let down at night. However, tied-back draperies are trained to tie back at an angle and therefore should not be handled to any extent. Draperies draw in a pair and meet in the centre (centre-meet) or draw one way from left to right or from right to left. One-way draw draperies require one-way traverse rods.
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Draperies that hang at a doorway rather than at a window are called portieres. They may be pleated in any fashion or shirred. They may be placed on a traverse rod, but historically (and they were used extensively in the Victorian era), they were tied-back stationary panels made of a heavy fabric that were let down when privacy or insulation was needed. Draperies can be made of any fabric. The selection will depend on the style, use, and needs. Sheer fabrics do best as diffusers of glare and as providers of daytime privacy. Medium to heavy weight fabrics are excellent choices for over-draperies and plain tieback draperies. Lining fabrics are the right weight for privacy liners or under-draperies. Draperies are described by their pleat style or draw-type.
Pleats:
French (or pinch) pleats Box pleats
Draw:
Two-way separate in centre, stack to sides One-way stacks to one side only
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20.3 Curtains
Curtains are soft window coverings that generally are shirred (gathered onto a rod) or have headings attached to solid-wood rods, round or oval metal rods, or cafe rods rather than cordoperated traverse rods. Curtains may be either stationary fabric panels or slid open and closed by hand. They are flexible in that they can be short or long, layered or tiered, or used alone or in combination with other soft, or with hard treatments. Curtain is traditionally a term for informal treatment, such as cafe curtains. However, curtains also may be quite formal, as are shirred and elegant tied-back fabric treatments.
Even though curtains area generally thought to be shirred treatments, other headings might be included in this category. Indeed, there is a crossover of terminology between draperies and curtains. Generally draperies are installed on cord-operated traverse rods, although they may be stationary pleated panels. Curtains may be installed on traverse rods (as in a pleated cafe curtain, for example), and headings such as the pencil pleat; drawstring pencil pleat; shirred, spaced pencil pleat; alternate pencil pleat; ruffled shirring tape heading; and smocked heading may be called either curtain or drapery treatment.
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Curtains can be hung in various ways.
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20.4 Fabric Shades

Fabric shades are panels of fabric that operate vertically. Blinds and shades are enjoying renewed consumer interest. Manufacturers offer many new products in a wide variety of styles, colours and innovations. For instance, look for blinds that repel dust. One model reduces static electricity which in turn helps to keep dust from collecting on the surface. Another has an ion alignment that repels dust particles. When shopping for blinds, especially the two-inch or larger slats, these dust repellents could be an important factor. Retail stores and designers show creative stylings and innovative mechanics to update traditional products. They offer many variations of blinds and shades, including wood , vinyl and aluminium blinds; slat widths from - to 2-inches or more; horizontal and vertical slats; cellular, pleated, coach shades; and other softly-styled fabric shades. Each category has a variety of features and qualities. Prices vary according to size, material, styling and installation. Fabric shades include: Balloon (or pouf) Austrian (or shirred) Pleated Honeycomb Roman
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20.5 Top Treatments

Valances and cornices have played an important role in the history of window treatments, and they are still key elements in window decor for many homes and businesses. Soft and structured top treatments are used either by themselves or combined with draperies, curtains, blinds or shades. Top treatment styling varies greatly. Youll see pleats, points, scallops, cuffs, gathers, tabs, ties and layers. Drapery workrooms create many unusual treatments, but no-sew and quick-sew techniques offer lower-cost options. Experienced sewers may use structured sewing methods and more detailed styling while new sewing aids are available for those with little time or limited sewing skills. Linens, towels and sheets offer quick remedies for curtains and top treatments. No-sew methods drape, fold, knot and shape fabrics into the desired style while various tapes, pins, tacks, hookand-loop fasteners and holders secure the fabric in place. Swags, cascades and jabots are classics that appear individually and in combinations. Styling variations include formal, casual, overlapped, tied and crossed options. Swags and cascades take on a new ambiance when slipped through sconces, draped over rods and poles or knotted in place. Cornices add variety and interest. Wooden cornices come in various styles with natural or painted finishes or covered with fabric. Use them separately or combined with other fabric treatments over blinds and shades. Top treatments are used to:
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Hide the rod or pleats Cover area from top of window to ceiling Give a finished look to window. Top treatments can be soft or hard. Hard treatments are called cornices. Top treatments can be hung on rods or attached to the wall.
20.5.1 Soft Top Treatments

Valance a soft, horizontal treatment made entirely of fabrics mounted at the top of the draperies. Swags & Jabots Swag - fabrics festooned between two points Jabot fabric draped down the side of window in a folded S-shaped design generally used with the swag. Cascade fabric draped like a jabot without the uniform folds.
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20.5.2 Hard Top Treatments

Cornice A firm, horizontal, boxlike structure wall-mounted at the top of draperies. Lambrequin A three- or four-sided cornice which completely surrounds a window extending beyond the wall. Cantonniere A three-sided cornice covering the top and sides of the window fitting flush against the wall and often extending to the floor. All of these can be covered with fabric or made of finished wood.
20.6 Alternative Treatments

Alternative Treatments are not soft do not use fabric as their primary material. Alternative treatments include: Metal or wood blinds (1/2 to 2 ) Vertical louver blinds Roller Shades (vinyl, vinyl-backed cloth, bamboo) Shutters (movable louvers, Plantation shutters) Shoji screens Stained glass
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Wooden Blinds
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Window Treatment Hardware
To examine window treatments and their characteristics
Structure:
21.1 21.2 Introduction Tips on choosing window treatment hardware
21.1 Introduction
Someone saw a big niche in the home furnishings market about 20 years ago. That niche was window treatment hardware. Until then, drapery hardware consisted of unattractive white metal traverse rods. Your only choice was how long a rod you needed. Not any more. Drapery hardware has come out of the hardware store and into the forefront of window covering style. Rods and finials are offered in a huge variety of styles including wood, metal, glass, iron, and ceramic. The only downside is that it may take you longer to decide on the rods than on some of the other elements for your room! The vast array of accessories provides one of the most dramatic changes in window treatments. Although decorative poles have traditionally been used, fancy finials and rings add variety and interest. Choices now include decorative brackets, end caps, scarf holders, sconces and holdbacks along with window art and jewellery. Use these items either alone or in combinations. Wood, acrylic, brass and wrought iron hardware and accessories are available in a variety of finishes for casual or formal styles. Unfinished wood poles can be covered with wallpaper or fabric or decorated with a paint finish, (plain, sponging, ragging or colour washing). Pole sizes vary in length and diameter. Finials in a design of your choice individualize each treatment. Concealed and decorative tie-back holders and swag holders add still more options. Dont forget the more traditional sash, curtain, caf, tension and traverse rods. Some decorative traverse rods can be converted into poles. Sash and tension rods are good choices for layered looks since they can be placed close to the glass. Use tension rods for inside-frame installation since they wont damage the woodwork. Theyre also handy for metal frame windows and for frequent movers. Magnetic brackets are also available for metal frame window installation.
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21.2 Tips on choosing window treatment hardware:

1. Decide if you want the window hardware to stand out or be "invisible". Rods and finials might be more prominent in a formal room, for instance, while a contemporary room calls for clean lines and an uncluttered look. 2. Consider the function of a window treatment as you choose the hardware. Draperies that close will require easy sliding rings or a draw cord system. Stationery decorative panels can be gathered onto a rod or hung from tab tops or ties. 3. Layer your window treatments for the most flexibility. For example, place blinds next to the glass for privacy and light control, then add decorative curtain panels for colour and style. 4. Use two rods or a double rod to accommodate a layer of sheers and over drapes, or drapes and a valance. 5. Look for rods, finials, and hardware in styles and colours that will enhance the look of your decor and the window treatments. 6. Contemporary homes will find chrome rods, glass finials, metals, iron, and cable systems to fit in well with that look. 7. Newer cable systems are perfect for very wide windows and for contemporary rooms where furnishings and accessories may be minimal and straight lined. 8. Match the hardware to the style of your draperies and your room. Choose sturdy larger diameter rods for heavy draperies. Sheer panels and lighter silks will look more appropriate on thinner lighter rods. 9. Carved dark wood, gilt touches, and traditional shapes work well in formal, traditional, or period rooms. 10. Scale is another important consideration. Reserve heavy cornices and finials for larger rooms with high ceilings. Keep the scale lighter for smaller spaces with low ceilings. 11. Iron, black wrought iron, and rustic metals might be used in country interiors, rustic rooms, and some themed rooms in Tuscan, Spanish, and other rustic styles. 12. Country styles can be accented with pine, iron, and simple wood rods. 13. Add height to a room by installing drapery hardware well above the window frame, or even up along the ceiling line. The longer fabric panels will add a tall line to the rooms.
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Summary:
Windows can provide ventilation, light, visual communication, and solar energy. Functions of window treatments: to control light to provide ventilation to ensure or provide privacy to supplement energy (e.g., for heat or coolness) to decorate a room In above unit we have discussed different type of window treatments including different styles, fabrics, its hardware accessories etc.
Revision points:
Functions of window treatments, to control light, to provide ventilation, to ensure or provide privacy, to supplement energy (e.g., for heat or coolness),to decorate a room, different type of window treatments including different styles, fabrics, its hardware accessories.
Key words:
Draperies:- Draperies are made with pleats. They are hung with drapery hoods onto carriers of conventional, architectural, or decorative traverse rods or into the rings of wood rods or cafe curtain rods; or they may thread onto spring-system traverse rods. Generally draperies are either hung straight to the floor or tied back. Thus they operate, or draw, by opening and closing with a cord or a wand or by hand. Draperies are described by their pleat style or draw-type Curtains: - Curtains are soft window coverings that generally are shirred (gathered onto a rod) or have headings attached to solid-wood rods; round or oval metal rods, or cafe rods rather than cord-operated traverse rods. Curtains may be either stationary fabric panels or slid open and closed by hand. Curtain is traditionally a term for informal treatment, such as cafe curtains. However, curtains also may be quite formal, as are shirred and elegant tied-back fabric treatments. Soft top treatments: -Valance a soft, horizontal treatment made entirely of fabrics mounted at the top of the draperies, Swags & Jabots etc Hard top treatments: - Cornice a firm, horizontal, boxlike structure wall-mounted at the top of draperies. Lambrequin a three- or four-sided cornice which completely surrounds a window extending beyond the wall. Cantonniere a three-sided cornice covering the top and sides of the window fitting flush against the wall and often extending to the floor.
In text questions:
1. What is the importance of Window treatments in the dcor of a room? Explain by giving examples.
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2. What are the different types of fabrics which can be used for covering windows? Explain in detail any five. 3. How much thought should you give to the pattern of the fabric while selecting a window covering material? 4. What is the need of covering windows? Explain in detail. 5. What points would you keep in mind while selecting a window treatment for a window? 6. What are draperies? Explain in detail any two types of pleats used in draperies. 7. What are curtains? Explain in detail the various methods of hanging curtains. 8. Explain in detail the different types of fabric shades used for windows. 9. What are top treatments? Explain in detail the uses and types of top treatments. 10. How do window treatment hardware help in giving a finished look to a window treatment? Explain in detail the various types of window treatment hardware available. 11. What kind of window treatments would you recommend for the following areas. Give reasons for your choice. a. Office b. Childrens room c. Master bedroom d. Reception area of a hospital e. Dining Room
Terminal exercise:
Students should do a detailed survey of the window treatment materials and hardware available in the market today. Prepare a detailed report highlighting the cost, materials, and availability of these products in your area. Keeping in mind different characteristics of fabric, suitable for curtains and draperies.
Assignment / learning activities:

Students must submit a detailed report on survey of the window treatment materials and hardware available in the market today. Prepare a detailed report highlighting the cost, materials, and availability of these products in your area..
Supplementary material/ suggested reading:

Manufacturers Details Engineering materials (Surendra Singh) Relevant I.S.Codes Building Construction (Mackay, 4 Volumes)
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Unit V
Wood and Wood Products
Lesson -22: Wood and Wood Based Products Lesson -23: Classification of Timber Lesson -24: Seasoning Of Timber Lesson -25: Timber Trees of India Lesson -26: Wood Based Products Lesson -27: Glass Terminology Lesson -28: Glass Lesson -29: Application of Glass in Interiors Lesson -30: Glazing Lesson -31: Metals Lesson -32: Aluminium Lesson -33: Other Metals Lesson -34: Plastics
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Wood and Wood Based Products
To outline the functions of wood and wood based products in an interior.
Structure:
22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 Introduction Important technical terms Characteristics of Good Timber Advantages of Timber over Other Materials Disadvantages
22.0 Introduction
The wood used for building or other engineering purposes is called timber. Timber is generally obtained from the trunk of a tree. The timber is in the form of living tree, The freshly felled tree and in the form of felled tree.
22.1 Important Technical Terms:

Standing timber: The timber in the form of living tree. Green timber: The freshly felled tree which has not lost moisture. Rough timber: The timber in the form of felled tree. Converted timber: The timber when sawn into various market sizes such as beams, battens, planks etc. Dressed timber: The timber which has been sawn, placed and worked to the exact required condition. Structural timber: The timber used in framing and load bearing structures. Clear Timber: Timber free from defects and stains.
22.2 Characteristics of Good Timber

