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Significance of Research in Social and Business Sciences According to a famous Hudson Maxim, All progress is born of inquiry.

Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention. It brings out the significance of research, increased amounts of which makes progress possible. Research encourages scientific and inductive thinking, besides promoting the development of logical habits of thinking and organization. The role of research in applied economics in the context of an economy or business is greatly increasing in modern times. The increasingly complex nature of government and business has raised the use of research in solving operational problems. Research assumes significant role in formulation of economic policy, for both the government and business. It provides the basis for almost all government policies of an economic system. Government budget formulation, for example, depends particularly on the analysis of needs and desires of the people, and the availability of revenues, which requires research. Research helps to formulate alternative policies, in addition to examining the consequences of these alternatives. Thus, research also facilitates the decision making of policy-makers, although in itself it is not a part of research. In the process, research also helps in the proper allocation of a countrys scare resources. Research is also necessary for collecting information on the social and economic structure of an economy to understand the process of change occurring in the country. Collection of statistical information though not a routine task, involves various research problems. Therefore, large staff of research technicians or experts is engaged by the government these days to undertake this work. Thus, research as a tool of government economic policy formulation involves three distinct stages of operation which are as follows: Investigation of economic structure through continual compilation of facts Diagnoses of events that are taking place and the analysis of the forces underlying them; and The prognosis, i.e., the prediction of future developments

Research also assumes a significant role in solving various operational and planning problems associated with business and industry. In several ways, operations research, market research, and motivational research are vital and their results assist in taking business decisions. Market research is refers to the investigation of the structure and development of a market for the formulation of efficient policies relating to purchases, production and sales. Operational research relates to the application of logical, mathematical, and analytical techniques to find solution to business problems such as cost minimization or profit maximization, or the optimization problems. Motivational research helps to determine why people behave in the manner they do with respect to market characteristics. More specifically, it is concerned with the analyzing the motivations underlying consumer behaviour. All these researches are very useful for business and industry, which are responsible for business decision making. Research is equally important to social scientist for analyzing social relationships and seeking explanations to various social problems. It gives intellectual satisfaction of knowing things for the sake of knowledge. It also possesses practical utility for the social scientist to gain knowledge so as to be able to do something better or in a more efficient manner. This, research in social sciences is concerned with both knowledge for its own sake, and knowledge for what it can contribute to solve practical problems. b) Types and General rules for graphical representation of data: Graphical representation is done of the data available. This is very important step of statistical analysis. We will be discussing the organization of data. The word Data is plural for datum; datum means facts. Statistically the term is used for numerical facts such as measures of height, weight and scores on achievement and intelligence tests. Graphs and diagram leave a lasting impression on the mind and make intelligible and easily understandable the salient features of the data. Forecasting also becomes easier with the help of graph. Thus it is of interest to study the graphical representation of data. The graphical representation of data is categorized as basic five types: 1) Bar graph 2) Pie graph 3) Line graph 4) Scatter plot

5) Histogram List down various measures of central tendency and explain the difference between them? Answer: The three most commonly-used measures of central tendency and difference between them are as following. Mean The sum of the values divided by the number of valuesoften called the average.

Add all of the values together. Divide by the number of values to obtain the mean.

Example: The mean of 7, 12, 24, 20, 19 is (7 + 12 + 24 + 20 + 19) / 5 = 16.4. Median The value which divides the values into two equal halves, with half of the values being lower than the median and half higher than the median.

Sort the values into ascending order. If you have an odd number of values, the median is the middle value. If you have an even number of values, the median is the arithmetic mean (see above) of the two middle values.

Example: The median of the same five numbers (7, 12, 24, 20, 19) is 19. Mode The most frequently-occurring value (or values).

Calculate the frequencies for all of the values in the data. The mode is the value (or values) with the highest frequency.

Example: For individuals having the following ages 18, 18, 19, 20, 20, 20, 21, and 23, the mode is 20. Select any topic for research and explain how you will use both secondary and primary sources to gather the required information. Answer: For performing research on the literacy levels among families, the primary and secondary sources of data can be used very effectively. More specifically the primary sources of data collection is suggested in this regard. Because personal data or data related to human beings consist of:1. Demographic and socio-economic characteristics of individuals: Age, sex, race, social class, religion, marital status, education, occupation income, family size, location of the

household lifestyle etc.2. Behavioral variables: Attitudes, opinions, awareness, knowledge, practice, intentions, etc.3. Organizational data consist of data relating to an organizations origin, ownership, objectives, resources, functions, performance and growth.4. Territorial data are related to geo-physical characteristics, resource endowment, population, occupational pattern infrastructure degree of development, etc. of spatial divisions like villages, cities, talks, districts, state and the nation. The data serve as the bases or raw materials for analysis. Without an analysis of factual data, no specific inferences can be drawn on the questions under study. Inferences based on imagination or guess work cannot provide correct answers to research questions. The relevance, adequacy and reliability of data determine the quality of the findings of a study. Data form the basis for testing the hypothesis formulated in a study. Data also provide the facts and figures required for constructing measurement scales and tables, which are analyzed with statistical techniques. Inferences on the results of statistical analysis and tests of significance provide the answers to research questions. Thus, the scientific process of measurements, analysis, testing and inferences depends on the availability of relevant data and their accuracy. Hence, the importance of data for any research studies The sources of data may be classified into: a. Primary sources b. Secondary sources. Primary Sources of Data

