Automatic Control of Street Light

Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.
com
AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF STREET LIGHT

MAJOR PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Submitted by:
Malik Sameeullah (08EES31)
Muneeb Ahmed (08EES50)
Rizwanullah Ansari (08EES62)
Under the supervision of
DR. TARIKUL ISLAM ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING &TECHNOLOGY JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA NEW DELHI-110025 INDIA
2012
1
Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.com
AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF STREET LIGHT

MAJOR PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Submitted by:
MALIK SAMEEULLAH MUNEEB AHMED RIZWANULLAH ANSARI
(08-EES 31) (08-EES 50) (08-EES 62)
Under the supervision of
DR. TARIKUL ISLAM ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING &TECHNOLOGY JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA NEW DELHI-110025 INDIA
2012
2
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA
NEW DELHI-110025
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the major Project titled AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF STREET LIGHT submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electrical Engineering by Malik Sameeullah (08EES-31), Muneeb Ahmed (08 EES-50) & Rizwanullah Ansari (08EES-62) is a bonafide record of the candidates own work carried out by them under my supervision and guidance. This work has not been submitted earlier in any university or institute for the award of any degree to the best of my knowledge.
[Project Supervisor] DR. TARIKUL ISLAM Associate Professor Dept. of Electrical Engineering Jamia Millia Islamia New Delhi-110025
Prof. ZAHEERUDIN (HOD) Department of Electrical Engineering Jamia Millia Islamia
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We first thank our parents who gave us the moral support right from the moment we thought about this project and who have provided us with opportunity to serve the society as engineers We express our sincere thanks to Prof. Zaheeruddin, Head of the Department of Electrical Engineering for his work & cooperation to facilitate smooth progress of the project. We express our sincere thanks to our project guide Dr. Tarikul Islam for his constant support, motivation and encouragement without which it would have been very difficult for us to complete the project. He gave us the freedom to think and made open all the resources he had in his personal capacity. We would also like to thank Lab Assistants, Mr. Lokesh Kumar who is a Phd scholars for his constant support and motivation and our friends for their constant support, sacrifice and their encouragement. Above all we would like to thank the almighty God for everything he has bestowed on us.
MALIK SAMEEULLAH
MUNEEB AHMED
RIZWANULLAH ANSARI
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE No. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Abstract CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 2:TECHNICAL REVIEW 2.1 Thyristor and its conduction 2.2 Line commutated converters 2.3 Necessity of getting synchronizing pulses 2.4 Popular methods of generating firing pulses 2.5 Basic building blocks 2.6 Block diagram representation of cosine control CHAPTER 3: TECHNICAL LITERATURE REVIEW 3.1 Thyristor 3.2 Typical Thyristor characteristic 3.3 Firing Technique of Thyristor 3.4 Basic building Blocks 3.5 Unijunction Transistor 3.6 Triac 3.7 Op Amp 3.8 Firing Pulse technique 3.9 Transistor as a Switch 3.10 The 555 Timer 3.11 light dependent resistor 10-40 1-2 3-9 iii
Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.com 3.12 Optocoupler 3.13 DC supply system 3.14 Street light CHAPTER 4: PROPOSED PROJECT WORK 4.1 Synchronizing part 4.2 Cosine wave generator 4.3 Comparator for producing variable width pulse 4.4 Automatic variable voltage generator 4.5 Automatic on off circuit 4.6 Triac firing circuit CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION 5.1 Summary of the work reported in the project 5.2 Scope of future work APPENDIX REFERENCES 53 41-52
ABSTRACT
The theme of the project is to design the automatic control of street light with change of the intensity of sunlight i.e.as the intensity of sunlight decreases, intensity of street light increases. LDR is used to detect light intensity. Once there is enough darkness, circuit will turn on. Triac controlled circuit is used to control the intensity of light. In this project there is the necessity of getting synchronized firing pulses for the gate of the thyristor. Out of many variety of firing circuits available, cosine controls scheme is used. In this interesting scheme, the supply voltage is first integrated to obtain a cosine wave. The cosine wave so obtained is compared with a reference D.C voltage. Therefore square pulses will be generated at the output terminal of the comparator. The signal at output terminal is synchronized with the pulse and is delayed from the supply zero crossing by an angle . Instrumentation Op amp is used to provide a reference voltage to a firing circuit. And this reference voltage is totally dependent on LDR resistance whose value change with intensity of light. This circuit is analysed and tested in various conditions and it provides absolute results which shows the reliability of this circuit. Usually street light remain ON in morning time due to manual operation, which cause loss of energy and therefore this project is very beneficial for saving power and energy by automatic control. This circuit also provides the idea of developing the driver circuit of LED lamp which is widely used nowadays.
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
The main consideration in the present field technologies are automation, power consumption and cost effectiveness. Automation is intended to reduce manpower with the help of intelligent systems. Power saving is the main consideration forever as the source of the power (thermal, hydro etc.,) are getting diminished due to various reasons. The main aim of the project is automatic street power saving system with LDR; this is to save the power. We want to save power automatically instead of doing manual. So its easy to make cost effectiveness. This saved power can be used in some other cases. So in villages, towns etc we can design intelligent systems for the usage of street lights. Block diagram to implement circuit is shown in below figure.
MERITS AND DEMERITS OF OUR PROJECT: In recent years the energy crisis has become one problem which the whole world must confront. Home power consumption makes up the largest part of energy consumption in the world. In particular, the power consumption of lamps in a typical home is a factor which cant be ignored. The typical user needs different light intensities in different places. Sometimes the light intensity from outside is sufficient, and thus we dont need to turn on any light. But sometimes the user
8
leaves the room but forgets to turn off the light. These factors cause energy wastage. Therefore some power management of light control in a home is necessary in order to save energy. Lights are usually controlled by on/off switches. Of course, the user can switch a light on or off remotely by connecting a specific device to a PC, but there has to be at least a PC, consuming a rather large amount of power 24 hours a day, for the control mechanism. Moreover, this inconvenient practice comes at a high cost for the user. In some designs one must install specific hardware and software to control the lights, resulting in unacceptable costs. Furthermore this type of system cannot detect either the temperature of the human body or light intensity of room.
CHAPTER 2 TECHNICAL REVIEW