Following are the characteristics of good timber: i. It should have a uniform colour. ii. A freshly cut surface should give a sweet smell.
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iii. It should have regular annular rings. iv. It should be sonorous when struck. v. It should have straight and close fibres. vi. It should be heavy in weight. vii. It should be free from shakes, flaws, dead knots or blemishes of any kind. viii. There should be firm adhesion of fibres and compact medullary rays. ix. The cellular tissue of the medullary rays should be hard and compact. x. When planed, its surface should present a firm bright appearance with a silky lustre. xi. Its fibrous tissues should adhere firmly together and should not clog the teeth of the saw and the freshly-cut surface should not show wooliness. xii. A good timber should be durable. It should be capable of resisting the actions of fungi insects, chemicals, physical agencies and mechanical agencies. xiii. A good timber should possess the property of elasticity. The timber is elastic when it regains its original shape and size when the load is removed. This property of timber would be essential when it is to be used for bows, sports goods, carriage shafts etc. xiv. It should be fire-resistant. Wood having dense texture offers great resistance to fire. It should not contain resins and other inflammable oils which accelerate the action of fire. xv. A good timber should be hard (i.e., it should offer resistance when it is being penetrated by another body). The chemicals present in hard wood and density of wood impart hardness to the timber. xvi. A good timber should be strong for working as structural member such as joint, beam, rafter, etc. It should be capable of taking loads slowly or suddenly. Note: The heavier and dark coloured timber is usually strong.
22.3 Advantages of Timber over Other Materials:

i. It is stronger than other materials of construction in use. ii. It can be easily worked to any size and shape. iii. It can be joined to the required form easily. iv. Structural connections can be easily made in timberwork. v. It can be used for furniture and other decorative fittings.
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vi. Timber construction is economical as the wastage is minimum. vii. It is quite durable. viii. Its re-sale value is good ix. It is a non-conductor of heat and sound.
22.4 Disadvantages:
The disadvantages of timber are few, but serious. These are: i. The greatest disadvantage is its ready combustibility, which can be diminished but not eliminated even by expensive treatment. ii. Frame buildings built closely together present a serious conflagration hazard. iii. Timber is destroyed by decay induced by fungi, and by insects that feed upon the timber under favourable conditions. Decay may, however, be prevented by the various methods that produce an environment unfavourable for the growth of the causative organisms. iv. Timber swells and undergoes shrinkage with changing atmospheric humidity.
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Classification of Timber
To examine types of wood and wood products.
Structure:
23.1 Classification of trees 23.1.1 Exogenous trees 23.1.2 Endogenous trees 23.2 Comparison between Hard Wood and Soft Wood 23.3 Defects In Timbers
23.1 Classification of Trees

According to their manner of growth, the tree may be divided into two main classes:
23.1.1 Exogenous trees:

These trees grow outwards and increase in bulk by the formation of successive annular rings on the outside under the bark. In these trees, each annual ring represents a layer of wood, deposited every year. The timber that is used for building and engineering purposes belongs to this variety. Examples: Deodar, chir, sal, kail, shishum, teak, etc. Exogenous trees may be further divided into the following two types: Conifers trees: They remain evergreen and bear fruits in cone form with needle-pointed leaves (and hence the name). These trees yield soft woods which are generally light coloured, resinous, light in weight and weak. They show distinct annual rings. Deciduous trees: They shed their leaves in autumn and put on new leaves in the spring season. These trees yield hardwoods which are usually close-grained, strong, heavy, dark coloured, durable and non-resinous. They do not show distinct annual rings. The timber used for engineering purposes is mostly derived from deciduous trees.
23.1.2 Endogenous trees:

These trees grow inwards or endwards. The stems of these trees are too flexible and thus they are not much suitable for engineering works. They are found generally in tropical countries and have their own limited applications for temporary construction.
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Examples: Canes, Bamboos, Palms etc.
23.2 Comparison between Hard Wood and Soft Wood Hard Wood
A variety of exogenous trees. It is heavy in weight. The colour of hard wood is dark. It is dense, closed grained and strong. It does not show district annual rings. Being non-resinous, it is resistant to fire. It is relatively smooth and non-scaly.
Soft Wood
It is obtained from coniferous variety of exogenous trees. It is light in weight. The colour of soft wood is light. It is weak and can split easily. Its annual rings are distinct. Being resinous, it can readily catch fire. It is scaly and often gives out resinous matter.
Comparison Table of Hard and Soft Wood

S.no 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Aspects Trees from which obtained Annual Rings Medullary Rays Weight Colour Structure Soft Woods Conifers trees Distinct Indistinct Light Light Resinous and splits easily Hard Woods Deciduous Trees Indistinct Distinct Heavy Dark Non- resinous and close grained 7. Strength Strong for direct pull and Equally strong for resisting weak for resisting thrust tension, or shear 8. Fire Resistance Poor shear. Fair compression and
23.3 Defects in Timbers

In all kinds of timber several natural defects occur. There are caused by the nature of the soil upon which the tree grew and also by the changes in nature to which it was subjected while growing. As far as possible these defects should be avoided or removed during conversion for use. Following are the most common defects in timber: 1. Heart shakes: These are the splits or cracks widest at the centre and diminishing towards the outside circumference. This defect usually occurs in oven natured trees and is probably caused due to the shrinkage of the heartwood. Heartwood shake which follows a
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straight course along the timber is not so serious as compared with that which follows a twisted course.
2. Star shakes: These are radial splits or cracks widest at the circumference and get diminishing towards the centre of the tree. Star shakes are more serious as they tend to separate the log into a number of pieces when it is sawn. These may arise mostly from severe frost and fierce heat of sun. They are mostly confined to sapwood. 3. Cup shakes or ring shakes: Refer Fig. 8.5. These are formed by the rupture of the tissues in a circular direction across the cross-section of a log, usually along annular rings. When the rupture extends only a part around, it is called a cup shake and when the whole way round or almost so a ring shake. 4. Radial shakes: Refer Fig. 8.6. These are similar to star shakes but they are fine, irregular and numerous. They usually occur when the tree is exposed to sun for seasoning after being felled.
5. Rind galls: Refer figure 8.7. the rind means the bark and gall indicates abnormal growth. Hence peculiar curved swelling formed on the body of a tree are known as rind galls. These are generally caused by the growth of layers over the wounds left after branches have been improperly cut off or removes. 6. Upsets or rupture: Refer Fig. 8.8. This defect is due to crushing of fibres which are deformed as a result of the injury thus caused. These are due to unskilful felling and also the result of violent wind. 7. Twisted fibres or wandering hearts: Refer Fig. 8.9. This defect is developed in a tree owing to its peculiar position where the prevailing winds turn the tree constantly in one direction. The fibres of such a tree are twisted longitudinally and if planks or any sections are cut from it, many of the fibres would be cut through and the strength of the pieces is Students Reference Material DSM/SRM/134
reduced. The timber with twisted fibres is unsuitable for sawing. It can however be used for posts and poles in an unsawn condition.
8. Burrs or excrescence: These are either due to unsuccessful attempts at the formation of branches or due to injuries inflicted when the tree was young, so that undeveloped, dormant buds grew and produced masse of contorted tissue. Technically, they are defects but, in practice, they produce valuable figure-wood for veneers. 9. Wind cracks: when wood is exposed to atmospheric agencies, its exterior surface shrinks. Such a shrinkage results in cracks. 10. Knots: Refer Fig. 8.11. Knots are the roots of small branches of the tree. Knots disturb the homogeneity of wood texture. The fibres of wood get twisted or curled in the vicinity of knots and this affects the strength of the wood. The position, size of the knot, and the degree of grain distortion around it, determine the magnitude of the reduction in strength that the knot can cause. When the formation of knot is free from decay and other defects and is firmly intact with the surrounding wood, it is called a live knot or sound knot. A knot which is not held firmly in place it called a dead knot or loose knot. There are various types of knots, most common being: Round knot, oval knot, spike knot, grouped knot and pencil knot. Timber containing large dead (loose) knots or many smaller ones should be rejected, as they are poorer in appearance and strength.
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Seasoning of Timber
To study about the seasoning of timber.
Structure:
24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 Introduction Objectives of Seasoning Advantages of Seasoning Methods of Seasoning of Timber 24.3.1 Natural seasoning 24.3.2 Water Seasoning 24.3.3 Artificial Seasoning Conversion of Timber
24.4
24.0 Introduction
Seasoning of timber is the process of drying timber or removing moisture or sap, present in a freshly felled timber, under more or less controlled conditions. Freshly felled timber contains a large quantity of moisture roughly from 100 to 200%, based on dry weight of wood. A well-seasoned piece of wood may contain about 10 to 12% moisture and will be in equilibrium with the atmospheric humidity of a particular place. If the timber is used without seasoning, it is liable to shrink, warp and crack, and may even rot and decay. Thus all timber should be properly seasoned. Seasoning should be the first step for efficient usage of timber.
24.1 Objectives of Seasoning

The following are the main objectives of seasoning of timber: 1. To check/minimise the tendency of timber to shrink, warp and split. 2. To increase strength, durability and electrical resisting power of the timber. 3. To maintain the shape and size of the components of the timber articles which are expected to remain unchanged in form. 4. To make timber safe from attack of fungi and insects. 5. To reduce the weight for transport purposes, handling, and thereby reduction in cost. 6. To make timber fit for receiving treatment of paints, preservatives and varnishes. 7. To make timber easily workable and to facilitate operations during conversions. 8. To make timber suitable for gluing (i.e. effectively joining two members of timber with the aid of glue).
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24.2 Advantages of Seasoning

Following are the advantages of seasoning timber: 1. Seasoning makes the timber less liable to attack by insects and fungus. 2. It decreases the weight of timber and makes it lighter. 3. It enables timber to be easily painted, polished and preserved. 4. It avoids defects appearing in timber during its use. 5. It improves the strength properties of the timber and makes it more stable. 6. It improves working qualities of timber. 7. It provides dimensional stability and retention of shape to the timber used in carpentry or joinery. 8. Seasoning increases the power in timber to held metal fasteners.
24.3 Methods of Seasoning of Timber

Seasoning of timber may be carried out in two ways:
24.3.1 Natural seasoning Air Drying/Seasoning:

In this method of seasoning the sawn timber is stacked in a dry place about 30 cm above floor level with longitudinal and cross pieces arranged one upon the another, leaving a space of a few cms in between, for free circulation of air. To keep wood clear of the ground, a suitable foundation is provided. To protect the stacks of wood from direct sunlight either a pitched roof is used or stacks are kept in shade. Wood seasoned by this method is generally fit for carpenters work after two years and for pointers work after nearly four years.
Advantages:
1. Natural or air seasoning does not necessitate much attention. 2. It is a simple and cheap method. 3. There are comparatively less chances of damage to the timber.
Disadvantages:
1. The process is very slow and extends over years. 2. For large stacks considerable space is required.
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3. It blocks the capital for a very long time. 4. Even under favourable conditions, it is difficult to reduce the moisture content to suit the requirements of certain jobs. 5. Timber may get damaged by insects and fungi during the seasoning period.
24.3.2 Water Seasoning:

In this method of seasoning timber consists of keeping logs of wood completely immersed on a running stream of water; the longer ends of the logs being kept pointing up-stream. By this process, the sap, sugar and gum etc., are leached out of the wood and replaced by water. The logs are then taken out and left to dry in an open place.
Advantages:
Water seasoning is associated with the following advantages: i. ii. iii. It is a quick process. As immersion in water causes more rapid and regular drying, the tendency of wood shrink or warp is reduced. As all organic food materials present in the sap wood are washed away, the wood is rendered less liable to be eaten away by worms or to decay to dry rot.
Disadvantages:
i. ii. The process reduces the elasticity and durability of the timber The timber is rendered brittle.
24.3.3 Artificial Seasoning

The artificial methods of seasoning are quick and the moisture content can be kept under control, which may vary from 4-12% depending upon the tropical conditions of the region where the product is to be used. For dry regions the water content may be 46% whereas in humid areas it may be around 10%. The most common method of artificial seasoning if kiln seasoning. Kiln Seasoning: In this system the timber is seasoned under controlled temperature and humidity conditions with proper air circulation and ventilation system. The rise in temperature should be such that the timber retains the original strength and elasticity. The required humidity level is maintained to avoid warping and cracking.
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The timber, inside the hot chamber, on the trolley is kept under controlled conditions for about a fortnight or so depending upon the initial water contents and the required moisture level. The quality of wood obtained by this method is inferior as compared to the one seasoned by natural methods.
Advantages
Following are the advantages of kiln seasoning: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. The moisture content can be reduced as per requirement. The timber can be seasoned thoroughly well and in short span of time under controlled conditions. The timber seasoned by the method is less liable to shrinkage. The wood can be used immediately as and when required. The drying is controlled and there are practically no chances for the attack of fungi and insects. The drying of different surfaces is even and uniform.
Disadvantages
Kiln seasoning entails the following disadvantages: i. ii. iii. This method is costly (though the space required is less). It requires skilled labour. Due to the process of drying being a quick, a continuous attention needs to be given to check seasoning defects such as warping, internal cracks, surface cracks and end-splits.
24.4 Conversion of Timber