Primary sources are original sources from which the researcher directly collects data that have not been previously collected e.g.., collection of data directly by the researcher on brand awareness, brand preference, brand loyalty and other aspects of consumer behavior from a sample of consumers by interviewing them,. Primary data are first-hand information collected through various methods such as observation, interviewing, mailing etc. Advantage of Primary Data: It is original source of data it is possible to capture the changes occurring in the course of time. It flexible to the advantage of researcher. Extensive research study is based on primary data Disadvantage of Primary Data:

Methods of Collecting Primary Data:

Primary data are directly collected by the researcher from their original sources. In this case, the researcher can collect the required date precisely according to his research needs, he can collect them when he wants them and in the form he needs them. But the collection of primary data is costly and time consuming. Yet, for several types of social science research required data are not available from secondary sources and they have to be directly gathered from the primary sources. In such cases where the available data are in appropriate, inadequate or obsolete, primary data have to be gathered. They include: socioeconomic surveys, social anthropological studies of rural communities and tribal communities, sociological studies of social problems and social institutions. Marketing research, leadership studies, opinion polls, attitudinal surveys, readership, radio listening and T.V. viewing surveys, knowledge-awareness practice (KAP) studies, farm managements studies, business management studies etc. There are various methods of data collection. A Method is different from a Tool while a method refers to the way or mode of gathering data, a tool is an instruments used for the method. For example, a schedule is used for interviewing. The important methods are (a) Observation, (b) Interviewing, (c) Mail survey, (d) Experimentation, (e) Simulation and (f) Projective technique.

Each of these methods is discussed in detail in the subsequent sections in the later chapters. Secondary Sources of Data: These are sources containing data which have been collected and compiled for another purpose. The secondary sources consists of readily compendia and already compiled statistical statements and reports whose data may be used by researchers for their studies e.g., census reports , annual reports and financial statements of companies, Statistical statement, Reports of Government Departments, Annual reports of currency and finance published by the Reserve Bank of India, Statistical statements relating to Co-operatives and Regional Banks, published by the NABARD, Reports of the National sample survey Organization, Reports of trade associations, publications of international organizations such as UNO, IMF, World Bank, ILO,WHO, etc., Trade and Financial journals newspapers etc. Secondary sources consist of not only published records and reports, but also unpublished records. The latter category includes various records and registers maintained by the firms and organizations, e.g., accounting and financial records, personnel records, register of members, minutes of meetings, inventory records etc.

Distinguish between a contract of guarantee and a contract of indemnity.

Both contracts may be distinguished in the following cases : 1. Difference in Meaning :Contract of indemnity : In the contract of indemnity one person promises to save the other from any loss. Contract of guarantee : In the contract of guarantee one person gives guarantee for the performance of the contract.

2. Difference in the Number of Parties :Contract of indemnity : Under the contract of indemnity there are two parties. Contract of guarantee : Under the contract of guarantee there are three parties.

3. Difference in the Liability :Contract of indemnity : Under indemnity contract the basic liability falls on the indemnifies. Contract of guarantee : In case of guarantee contract surety has the secondary liability.

4. Difference in the Number Of Contracts :Contract of indemnity : Under the indemnity contract there is one contract only. Contract of guarantee : Under the contract of guarantee there must be at least three contracts.

5. Difference in the Nature of Interest :Contract of indemnity : In case of indemnity contract, indemnifies has the interest in earning commission and premium.

Contract of guarantee : In case of guarantor he has no any other interest except guarantee.

6. Difference in the Right of Claim :Contract of indemnity : The indemnifies cannot sue the third party. Contract of guarantee : Guarantor is entitled to proceed against the principal debtor in his own name. If he has paid the debt.

7. Difference in the Performance of Contract :Contract of indemnity : Contract of indemnity depends upon the possibility of risk or loss. Contract of guarantee : In case of guarantee there is an existing debt or duty performance about which guarantee is given.

Master of Business Administration - MBA Semester III MI0033 Software Engineering - 4 Credits Assignment - Set- 1 (60 Marks)
Answer all the questions
Q1. Quality and reliability are related concepts but are fundamentally different in a number of ways. Discuss them.