Thyristors or Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs) are widely used as a switching device in the medium and large power levels starting from few kilowatts to several mega watts at voltage levels of few hundred to several kilo volt levels. Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) and Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) although have very fast switching characteristics compared to SCRs, their uses are limited to medium power levels at few hundred volts. 2.1 THYRISTOR & ITS CONDUCTION A thyristor or SCR is a four layer device having three junctions J1, J2 and J3. Essentially three terminals named anode, cathode and gate. Thyristor will be in reverse blocking mode if VAK < 0, irrespective of the fact that a gate pulse is present or not. On the other hand the thyristor is said to be in the forward blocking mode, when VAK > 0 in absence of any gate pulse, some current will flow through the thyristor. In case of the thyristor is turning on either by exceeding the forward break-over voltage or by applying a gate pulse between gate and cathode, called forward conduction mode.
Fig 2.1 Symbol of diode and thyristor
10
Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.com 2.2 LINE COMMUTATED CONVERTERS
Conversion of line frequency (50 Hz) a.c. to d.c. is carried out either by using a single phase bridge converter using four thyristors or 3-phase converter using six thyristors. A single phase fully controlled bridge with four thyristor. With reference to the single phase converter circuit shown in Fig.2.2 , we note that when i.e. to = B or positive, two diagonally opposite thyristors T and T are forward biased and other two thyristors T and T are reversed biased. Therefore during intervals gate pulses are simultaneously applies to T and T , both start conducting and load and also T3 and T4 are reversed biased and cannot conduct at that period of time
voltage
and vice versa.
Fig 2.2 Fully controlled converter 2.3 NECESSITY OF GETTING SYNCHRONIZING PULSES For T and T , is to be measured from the instant when Similarly T and T , is to be measured from the instant is zero and going towards positive. is zero and going towards positive.
Thus we see that for successful operation of the fully controlled bridge, the gate pulses to be properly synchronized with the a.c. power supply. It is noted that each thyristor conducts for only.
11
Fig. 2.3 Typical waveform of single phase inverter 2.4 POPULAR METHODS OF GENERATING FIRING PULSES 1) Using ramp signal: In this scheme a ramp signal is generated in synchronism with the a.c. supply. The first comparator translates the input sinusoidal voltage into a square wave voltage. When the square wave voltage is high, the transistor (P-N-P type) collector-base junction is forward biased; the transistor is non conducting stage (off) and the capacitor charges exponentially giving ramp rise of the voltage at the output. However, as soon as the square voltage is negative, transistor becomes on due to collector-base junction is reverse biased and the capacitor discharges sharply giving a saw tooth like waveform as shown in Fig. 2.4.
Fig. 2.4 Basic idea of ramp scheme

12
This triangular voltage can now be compared by the second comparator with a variable reference d.c. voltage the range ref to get the firing pulse signal at . The value of can be varied in by changing the value of the reference voltage (Vref).
2). Using cosine control: In this interesting scheme, the supply voltage Vs is first integrated to obtain a cosine wave as shown in Fig. 2.5. The cosine wave so obtained is compared with a reference d.c. voltage (Vref). Therefore square pulses will be generated at the output terminal of the comparator. The signal at . is synchronized with the pulse and is delayed from the supply zero crossing by an angle . Obviously, the value of can be varied a range of
Fig 2.5 basic idea of cosine scheme 2.5 BASIC BUILDING BLOCKS Basic blocks which will be necessary to implement any firing control scheme in a converter circuit are shown in Fig.2.6. The figure demonstrates with the help of a single line diagram, the major blocks necessary to generate firing pulses for any scheme. The converter is organized from a.c. power. Since the firing pulses must be synchronized with the a.c. supply, a.c. power also goes to the isolation and synchronizing blocks. Isolation is essential as because the control circuit uses very low power devices such as various chips, logic gates etc.
13
Fig 2.6 Basic block of firing control circuit The logic circuit block uses few logic gates to implement a particular firing scheme. The strength of the pulse obtained from logic gates may not be sufficient to drive the gate of a thyristor, so amplification of the pulse along with isolation is used at final stage.
2.6 BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF THE COSINE The emphasis of this paper is the implementation of cosine control scheme. We shall first outline the scheme in terms of block diagram and then explain each block in detail. Let be the supply
voltage feeding the converter for which the control pulses are to be generated. With the help of a step down centre tapped transformer, is transformed into two power level voltage and .
T1 & T2 are to be fired when Va0 is positive and T3 & T4 are to be fired when T & T the firing angle is to be measured from the instant when the positive direction. The range of variation of is to
is positive. For
a is zero and increasing in
. Similarly for T & T the firing angle
is to be measured from the instant when b is zero and increasing in the positive direction. Basic idea for generating necessary pulses for T1 & T2 and T3 & T4 can be understood by referring figures 2.7 and 2.8. With reference to Fig. 8 the signal Va0 is integrated with the help of Integrator -1 and a cosine wave will be obtained. This cosine wave is compared with a variable d.c. voltage Vr using a comparator-1. Noting that Vr is connected to the +ve terminal of the comparator-1, the output of the comp-1 will be square wave and it goes to high state from the instant when Vr becomes greater than the cosine voltage value. However the width of the pulse will vary as Vr is varied. Our first aim will
14
be to make the width of the pulse to be
. This is achieved in the following way. The output of
the comp- is fed to a block mono- . Output of the mono will be a pulse of small width at positive going edge of the input square wave. The output of mono- will thus give small pulses separated by . Noting that Vr is connected to the +ve terminal of the comparator-1, the output of the comp-1 will be square wave and it goes to high state from the instant when Vr becomes greater than the cosine voltage value. However the width of the pulse will vary as to make the width of the pulse to be r is varied. Our first aim will be . This is achieved in the following way. The output of the
comp-1 is fed to a block mono-1. Output of the mono will be a pulse of small width at positive going edge of the input square wave. The output of mono- will thus give small pulses separated by .
Fig. 2.7 Basic Block of control scheme The voltage Vb0 is similarly processed, i.e., it is integrated then compared with the same variable d.c. with the help of comparator-2, output of OMP- will be a square wave and will be shifted by from the output square wave of OMP-1. This is because of the fact that Vb0 lags Va0 by The output of the comp-2 is now fed to a block mono-2. Output of mono-2 will be a pulse of small width at positive going edge of the input square wave. The output of mono-2 will thus give small pulses separated by . .
15
Fig. 2.8: Wave form at different point of ckt. of fig 2.7 This is important to know that the fixed width pulse waveforms at the output of mono- and monoare shifted by of as shown in Fig. 2.8. The outputs of mono1 and mono-2 can be used in . By some modification this technique can be used for conjunction with to two S-R flip flops so as to generate two square waves each having a fixed width and mutually separated by
voltage control.
16
CHAPTER 3 LITERATURE REVIEW