After felling a tree, it is generally cut into standard sections to minimise wastage of wood. The process by which the timber is cut and sawn into suitable sections is known as the conversion of timber. The following points regarding conversion of timber are worth noting: a) The conversion of timber should be done in such a way that wastage of useful timber is minimum. b) An allowance of 3 mm to 6 mm should be made for squaring. planning and shrinkage. c) The saw cuts should be made tangential to the annual rings and practically parallel to the direction of medullary rays. By doing so. strong timber pieces are obtained. d) The wooden beams should be sawn in such a fashion that they do not contain pith in their cross-section; this is achieved by sawing the timber first through pith into two halves.
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Timber Trees of India
In this lesson we will discuss different timber tree in India like kail, babul, shisham, mango, teak etc and some market forms and sizes of timer like log, baulk, bole, plank, billet etc.
Structure:
25.1 25.2 Common Market Forms and Sizes of Timber Timber Trees of India 25.2.1 Deodar 25.2.2 Babul 25.2.3 Teak 25.2.4 Shisham 25.2.5 Mango 25.2.6 Mahogany 25.2.7 Walnut 25.2.8 Mulberry 25.2.9 Sal 25.2.10 Chir 25.2.11 Kail 25.2.12 Bamboo
Introduction
Some of the important timber trees in India are: - Deodar, babul, teak, shisham, mango, mahogany etc,
25.1 Common Market Forms and Sizes of Timber

Log: The stem or trunk of tree which is felled with branches cut off. Baulk: A piece of sawn timber, the cross-sectional dimensions of which exceed 5 cm in one direction and 20 cm in other direction. Battles: A piece of sawn timber, the dimensions do not exceeding 5 cm either in breadth or in thickness. Bole: The main stem of a tree. Bolt: A short log 1.25 m or less in length. Billet: A short length of a thin stem or branch. Plank: A piece of sawn timber with thickness not exceeding 5 cm and the width exceeding 5 cm. Board: A thin blank generally under 5 cm thick and 10 cm.
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Cant: A thick piece of timber with or without squared edges, sawn from a log and intended for further conversion into smaller sizes. Deal: a swan piece of wood which is 5 cm to 10 cm thick and 20 cm to 25 cm wide. Deal wood: The light timber used for packing cases. Hewn timber: The timber converted to size by an axe. Pole: A long, solid, straight trunk of a tree 10 to 30 cm in diameter at breast height and tapering gradually to the top. Post: A timber member used in an upright position in building. Scantling: A piece of timber, the cross-sectional dimension of which exceed 5 cm in both the directions but do not exceed 20 cm. Slat: In pencil manufacture. A sawn piece of wood about 185 mm x 65 mm x 6 mm in size. Sleeper: A piece of timber used as transverse support under rails in railway lines Strip: A piece of timber under 5 cm thick and less than 10 cm wide.
25.2 Timber Trees of India

Description of some important timber trees in India is given below:
25.2.1 Deodar:
It is a tall tree with long pointed leaves and is generally found in hills. It is the most important timber tree providing soft wood.
Characteristics
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. It yields soft wood having well defined grains. It is highly durable. It is light coloured wood and has distinct annual rings. Its average weight is 5450 N/m3 (at 12 per cent moisture content). It is strongly scented, oily and polishes well. It is moderately strong It can be easily worked.
Uses: It is used for making cheap and rough furniture, railway carriages, railway sleeper, packing boxes, structural work etc.
25.2.2 Babul:
This tree grows all over India and is available in abundance. It seldom attains a height greater than 15 m.
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Characteristics:
i. ii. iii. iv. Its colour is whitish red. It takes up good polish. Its average weight is 7000 N/m3. It is not very durable.
Uses:
i. ii. It is employed for constructional purposes, agricultural implements and tool handles. It is also used in low cost house construction and bullock carts.
25.2.3 Teak:
Teak wood is one of the best available hard woods. Its durability is due to the presence of aromatic oil which largely preserves it from the attack of white ants. It grows in Malabar (South India) and Central India.
Characteristics:
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii. It is strong and durable. Its colour is deep yellow to dark brown. Its average weight is 6400 N/m3. It is not difficult to work and can be finished and polished to obtain an excellent surface. It can be easily recognised by virtue of its distinct smell. It is resistant to moisture and certain chemicals. It does not corrode iron fastenings. It shrinks little. It can be easily seasoned. It is fire-resistant. It is not attacked by white ants and dry rot. It is moderately hard.
Uses:
i. ii. iii. It is used for heavy construction of permanent character like shipbuilding, piling, railway sleepers etc. It is also employed for high-class joinery and furniture. Its use is limited to superior work only as it is comparatively very costly.
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25.2.4 Shisham (Tali):

It grows widely in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
Characteristics:
i. ii. iii. iv. v. It is a broad leaved tree. It is moderately durable. Its average weight is 7000 N/m3 The wood is dark brown in colour. It is coarse grained.
Uses: It is used for constructional purposes, furniture and cabinet making, agricultural implements and bridge-piles etc.
25.2.5 Mango:
This tree is very famous for its fruit and is found all over India.
Characteristics:
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. Its wood is of inferior quality. It is coarse and open-grained. It has deep grey colour. The wood is readily attacked by white-ants and decays on exposure to wet atmosphere. Its average weight is 6900 N/m3. Easy to work but keeps its shape well.
Uses:
It is used for packing cases of all sorts, cheap furniture, tonga bodies, pattern making and ornamental cabinet work.
25.2.6 Mahogany:
It is a native tree of Cuba in West Indies and Central America. It is now becoming popular in India also.
Characteristics:
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. It has fine wavy grains. Reddish brown colour. Durable in water. Hard but easy to work. Average weight 6700 N/m3. Takes high polish.
Uses: It is used for high-class furniture, pattern making and ornamental cabinetwork.
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25.2.7 Walnut:
It is available mostly in hilly areas.
Characteristics:
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. Light brownish colour. Broad leaved tree. Average weight 5750 N/m3 Less durable. Resists the attack of white ants. Easy to work. Tough and flexible.
Uses:
It is employed for furniture, decorative work and cabinetwork.
25.2.8 Mulberry:
This tree yields strong, tough and elastic wood.
Characteristics:
i. ii. iii. iv. v. Wood can be easily turned, carved and finished to a smooth surface. Wood is of brownish colour. Broad-leaved tree. Average weight is 6750 N/m3. Seasons well.
Uses:
It is used for making sports goods like hockey sticks, tennis and badminton racket
25.2.9 Sal:
It is available mostly in hilly areas of U.P., Bihar, Assam and Visakhapatnam.
Characteristics:
i. ii. iii. iv. v. Wood is hard, close-grained, heavy and durable. Not easily attacked by white ants. Average weight is 8600 Nlm3. Easily worked but does not take good polish. Seasons slowly.
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Uses:
It is used in bridge construction, ship building, piling etc. It is however, not used for ornamental work.
25.2.10 Chir:
It is available in Himalayan region.
Characteristics:
i. ii. iii. iv. v. Reddish brown in colour. Average weight is 5700 Nlm3. Less durable. Easily worked but cracks. Seasons well.
Uses:
It is employed for inferior woodwork in low cost house building.
25.2.11 Kail:
It is mostly grown in Himalayan region.
Characteristics:
i. ii. iii. iv. Wood is close grained, heavy, moderately hard and durable. Brown in colour. Average weight is 5000 Nlm3. Seasons well.
Uses:
i. ii. It is used for door and window frames and panels, furniture making, beams, posts etc. It is also used in heavy engineering works such as bridge construction, ship building, piling etc.
25.2.12 Bamboo:
It grows in large varieties in Bengal, Assam and South India. Small varieties are found in low hills also.
Characteristics:
Strong and durable.
Uses:
i. ii. It is used in scaffolding, lanterns and bridge building. It is also employed for partitions, flooring, ceiling, roofing and almost all parts of house construction except for the fireplace. DSM/SRM/145
Wood Based Products
The products manufactured from different types of wood are called wood based products like: -veneer, plywood, boards like lamin board, block board, batten board etc.
Structure:
26.0 26.1 Introduction Forms of Wood Based Products 26.1.1 Veneers 26.1.2 Plywood 26.1.3 Batten Boards and Block Boards 26.1.4 Lamin Boards 26.1.5 Fibre Boards
26.0 Introduction
The product manufactured from different types of wood are called wood based products. Some important technical terms used in the manufacture of wood based products. Bond: An adhesive used on the wood at the time of application is called bond. Bonding: The process of uniting two or more pieces of wood by means of an adhesive. Core: The inner layer or layers of plywood. Glue Line: The resultant layer of adhesive affecting union between any two adjacent pieces in an assembly. Ply: Individual layers of veneer. : Three Ply: Plywood board made from three layers of veneers having thickness from 3 mm to 50 mm. Multi-Ply: Plywood board made of more than three layers of veneers. Open Defect: A defect in the plywood. Pleat: A defect in the plywood due to a veneer being folded parallel to the grain.
26.1 Forms of Wood Based Products 26.1.1 Veneers

The layers or sheets of varying thickness from 1 to 6 mm are called veneers. These are obtained with a rotary peeling machine. They are peeled off the log by a sharp knife in a long continuous sheet by rotating the log on its longitudinal axis. They are slued from logs of timber having extremely attractive and curly figures such as teak, sisoo, toon, mahogany, Walnut, Oak etc. They are used in construction where light, strength, non-shrinking and non-splitting properties are expected of timber.
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26.1.2 Plywood
A board formed by gluing together three or more layers of veneers or plies is known as plywood. The veneers are glued together usually with the grains of adjacent veneers running at right angles to each other. This cross binding of odd numbers of plies makes the plywood less prone to shrinkage. The outer ones are termed as face plies and the inner one as the core or cross band.
Advantages of Plywood:
i. ii. iii. iv. v. It gives better appearances as it can be formed in decorative designs and patterns by selecting figured veneers. It is light in weight and has greater strength. It gives uniform tensile strength in all directions. It is obtainable in required size. It is very easy to work. It is highly resistant to cracking, splitting and wrapping etc.
Uses
It is used commonly now days to save the increased cost of hard wood planks. It is mainly used for the construction of furniture, partition, ceiling, doors, and windows and for decorative purposes inside and outside the buildings.
26.1.3 Batten Boards and Block Boards

The boards having a core slab consisting of strips which are glued together between two veneers, one or either side, are known as batten boards or block boards. The direction of the grains of core battens is kept at right angles. They are manufactured or made on similar lines as plywood. They are not light but are comparatively strong. They do not split or crack easily.
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Uses
Batten boards are used for making partitions, packing, cases, floors, furniture panelling, bus bodies, railway coaches or table tops etc.
26.1.4 Lamin Boards

The boards having core of strips not exceeding 7 mm in thickness glued together between two or more veneers are known as lamin boards. They are also made on similar lines as plywood. lamin boards are stronger and durable. Lamin boards are used for making partitions, packing cases and for floors etc.
26.1.5 Fibre Boards

The boards which are made by pressing the mixture of saw dust, fibres of wood and glue are known as fibre boards.
Manufacture of Fibre Boards

To manufacture fibre boards, the selected wood is converted into chips about 2 cm long. These chips are put into an air tight steel vessel, called the gun and subjected to steam pressure of 30 to 60 kg/cm2. This process softens the wood gum which keeps the wood fibres in contact. They are than discharged by opening a value at the bottom. The wood fibres will come out from the cylinder with a great force. These fibres are refined, spread out on screens in the form of mats of required thickness and subjected to heat and great pressure in hydraulic presses to form solid dry sheets, known as fibreboards. These boards are generally from 3 to 12 mm in thickness, 1.2 to 5.5 in length and 1.2 m in width.
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Fibre Boards are classified as under

i. ii. iii. Insulating Boards Light and hard Boards Laminated fibre building boards.
Uses
i. ii. iii. iv. They are used for internal finish as well as panelling, suspended ceilings and for floors. They are used for insulation against heat and sound. They are used in making partitions. They are used in making flush doors, tabletops, for bus bodies, railway coaches etc.
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Summary:
The unit discussed above include the uses of wood and wood products in an interior such as: for structural purposes: Doors and windows, Floors, Ceilings, Furniture items, for decorative purposes like: Trims and beadings and Panelling etc Detailed studies of the types of wood and their characteristics and Main woods of India like Teak, deodar, shisham, mahogany, walnut, sal etc. Characteristics of good timber, defects in timber, seasoning of timber etc.
Revision points:
Detailed studies of the types of wood and their characteristics and Main woods of India like Teak, deodar, shisham, mahogany, walnut, sal etc. Characteristics of good timber, defects in timber, seasoning of timber etc.
Key words:
Timber: - is the wood suitable for building or engineering purposes and it is supplied to trees measuring not less than 0.5 m in girth. The most common defects are:Heart shake, star shake, cuoshake, radial shake, rind galls, upset, twisted fibres, burns, wind cracks, knots, honeycombing etc. Veneers:- are thin sheets or slices of wood of superior quality, having thickness varying from 0.4mm to 6 mm or more. Plywood: - is made by cementing together several layers of wood which may be thin veneers or thicker boards.
Intext questions:
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. What is timber? Discuss in detail the characteristics of a good timber. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using timber as compared to other materials? Into how many classes can trees be divided based upon their manner of growth? Discuss in detail. Discuss in detail the most common defects found in timber. What is the purpose of seasoning timber? Discuss in detail the various methods of seasoning timber. Write down the various market forms and sizes of timber. Give the characteristics and uses of the following timber trees: a) Deodar b) Teak c) Mango d) Shisham
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e) Chir i. ii. What are wood based products? Discuss in detail the advantages of using these products as compared to using wood. write short notes on the following: a) Veneers b) Plywood c) Blockboard d) Prelaminated board iii. Do a detailed market survey of the wood and wood products available in your area and prepare a project report.
Terminal exercise
A detail market survey to be done by the students wherein they will study all the aspects of timber and will also prepare a comparative chart of the characteristics and cost of the various wood and wood products available in the market.
Assignment/ learning activities

