Simple Methods of Measuring Resistance Between Electrodes

Author: R.J.Edwards G4FGQ 15th February 1998

easurement of the Resistance between Two Electrodes in

the Soil Stray soil currents flowing in the vicinity and electro-chemical

potentials on electrodes, make soil resistance measurements impossible using the ohms range of a multirange meter. Much larger test currents must be used. Errors due to electrodes becoming polarised by DC test currents can be reduced by rapidly reversing a DC supply or by using 50 Hz AC power via an isolating transformer. Resistances between 20 and 2000 ohms, typically 200 ohms, can be expected with test rods 10 to 25 mm in diameter and 500 to 1000 mm in depth. To maintain accuracy measured volts should be at least 5. Power units should be capable of supplying 100 mA. To drive 10 milliamps into a high resistance soil a supply of 25 volts or more may be needed. The most simple method is to measure the current flowing when a known voltage is applied. A high-wattage current-limiting resistor should be included in the circuit. A known AC voltage can be provided by tap selection on an adequately rated isolating transformer having good regulation. If a multi-ratio transformer or AC milliammeter is not available a "standard" resistor can be placed in series with the rod. Rod resistance is calculated from the ratio of the voltages measured across each. Standard resistors should be between 1/3 and 3 times the resistance of the unknown and should not be allowed to overheat. A selection of 10 watt wire wound resistors in the range 50 to 500 ohms will suffice. When frequent measurements are to be made a resistance bridge built into a box complete with a DC or AC, mains-driven, power unit will be found convenient. Two arms of the bridge are formed by the standard resistor in series with the unknown, the pair being across the power supply. The other pair of arms may be formed from a 2000-ohm wire-wound potentiometer calibrated in ohms. The bridge detector is a milliammeter in series with a sensitivity control resistance. Heavy gauge test leads are not necessary. Measure test leads resistance first. The earth terminal on domestic 240V AC power supplies, which may be connected to a buried metal water supply pipe, can be assumed to have zero resistance to earth. The resistance measured between this terminal and an earth rod will be that of the rod itself. Provided the distance between the rod and any other buried conductor is greater than five times its depth, soil resistivity in the immediate vicinity can be calculated from the rod's resistance and dimensions. When soil resistivity is known, the earth connection resistance of any other system of electrodes can be predicted.

Professional portable instruments with digital read-out are available, but are not worth the expensive for occasional use by radio amateurs.

Typical Soil Characteristics of Various Terrains

Author: R.J.Edwards G4FGQ 15th February 1998

TYPE OF TERRAIN Freshwater lakes, unpolluted Sea water, away from river estuaries Agricultural plains, streams, richest loam soil Pastoral, low hills, fertile soil Flat, marshy, densely wooded in places Pastoral, medium hills with forestation Pastoral, heavy clay soils, hills Rocky soil, steep forested hills, streams Rocky, sandy, some rainfall, some vegetation Low-rise city suburbs, built-up areas, parks High-rise city centres, industrial areas Sand deserts, arid, no vegetation

RESISTIVITY (Ohm-metres) 1000 0.22 30 80 130 270 250 500 500 1000 3000 > 20,000

PERMITTIVITY 80 81 20 15 13 12 12 10 8 6 4 3

An ohm-metre is the resistance between opposite faces of a 1-metre cube of the material. The above values are averages taken over large distances. Permittivity is the dielectric constant relative to air. These average values may be used to estimate groundwave signal strength over the above terrains, using Sommerfeld's formula, from VLF to HF.

Resistivities of Various Materials

Author: R.J.Edwards G4FGQ 15th February 1998

MATERIAL Silver Copper, annealed Copper, hard drawn Gold, pure Aluminium Zinc Brass Iron, pure Tin Lead Steel, structural Constantan

RESISTIVITY Ohm-metres at 20 C 1.63 x 10^-8 1.72 x 10^-8 1.77 x 10^-8 2.44 x 10^-8 2.82 x 10^-8 5.68 x 10^-8 7.14 x 10^-8 1.00 x 10^-7 1.15 x 10^-7 2.20 x 10^-7 3.00 x 10^-7 4.90 x 10^-7

Mercury Carbon Sea water

9.62 x 10^-7 3.00 x 10^-5 0.22

Calculation of Soil Resistivity When Resistance of One Rod is Known

Author: R.J.Edwards G4FGQ 15th February 1998

o obtain a measurement representative of the soil in the

vicinity of the rod and down to a useful depth, the rod should be driven to a depth of at least 0.5 metres, preferably 1 metre. It should be spaced away from any other buried conductors by at least five times its own depth in the soil. Its resistance to earth may have been obtained from the Three-Rods-Test, as described elsewhere in this program, or it may have been obtained directly by measuring it against another earth electrode of known resistance or which has been assumed to have zero resistance to the body of the earth.

Run this Program from the Web or Download and Run it from Your Computer

This program is self-contained and ready to use. It does not require installation. Click this link EarthRes then click Open to run from the web or Save to save the program to your hard drive. If you save it to your hard drive, double-click the file name from Windows Explorer (Right-click Start then left-click Explore to start Windows Explorer) and it will run.