3.1 THYRISTOR: Thyristors or silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR) are finding many uses in electronics, and in particular for power control. Thyristors or silicon controlled rectifiers( SCRs) have even been called the workhorse of high power electronics. The thyristor is a four-layered, three terminal semiconducting devices, with each layer consisting of alternately N-type or P-type material, for example P-N-P-N. The main terminals, labelled anode and cathode, are across the full four layers, and the control terminal, called the gate, is attached to p-type material near to the cathode. (A variant called an SCSSilicon Controlled Switchbrings all four layers out to terminals.) The operation of a thyristor can be understood in terms of a pair of tightly coupled bipolar junction transistors, arranged to cause the self-latching action.
Fig. 3.1 Structure on the physical and electronic level, and the thyristor symbol.
3.2 TYPICAL THYRISTOR CHARACTERISTICS: Figure 3.2 shows a typical characteristic curve for a thyristor. It can be seen that in the reverse biased region it behaves in a similar way to a diode. All current, apart from a small leakage current is blocked (reverse blocking region) until the reverse breakdown region is reached, at which point the insulation due to the depletion layers at the junctions breaks down.
17
In the forward biased mode, unlike a normal diode, no current apart from a small leakage current flows. This is called the forward blocking mode. If a gating pulse is applied however, the thyristor "fires" and the forward resistance of the device falls to a very low value, allowing very large (several amperes) currents to flow in the forward conducting mode. Thyristors can also be made to fire by applying a very large forward voltage between anode and cathode, but this is not desirable as the device is not then being used to control conduction.
Fig. 3.2 Characteristics of SCR.
3.3 FIRING TECHNIQUE OF THYRISTOR: An SCR can be switched from off state to on state in several ways and these are: forward voltage triggering, temperature triggering, light triggering and gate triggering. Gate triggering is, however, the most common method of turning on the SCRs, because this method lends itself accurately for turning on the SCR at the desired instant of time. In addition gate triggering is an efficient and reliable method.
3.4 BASIC BUILDING BLOCKS: Basic blocks which will be necessary to implement any firing control scheme in a converter circuit are shown in Fig. 3.3. The figure demonstrates with the help of a single line diagram, the major
18
blocks necessary to generate firing pulses for any scheme. The converter is organized from a.c. power. Since the firing pulses must be synchronized with the a.c. supply, a.c. power also goes to the isolation and synchronizing blocks. Isolation is essential as because the control circuit uses very low power devices such as various chips, logic gates etc. The logic circuit block uses few logic gates to implement a particular firing scheme. The strength of the pulse obtained from logic gates may not be sufficient to drive the gate of a thyristor, so amplification of the pulse along with isolation is used at final stage as shown Fig. 3.3.
Fig. 3.3 Basic block of firing control circuit.
3.5 UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTOR: Although a unijunction transistor is not a thyristor, this device can trigger larger thyristors with a pulse at base B1. A unijunction transistor is composed of bar of N-type silicon having a P-type connection in the middle. See Figure 3.4(a). The connections at the ends of the bar are known as bases B1 and B2; the P-type mid-point is the emitter. With the emitter disconnected, the total resistance RBBO, a datasheet item, is the sum of RB1 and RB2 as shown in Figure 3.4(b). RBBO ranges from 4- k for different device types. The intrinsic standoff ratio is the ratio of RB1 to RBBO. It varies from 0.4 to 0.8 for different devices. The schematic symbol is Figure 3.4(c).
19
Fig 3.4 Symbol and formula of UJT
The Unijunction emitter current vs voltage characteristic curve (Figure 3.5 (a)) shows that as VE increases, current IE increases up IP at the peak point. Beyond the peak point, current increases as voltage decreases in the negative resistance region. The voltage reaches a minimum at the valley point. The resistance of RB1, the saturation resistance is lowest at the valley point. IP and IV, are datasheet parameters; for a 2n2647, IP and IV are 2A and 4mA, respectively. [AMS] VP is the voltage drop across RB1 plus a 0.7V diode drop; see Figure 3.5 (b). VV is estimated to be approximately 10% of VBB.
Fig 3.5 V-I characteristic of UJT
20
The relaxation oscillator in Figure 3.6 below is an application of the unijunction oscillator. RE charges CE until the peak point. The unijunction emitter terminal has no effect on the capacitor until this point is reached. Once the capacitor voltage, VE, reaches the peak voltage point VP, the lowered emitter-base1 E-B1 resistance quickly discharges the capacitor. Once the capacitor discharges below the valley point VV, the E-RB1 resistance reverts back to high resistance, and the capacitor is free to charge again.
Fig.3.6 Unijunction transistor relaxation oscillator and waveforms.
3.6 TRIAC: Triac is an electronic component that can conduct current in either direction when it is triggered (turned on), and is formally called a bidirectional triode thyristor or bilateral triode thyristor. Triacs belong to the thyristor family and are closely related to Silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCR). However, unlike SCRs, which are unidirectional devices (i.e. can conduct current only in one direction), TRIACs are bidirectional and so current can flow through them in either direction. Another difference from SCRs is that TRIACs can be triggered by either a positive or a negative current applied to its gate electrode, whereas SCRs can be triggered only by currents going into the gate. In order to create a triggering current, a positive or negative voltage has to be applied to the gate with respect to the A1 terminal (otherwise known as MT1). Once triggered, the device continues to conduct until the current drops below a certain threshold, called the holding current.
21
The bidirectionality makes TRIACs very convenient switches for AC circuits, also allowing them to control very large power flows with milliampere-scale gate currents. In addition, applying a trigger pulse at a controlled phase angle in an AC cycle allows one to control the percentage of current that flows through the TRIAC to the load (phase control), which is commonly used, for example, in controlling the speed of low-power induction motors, in dimming lamps and in controlling AC heating resistors.
Fig. 3.7 Triac 3.7 OP AMP: An op amp is a very high gain differential amplifier with high input impedance and low output impedance. Typical uses of the op amp are to be providing voltage amplitude changes, oscillator, filters circuit and many type of instrumental circuit. 3.7.1 INVERTING AMPLIFIER The Open Loop Gain of an ideal operational amplifier can be very high, as much as 1,000,000 (120dB) or more. However, this very high gain is of no real use to us as it makes the amplifier both unstable and hard to control as the smallest of input signals, just a few micro-volts, would be enough to cause the output voltage to saturate and swing towards one or the other of the voltage supply rails losing complete control. As the open loop DC gain of an operational amplifier is extremely high we can therefore afford to lose some of this gain by connecting a suitable resistor
22
across the amplifier from the output terminal back to the inverting input terminal to both reduce and control the overall gain of the amplifier. This then produces and effect known commonly as Negative Feedback, and thus produces a very stable Operational Amplifier based system. Negative Feedback is the process of "feeding back" a fraction of the output signal back to the input, but to make the feedback negative, we must feed it back to the negative or "inverting input" terminal of the op-amp using an external Feedback Resistor called Rf. This feedback connection between the output and the inverting input terminal forces the differential input voltage towards zero. This effect produces a closed loop circuit to the amplifier resulting in the gain of the amplifier now being called its Closed-loop Gain. A closed-loop amplifier uses negative feedback to accurately control the overall gain but at a cost in the reduction of the amplifiers bandwidth. This negative feedback results in the inverting input terminal having a different signal on it than the actual input voltage as it will be the sum of the input voltage plus the negative feedback voltage giving it the label or term of a Summing Point. We must therefore separate the real input signal from the inverting input by using an Input Resistor, Rin. As we are not using the positive noninverting input this is connected to a common ground or zero voltage terminal as shown below, but the effect of this closed loop feedback circuit results in the voltage potential at the inverting input being equal to that at the non-inverting input producing a Virtual Earth summing point because it will be at the same potential as the grounded reference input. In other words, the op-amp becomes a "differential amplifier". 3.7.2 INVERTING AMPLIFIER CONGIGURATION:
Fig 3.8 Inverting Amplifier