The quality movement started in the 1940s with a major contribution on quality aspects from W. Edwards Deming. One of the major benefits of quality has been the saving in the overall cost of production. A system of continuous improvement helps in achieving good quality. Kaizen, refers to a system of continuous process improvement. The purpose of kaizen is to develop a process that is visible, repeatable, and measurable. After Kaizen it is atarimae hinshitsu, which refers to examination of intangibles that affect the process and works to optimize their impact. Both kaizen and atarimae hinshitsu focuses on processes. The next stage is kansei which leads to improvement in the product itself and, potentially, to the process that created it. The final stage is miryokuteki hinshitsu which broadens the management concern beyond the immediate product. Quality Concepts:

It is a well-known fact that all engineered and manufactured parts exhibit some or the other variation. The variations may not be clearly visible always. The variations are sometimes microscopic which can be identified by means of some equipment necessary to measure the geometrical attributes, electrical characteristics etc. Quality: Designers specify the characteristics of the quality of a product. The grade of materials used in the product development and product characteristics, permissible tolerances, and performance specifications contribute to the quality of design. For higher-grade of materials the tolerances are very small. When the tolerance is set to a very low level the expected design characteristics would be of high quality. When greater levels of performance are specified, there is an increase in the design quality of a product and the manufacturing processes and the product specification are set according to the specified quality norms. Quality of conformance is expressed as the degree to which the design specifications are followed during the process of manufacturing. If the degree of conformance is high then the level of quality of conformance is also deemed as high. Quality of conformance is mainly focused on the implementation of the software. Quality Control: Quality is the buzz word of every organization today. But how does one work towards achieving quality in the organization and within the organization at various process levels. There are a number of ways of achieving quality. One can consider the fundamental step of quality where the variations are measured with respect to the expected values in any process or characteristics of the product. The first step towards quality is to see that the variations are minimized. Controlling quality can be done by means of measuring various characteristics of the product and understanding the behavior of the product towards changes in the product characteristics. It involves a series of inspections, reviews, and tests on the software processes. A feedback mechanism in the process list will help in constantly reviewing the performance and enhancement in the performance. A combination of the measurement and the feedback allows the software developer to refine the software process and tend to approach perfection. It is possible to automate these steps in the quality control process of the software system. One of the concepts of quality control is that every process can be measured. The measurement will tell as to whether there has been any improvement in the process or not. Quality Assurance: Quality assurance is a process of auditing various areas and identifying the non conformances in such areas. A non conformance is reported if a deviation is observed in the actual performance when compared with the planned performance against certain expectation. The expectations are listed out based on the requirement of certain

standards norms. The nonconformances are reported area wise or process wise. The report based on the audit provides the management with the information that is necessary for them to take suitable actions. Cost of Quality: There are many activities involved in a software project leading to the completion of the intended service or the product. Every such activity is associated with some cost. And associated with every process is the quality which again comes with certain cost. The total cost of quality means the sum total of all the costs involved in setting up a quality process or a quality activity and additional resources procured towards maintaining and running the quality process. The main categories under which the quality costs may be listed are the ones dealing with processes towards prevention, processes towards appraisal, and processes towards maintenance. The main components contributing towards the cost are the cost component of quality planning, cost component of formal technical reviews and the cost component pertaining to the test equipment. Software Reliability: The need for quality is there in the minds of everybody associated with the software project. One of the key issues pertaining to the quality aspect is the reliability of the software product. There are number of methods to ensure reliability of the product which depends upon the characteristics of the product and its features and the expectations from the product and its services. One of the task before the software engineer or the software manager is to establish the relevant reliability measures well in advance before the implementation so that the quality is assured. A series of audits may be conducted to keep a tab on the deviations if they tend to occur. Statistically the software reliability may be defined as the probability of an operation of a computer program which is free from error or has not failed during the operation time, tested under a specified environment and for specified time. Failure refers to nonconformance to the requirements of the software stated. One of the simple measures of reliability is the express it as the meantime between failure (MBF) which is the sum of mean time of occurrence of failure (MTF) and mean time towards repair (MTR). It is necessary to identify and assess the hazards in software projects that affect the software performance. If it is possible to identify the hazards in the early stages of the software project then a module to counteract such hazards could be developed or built in to the software which will then be able to rectify errors leading to hazards. Suitable models could be used to achieve this safety. Background Issues: The quality assurance processes are very vital in establishing quality features in the product. Various standard mechanisms are developed in the companies to focus on the quality of the product. These mechanisms have to undergo improvements time to time in order to maintain the competition in the market. The product has to be viewed from the user point of view. A satisfaction note on the various features of the product is

necessary to be reviewed to bring a change in the product to enhance it and to make it a quality product.

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