The 4-Rod (Venner) Fundamental Method of Determining Soil Resistivity

Author: R.J.Edwards G4FGQ 15th February 1998

he four rods need not be of same diameter but should all be

forced into the soil to approximately the same depth and tamped in at the soil surface. The rods should be in a straight line, uniformly spaced apart. Spacing should be at least three, preferably four times their depth. But very wide spacing needs a large test current and a fairly high supply voltage for accuracy. A current is driven between the two outermost rods and measured. The resulting voltage between the inner pair of rods is measured. Then calculate as follows:

Soil resistivity = 2 * Pi * Spacing-in-metres * Volts / Amps ohmmetres The voltmeter must be a high resistance type, at least 20 times the resistance of the soil between the pair of electrodes. To avoid errors due to extraneous earth currents or electro-chemical potentials, take the mean of measurememnts with rapid current reversals, or use an alternating 50 Hz supply current. Example: Four rods driven to a depth of 500 mm, spaced two metres apart, current = 142 milliamps. Measured volts = 1.14 Therefore resistivity = 101 ohm-metres. Note: in this case, a 50 volt supply is needed to drive 142 mA into the rods.

The "Three Rods" Method of Measuring Earth Resistivity

Author: R.J.Edwards G4FGQ 15th February 1998

ll three rods are at the same depth and have the same diameter.

They must be spaced apart not less than four times their depth. They may be arrayed in any convenient triangular formation. Enter all data on bottom line.

Run this Program from the Web or Download and Run it from Your Computer
This program is self-contained and ready to use. It does not require installation. Click this link EarthRes then click Open to run from the web or Save to save the program to your hard drive. If you save it to your hard drive, double-click the file name from Windows Explorer (Right-click Start then left-click Explore to start Windows Explorer) and it will run.

Resistance to Earth of Buried Plates and Surface Mats

Author: R.J.Edwards G4FGQ 15th February 1998

Note: Enter all data on program bottom line.

Run this Program from the Web or Download and Run it from Your Computer

This program is self-contained and ready to use. It does not require installation. Click this link EarthRes then click Open to run from the web or Save to save the program to your hard drive. If you save it to your hard drive, double-click the file name from Windows Explorer (Right-click Start then left-click Explore to start Windows Explorer) and it will run.

This Program Calculates Ground Radial System Resistance with:

Radials uniformly spaced

Depth > wire diameter Length > five times Depth

Run this Program from the Web or Download and Run it from Your Computer
This program is self-contained and ready to use. It does not require installation. Click this link EarthRes then click Open to run from the web or Save to save the program to your hard drive. If you save it to your hard drive, double-click the file name from Windows Explorer (Right-click Start then left-click Explore to start Windows Explorer) and it will run.

Behaviour of Earth Electrodes at Radio Frequencies

Author: R.J.Edwards G4FGQ 15th February 1998

otes on Behaviour of Earth Electrodes at Radio

FrequenciesBasic soil characteristics, Resistivity Rp and Permittivity K,

change very little versus frequency. But as frequency increases the magnitude of the soil impedance Z decreases due to the shunt capacitance. The capacitance in shunt with Rp is K times 8.85 picofarads and therefore Z has a negative angle. Since the main concern is with RF power lost in the ground when aerial current flows into an earth connection, the equivalent series resistive component of Z Rs, will be of greatest interest. Taking typical values of Rp = 100 ohm-metres and K = 14, at a frequency of about 13 MHz the angle of Z is 45 degrees and Rs has fallen to 71 ohms. The series reactive component Xs is also 71 ohms but is not of great consequence because reactance in an earth connection, +ve or -ve, is tuned out when the aerial itself is resonated. The relationship between RF input resistance of an earth electrode and its DC value (which is usually the only known parameter) versus frequency is complex. The form of electrode and its longest dimension, expressed as a fraction of a wavelength, are the key features. A further complication is due to propagation velocity on a buried electrode being much smaller than the freespace velocity and also varying with frequency. Electrodes may be classed as plates or wires and considered separately. A rod is a very short wire of large diameter. A long thin strip may be considered as a wire with diameter half of the width.

A Square or Rectangular Earth Plate

Up to frequencies at which the length of the longest side is less than 1/20th of the wavelength in free-space, Rin, the series resistive component of Zin, may be assumed equal to its DC value, Rdc. When the angle A of soil impedance is not small, multiply Rdc by Cosine(A). At higher frequencies, depending on soil characteristics, the series resistance may increase above the DC value.

Uniformly Spread Radial Wires

Each wire must be considered as a lossy transmission line. Resonance effects are almost entirely absent because attenuation may be 10 dB or more per 1/4 wave-length of line. Propagation velocity is frequency dependent between 1/8 and 1/3 of free-space value. Radials can be very long in terms of wavelengths. The RF input resistance of a wire less than 1/40 free-space waves long may be assumed equal to its DC resistance to ground. For a set of radials the DC resistance of the set must be used. For longer lengths input impedance converges on Zo, which, due to wire inductance has a +ve angle. Input resistance is then the resistive component of Zo. There is no benefit in using radials longer than 1/3-wave. It will always be better to use twice as many radials of half the length. To study the DC and RF characteristics of a single buried radial use theradioeth.exe program .