23
In this Inverting Amplifier circuit the operational amplifier is connected with feedback to produce a closed loop operation. For ideal op-amps there are two very important rules to remember about inverting amplifiers, these are: "no current flows into the input terminal" and that "V1 equals V2", (in real op-amps both these rules are broken). This is because the junction of the input and feedback signal (X) is at the same potential as the positive (+) input which is at zero volts or ground then, the junction is a irtual Earth". Because of this virtual earth node the input resistance of the amplifier is equal to the value of the input resistor, Rin and the closed loop gain of the inverting amplifier can be set by the ratio of the two external resistors. We said above that there are two very important rules to remember about Inverting Amplifiers or any operational amplifier for that matter and these are.
3.7.3 NON INVERTING AMPLIFIER: The second basic configuration of an operational amplifier circuit is that of a Non-inverting Amplifier. In this configuration, the input voltage signal, (Vin) is applied directly to the noninverting (+) input terminal which means that the output gain of the amplifier becomes "Positive" in value in contrast to the "Inverting Amplifier" circuit whose output gain is negative in value. The result of this is that the output signal is "in-phase" with the input signal. Feedback control of the non-inverting amplifier is achieved by applying a small part of the output voltage signal back to the inverting (-) input terminal via an Rf - R2 voltage divider network, again producing negative feedback. This closed-loop configuration produces a non-inverting amplifier circuit with very good stability, a very high input impedance, Rin approaching infinity, as no current flows into the positive input terminal, (ideal conditions) and a low output impedance, Rout as shown below.
24
Fig. 3.9
3.7.4 OP-AMP INTEGRATOR AMPLIFIER: An operational amplifier can be used as part of a positive or negative feedback amplifier or as an adder or subtractor type circuit using just pure resistances in both the input and the feedback loop. But what if we were to change the purely resistive (Rf) feedback element of an inverting amplifier to that of a frequency dependant impedance, (Z) type complex element, such as a capacitor, C. By replacing this feedback resistance with a capacitor we now have an RC network across the operational amplifier producing an Op-amp Integrator circuit as shown below.
Fig 3.10 Integrator
As its name implies, the Op-amp Integrator is an operational amplifier circuit that performs the mathematical operation of integration that is we can cause the output to respond to changes in the input voltage over time. The integrator amplifier acts like a storage element that produces a voltage output which is proportional to the integral of its input voltage with respect to time. In other words the magnitude of the output signal is determined by the length of time a voltage is
25
present at its input as the current through the feedback loop charges or discharges the capacitor as the required negative feedback occurs through the capacitor. When a voltage, Vin is firstly applied to the input of an integrating amplifier, the uncharged capacitor C has very little resistance and acts a bit like a short circuit (voltage follower circuit) giving an overall gain of less than one. No current flows into the amplifiers input and point X is a virtual earth resulting in zero output. As the feedback capacitor C begins to charge up, its reactance Xc decreases this results in the ratio of Xc/Rin increasing producing an output voltage that continues to increase until the capacitor is fully charged. At this point the capacitor acts as an open circuit, blocking anymore flow of DC current. The ratio of feedback capacitor to input resistor (Xc/Rin) is now infinite resulting in infinite gain. The result of this high gain (similar to the op-amps open-loop gain), is that the output of the amplifier goes into saturation as shown below. (Saturation occurs when the output voltage of the amplifier swings heavily to one voltage supply rail or the other with little or no control in between).
Fig 3.11
The rate at which the output voltage increases (the rate of change) is determined by the value of the resistor and the capacitor, RC time constant. By changing this RC time constant value, either by changing the value of the Capacitor, C or the Resistor, R, the time in which it takes the output voltage to reach saturation can also be changed for example.
26
Fig. 3.12
If we apply a constantly changing input signal such as a square wave to the input of an integrator amplifier then the capacitor will charge and discharge in response to changes in the input signal. This results in the output signal being that of a sawtooth waveform whose frequency is dependent upon the RC time constant of the resistor/capacitor combination. This type of circuit is also known as a Ramp Generator and the transfer function is given below.
Fig. 3.13
3.8 FIRING PULSE TECHNIQUE:

3.8.1 RESISTANCE TRIGGERING: A simple firing triggering circuit is shown in fig. 3.14. the rsistance R1 limit the current through the gate of the SCR. R2 is a variable resistance added to the circuit to achieve control over the triggering angle of SCR. Resistor R is a stabilizing resistor. The diode D is required to ensure that no negative voltage reaches the gate of the SCR.
27
Fig 3.14 R firing circuit and waveform
3.8.2 RESISTANCE CAPACITIVE TRIGERRING: The capacitor C in the circuit is connected to shift the phase of the gate voltage. D1 is used to prevent negative voltage from reaching the gate cathode of SCR. In the negative half cycle capacitor charge to the peak negative voltage of the supply (-V) through the diode D2. Capacitor maintains this negative voltage until supply voltage cross zero. As the supply become positive, the capacitor charge through resistor R from initial voltage of Vm to a
28
positive value. When the capacitor voltage is equal to the gate trigger voltage of the SCR, SCR is fired and capacitor voltage is clamped to a small positive value.
Fig. 3.15. Basic idea of RC control scheme.
3.9 TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH:
Fig. 3.16 Transistor used as a switch