Students have to prepare a comparative chart of the characteristics and cost of the various wood and wood products available in the market.
Supplementary materials/ suggested reading

i. ii. iii. iv. Engineering materials by Surendra Singh Engineering Materials by Rajput Time Savers Standards for Interior Design and Space Planning Trade magazines
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To study about types of glass
Glass Terminology
Structure:
This chapter include all basic terminology of glass.
Introduction
The various types of glass available in the market and its basic terminology like Annealing, annealed glass, bevelling etc Annealed Glass: Standard float glass. Annealing: In the manufacturing of float glass, it is the process of controlled cooling done in a lehr to prevent residual stresses in the glass. Re-annealing is the process of removing objectionable stresses in glass by re-heating to a suitable temperature followed by a controlled cooling. Annealing Lehr: An on-line, controlled heating/cooling apparatus located after the tin bath & before the cooling conveyor of a float glass production line. It's purpose is to relieve induced stress from the flat glass product to allow normal cold end processing. Beveling: The process of edge finishing flat glass to a bevel angle. Bow (& Warp): A curve, bend or other deviation from flatness in glass. Bubbles: In laminated glass, a gas pocket in the interlayer material or between the glass & the interlayer. In float glass, a gaseous inclusion greater than 1/32" in diameter. Bullet Resistant: A multiple lamination of glass or glass and plastic designed to resist penetration from medium-to-super-power small arms and high-power rifles. Caulk: The application of a sealant to a joint, crack or crevice. A compound used for sealing that has minimum joint movement capability; sometimes called low performance sealant. Caulking: The blocking of exterior air or moisture leaks by filling cracks around doors, windows, or anywhere else where two surfaces meet and have minimum movement with a "putty" compound. Large cracks can be stuffed with mineral wood and weather sealed with caulking Curtain wall: An exterior building wall which carries no roof or floor loads and consists entirely or principally of metal or a combination of metal, glass, and other surfacing materials supported by a metal frame. There are two basic types:
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Custom - Walls designed specifically for one project, and using parts and details specially made for this purpose; Standard - Walls made up principally of parts and details standardized by their manufacturer and assembled in accord with either the architect's design or the manufacturer's stock patterns. Cutting: Scoring glass with a diamond, steel wheel, or other hard alloy wheel & breaking it along the score. Other methods of cutting glass include water jet & laser. Distortion: Alteration of viewed images caused by variations in glass flatness or inhomogeneous portions within the glass. An inherent characteristic of heat-treated glass. Double Glazing: In general, any use of two thicknesses of glass, separated by an air space, within an opening, to improve insulation against heat transfer and/or sound transmission. In factory-made double glazing units the air between the glass sheets is thoroughly dried and the space is sealed airtight, eliminating possible condensation and providing superior insulating properties. Fenestration: Any glass panel, window, door, curtain wall, or skylight unit on the exterior of a building. Flat glass: A general term that describes float glass, sheet glass, plate glass and rolled glass. Float glass: Glass formed on a bath of molten tin. The surface in contact with the tin is known as the tin surface or tin side. The top surface is known as the atmosphere surface or airside. Glass which has its bottom surfaces formed by floating on molten metal, the top surface being gravity formed, producing a high optical quality of glass with parallel surfaces and, without polishing and grinding, the fire-finished brilliance of the finest sheet glass. Fully Tempered Glass: Fully tempered glass if broken will fracture into many small pieces (dice) which are more or less cubical. Fully tempered glass is approximately four times stronger than annealed glass of the same thickness when exposed to uniform static pressure loads. Outside of North America is sometimes called "toughened glass". Glass: A hard brittle substance, usually transparent, made by fusing silicates, under high temperatures, with soda, lime, etc.
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Heat Absorbing Glass: Glass that absorbs an appreciable amount if solar energy. Heat-resistant glass: Glass able to withstand high thermal shock, generally because of a low coefficient of expansion. Heat-Strengthened Glass: Twice as strong as annealed glass; therefore, it is able to resist slightly stronger impacts. Produced in a similar manner to tempered glass (slower cooling than tempered). Heat strengthened glass is not considered safety glass & will not completely dice as will fully tempered glass. Heat Treated: Term used for both fully tempered glass & heatstrengthened glass. Insulating Glass: Insulating glass refers to two pieces of glass spaced apart and hermetically sealed to form a single-glazed unit with an air space between. Heat transmission through this type of glass may be as low as half that without such an air space. It is also called Double Glazing. Lite: Another term for a pane of glass used in a window. Frequently spelled "light" in the industry, but often spelled "lite" in text to avoid confusion with light as in "visible light". Patterned glass: One type of rolled glass having a pattern impressed on one or both sides. Used extensively for light control, bath enclosures and decorative glazing. Sometimes called "rolled", "figured" or "obscure" glass. Plate Glass: Polished plate glass is a rolled, ground and polished product with true flat parallel plane surfaces affording excellent vision. It has less surface polish than sheet glass and is available in thickness varying from 1/4" to 1-1/4". Now replaced by float glass. Polished Wire Glass: Wired glass that has been ground & polished on both surfaces. Reflective Glass: Glass with a metallic coating to reduce solar heat gain. Rolled glass: Glass formed by rolling, including patterned and wired glass. Sandblasted Finish: A surface treatment for flat glass obtained by spraying the glass with hard particles to roughen one or both surfaces of the glass. Glazing: (n) A generic term used to describe an infill material such as glass, panels, etc. (v) The process of installing an infill material into a prepared opening in windows, door panels, partitions, etc. Sheet Glass: A transparent, flat glass whose surface has a characteristic waviness replaced by float glass. There were three basic classifications of sheet glass: 1) single strength 3/32" thick; 2) double strength: 1/8" thick; 3) heavy sheet which has 3 thicknesses: 3/16", 7/32" and 1/4
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Solar Control Glass: Tinted and/or coated glass that reduces the amount of solar heat gain transmitted through a glazed product. Tempered Glass: As with heat-strengthened glass, it is re-heated to just below the melting point, but suddenly cooled. When shattered it breaks into small pieces. It is approximately five times stronger than standard annealed glass. It must be used as safety glazing in patio doors, entrance doors, side lites, and other hazardous locations. It can't be re-cut after tempering. Fully tempered glass is approximately four times stronger than annealed glass of the same thickness when exposed to uniform static pressure loads. Tinted glass: Glass with colorants added to the basic glass batch that gives the glass colour, as well as, light and heat-reducing capabilities. A mineral admixture is incorporated in the glass, resulting an a degree of tinting. Any tinting reduces both visual and radiant transmittance Transmittance: The ability of the glass to pass light and/or heat, usually expressed in percentages (visible transmittance, thermal transmittance, etc.) Double strength: In float glass, approximately 1/8" (3 mm) thick Edgework: Grinding the edge of flat glass to a desired shape or finish. Etch: To alter the surface of glass with hydrofluoric acid or other caustic agents. Unintentional permanent etching of glass may occur from alkali and other runoff from surrounding building materials. Wire glass: Rolled glass with a layer of meshed or stranded wire completely imbedded. Available as polished glass and patterned glass. Approved polished wired glass is used as transparent or translucent fire protection rated glazing. The wire restrains the fragments from falling out of the frame when broken. Polished or clear glass 1/4" thick. Wire mesh is embedded within the glass such that the glass will not shatter when broken. The wire pattern is available in many types. It is frequently used in skylights, overhead glazing, and locations where a fireretardant glass is required. Laminated Glass: Two or more sheets with an inner layer of transparent plastic to which the glass adheres if broken. Used for overhead, safety glazing, and sound reduction. Can be made of any kind of glass, but is most typically made of annealed, heat-strengthened, or tempered glass.
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Glass
To study the properties of glass and find out about the various types of glass used in interiors
Structure:
28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 28.5 28.6 Introduction Structure of glass Constituents of Glass and Their Functions Properties of Glass Requirements of Commercial Glass Classification of Glass 28.6.1 Soda lime or crown glass 28.6.2 Flint glass 28.6.3 Pyrex or heat resistant glass Special types of glasses 28.7.1 Float glass 28.7.2 Glazing 28.7.3 Laminated glass 28.7.4 Tempered glass 28.7.5 Wired glass 28.7.6 Glass block 28.7.7 Insulated glass 28.7.8 Curtain walls
28.7
28.1 Introduction
Glass is any substance or mixture of substances that has solidified from the liquid state without crystallization. Elements, compounds and mixture of varying composition can exist in the glass state, but the term glass as ordinarily used refers to material which is made by the fusion of mixture of silica, basic oxides and a few other compounds that react either with silica or with the basic oxides. No definite chemical compound can be identified in glass. Many of its properties correspond to those of a super cooled liquid whose ingredients can not be identified because they have not separated from the solution in crystalline form. Glass may also be defined as a hard, brittle, transparent or translucent material chiefly a compound of silica, combined with varying proportions of oxides of sodium, potassium calcium, magnesia, iron and other minerals. Glass is an amorphous substance having a homogeneous texture.
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28.2 Structure of glass:

The glass is a random arrangement of molecules, the great majority of which are oxygen ions bounded together with the network forming ions of silicon, boron or phosphorous. A glass made of silica alone has many desirable characteristics but unfortunately the high temperatures involved make it expensive, and difficult to prepare. In order to reduce the temperature, required network-modifying ions are added. Sodium, potassium and calcium are the most common.
28.3 Constituents of Glass and Their Functions

The various constituents of glass and their functions are described below: 1. Silica: It is the principal constituent of glass. If silica alone is used in the manufacture of glass, it could be fused only at a very high temperature but it would give a good glass on cooling. However, it is imperative to add some alkaline materials (sodium or potassium carbonate) and lime in suitable proportion to make this glass workable and resistant to weathering agents. 2. Sodium or potassium carbonate: It is an alkaline material and forms an essential component of glass. It is added in suitable proportion to reduce the melting point of silica and to impart viscosity to the molten glass. 3. Lime: It is added in the form of chalk. It is imparts durability, to the glass. In place of lime, sometimes, lead oxide is also added; it makes the glass bright and shining. 4. Manganese dioxide; It is added in suitable proportion to correct the colour of glass due to the presence of iron in raw materials of glass. It is also called 'Glass maker' soap. 5. Cullet It is the old broken glass of the same type as that which is intended to be prepared. It is added in small quantity to provide body to the glass. 6. Colouring substance:
While manufacturing a coloured glass, a suitable colouring substance is added at fusion stage to provide the desired colour to the glass.
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The various colouring substances for manufacturing glass of different colours are given below; Colour Black Colouring substance Cobalt, nickel manganese oxide Chromic oxide Cuprous oxide, selemium Colour and Violet Colouring substance Manganese dioxide
Green Red
White Yellow
Cryolite, tin oxide Cadmium sulphate
28.4 Properties of Glass

Following are the properties of glass: 1. No definite crystalline structure. 2. No sharp melting point. 3. Absorbs, refracts or transmits light. 4. Affected by alkalies. 5. An excellent electrical insulator at elevated temperatures. 6. Extremely brittle. 7. Available in beautiful colours. 8. Not affected by air or water. 9. Not easily attacked by ordinary chemical reagents. 10. Capable of being worked in several ways. 11. Can take up a high polish (and may be used as substitute for very costly gems). 12. Possible to weld pieces of glass by fusion. 13. As a result of advancement made in the science of glass production, it is possible to make glass lighter than cork or softer than cotton or stronger than steel. 14. Glass can be cleaned easily by any of the following methods: Applying methylated spirit. Rubbing finely powdered chalk. Rubbing damp salt for Painting the glass panes with lime-wash cleaning paint spots, and leaving it to dry and then washing with clean water.
28.5 Requirements of Commercial Glass

i. The material must melt at commercially obtainable temperature. Fused silica cools to a glass that is superior to ordinary glass, but the temperature required to melt it is so high that its production is expensive and its use restricted.
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ii. iii. iv.
The molten mixture must remain in the amorphous or non-crystalline condition after cooling. The fluidity of molten glass must persist to a sufficient extent to permit the formation of desired shaped while the glass is cooling. The glass must be reasonably permanent in the use for which it is intended. Water and acids more readily attack glass with a high proportion of sodium oxide than glass that contains less sodium oxide and more lime and magnesia. Glasses low in basic oxides are less readily attacked.
28.6 Classification of Glass

Glass may be classified in the following categories based upon its composition and properties:
28.6.1 Soda lime or crown glass:

It is the cheapest quality of glass. Its composition is not rigidly fixed, but can be varied both as to the amount of ingredients and the chemical compound used. It is easily fusible at low temperatures. It has a clean a clear state. It is possible to blow or to melt articles made of this glass with the help of simple sources of heat. Uses: it is typically used for window glazing, plate glass and container bottles.
28.6.2 Flint glass:

It contains varying proportions of lead oxide to make it suitable for various purposes. Leads provides brilliance and high polish to the glass making it suitable for special purposes. It liquefies at a lower temperature than soda-lime glass and has a better lustre.
28.6.3 Pyrex or heat resistant glass:

Both soda-lime and flint glass are unable to withstand sudden temperature changes due to their large co-efficient of thermal expansion. Elimination of the basic oxides and inclusion of boron oxide produce a glass that is very resistant to thermal shock and to attack by water and acids. The temperature required to melt and fine such a glass is so high that it has to be heated in the electric arc The familiar Pyrex glasses, which are used extensively for cooking utensils and laboratory wares, are borosilicate glasses.
28.7 Special types of glasses:

There are several types of glass, as a designer, you need to understand the differences and appropriate uses of each.
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28.7.1 Float glass Float glass is the most common type of glazing in use today. It succeeds plate glass, and has
very similar qualities to plate glass (although float glass is less expensive), except the manufacturing process is different. There is no need to polish or grind float glass (plate glass is polished for an exceptionally clear quality). Float and plate glass can be treated in various ways during the manufacturing process to reduce heat transfer (such as with low-E glass), alter visibility (mirrored coatings), and to tint the glass with a colour.
28.7.2 Glazing
Glazing refers to the panes or sheets of glass that are set into a frame or frameless condition.
28.7.3 Laminated glass

Laminated glass refers to two or more layers of glass that have been laminated together, most often the bonding occurs with polyvinylbutryal. The glass being laminated together can be float, tempered, or heat-strengthened glass. Laminated glass has higher impact strength than other types of glazing working alone. When laminated glass is broken, the inner layer of laminating material holds the glass pieces together. Unless the glass laminated together is tempered glass, the lamination process does nothing to affect the shards of glass present, it merely holds them together. Several characteristics of glazing can be enhanced or introduced with the use of laminated glass. The glass may be designed for security purposes (bullet-resistant glass is a laminated product), for acoustical performance (laminated glass has much better sound resistance than float or tempered glass), for privacy purposes (a chemical can be introduced to the lamination that, when activated, causes the glass to appear opaque). In addition, patterns and graphics may be laminated within the glass. Laminated glass is considered safety glass.
28.7.4 Tempered glass

Tempered glass is most easily distinguished by its breaking characteristics. When tempered glass breaks, it breaks into small cubical or rounded pieces, not into shards of glass. Tempered glass is created through a re-heating process during its manufacture. Tempered glass is considered safety glass. Because of its breakage characteristics, and because it resists impact better than float glass, tempered glass is required in many locations in the built environment where human impact contact is a possibility. This includes locations near the handles of doors, and where kicking may inadvertently occur. Tempered glass is much stronger than float glass, by approximately four times. After glass has been tempered, it cannot be cut or drilled (or deeply etched). Any of these activities must be anticipated and accomplished prior to the glass being tempered. Students Reference Material DSM/SRM/160
28.7.5
Wired glass
Wired glass is most commonly used in fire-rated assemblies. Wired glass receives its descriptive name due to the wire mesh that is embedded in its centre. This wire mesh helps the glass withstand both impact breakage and helps the glass retain it's shape and integrity in the case of excessive heat. Wired glass cannot be tempered. Other types of glazing can be used in fire-rated situations, including many newer products such as gel-filled glass and a clear ceramic material. The building official must always be consulted in the proposed use of special or newer products in fire-rated situations.
28.7.6
Glass block
Glass block is typically found with masonry products in its classification, but is included here for it's potential use in glazed opening situations. Glass block is available in several standard sizes and is installed with either a mortar or silicone system. Glass block may be clear or with many different available patterns, the level of visual privacy can be adjusted greatly with appropriate selection of glass block. Because of the construction of individual glass blocks as well as the installation method, glass block provides a higher degree of acoustical privacy than other forms of glazing.
28.7.7
Insulated glass
Insulated glass refers to two or more sheets of glass that are separated by a sealed air space. Double-glazing is typically insulated glass, as is triple glazing. The incorporation of a dead air space between the sheets of glass improves thermal performance and reduces condensation on the face of the glass. There are varying thicknesses of insulated glass; typically the thickness is dependent on the width of the air space incorporated. Sometimes an inert gas replaces the air in the space between the sheets of glass to improve thermal performance even more.
28.7.8
Curtain walls
Curtain walls refer to exterior walls consisting of metal framing and either glass or spandrel panels. Curtain walls are typically not load-bearing walls, and create a 'skin' for the building. There are several methods of assembly for curtain walls, each refers to the major components used to frame the glass.
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Application of Glass in Interiors
To study the role of glass in interiors
Structure:
29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 29.5 29.6 29.7 Introduction Solid glassware Ultraviolet Glass One-Way Vision Glass Armour Plate Glass Decorating Clear Glass Stained Glass
29.1 Introduction
"A man who looks on glass, on it may stay his eye, or if he pleases through it pass, and then the heaven espy." Apparently fragile, yet structurally capable of supporting its own weight in quite large areas, glass is as ethereal in quality as stone is solid, or steel strong. A beautiful and interesting material affording boundless possibilities, it can be obtained in transparent form, many different translucent or opaque grades, and in any number of colours in addition to the more common clear form. Technology has developed it until properties have been introduced to enhance its natural advantages and modify some of its disadvantages, which are of paradoxical nature. For example, a large area of glass reveals a fine vista to advantage, but often cancels out privacy. It may induce far too much warmth when heat is present and be too cold when it is absent. However, you may have privacy without loss of light, and openness through an expansive interior, yet highlight certain spaces.
29.2 Solid glassware:

Solid glassware features are decorative and so are different methods of treating glass surfaces. Glass can be fluted, reeded, rough cast or feathered. If possible get a sample box or call in at a specialist dealing in glass and mirror ware, and look at the 'rolled' glass, impressed on one side with parallel ribs, the 'cathedrals', which have ripples or dimples on one side, wired 'Georgian' glass with mesh reinforcement used for fire regulation purposes, and 'prismatic' glass which directs light specifically in one particular direction. This is helpful when you either want to increase the lighting in an obscure area, or deflect glare from direct sun.
29.3 Ultraviolet Glass:

There is ultraviolet glass, more usually placed on the external facade to allow the passage of ultraviolet rays which are blocked by normal glass. While this is expensive, it is of great benefit to the unadventurous sunbather - although in these days of ozone depletion one must not forget
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the risk of skin cancer in spending time behind a sheet of glass which admits ultraviolet light when one is more used to being 'safe' behind conventional glass. There is also heat-absorbing glass that reduces the infra-red radiation of a strong sun and therefore keeps a room cooler and helps prevent fabric fading without losing any natural light. In addition one can find anti-sun glass which absorbs the heat through a cool blue/green glass, and fire-resisting glass which has an electro-copper glazing of decorative quality.
29.4 One-Way Vision Glass:

To be effective, one-way vision glass has to have a higher illumination in front than on the reverse side, otherwise it just reverts to silver striped glass on both sides. It is often asked for in hospitals and shops, to allow, for instance, the occupant of an office to see customers or patients without being seen, and should be considered very carefully in conjunction with the appropriate lighting.
29.5 Armour Plate Glass:

For doors and shelves, counters and showcases, armour plate glass is essential for strength. It must not be cut, drilled or worked in any way on site and is supplied in certain specific sizes. Any decoration that is required has to be done prior to processing; otherwise, if by position and clarity it constitutes a danger, with people crashing into it (and it does happen!) then some form of protective timber, metal slatting or stencilled motif would help prevent this. It must be remembered, however, that one of the difficulties of any form of 'sticking' or 'painting' on glass is that the reverse side will also be seen on a free-standing form.
29.6 Decorating Clear Glass:

Unless the glass concerned is used for wall panels or wall finishes, where a glossy black or mirrored 'silvered' glass is more effective as it does not reveal the backing, it is better to decorate clear, plain glass sensitively, by various means such as the following: Acid Embossing: Acid embossing dissolves or etches the surface, which then becomes frosted when an alkali such as soda is applied. The concentrations and applications can be varied, and therefore in the hands of a really skilled craftsman or artist, very attractive and effective designs can be accomplished. Graphic designs are often carried out with this method, in which case the reversed side of the glass is etched and illuminated by suitable lighting to give the desired effect. Gilding or silvering may also be used for added emphasis and decorative richness, and the interplay of different textures in gold or silver can create a design of considerable subtlety and interest. Wheel cutting: Wheel cutting is literally like drawing direct but with an abrasive wheel of different cutting edges, which make various types of incisions in the glass. A tremendous variety of effects can therefore be gained, and provided the decorative quality of the glass is enhanced by the cutting and design, both elegant and decorative qualities result, besides creating a partial obscurity. Sandblasting: Sandblasting can be used on transparent and opaque glass and can result in fine lines, flat areas or modelled effects. These are created by particles of sand and similar substances being fired at high speed at the surface, which can be taken down to as much as one third of the thickness of the glass. This method is also used to create a key for other finishes such as enamels,
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and for cutting awkward pieces. Deep, light and shaded sand blast are the basic types of texture that can be obtained. Edge Finishing: Finally, glass can be finished around the edges in a variety of ways, set into frames and fixed with adhesives or, for large areas, clips. Screws can also be used, set into collars of fibre, rubber or metal, and protruding sufficiently to avoid the screw 'pinching' into the glass. Insulation must always be provided between metal clips and silvered mirror to avoid corrosive interaction between them. Made by grinding or wheel cutting, the popular bevelled edge can be a straightforward slant from front to back, or mitred at 45 degrees, 'feathered' with an obtuse angle, or finished with a very steep angle from front to back. Otherwise the normal arris edge can be rounded in several different profiles. Combined with areas of structural interest, or groups of accessories, beautiful effects can be gained from plain and simple glass or mirrored sheets. However, there are certain points that must be remembered. When mirrored glass is being used it is important to ensure that ugly background items are not unwittingly reflected, thereby destroying the enchantment. Nor should strong lights be directed at them, so that they glare unceasingly and create visual discomfort. Also, if special anti-glare or tinted glass is used for filtering heat and sun through the external facade, then colours and textures may well be affected by this, and should be adjusted accordingly. The same applies if tinted or coloured glass is used in light fittings themselves, since it will ultimately affect their brilliance and performance and cast coloured light onto fabrics chosen in different conditions. For flattering complexions, pale pink tinted mirrors are helpful as opposed to the pale blues, greens and ambers which make people look sallow. Pink can create a glowing atmosphere for exclusive restaurants, ballrooms and their adjoining powder rooms. Although glass is relatively inert it can be seen to bend under pressure, and does expand and contract. Therefore it must be set in rubber, wash-leather, foam rubber, plastic, felt or velvet, even though weathering mastics are obviously not necessary internally, to protect the glass from shattering or rattling and to allow tolerance of movement between the glass and the frame. It is also important to keep to the ratios of size/thickness/weight recommended by the manufacturers, and to ensure that mirrors are set in adequate damp-resistant conditions with shatter-proof spacers behind. Otherwise glass and mirror will be found to be resistant to most chemicals and dirt, and yet easy to clean if necessary. Impermeable and not abrasively vulnerable, it is a hard and sparkling material to use on walls and ceilings, and for suspended free-standing items and sculptures.
29.7 Stained Glass

Stained glass is another attractive material that not only has its own beauty, but can, by luminous reflections in adjacent materials such as tiles, metals, marbles and gloss paints, add considerably to the charm and richness of the interior. For proper effect it must be combined with light and, if used in internal/external viewing position, it must look well with the rest of the external facade.
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It is normally made of numerous pieces of coloured glass, rather like mosaics, set into lead strips. There is a tendency for stained glass to bend under pressure, and therefore if reinforcing rods of iron or copper are incorporated it is better if these can relate to the design in some way. There are also interesting stained glass and concrete screens that can be designed for impressive areas if they do not need to be lit extensively by natural means. Since the thickness of glass is embedded into plaster or a concrete free-standing frame, it tends to assume a rather more solid appearance. Antique glass, that has the 'bull's eye' shape and uneven texture of the first window glass ever made, can be introduced into such features if desired. Indeed, techniques have been developed where actual coloured pieces can be fused or stuck onto a large plate glass window, in a random but balanced 'glass mural' either framed and free-standing or fixed to a suitable backing on a wall, and again properly lit to show its quality to advantage.
DSM/SRM/165

To study about fixing of glass.
Glazing
Structure:
30.1 30.2 30.3 Introduction Frames and Operation Code Considerations
30.1Introduction
Glazing on a project may be found in several locations, in exterior walls as windows or curtain walls, on the roof as skylights, in interior walls, and in doors and sidelites. Regardless of the ultimate location of glazing, considerations involved in the design and selection of the size and type of glass remain basically the same. Issues of heat gain or loss, visual and acoustical privacy, view, security, and code considerations all enter into the design decisions. We will discuss these issues and further our understanding of types and terminology involved in the subject of glazing.
30.2 Frames and Operation