29
The circuit resembles that of the common emitter. The difference is that to operate the transistor as a switch the transistor needs to be turned either fully "OFF" (cut-off) or fully "ON" (saturated). An ideal transistor switch would have infinite circuit resistance between the Collector and Emitter when turned "fully-OFF" resulting in zero current flowing through it and zero resistance between the Collector and Emitter when turned "fully-ON", resulting in maximum current flow. In practice when the transistor is turned "OFF", small leakage currents flow through the transistor and when fully "ON" the device has a low resistance value causing a small saturation voltage (VCE) across it. Even though the transistor is not a perfect switch, in both the cut-off and saturation regions the power dissipated by the transistor is at its minimum. In order for the base current to flow, the base input terminal must be made more positive than the emitter by increasing it above the 0.7 volts needed for a silicon device. By varying this base-emitter voltage VBE, the base current is also altered and which in turn controls the amount of collector current flowing through the transistor as previously discussed. When maximum collector current flows the transistor is said to be saturated. The value of the base resistor determines how much input voltage is required and corresponding base current to switch the transistor fully "ON".
3.10 THE 555 TIMER: The 555 timer is an integrated circuit (chip) implementing a variety of timer and multivibrator applications. It was produced by Signe tics Corporation in early 1970. The original name was the SE555/NE555 and was called "The IC Time Machine". The 555 gets its name from the three 5-K resistors used in typical early implementations. It is widely used because of its ease to use, low price and reliability. It is one of the most popular and versatile integrated circuits which can be used to build lots of different circuits. It includes 23 transistors, 2 diodes and 16 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini dual-in-line package (DIP-8)(Refer to Figure 3.17). The 555 Timer is a monolithic timing circuit that can produce accurate and highly stable time delays or oscillations. The timer basically operates in one of the two modesmonostable (one-shot) multivibrator or as an astable (free-running) multivibrator. In the monostable mode, it can produce accurate time delays from microseconds to hours. In the astable mode, it can produce rectangular waves with a variable duty cycle. Frequently, the 555 is used in astable mode to generate a continuous series of pulses, but you can also use the 555 to make a one-shot or monostable circuit.
30
The 555 can source or sink 200 mA of output current, and is capable of driving wide range of output devices. The output can drive TTL (Transistor-Transistor Logic) and has a temperature stability of 50 parts per million (ppm) per degree Celsius change in temperature, or equivalently 0.005 %/C. Applications of 555 timer in monostable mode include timers, missing pulse detection, bounce free switches, touch switches, frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse width modulation (PWM) etc. In astable or free running mode, the 555 can operate as an oscillator. The uses include LED and lamp flashers, logic clocks, security alarms, pulse generation, tone generation, pulse position modulation, etc. In the bistable mode, the 555 can operate as a flip-flop and is used to make bounce-free latched switches, etc. Refer to Figure 3.17 for the brief description of the pin connections. The pin numbers used refer to the 8-pin mini DIP and 8-pin metal can packages. The 555 can be used with a supply voltage (VCC) in the range 4.5 to 15V (18V absolute maximum).
31
Fig. 3.17 Functional Block Diagram of 555 Timer The working of 555 timer is described using its functional block diagram. As shown in Figure 3.18, the 555 timer consists of a voltage divider arrangement, two comparators, an RS flip-flop, an n-p-n transistor Q1 and a p-n-p transistor Q2. Since the voltage divider has equal resistors, the upper comparator has a trip point of UTP = 2/3 Vcc The comparator 2 has a trip point of LTP = 1/3 Vcc As seen in the Figure 3.18, the pin 6 (Threshold) is connected to the comparator 1. This voltage comes from the external components (not shown). When the threshold is greater than the UTP, the
32
comparator 2 has a high output. Pin 2 (trigger) is connected to the comparator 2. This is the trigger voltage that is used for the monostable operation of the 555 timer. When the trigger is inactive, the trigger voltage is high. When the trigger voltage falls to less than the LTP, comparator 2 produces a high output.
3.10.1 ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR: The application of 555 timer as an astable multivibrator. An astable multivibrator is a wavegenerating circuit in which neither of the output levels is stable. The output keeps on switching between the two unstable states and is a periodic, rectangular waveform. The circuit is therefore known as an astable multivibrator. lso, no external trigger is required to change the state of the output, hence it is also called free-running multivibrator. The time for which the output remains in one particular state is determined by the two resistors and a capacitor externally connected to the 555 timer. Figure 3.19 shows 555 timer connected as an astable multivibrator. Pin 5 is bypassed to ground through a . F capacitor. The power supply + is connected to common of pin 4 and pin 8
and pin 1 is grounded. If the output is high initially, capacitor C starts charging towards through RA and RB. As soon as the voltage across the capacitor becomes equal to 3/2 Vcc, the upper comparator triggers the flip-flop, and the output becomes low. The capacitor now starts discharging through RB and transistor Q1. When the voltage across the capacitor becomes 1/3Vcc, the output of the lower comparator triggers the flip-flop and the output becomes high. The cycle then repeats. The output voltage and capacitor voltage waveforms are shown in Figure 3.19.
Fig. 3.18 Circuit diagram for Astable Multivibrator
33
Fig. 3.19 Output voltage waveforms
3.11 LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR: A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another. In the control system a photoconductive cell is used as a transducer. Electrical conduction in semiconductor materials occurs when free charge carrier, e.g. electrons, is available in the material and an electric field is applied. In certain semiconductors when light energy strike on them in correct order of magnitude, they release charge carriers. Source Illumination chart S.No 1. 2. 3. 4. Light Source Moonlight 60W bulb at 1m Fluorescent light Bright sunlight Illumination (Lux) 0.1 50 500 30000
This increases flow of current produced by an applied voltage. The increase of current with increase in light intensity and the applied voltage is constant. It means that the resistance of semiconductors
34
decreases with increase the light intensity. Therefore, these semiconductors are called photoconductive cells or photo resistors or Light Dependent Resistors (LDR), since incident light effectively varies their resistance (Figure 2.3). In bright light the resistance of the cell can be as low as 80 ohm. When the cell is kept in darkness its resistance is called dark resistance. At 50 LUX (darkness) the resistance increases to over 1M ohm. The dark resistance may be as high as .
Fig 3.22 LDR and its characteristic graph A photoconductor has a relatively large sensitive area. A small change in light intensity causes a large change in resistance. It is common for a photoconductive element to exhibit a resistance change of 1000:1 for a dark to light irradiance change of 510-3 W/m2 to 50 W/m2. The relationship between irradiance and resistance is, however, not linear. It is closely an exponential relationship. The photoconductive cell suffers from a major disadvantage that temperature change causes substantial resistance changes for a particular light intensity.
3.12 OPTOCOUPLER: An Optocoupler, also known as an Opto-isolator or Photo-coupler, are electronic components that interconnect two electrical circuits by means of an optical interface. The basic design of an optocoupler consists of an LED that produces infra-red light and a semiconductor photo-sensitive
35
device that is used to detect this emitted infra-red light. Both the LED and photo-sensitive device are enclosed in a light-tight body or package with metal legs for the electrical connections as shown. An optocoupler or opto-isolator consists of a light emitter, the LED and a light sensitive receiver which can be a single photo-diode, photo-transistor, photo-resistor, photo-SCR, or a photo-TRIAC and the basic operation of an optocoupler is very simple to understand.
Fig. 3.22 3.12.1 PHOTO-TRANSISTOR OPTOCOUPLER: Assume a photo-transistor device as shown. Current from the source signal passes through the input LED which emits an infra-red light whose intensity is proportional to the electrical signal. This emitted light falls upon the base of the photo-transistor, causing it to switch-ON and conduct in a similar way to a normal bipolar transistor. The base connection of the photo-transistor can be left open for maximum sensitivity or connected to ground via a suitable external resistor to control the switching sensitivity making it more stable. When the current flowing through the LED is interrupted, the infra-red emitted light is cut-off, causing the photo-transistor to cease conducting. The photo-transistor can be used to switch current in the output circuit. The spectral response of the LED and the photo-sensitive device are closely matched being separated by a transparent medium such as glass, plastic or air. Since there is no direct electrical connection between the input and output of an optocoupler, electrical isolation up to 10kV is achieved.
36
Fig. 3.23 Photo-Transistor Optocoupler