Glass may be set into frames or it may be installed with a frameless technique. Wood, steel, and aluminium are the most common materials for framing glass. Each has specific unique characteristics that are explained in more depth in the 'Frame Types' section of this module. Regardless of the frame material, there are some common features when glass is set into a frame. The glass does not actually rest on or directly contact the frame material, but rather is set onto setting blocks. Glass, wood, steel, and aluminium each have different expansion and contraction coefficients when exposed to heat and cold. A fixed connection directly between the glass and frame material could cause the glass to crack or otherwise break. Windows may be fixed or operable. Operable windows are selected when ventilation and/or communication are important characteristics. Operable windows are available in several standard types. Most common are single- or double-hung, casement, awning, and horizontal sliding. Each of the operation types has advantages and disadvantages based on the specific installation and location. The actual mechanism for operation is often one of the disadvantages to an operable window. When
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specifying, be sure to consider the strength of the individual who will be opening the window for single- and double-hung and for horizontal sliding windows. In the case of a person with impaired hand or arm strength either due to young or old age or a disability; or for those with limited mobility of fingers or hands the sliding varieties (whether vertical sliding or horizontal sliding) may need extra design considerations. With casement windows, often the crank for opening is replaced with a 'butterfly' knob to allow window treatments to fall into place completely. If the windows are exterior, consideration must be given to their proximity to a walking path, as both awning and casement windows extend outward from the building face.
30.3 Code Considerations

Building and life safety codes articulate specific requirements for location, type, and size of glazing. When we keep in mind that each of the codes has the primary purpose of safeguarding the health, life, and safety of building occupants, the variety and comprehensive nature of requirements for glazing make sense. Glass lites within doors are allowed in certain situations as defined by code. A 20-minute door (designed for a one-hour interior wall) may have glass lites installed, as may class B 1-hour and 1 1/2 hour doors. Class C 3/4 hour doors (designed for a one-hour interior wall) may also have glass lites. In each of these situations the actual type of size of glass is restricted. You must check the governing codes in effect for the specific project location. Fire-protected windows can be a part of a door assembly (such as a sidelite or transom) or can be a separate entity within a wall. The rating required for a fire-protected window generally depends on its location within the building. The glass, frame and hardware all become a part of the rated window assembly. The glazing within fire-rated assemblies is restricted in size (usually not more than 100 sq. inches in a fire-rated door) and type (fire-rated glass). Fire-rated glass includes wired glass, specialty fire-rated glass (such as ceramic or gel-filled), and in some special situations, glass block. Egress is another concern governed by codes. In sleeping rooms, windows provide a secondary means of egress for occupants as well as entry for fire fighters. As such, their position and size are very important. These windows must conform to several requirements: they must be at least 5.7 sq. ft. in area, must have a minimum clear height of 24", a minimum clear width of 20", and
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the sill cannot be higher than 44" from the floor. If the egress window happens to be below the ground level, there are also requirements for window well sizes. If a window is in a location or of a size that it may be mistaken for a door, safety glazing is required. If glazing is located within 24" of a doorway and is less than 60" above the floor it must be safety glazing. This ensures that if a person misses the door and accidentally pushes on the glazing, that they will not be injured. Safety glazing is also required if all of the following four conditions are present: 1) glazing of more than 9 sq. ft.; 2) bottom edge is less than 18" above the floor; 3) top edge is more than 36" above the floor; and 4) one or more walking surfaces is within 36" horizontally of the panel. Safety glazing is also required for bathtub and shower enclosures, pool and spa enclosures, and for glass railings. Glass railings must be fully tempered or laminated heat-strengthened glass to be structurally adequate.
DSM/SRM/168
Summary:
This unit include the study of various types of glass available in the market like: Sheet and plate Waxed and laminated Coloured Insulating Heat resistant and Glass blocks. Study of properties, sizes, prices various types of glass. Role of glass in a decorating scheme.Glass products like furniture, stained glass, painted glass, etched glass etc.Edge treatment of Glass like bevelling, grinding etc.Detailing Basic Fixing with general information on putty, beading, pliers and round cutting blade, etc Leaving allowance for expansion and contraction while fixing in a frame. Etc.
Revision points:
1. Role of glass in a decorating scheme.Glass products like furniture, stained glass, painted glass, etched glass etc.Edge treatment of Glass like bevelling, grinding etc.Detailing 2. Basic Fixing with general information on putty, beading, pliers and round cutting blade, etc 3. Leaving allowance for expansion and contraction while fixing in a frame. Etc
Key words:
Glass: - may be defined as a hard , brittle, transparent or translucent material chiefly composed of silica, combined with varying proportin of oxides of sodium, potassium , calcium , magnesia iron and other materials. # For the manufacture of glass two type of furnace are used 1. Pot furnace 2. tank furnace Glass fibres: - are made by letting the molten glass drop through tiny orfice and blowing with air or steam to attenate the fibre. Stained glass: - Stained glass is another attractive material that not only has its own beauty, but can, by luminous reflections in adjacent materials such as tiles, metals, marbles and gloss paints, adds considerably to the charm and richness of the interior
Intext Questions:
1. Explain in detail the structure of glass. 2. What are the properties of glass?
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3. Discuss in detail the essential requirements of commercial glass. 4. Explain in detail the various categories of glass based upon its composition. 5. Explain any five types of special glass in detail. 6. Give a detailed account of the application of glass in interiors. 7. What are the various methods of decorating clear glass? 8. What points would you keep in mind while installing glazing in any building? 9. Explain the following terms: a) Annealing b) Curtain wall c) Double Glazing d) Float glass e) Heat-Strengthened Glass
Terminal Exercise:
Students have to carry out a market survey on the various types of glass and glass products available in your area. Keeping in consideration the properties, sizes and prices of various types of glasses.

Prepare a detailed report highlighting the cost, materials, and availability of glass products in your area, in report students should also include the Detailed description about the Basic Fixing of glass with general information on putty, beading, pliers and round cutting blade, etc
Supplementary materials/suggested reading:

1. Manufacturers Details 2. Engineering materials (Surendra Singh) 3. Relevant I.S.Codes 4. Building Construction (Mackay, 4 Volumes)
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Metals
To study the various types of metals used in interiors and their properties.
Structure:
31.1 31.2 Introduction Ferrous Materials
31.1 Introduction
Cast and wrought work, firm and strong in itself, turns functional items into works of artistic interest. Duct and grill covers, floors, walls, ceilings, staircases, panels, fireplaces etc. are just some of the areas which can be enhanced by this versatile material. Then there are door surrounds, light fittings, furniture trimmings... the list is enormous. Scintillating and glowing in various degrees of reflective finishes, smooth mounted sheets create effects more subtle than mirror glass, blurring and blending metallic reflections into stronger depths and brighter highlights. Elaborately etched, beaten or embossed panels, polished or perhaps enamelled, can serve a functional as well as a decorative purpose. Finally the small, often solid or composite cast items that can be made as ornamental features in addition to being necessary items of hardware, all contribute to the contrasting gleam that is so necessary in most interiors to enliven and maintain their interest. Metals do not necessarily harden the atmosphere or create a clinical environment; but if that effect is required then metals and plastics among other things can combine beautifully and elegantly to create just that. There is no need for harshness or crudity of detailing, although all too often this is in people's minds when they condemn the so-called 'modern' materials. Therefore it is important to appreciate fully the qualities that such materials can afford. Developments in recent years in the plastics field have been involved in improving their overall strength after processing and moulding. It is now possible to obtain plastics with all their advantages of fluidity and lightness and increase their strength so that they are comparable to metals. As you can imagine, this has important and far-reaching implications, although one always has to temper new discoveries and research with a certain amount of caution. The behaviour of new materials or newly imposed properties on existing materials must be at least as satisfactory as well-established and well-tried materials. These are already covered by British Standards, Codes of Practice and other yardsticks adopted throughout the world. Since these outline criteria of minimum performance requirements, anything below these values would not be reaching satisfactory standards. The term 'metal' has been used generally, being intended to cover both those ores that are mined and the metal by-products that are subsequently separated in the purifying process.
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31.2 Ferrous Materials

The ferrous metals are iron base metals which include all varieties of irons and steels. These metals go a long way in bringing prosperity to a country. Ordinarily, the terms, iron, cast iron and steel in reference to a metal in which the element iron (Fe) is the major element do not refer to a specific metal or alloy, but are loosely used to indicate a general type of iron alloy. The term iron should be used only when reference is made to the element iron (Fe). In speaking of the commercial forms of iron such terms as Pig iron, grey cast iron, wrought iron etc. may be used. Each of these terms represents some commercial form of element iron, and each form may occur in many variations of chemical composition which influence the functions within each class. Due to tremendous production tonnage of these metals, and to their many forms and varied uses, a detailed study is not a simple and easy task. Steel (master metal) is obtainable in great quantities, both in wrought and cast form. Its plasticity, whether at room temperature or at elevated temperatures, allows it to be worked either hot or cold. Its combination of strength with plasticity makes it the most important metal for use in large structures. By varying the carbon content and by suitable heat treatments, we can alter the properties from a very soft, workable steel of the type used, in pressed metal parts, wire and similar materials to a hard, strong steel suitable for use in tools and machinery where great strength and hardness are required. Wrought iron is the oldest form of iron made by man. It was originally produced by slow reduction of the metal from the ore in the forge fire. This reduction process resulted in a very impure iron which required further refining by mechanical working, that is by hammering or shaping to the form in which it is used. Wrought iron is a metal containing high purity iron and iron silicate in physical association. It is very low in carbon and the iron silicate or slag is distributed throughout the base metal in fibres which gives it a woody or fibrous appearance when fractured. Cast iron is fundamentally an alloy whose chief elements are iron, silicon and carbon. Irons are available with a wide range of properties. Pig iron, grey cast iron, white cast iron, chilled cast iron and malleable iron are all referred to as cast iron, chiefly because these forms of irons are not plastic enough, even when hot to be forgeable; therefore they are always produced commercially by a process of melting and casting into shape, the commercial form of each of these metals is in castings.
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Aluminium
To study the role and properties if aluminium used in interiors
Structure:
32.1 32.2 Introduction Use of Aluminium in Interior Design
32.1 Introduction
Aluminium is relatively soft, non-magnetic and much less dense than brass or copper. Silvery in colour, it has a wide range of uses and can be easily worked. Extruded, pressed, forged, drawn, moulded, stamped, bent, hot- and cold-rolled, and shaped, it is attacked by alkalis and weak acids but inert to sulphur. It does not interact with zinc, magnesium or cadmium, but has to be insulated from other metals. Zinc and copper can be used as alloy elements which affect the final properties of the metal, that can then be brazed, welded, rivetted, soldered or joined by adhesives.
32.2 Use of Aluminium in Interior Design

Although aluminium has been known since at least 500 BC, and is quite a common element of the earth's resources, it has been relatively recently used in the fields of architecture and interior design. Since the mid 1920s ornamental grille work, balustrades and railing, windows, doors, meshwork, chain curtains, screens and panels, plain, patterned or enamelled, have been incorporated into sympathetic schemes in many types of buildings. Moreover, wall and acoustic tiles, Venetian blinds and decorative rolling shutters and duct covers are items also normally available in standard components and castings, which vary considerably due to specific treatments and processing conditions. There are certain different names and definitions for this metal around the world, so you should check every aluminium product under consideration for exact properties and suitable uses, getting the latest information from the manufacturers. Chemical action may occur between aluminium, wood, masonry and mortar in certain conditions, and therefore the metal needs special treatment or a protective membrane to prevent it being affected detrimentally, or indeed causing problems itself. As always, when designing something purpose-made, you should bear in mind how the item is going to be dealt with while being made in the workshop, then in transportation, and finally during its assembly on site. If it is not possible to use standard component parts, then one must understand the limitations on size that the various finishing processes impose. It will always be easier to ensure a satisfactory design both aesthetically and technically if all the separate parts
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are arranged to fit together easily and compatibly with rhythm and balance between the joints. Otherwise untold difficulties and expenses are likely to occur. Any moving parts that are likely to rub against each other should be designed with separators or spacers to avoid the coating being undermined. If aluminium panelling has to comply with fire requirements then it has to face composite panels of suitable backing and core infill, since it has a very low melting point. Otherwise this has to be combated in some way by a toughening up process. Aluminium foil, however, is used successfully for insulation in composite panel form but expansion joints as always have to be included. The various finishes for aluminium, which also apply to other metals, include grinding, polishing, scratching, sand-blasting, embossing, chemical finishes (developed especially for aluminium) and the more expensive but most effective and satisfactory electrochemical and anodized finishes. It is possible to create metallic colours with this treatment; other interesting finishes that can be obtained are opaque, translucent or glossy, and in varying degrees of reflectivity. Surfaces that have been prepared can take other finishes such as porcelain, vitreous enamel, paints and lacquers, or be electroplated with another metal. The finished surfaces must be cleaned by the correct methods and cleaning agents to avoid undermining the effects.
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Other Metals
To study the various types of metals used in interiors and their properties.
Structure:
33.1 33.2 33.3 33.4 33.5 33.6 33.7 33.8 33.9 33.10 Copper Brass Bronze Antimony Chromium Gold Silver Nickel Stainless Steel Metal Finishes
33.1 Copper
Copper is an extremely important historical metal, used extensively in the past, both in the Mediterranean world of the Ancients, and China and India, and later in Central America and Peru. It is a rich-looking and non-magnetic metal, with a reddish-brown colour that is bright when polished but has a protective green patina (verdigris) when allowed to tarnish (oxidation caused by interaction with the oxygen in the atmosphere). It can be welded, brazed and soldered and is an excellent conductor of heat, although it must not be allowed to come into contact with steel, aluminium, zinc, magnesium or stainless steel as it will corrode them. Also in damp areas there is a tendency for it to affect some building materials and cause staining, so care has to be taken with its installation. Copper can be cast, drawn, extruded, spun, hammered, punched, or worked hot or cold, and, being an excellent conductor of electricity, is often used as a base for other metal plating, including chromium and silver. Woven into wire cloth or mesh, it is ideal for flame-proof vents, grilles and screens. It is also the main ingredient for several other alloys (mixtures of more than one metal) such as brass and bronze, which are equally attractive in their form, but different in colouring. In sheet form there are many uses for copper, including facing counters, forming light fittings and edging display cases, for example, although expansion can be a problem, as it does have a high coefficient of expansion when heated. It is attacked by alkalis and many acids, but resists sea air well.
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33.2 Brass
Brass is mainly a mixture of copper and zinc, which vary in proportions and thereby affect the colour of the resultant alloy, which can be from a very light yellow to a dark golden colour. Not as strong or as hard as iron-based alloys, it is easier to work and resists corrosion better. It must not be placed in contact with iron, steel, stainless steel, aluminium, zinc or magnesium if there is a risk of galvanic action. It is used for all types of decorative doors, fittings and trimmings for architectural details such as doors, windows, counters and furniture. Brazing is a normal method of joining, besides welding and soldering, and polishing is used to obtain the bright sheen that is so attractive.
33.3 Bronze
Bronze is very similar to brass and can be rolled and extruded, forged and cast, since it is dense, hard and corrosion-resistant. Bronze and brass sometimes get confused in annotation, but tin rather than zinc is the main ingredient mixed with copper to produce bronze, and it is a darker, redder material than brass. There are simulated bronzed finishes that will be discussed later, but the main architectural ideas for this somewhat difficult to work and expensive material are tiles, plaques, screens and ornamental grilles. Sculptures, both free standing and as murals, whether cast, forged or extruded, can be impressive as focal points in prestige buildings.
33.4 Antimony
Antimony is primarily important these days as a fire-proofing element and as an ingredient for paints, enamels and lacquers, although it is strictly a metal, and was used as such by the Chaldeans as long ago as 4000 BC. In view of its modern use it will be referred to later in the 'Applied Finishes' section, together with titanium, and zinc, which in solid form is only used internally for very functional positions such as ducting.
33.5 Chromium
Chromium (Chrome) is associated with the modern interior more than any other metal. Capable of a brilliant sparkling finish, it is generally speaking non-magnetic and oxidation-resistant, sheds water well and does not tarnish in air. While it can be cast and hot-forged, it is too brittle to be worked cold. Besides being useful in non-ferrous alloys, it has increased in use and importance as ferro-chromium in cast iron, alloy and stainless steel. Although there are several methods of producing chromium commercially, the processes are expensive and specific. Whether it is to coat alloys or ferrous metals, to be completely protective the coating needs to be of ample thickness, preferably with a coating of copper, or nickel, or
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both. Again, you may find dimensional limitations in the processing plant, so that if a particular design is envisaged, discussions in order to understand the possibilities are imperative. The resultant attractive steel-white, water-resistant surface, if handled properly in the interior, is well worthwhile, however, giving an elegant and sophisticated appearance. For a firm chance of continuing satisfaction, small types of items, trimmings, furniture, framing, counters, display and bar details, bathroom fittings and light fittings are recommended, particularly as these will show off its qualities to best advantage.
33.6 Gold
Gold is known to everybody in some form or another, but is very limited for decorative use in interior work due to its cost and availability. It is most malleable and ductile, and can be rolled, drawn, spun, hammered and cast. It has a special lustre and pleasant colouring which varies in tone from a white, bright yellow to a reddish blue gold. It is corrosion-resistant to air and not attacked by acids, having itself a great chemical stability. Used to plate metals, it is chiefly found as a decorative finish on interior fittings, and can be applied to brass, bronze, copper, nickel and silver. Welding or soldering, but not machining, are acceptable methods of joining. Gold leaf as an applied finish will be mentioned later.
33.7 Silver
Silver follows naturally from gold, and is in fact the next easiest metal to work. Rolled, extruded, spun, bent, drawn or hammered, it resists oxidation but tarnishes in a sulphurous atmosphere. As it is more readily available than gold, usually the most beautiful accessories are to be found in this whitest of metals. Constructionally arc welding or brazing are the normal methods of joining this material. While chrome affords much glitter if desired, and silver conducts heat too readily to make it feasible for many fittings, it is used extensively for mirrors. Therefore the use of silver will depend a great deal on your purse and your imagination, since the result of a repetition of design in silver would enhance the quality to such an extent that rich furniture and lavish furnishings would be needed to counterbalance the effect. More usually a chromium or nickel alloy is likely to substitute for the real thing
33.8 Nickel
Nickel was, like all the main metals, known to the Ancients in many parts of the world, who worked with it to great effect. It is another silvery metal that takes a high polish, is corrosionresistant and also very valuable. Strong, like iron, it resists oxidation, strong alkalis and most acids. When mixed with other alloys, which is usual, it therefore imparts its good qualities and is much used in stainless steel and nickel silver, the latter being used for ornamental metal work, bathroom accessories and fittings, food equipment, plates, silverware and white metal hardware.
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It can be hot- and cold-rolled, bent, forged, extruded, spun and punched. For joining, oxyacetylene, brazing and soldering are the main processes. Electroplating is the commonest way to ensure a decorative and/or protective coating of nickel which is imparted to other metals such as aluminium, copper, brass and steel. It can be given a matt, satin or bright polished finish, and there is a limited colour range of decorative coatings. It is also possible to get it co-deposited with other metals such as copper, where nickel-copper combinations give various resultant tones of light golden colour. To get the desired effects, however, very careful enquiries should be made concerning the possibilities afforded by such processing developments.
33.9 Stainless Steel

Stainless Steel is part of the much wider and complex subject of steel. It is itself a group of steels rather than one in particular. However, this inexact term 'stainless steel' has come to mean a smooth, gleaming, elegant material that graces much of modern architecture, both externally and internally, and gives a very satisfactory performance and appearance. Generally the term covers highly alloyed steels containing more than 10% chromium, with nickel and manganese as other important elements. Consequently they are resistant to heat, oxidation and corrosion, and have special characteristics such as strength, toughness and ease of fabrication. Although each different combination of alloys and elements produces steels that go into subgroups, they can all be cast, rolled, drawn, forged, bent and formed. Ribbed, corrugated sheets, for example, are quite usual. While joining methods vary according to the particular alloy, generally rivetting and welding are used. Since stainless steel is very strong, a thinner gauge is possible than would normally serve, but care has to be taken to ensure that distortion or surface flaws are not incurred. It can be obtained in sheets, strip, plate and various forms including bars and square section, with different types of finishes as required, and in different weights. Interior wall finishes, doors, screens, trimmings, grilles, louvres and counter tops are common items found executed in this worthwhile material; indeed it is also found in fitted kitchens, dairies and laboratories. After the material has been installed it should always be cleaned down, since this not only leaves it looking immaculate but helps the protective film of chrome oxide to form on the clean surface. Care must be taken to provide adequate expansion joints in the fabrication to avoid distortion. Despite its agreeable, highly polished and smooth surface, it requires very little maintenance.
33.10 Metal Finishes

These are the main metals you are likely to deal with as an interior designer, and to round off the subject we include below an outline of the processes and equipment required to obtain the various finishes mentioned above. Roughing is a preliminary operation to prepare very scratched surfaces for polishing, which may necessitate greasing, which is a 'refined' roughing done with a lubricant, before finally
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buffing the surface with felt polisher and powder. If grease is added to this, the high speed soft polishing wheels can get an even higher finish which almost makes the surface appear to change colour. Burnishing that substitutes for these processes produces a reasonable but inexact perfection of high lustre finish. When coarse- or smooth-lined surfaces or satinized, sheeny finishes are required, these can be obtained through wire brush finishing applied with different thicknesses and at different angles of application. Sandblasting can also be used to give metals a surface texture, although this should be protected by anodizing or lacquer to prevent dirt accumulating in the crevices. Hammered metal can have the surface highlighted in order to emphasize the texture or pattern produced, as can an etched surface that can have modulations of depth controlled and organized. Metals that are to be painted are given suitable 'key' surfaces at the mill for better adhesion. Metals themselves can be sprayed onto other metals and materials, although such coatings tend to be porous. Such methods are dealt with in 'Applied Finishes'. It is sufficient to say here that if you are considering using metals in the interior, use their intrinsic qualities of reflectivity, whether they are dazzlingly bright or softly illuminated to shimmer or cast a gentle sheen. It is with these and mirrored materials that optical illusions combined with lighting techniques are intriguing. Unusual effects, fantasy environments and highly original schemes are possible with metals. Besides this they are able to convey a feeling of luxury with their quality and lustre.
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Plastics
To study the role and properties of plastics used in interiors.
Structure:
34.1 34.2 34.3 34.4 34.5 34.6 34.7 34.8 34.9 34.10 Introduction Constituents of Plastics Classification of Plastics Comparison between Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Materials Thermoplastic Materials Thermosetting Materials Properties of Plastics Shortcomings of Plastics Uses of Plastics Commercial forms of plastics 34.10.1 Plastics sheets 34.10.2 34.10.3 34.10.4 34.10.5 Plastic Tiles Plastic Laminates Plastic Panels Plastic pipes
34.1 Introduction
A plastic can be broadly defined as any non-metallic material than can be moulded to desired shape. The most common definition for plastics is that they are natural or synthetic resins, or their compounds, which can be moulded, extruded, cast or used as films or coatings. Most plastics are of organic nature composed of hydrogen, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen. The synthetic plastic development dates from 1900 when Dr. Beekland announced the production of phenol formaldehyde. Since then several new plastics have been developed. In order to give desired properties to the finished plastic articles, certain moulding compounds like fillers, plasticizers, solvents, pigments etc. are added. The basic raw materials used in the manufacture of plastics are generally obtained from the following natural substances: i. Coal ii. Petroleum iii. Limestone iv. Salt v. Sulphur
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vi. Air vii. Water viii. Cellulose from cotton and wood. In the field of building construction, plastics have been found very useful for a variety of purposes e.g. fittings, fixtures, structural component parts etc.
34.2 Constituents of Plastics

As earlier stated that the basic raw materials for producing plastics are obtained from coal, petroleum, are and water. A moulding composition for plastics is prepared from the following raw material groups: 1. Binder. Binders may be either resins (synthetic or natural) or cellulose derivatives (polymeric compounds), chemically both kinds of materials may be described as substances made up of compounds of very large molecular weight. 2. Fillers. The materials added to the plastics to improve their mechanical properties and to make them economical are called fillers. These are powder, fibrous and laminated fillers. i. Powder fillers: Quartz power, chalk, talcum and organic substances (ground saw dust). These fillers improve hardness, durability, heat resistance and acid resistance of plastics and reduce cost. ii. Fibrous fillers: Asbestos, wood wool, saw dust and glass fibres. The increase strength, reduce brittleness and enhance thermal resistance and impact strength of plastics iii. Laminated fillers, Paper, cotton and fibre glass cloths, asbestos, card board and wood veneer. They increase mechanical strength of plastics. Asbestos and cardboards also increase heat and acid resistance properties. 3. Plasticizers: The chemicals added to plastics to make them soft: to improve their toughness at finishes stage and to make them flexible are called plasticizers. A plasticizer should be chemically insert, non-volatile and non-toxic. 4. Common plasticizers are: Vegetable oils, aluminium stearates and dibutyl phthalate and camphor. 5. Colouring Matter. This is usually in the form of pigment and dyes and often added to monomers and gives the required colour to the plastics. The colouring matter should be durable and adequately fast to light. 6. Commonly used dyes are: Organic (AZO dyes, anthraquinone vat dyes) and mineral pigments (ochre, chromium oxide and ultramarine).
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7. Lubricants. Common lubricants are: Mosallic soaps and stearates. They facilitate moulding operation by increasing the flow of plastic mix in the die and also prevent sticking of plastic to moulds. 8. Catalysts. These compounds are added to accelerate the chemical reaction during the process of polymerisation of plastics. These compounds also act as hardners and accelerators.
34.3 Classification of Plastics

Most commonly, plastics are classified into, 1. Thermoplastic Materials are those which soften on the application of heat, with or without pressure and require cooling to be set to a shape. 2. Thermosetting Materials are those plastics which require heat and pressure to be moulded into a shape. The difference between thermoplastics and thermosetting materials may be explained in terms of molecular structure. The thermoplastics are essentially long chain macro-molecules with a limited number of cross links. When heated and compressed, the chains glide over each other and fluid materials take the shape of any mould in which these are placed. The thermosetting plastics are characterized by strong cross links between the chains; once these are formed by heat and pressure, the plastics set to rigid infusible solid.
34.4
Comparison between Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Materials

Thermosetting Materials
Thermoplastic Materials
They are comparatively softer and less They are stronger and harder than thermoplastic strong resins. They can be repeatedly softened by heat Once hardened and set they do not soften with the and hardened by cooling. application of heat. Objects made by thermoplastic resins Objects made by thermosetting resins can be used cannot be used at comparatively higher at comparatively higher temperatures without temperatures, as they will tend to soften damage. under heat. They are usually supplied as granular They are usually supplied in a monomeric or materials. partially polymerized form in which they are either liquid or partially thermoplastic solids.
34.5 Thermoplastic Materials