3.12.2 OPTOCOUPLER TYPES: Optocoupler are available in four general types, each one having an infra-red LED source but with different photo-sensitive devices. The four optocoupler are: photo-transistor, photo-
darlington, photo-SCR and photo-triac as shown below.
Fig. 3.24
37
The photo-transistor and photo-darlington devices are mainly for use in DC circuits while the photo-SCR and photo-triac allow AC powered circuits to be controlled. There are many other kinds of source-sensor combinations, such as LED-photodiode, LED-LASER, lamp-photo resistor pairs, reflective and slotted optocoupler. Simple home made optocoupler can be constructed by using individual components. An LED and a photo-transistor are inserted into a rigid plastic tube or encased in heat-shrinkable tubing as shown. The tubing can be of any length.
Fig. 3.25
3.12.3 OPTOCOUPLER APPLICATIONS: Optocoupler and opto-isolators can be used on their own, or to switch a range of other larger electronic devices such as transistors and triacs providing the required electrical isolation between a lower voltage control signal and the higher voltage or current output signal. Common applications for optocoupler include microprocessor input/output switching, DC and AC power control, PC communications, signal isolation and power supply regulation which suffer from current ground loops, etc. The electrical signal being transmitted can be either analogue (linear) or digital (pulses).
3.12.4 OPTOCOUPLER TRIAC CONTROL: This type of optocoupler configuration forms the basis of a very simple solid state relay application which can be used to control any AC mains powered load such as lamps and motors. Also unlike a thyristor (SCR), a triac is capable of conducting in both halves of the mains AC cycle with zerocrossing detection.
38
Fig. 3.26
3.13 DC SUPPLY SYSTEM When four diodes are connected as shown in converter circuit, the circuit is called a BRIDGE RECTIFIER. The input to the circuit is applied to the diagonally opposite corners of the network, and the output is taken from the remaining two corners. One complete cycle of operation will be discussed to help you understand how this circuit works. Let us assume the transformer is working properly and there is a positive potential at point A and a negative potential at point B. The positive potential at point A will forward bias D3 and reverse bias D4. The negative potential at point B will forward bias D1 and reverse bias D2. At this time D3 and D1 are forward biased and will allow current flow to pass through them; D4 and D2 are reverse biased and will block current flow. The path for current flow is from point B through D1, up through RL, through D3, through the secondary of the transformer back to point B. This path is indicated by the solid arrows. Waveforms (1) and (2) can be observed across D1 and D3. One-half cycle later the polarity across the secondary of the transformer reverses, forward biasing D2 and D4 and reverse biasing D1 and D3. Current flow will now be from point A through D4, up through RL, through D2, through the secondary of T1, and back to point A. This path is indicated by the broken arrows. Waveforms (3) and (4) can be observed across D2 and D4. You should have noted that the current flow through RL is always in the same direction. In flowing through R L this current develops a voltage corresponding to that shown in waveform (5). Since current flows
39
through the load (RL) during both half cycles of the applied voltage, this bridge rectifier is a fullwave rectifier. One advantage of a bridge rectifier over a conventional full-wave rectifier is that with a given transformer the bridge rectifier produces a voltage output that is nearly twice that of the conventional full-wave circuit. This may be shown by assigning values to some of the components shown in views A and B of figure. Assume that the same transformer is used in both circuits. The peak voltage developed between points X and Y is 1000 volts in both circuits. In the conventional full-wave circuit shown in view A, the peak voltage from the center tap to either X or Y is 500 volts. Since only one diode can conduct at any instant, the maximum voltage that can be rectified at any instant is 500 volts. Therefore, the maximum voltage that appears across the load resistor is nearly - but never exceeds - 500 volts, as a result of the small voltage drop across the diode. In the bridge rectifier shown in view B, the maximum voltage that can be rectified is the full secondary voltage, which is 1000 volts. Therefore, the peak output voltage across the load resistor is nearly 1000 volts. With both circuits using the same transformer, the bridge rectifier circuit produces a higher output voltage than the conventional full-wave rectifier circuit. Now output receive at a terminal of bridge is ripple type and cannot directly use for dc supply. Now a very popular capacitor filter circuit is used to provide constant DC output. This is a condition when no load is applied across capacitor. When load is connected across capacitor, there is a little voltage ripple. Further smoothing of DC output is done by various other techniques like RC filter, OP-AMP series regulator, Series Voltage Regulator circuit etc.
40
Fig 3.27 DC Rectifier circuit
Sometime, DC output which we receive is more than the required value and need to reduce the level. Regulator IC units contain the circuitry for reference source, comparator amplifier, control device and overload protection all in a single IC. IC units provide regulation of either a fixed positive voltage, a fixed negative voltage, or an adjustable set voltage. For making DC supply circuit, we use transformer of 230V/14-014V. This type of transformer provide center tap for neutral point (0V). Dual power supply with 12V and -12V with neutral point is obtained. There will be instances where the currents from each supply will be unequal. In this cause voltage is different for each supply. This cause there is a chance of development of error. The input DC is given a voltage divider to establish a "virtual earth", and this is used as the 0V reference for the unit to be powered. In its simplest form, it uses a pair of resistors and two additional filter caps to make sure that the hum is within the capability of opamps to reject. There will be instances where the currents from each supply will be unequal. Where this is the case, the resistor divider is
41
not sufficient, and the +ve and -ve voltages will be unequal. By using a cheap opamp (such as a uA741), a DC imbalance between supplies of up to about 15mA will not cause a problem. However, we can do better with a dual opamp (which will cost the same or less anyway), and increase the capability for up to about 30mA of difference between the two supplies.
Fig 3.28 Circuit to produce balance neutral point
Fig 3.29 12 V dual supply
42
3.14 STREET LIGHT A Street light, lamppost, street lamp, light standard, or lamp standard is a raised source of light on the edge of a road or walkway, which is turned on or lit at a certain time every night. Modern lamps may also have light-sensitive photocells to turn them on at dusk, off at dawn, or activate automatically in dark weather. In older lighting this function would have been performed with the aid of a solar dial. It is not uncommon for street lights to be on posts which have wires strung between them, such as on telephone poles or utility poles. 3.14.1 LED STREET LIGHT: An LED street light is an integrated light that uses LEDs as its light source. These are considered integrated lights because, in most cases, the luminaire and the fixture are not separate parts (except LED Gine-based luminaires). New in manufacturing, the LED light cluster is sealed on a panel and then assembled to the LED panel with a heat sink to become an integrated lighting fixture.
Fig. 3.30
3.14.2 SOLAR STREET LIGHT: Solar energy is a renewable source of energy, which is long-lasting and no pollution type. It can be easily utilized and also a cost effective in long term. Solar street light do not need staff for management and control and it can easily stalled in public places like hospital, school, street etc. LED lamp is generally used because of long life and energy saving (low watt). LED street lamp is compact and shock resistive with energy efficient. Solar street lights are raised light sources which are powered by photovoltaic panels generally mounted on the lighting structure. The photovoltaic
43
panels charge a rechargeable battery, which powers a fluorescent or LED lamp during the night. Various control circuit is designed which is compact and efficient.
Fig. 3.31
3.14.3 HIGH INTENSITY DISCHARGE LAMP: High-intensity discharge lamps (HID lamps) are a type of electrical lamp which produces light by means of an electric arc between tungsten electrodes housed inside a translucent or transparent fused quartz or fused alumina arc tube. This tube is filled with both gas and metal salts. The gas facilitates the arcs initial strike. Once the arc is started, it heats and evaporates the metal salts forming a plasma, which greatly increases the intensity of light produced by the arc and reduces its power consumption. High-intensity discharge lamps are a type of arc lamp.
Fig. 3.32
44
Features: 1. High efficiency -105 lm/W 2. Long life up to 24000 hrs. 3. Bright light and excellent colour rendering 4. UV control 5. Two colour temperatures: 3000K and 42000K 6. Direct replacement of high pressure sodium and Quartz Metal Halide lamp 7. High range of wattage from 20 Watt to 400 Watt 3.14.4 CONTROL OF STREET LIGHT: Manual switch is provided on each pole of street light or a central switch is provided for series of street light for turn On/Off. This cause extra labour is required. Generally many cities used automatic circuit to turn On/Off. This is possible using LDR circuit which helps to switch transistor at specific time as it resistance change and activate relay to turn circuit on.
45
CHAPTER 4 PROPOSED PROJECT WORK