Important thermoplastic materials are described below: 1. Polythenes: This material originated in England was produced commercially in United States in 1943. Polythenes are obtainable as viscous liquids, gums and tough flexible solids suitable for moulding.
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They are wax like in appearance, translucent, odourless and one of the lightest plastics. Flexible over a wide temperature range. High resistivity and dielectric strength. Chemically resistant. Do no absorb moisture Dielectric losses and dielectric constant are low They are relatively low in cost.
Uses
High voltage (up to 30 KV) applications Coaxial cables. Packaging Moisture proofing Coating ice-cube trays. As insulation in submarine cables and radar lines. 2. Polyvinyl Chloride: The vinyl chlorides are formed from hydrochloric acid, limestone, and natural gas or coal. The forms of vinyl chloride are almost unlimited.
Properties:
The Flexible types are strong, tear resistant, and have good aging properties. The rigid types have good dimensional stability and are water resistant. They are resistant to acids and alkalise. It becomes soft beyond 80C It is self-extinguishing when ignited and the source of lame removed. The hard type of PVC is formulated with less plasticizer than the general-purpose grade and shows less tendency to flow at high temperature which is an advantage when the cables are to be laid in very hot surroundings. Although its electrical properties are not so good as those of rubber, it offers more resistance to oxygen, ozone and sunlight.
Uses:
Cable jackets Lead-wire insulation Rubber substitute Fabric Coating
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3. Silicones: The basic ingredients of silicones are silica and coke which are mixed and placed in an electric furnace. The silica is reduced to silicon, which is one of the starting materials. The other reactant is methyl chloride, prepared by chlorinating methane gas. The two reactants are mixed in a react at a high temperature and moderate pressure, using copper as a catalyst. The desired products are then hydrolysed and condensed to form silicon polymers.
Properties:
They are a chemical hybrid, a cross between organic and inorganic materials. They hare both the stability of inorganic products and the versatility of organic materials. As a moulding compound they have good dielectric qualities and the ability to withstand high temperature (upto 260C) They are mechanically weak and have poor chemical resistance. They are water-repellent.
Uses:
They are used as high heat resistant insulators. 4. Polystyrene: A high strength plastic is obtained by copolymerisation of styrene with butadiene and then blending with natural or synthetic rubber.
Properties
Moisture-resistant Low dielectric constant High resistivity Adequate chemical resistance.
Uses:
Lenses Refrigerator-cabinet compounds. Radar components Electrical insulation Instrument panels 5. Polyvinylidene Chloride:
Properties:
Acid resistance Toughness Non Flammability
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Solvent resistance
Uses:
Seat covers Belts and gaskets Woman Fabrics Acid-resistant tubing 6. Bitumen:
Properties:
It is the oldest known plastic and has been employed since 3000 B.C. The bitumen plastics of today are made from bituminous products by mixing with a suitable filler, such as slate dust or asbestos in powder form They have good electrical insulating properties.
Uses:
They are uses for battery-cell plugs, stoppers, electrical mouldings of the cheaper class etc.
34.6 Thermosetting Materials

The important thermosetting materials are described below: 1. Aminos: these are of two types: a) Urea Formaldehyde Resins:
Properties:
They are derived from the reaction of urea with formaldehyde or its polymers. These resins cannot offer resistance to heat
Uses:
They are employed for high voltage application. They are also widely used in making ballpoint pen barrels, electric mixer housing, cosmetic cases, distributor heads etc. b) Melamine:
Properties:
They are derived from a reaction of dicyandiamide with formaldehyde. When the resin is used with asbestos or glass fibres as filler material, its heat resistance is in the range of 2000 degree C.
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Adequately resistant to Chemicals. Outstanding electric are resistance Excellent resistance to water Available in a full range of translucent or opaque colours.
Uses:
Due to arc resistance they are widely used in electrical field particularly for such parts as distributor housings. They are extensively in treating paper and cloth to impart water-repellent properties and in producing laminates. They are used for tableware (but they are stained by coffee) Amonos are used in all types of electrical items such as shades, switches, white plugs etc. 2. Phenolics (Phenol formaldehyde resins)
Properties:
They are made by a reaction between phenol and formaldehyde They are probably the most widely used and cheapest of thermosetting plastics. Strong, rigid and dimensionally stable Heat and solvent resistant Non-conductor of electricity
Uses:
They are moulded into television and radio cabinets, telephones, appliance handles, electrical sockets etc. 3. Epoxy Resins:
Properties
Epoxy resins is basically a polymer of epichlorohydrin and bisphenonl They are transparent, light amber colour and have very little shrinkage. As coating materials, they have shown superior toughness, elasticity and chemical resistance. As adhesive these materials have shown extremely high bond strength without the need for pressure for curing.
Uses:
They are used as an insulating material in cable-end boxes, cable joint boxes, instrument transformers etc. They have also found considerable use as casting materials
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34.7 Properties of Plastics

The plastics have a variety of significant properties. The properties common to most plastics are given below: Light weight Low thermal conductivity A wide range of colours Resistance to deterioration by moisture Low electrical conductivity Fairly good resistance offered to attack by inorganic acids, bases and salts. Plastics in many cases are non-inflammable, self extinguishing, and burn very slowly They are transparent, translucent or opaque. Good dimensional stability Good sound absorption properties Bad conductor of heat Good tensile strength Can be easily fixed in position Good resistance to peeling Lack ductility Quite Durable Easy maintenance of plastic surfaces (do not require any protective coat of paints).
34.8 Shortcomings of Plastics

Following are the shortcoming/limitations of plastics Low heat resistance Not very hard Disintegrate gradually with the passage of time Exhibit high creep High coefficient of thermal expansion
34.9 Uses of Plastics

They typical uses of plastics in buildings are: Electrical conduits
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Electrical insulators Floor tiles Jointless flooring Decorative laminates and mouldings Bath and sink units Foams for thermal insulation Overhead water tanks Roof lights Wall tiles Corrugated and plain sheets Cistern ball floats Lighting fixtures Paints and varnishes Water resistances adhesives etc. Pipes to carry cold water etc.
34.10 Commercial forms of plastics

The important commercial forms of plastics used for civil engineering purposes are described below:
34.10.1 Plastics sheets

i) PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride) Sheets: PVC and its compounding ingredients are heated, masticated and then rolled into thin sheets between heated rollers. The sheets are then annealed and after cooling, they are rolled. PVC sheets (generally kept 1 mm for economic purposes) can resist the effects of grease solvent etc. These should be laid only on dry surfaces, as they expand on being wetted. ii) Fabric-backed sheets: These are PVC sheets in which hession or felt is used for backing These sheets are suitable for foot-traffic in dry conditions iii) Polythene Sheets: They are rough and water resisting: available in wide rolls and in varying thicknesses.
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They are used for sheltering materials from rain on building site and to assist curing of concrete; also used as temporary covering for window and door opening etc. iv) Corrugated plastic sheets: They are light in weight and fire resistant Employed for roofing purposes in public buildings and factories
34.10.2 Plastic Tiles

i. PVC tiles: These tiles are used for flooring etc. ii. Fabric backed PVC tiles These tiles are used for paving floors in dry conditions iii. Thermoplastic vinyl tiles: These tiles are manufactured from mixture of plasticised PVC, asbestos, limestone and pigments. They are suitable for heavy foot traffic in dry as well as in wet conditions. They can be used both on wooden and concrete sub-floors. iv. Polystyene wall tiles: They are suitable for lining of walls of high class buildings.
34.10.3 Plastic Laminates

These are formed by impregnating sheets of fibrous materials such as paper, linen, canvas or silk with a synthetic resin and then compressing the sheets together with application of heat. The synthetic resin may be phenolic resin, urea formaldehyde or a vinyl resin. The resin is usually dissolved in alcohol. The material in roll form is immersed in the resin solution at atmospheric pressure and at room temperature and then run through a drier at 150C. The rolls are next cut into sheets of given size, which are arranged into stacks. These stacks finally are compressed in a hydraulic press at about 170C under pressure of 20MN/m2. The sheets are thus bonded to one another Some of the important type of plastic laminates are: i. ii. iii. iv. Laminate bakelite Melamine surfaced phenolic paper laminates Polyster paper laminate Corrugated phenolic resin bonded paper laminates
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Properties:
The laminated plastics have the following properties: i. ii. iii. iv. v. Light and strong Machineable Resistant to wear, acids and alkalis Impervious to water and oil Have high dielectric constant
Uses:
The laminated plastics are used for: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. Electric insulation Making silent gears Water lubricated bearings Pulley wheels Pump parts Press tools Decorative purpose in wall panelling, translucent panelling table and counter parts.
34.10.4 Plastic Panels

These are the sheets (3m x 1.5m x 25mm) made from special craft paper impregnated with a phenolic resin They are chiefly used for making light weight partitions
34.10.5 Plastic pipes

i. PVC Pipes: They have good ductility They do not burst due to freezing of water Used for distribution of water, mine drainage, gas distribution etc. ii. Polythene plastic pipes: They have inherent flexibility and excellent resistance to breakage from mechanical shock. Suitable for water supplies, and for use in chemical and food industries.
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Summary:
Unit discussed above includes the study of the properties and role of iron and steel used in interiors, the advantages and disadvantages of using this material vis--vis other materials such as wood glass and plastics, Aluminium used in interior Properties and usage of brass, silver, gold, chrome and copper etc. in interiors. Types of finishes that can be applied to metals Role of plastics in a decorating scheme. Plastic products like furniture, doors and windows etc.
Revision points:
The advantages and disadvantages of using this material vis--vis other materials such as wood glass and plastics, Aluminium used in interior Properties and usage of brass, silver, gold, chrome and copper etc. in interiors. Types of finishes that can be applied to metals Role of plastics in a decorating scheme. Plastic products like furniture, doors and windows etc.
Key words:
Plastic: - are natural or synthetic resin, or their compounds, which can be moulded, extruded, cast or used as film or coating Thermoplastic Materials: - are those which soften on the application of heat, with or without pressure and require cooling to be set to a shape. Thermosetting Materials: - are those plastics which require heat and pressure to be moulded into a shape. Bronze: - Bronze is very similar to brass and can be rolled and extruded, forged and cast, since it is dense, hard and corrosion-resistant. Bronze and brass sometimes get confused in annotation, but tin rather than zinc is the main ingredient mixed with copper to produce bronze, and it is a darker, redder material than brass. Ferrous metal: -The ferrous metals are iron base metals, which include all varieties of irons and steels. These metals go a long way in bringing prosperity to a country.
Intext question:
1. Where and how can you use metals in interiors? 2. What are ferrous metals? Explain in detail the various types of ferrous metals used in interiors. 3. Write a detailed note on aluminium and its uses in interiors. 4. Discuss in detail any five types of metals which are used in interiors. 5. What are the various types of finishes which can be used for metals. 6. What are plastics? Explain in detail the constituents of plastics. 7. Write a detailed note on the classification of plastics. 8. What are the main advantages and disadvantages of using plastics in interiors? 9. Give a detailed account of the commercial forms of plastics.
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Terminal exercise:
Students will study the properties and role of iron and steel used in interiors, the advantages and disadvantages of using this material vis--vis other materials such as wood glass and plastics.

Students have to prepare a detailed study report about the properties and role of iron and steel used in interiors, the advantages and disadvantages of using this material vis--vis other materials such as wood glass and plastics and also have to give detailed description about Role of plastics in a decorating scheme. Plastic products like furniture, doors and windows etc.
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Supplementary Material / Reference Books

1. Manufacturers Details 2. Engineering materials (Surendra Singh) 3. Relevant I.S.Codes 4. Building Construction (Mackay, 4 Volumes 5. Engineering Materials by Rajput 6. Time Savers Standards for Interior Design and Space Planning 7. Trade magazines
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1.1 Wall Tile

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1.2 Ceramic Tiles

1.3 Mosaic Tiles

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2.1 Objectives of Plastering

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2.2 Procedure of plastering:

2.3 Stucco Plastering

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2.4.1 Procedure of Pointing

2.4.2 Forms of Pointing

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3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10

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3.1 Definition of Paint

3.2 Functions of Paints

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3.3 Constituents of an Oil Paint and their Functions

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3.3.6 Inert filler:

3.3.7 Antiskinning agent:

3.4 Preparation of an oil Paint

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3.5 Characteristics of a Good Paint

3.6 Types of Paints

3.6.1 Oil paint:

3.6.2 Cement paint:

3.6.3 Emulsion paint:

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3.6.4 Enamel Paint:

3.6.5 Luminous paint:

3.6.6 Silicate Paint:

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Properties: i. ii. iii. It has a black appearance. It is durable. It is cheap.

3.6.8 Plastic paint:

3.7 Painting of New Woodwork

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3.8 Painting of Old Woodwork

3.9 Painting of Plastered Surfaces

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3.10 General Precautions in the Process of Painting

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4.1 Types of Papers 4.1.1 Lining Papers

4.1.2 Pitch Papers

4.1.3 Washable Papers

4.1.4 Vinyl Papers

4.1.5 Blown or Expanded Vinyl Papers

4.1.6 Foamed Polyethylene Coverings,

4.1.7 Ready-Pasted Wallpapers

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4.1.8 Finishing or Decorative Papers

4.1.9 Machine-printed papers

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Fabric and Other Wall Coverings

To list and compare wall treatments used in interiors.

5.1 Wood Panelling

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