Thyristor or Triac is a switching device in the medium and large power levels starting from few kilowatts to several megawatts at voltage level of few hundred to several kilo volts levels. BJT(Bipolar Junction Transistor) and MOSFETs (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Transistor) also used as switching device at low voltage. We are working to design low cost digital firing circuit with automatic control of firing angle according to light intensity. The circuit is designed in such a manner so that firing circuit is active only in night (when necessary). Circuit is mainly divided into part (1) On/Off switching circuit, (2) firing angle control circuit. Firing circuit is divided into 10 parts as shown in fig. 4.1
Power
TRIAC
Isolation & Synchronizing block
Logic circuit for pulse generation
Amplification of pulse and isolation
LDR control circuit (ON/OFF, and control of firing angle)
Fig 4.1 Schematic Block Diagram 4.1 Synchronizing part: For producing proper firing pulse, it is necessary to synchronize the circuit. A 220/6-0-6 V or 220/3-0-3 V 50 Hz control transformer is selected for stepping down the 220 V supply to a low level.
46
4.2 Cosine wave generator One of the very popular integrator circuit using Op amp can be used to produce cosine wave. Fig 6.2 shows integrator circuit. Signal will be obtained.
Fig 4.2 Integrator circuit One of the problem with this type of integrator when used in practical circuit is a reduction in output amplitude, which is not good for our circuit. For this reason another simple phase shift circuit fig 4.3 is used and phase shift of 90 degree is set using variable resistor. For this configuration, cosine wave at output is found for potentiometer resistance of .7 k.
Fig 4.3 Phase shifting circuit
47
4.3 Comparator for producing variable width pulse An OP AMP (LM 324) is used to realize the comparator block. The variable d.c voltage is
applied to the non-inverting terminal and cosine signal is applied at inverting terminal. Variable voltage output is varied using simple variable pot technique. Firing angle control from 0 to 180 degree by varying variable voltage from 4.2 V to -4.2V.
Fig. 4.4 comparator circuit
4.4 Automatic Variable Voltage Generator For automatic control of firing angle, it is necessary to make a circuit which generate variable d.c voltage for comparator circuit according to the intensity of light (Variable voltage output vary from -4.2 V to 4.2 V as darkness increase so, that firng angle reduce from 180 degree to 0 degree and become fix. As shown in fig 4.5, a simple instrumentation OP AMP circuit using U1, U2, U3 is employed for this purpose. Output of instrumentation op amp is given by
48
) and vary according to LDR resistance variation. For finding the
Generally we fix
appropriate timing to vary firing angle, we conduct the series of test. Normal Street light On time is noted. And conduct a test to find the resistance of LDR at evening. From the experiment we found that LDR resistance in noon is merely few k to k to . During evening it resistance increase from to . . For LDR alue above k, k in 5 min and then sharp changing is observed. For the LDR value in between k, the output voltage is varying from -
firing is occurring at 0 degree.
Fig 4.5 Automatic Variable D.C Voltage generator using LDR
49
Circuit Implementation
Various portion of circuit is tested on MultiSim-10 before implementing it on breadboard. As per the block diagram shown in fig 4.6, circuit is implemented in two step. Let us discuss both part one by one.
Fig 4.6 Block diagram of implemented circuit
4.5 Automatic ON/OFF Circuit The detail circuits diagram for the control of street light is shown in figure 4.7. The circuit depends on a light sensitive device called LDR (light dependent resistor). The resistance of the LDR depends on the amount of light falling on it. The simple circuit just which give a fix voltage during evening when LDR resistance increase above 5k can be used to switch transistor ON and cause relay operate and street light start glowing. But this type of general circuit cause frequent operation of relay during transient period. Even it damages the bulb or relay itself. For avoiding this situation little bit complex OP AMP based circuit is used. A set of LDR resistance reading is taken during evening and morning time. Data help us to find the suitable operating point of this circuit. LDR resistance of 5k is chosen as operating point of relay. As shown in fig 4.7, R3, R9 and LDR formed on arm of bridge and R1 and POT formed another arm. For the 5 k resistance of LDR, voltage at port is .7 . Now by varying the POT resistance, we set the voltage at port 2 is nearly equal to 4.74V. Terminal 1 and 2 is
50
connected to the + and input terminal of OP AMP. As open loop gain of OP amp is 10000, for slightly variation of input voltage, the output is either 12 V or -12 V i.e for LDR resistance of 5. k, the output is . During daytime LDR resistance is always less than 5 k, so output is -12 V. this cause voltage at 3 is - . and transistor remain off. Lets the evening or dark condition, in this cause LDR resistance is greater than 5 k and output at OP amp is 12V and 11.3 V at terminal 3. This is able to drive transistor and operate relay and cause relay coil turn ON.
Fig 4.7 Relay operation circuit diagram
Table 1: LDR Resistance variation graph (on 18.03.2012)
51
S.No 1. 2. 3. 4.
Date 20.03.2012 21.03.2012 23.03.2012 24.03.2012
Turn ON Time 6:38 PM 6:38 PM 6:40 PM 6:43 PM
Table 2: Turn ON Time of circuit
Fig 4.8 Experimental setup and circuit on PCB
4.6 TRIAC FIRING CIRCUIT For intensity based control of street light, TRIAC is used whose firing angle change according to the intensity. Circuit is design so that firing angle change from 130 to 0 degree for LDR resistance change from 5 k to k. Fig .5 shows the Instrumentation OP amp circuit, which generate Vref (according to light intensity) for changing firing angle automatically.
52
Firing circuit is design using Integrator, comparator and logic Gate. As in fig 4.9 , the two input reference Vao and Vbo is taken from supply for synchronizing the circuit. Vbo is a 180 degree phase shift from Vao. At 1 & 2, there is wave of 90 degree shift of Vao and Vbo respectively. Vref is used to generate the specific signal at 6 & 8, which decide the firing angle. The signal at 6 & 8 is conditioned to generate firing pulse at 9 & 10 respectively for positive and negative cycle. The signal at 11 is used as firing pulse. Optocoupler is used as isolator between power and firing circuit.
53
Fig 4.9 Firing circuit implement in lab
54
Fig 4.10 Optocoupler interfacing circuit
Fig 4.11 Waveform at different points in the circuit of Fig4.9
55
Fig. 4.12, Firing circuit implemented on Breadboard and PCB
Fig 4.13, Firing angle Pulse observe on CRO for different LDR resistance
4.7 Change in firing angle:

Firing angle variation is observed by varying the LDR resistance. By plotting a graph between Vref voltage apply to firing circuit and firing angle, we found that firing angle is increase with increase in LDR resistance. So, using this graph, it is found that circuit is suitable for controlling the power of circuit during transient period and also save energy. The ultimate aim of saving energy and automatic control of street light is achieved. Output voltage of Load is given by
56
Fig. 4.14 Graph for variation in firing angle with variation of Automatic Vref voltage
Fig. 4.15 graph to show Load power consumed for different firing angle for 200W lamp
57
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION
5.1 Summary of the work reported in the project
This project deals with the design and development of suitable control circuit, for street light using LDR. First, a simple circuit using comparator is design to operate the relay switch, which turns ON/OFF the street light. The circuit has been implemented on the breadboard by selecting suitable value of resistance in bridge. The circuit is tested to find the reliability of circuit. Firing circuit is designed using the cosine technique. The firing angle is varying as the Vref voltage is change and the corresponding waveform is check using CRO. By controlling the firing angle through the LDR sensor, the power output applied to a load through Triac is controlled automatically by controlling firing angle.
5.2 Scope of future work

The work outlined in this project leads itself to the following scope of future work through various sensor has the potential for automatic control of AC devices like fan, load, furnaces. 1. The present work control the conventional AC circuit, but now a day LED, solar based low power street light is used. For that type of lightning load necessary to design the DC based Automatic controller. This possible by modifying the present circuit by using PWM technique. 2. It is used to control the humidity of fertilizer godown. We simply connect the humidity sensor circuit to give the Vref voltage which decide the speed of blower motor and hence regulate the blower. 3. For maintain the temperature of furnace.
58
APPENDIX
Single Supply Quad Operational Amplifiers (LM324) The LM324 series are low-cost, quad operational amplifiers with true differential inputs.they have different distinct advantages over standard operational amplifier types in single supply applications. The quad amplifier can operate at supply voltage as low as 3.0 V or as high as 32V. the common mode input range includes the negative supply, therby eliminating the necessity for external biasing components in many applications. The output voltage range also includes the negative power supply voltage. Features 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Short circuit protected outputs True differential Inputs stage Single Supply Operation: 3.0 V to 32 V Low Input Bias Currents: 100 nA maximum (LM324A) Four OP- Amp available Industry Standard Pin outs Pb-Free Packages are available
Fig A.1 Pin diagram of LM324
59
QUAD two-input OR gate (SN74LS32) A Logic OR Gate or Inclusive-OR gate is a type of digital logic gate that has an output which is normally at logic level "0" and only goes "HIGH" to a logic level "1" when ANY of its inputs are at logic level "1". The output of a Logic OR Gate only returns "LOW" again when ALL of its inputs are at a logic level "0". The logic or Boolean expression given for a logic OR gate is that for Logical Addition which is denoted by a plus sign, (+) giving us the Boolean expression of: A+B = Q. A simple 2-input logic OR gate can be constructed using RTL Resistor-transistor switches connected together as shown below with the inputs connected directly to the transistor bases. Either transistor must be saturated "ON" for an output at Q.
Fig. A.2 Logic OR Gates are available using digital circuits to produce the desired logical function and is given a symbol whose shape represents the logical operation of the OR gate.
60
Fig A.3 Pin diagram of 74LS32
QUAD two-input AND gate (SN74LS08) A Logic AND Gate is a type of digital logic gate that has an output which is normally at logic level "0" and only goes "HIGH" to a logic level "1" when all of its inputs are at logic level "1". The output of a Logic AND Gate only returns "LOW" again when any of its inputs are at a logic level "0". The logic or Boolean expression given for a logic AND gate is that for Logical Multiplication which is denoted by a single dot or full stop symbol, (.) giving us the Boolean expression of: A.B = Q. A simple 2-input logic AND gate can be constructed using RTL Resistor-transistor switches connected together as shown below with the inputs connected directly to the transistor bases. Both transistors must be saturated "ON" for an output at Q.
Fig. A.4 AND gate circuit

61
Logic AND Gates are available using digital circuits to produce the desired logical function and is given a symbol whose shape represents the logical operation of the AND gate. TRIAC BT134 BT134 in a plastic envelope, intended use in application requiring high bidirectional transient and have a blocking voltage capability and high thermal cycling performance. Typical applications include motor control, industrial and domestic lighting, heating and static switching. The conducting metal surface is provided for heat sink. Repetitive Peak off state voltage. RMS on state current.. Non Repetitive Peak on- state current. 5
Fig A.5 Pin Diagram of TRIAC BT 1
62
REFRENCES
1. Tirtharaj Sen, Pijush Kanti Bhattacharjee, Member, I SIT, Manjima Bhattacharya, Design and Implementation of Firing ircuit for SinglePhase onverter, International Journal of omputer and Electrical Engineering, ol. , No. , June 2. Wang ongqing, Hao huncheng, Zhang Suoliang,Design of Solar LED Street Lamp utomatic ontrol ircuit, 9 International onference on Energy and Environment Technology 3. R.W. Wall, Senior Member, IEEE, Simple Methods for Detecting Zero rossing, Proceedings of The 9th nnual onference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society Paper # 9 4. Hengyu Wu, Minli Tang, Guo Huang, Design of Multi-functional Street Light Control System Based on AT89S52 Single-chip Microcomputer, nd International Conference on Industrial Mechatronics and Automation. 5. Muhammad H. Rashid,Power Electronics, Prentice Hall of India Publishers Ltd, 9. th 6. Paul B. Zbar and Albert P. Malvino, Basic Electronics: A Text Lab Manual, 5 edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Publisher, 5
63

Automatic Control of Street Light

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Automatic Control of Street Light

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.

AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF STREET LIGHT

Malik Sameeullah (08EES31)

Muneeb Ahmed (08EES50)

Rizwanullah Ansari (08EES62)

Under the supervision of

DR. TARIKUL ISLAM ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.com

AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF STREET LIGHT

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

MALIK SAMEEULLAH MUNEEB AHMED RIZWANULLAH ANSARI

(08-EES 31) (08-EES 50) (08-EES 62)

Under the supervision of

DR. TARIKUL ISLAM ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.com

Prof. ZAHEERUDIN (HOD) Department of Electrical Engineering Jamia Millia Islamia

Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.com

Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.com

Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.com

Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.com

Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.com

Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.com

CHAPTER 2 TECHNICAL REVIEW

Fig 2.1 Symbol of diode and thyristor

Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.com 2.2 LINE COMMUTATED CONVERTERS

and vice versa.

Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.com

Fig. 2.4 Basic idea of ramp scheme

Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.com

Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.com

a is zero and increasing in

. Similarly for T & T the firing angle

Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.com

be to make the width of the pulse to be

. This is achieved in the following way. The output of

Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.com

Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.com

CHAPTER 3 LITERATURE REVIEW

Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.com

Fig. 3.2 Characteristics of SCR.

Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.com

Fig. 3.3 Basic block of firing control circuit.

Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.com

Fig 3.4 Symbol and formula of UJT

Fig 3.5 V-I characteristic of UJT

Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.com

Fig.3.6 Unijunction transistor relaxation oscillator and waveforms.

Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.com

Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.com

Fig 3.8 Inverting Amplifier

Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.com

Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.com

Fig 3.10 Integrator

Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.com

Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.com

3.8 FIRING PULSE TECHNIQUE:

Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.com

Fig 3.14 R firing circuit and waveform

Feel free to contact at : malik_sameeullah@rediffmail.com

Fig. 3.15. Basic idea of RC control scheme.