HKH

Engine Electrical
Engine Electrical
MEMO
Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Engine Electrical
Preface
As the electric devices of the vehicles are the same with the nervous systems of the human body, any malfunction of them will result to the defected vehicles. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the basic knowledge about the electric devices. Recently, the mechanical structure becomes to more complicate in order to protect the environments from the harmful exhausted gases and especially, the most parts of vehicles are comprised of the new electric devices for enhancing the performance of vehicles. Therefore, the scopes of the electrical knowledge to study shall be more enlarged and more. This book is composed of the engine electrical generals varying for these situations.
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Contents
1. Battery 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 The Principle of the battery Purpose of battery The Kinds of the battery The structure of the lead-acid battery and the charging and discharging operation Various characteristics of the lead-acid battery Life time of the lead-acid battery Charge of the lead-acid battery MF battery 7 7 8 9 16 20 20 24
2. Starting System 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 The principles and kinds of the DC motor Start motor Structure and operation of the start motor Starting-system trouble diagnosis 25 29 30 42
3. Charging System 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Purpose of the charging system Single phase alternating current and 3-phase alternating current Direct current alternator Alternating current alternator Alternator regulator 45 45 48 52 56
4. Ignition System 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 5. 5.1 Purpose of ignition system Computer control type ignition system DLI (Distributor less Ignition) Performance of the ignition system The Micro 570 analyzer Key pad 83 61 63 75 80
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5.2 5.3 5.4 Battery test procedures Starter test procedures Charging test procedures 83 85 86
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1. Battery
1.1 The Principle of the Battery
The Battery is an electrochemical device converting a chemical energy to the electrical energy through the chemical operations of the electricity. It is classified into the primary cell and the secondary cell. 1.1.1 The Primary Cell When a copper plate and a zinc plate are put into a dilute sulfuric acid solution, the zinc will be melted by the sulfur to be zinc ion (Zn++) having the positive (+) electricity, therefore, the negative (-) electric charge will be collected to the zinc plate side. And the hydrogen ion (H+) will move to the copper plate from repulsing by the zinc ion. Therefore, the hydrogen ion will give the positive (+) charge to the copper plate, so the copper plate will have the positive charge. Consequently, a voltage difference will be occurred between the zinc plate and the copper plate. By connecting an external load (resistor) between the copper plate and the zinc plate, an electric current will flow from the copper plate to the zinc plate through the external load. Using this device, the chemical energy will be changed to the
electrical energy. For the primary cell, after it is discharged at once, it is impossible to be recharged again.
Fig. 1-1. The Principle of the Primary cell
1.1.2 The Secondary Cell This type is generally called as the storage battery. It can be recovered the battery function by recharging after it is discharged. In the vehicles, this secondary cell is mostly used. When electric loads are connected to the battery terminals, a voltage will
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be generated by the chemical reaction between the electrode plates and the electrolyte in the battery. The storage battery, generally, is the lead-acid battery in which the dilute sulfuric acid is used for the electrolyte, the lead peroxide is used for the positive plate (anode) and the pure lead is used for the negative plate (cathode). The functions of the battery for the vehicle shall satisfy the following conditions. It should cover full electrical load capacity of the operating devices. When the alternator malfunctions, the battery should be used for the electric source during running of the vehicles. It should control the balance between the output of the alternator and the load according to the running status. However, the battery is not the main source of the electric devices of the vehicles. It just has an auxiliary role when the engine is started and when the electric output of the alternator is smaller than the output of the battery. Therefore, the most Fig. 1-2 The Principle of the Lead-acid Battery required important role of the battery is to start the engine with optimized condition. have cheap cost.
1.2. Purpose of Battery

The battery can make the electrical energy from the chemical energy in the materials used for the electrode plates and the electrolyte (This is called the discharging). It can also store the electrical energy as the chemical energy (this called the charging). The requirements for the battery are like that. It should be small in size and light in weight, and it should have long lifetime. It should be endure against the hard vibrating conditions, and it should be easy to control. It should have large capacity and it should
1.3 The Kinds of the Battery

The battery used in the most vehicles is the secondary cell (storage battery or galvanic battery) possible to be charged and discharged of which kinds are like the followings. 1.3.1 Lead-Acid Battery This kind battery is comprised of the lead peroxide (PbO2) as the positive (+) electrode (anode) plate, the discharge lead (Pb) as the negative electrode (cathode) plate and the dilute sulfuric acid (H2SO4) as the electrolyte. The advantages and disadvantages of this are like the followings.
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(1) The advantages of the lead-acid battery It is less dangerous than other types because the chemical reaction of it occurs in the room temperature. It has high reliabilities and low cost respectively. (2) The disadvantages of the lead-acid battery The energy density is about 40Wh/kgf, lower than others. It has shorter lifetime and longer charging time than others do. 1.3.2 Alkali Battery (Ni-Cd Battery) In the alkali battery, there are Ni-Fe battery and Ni-Cd battery. The di-nickel-hydroxide [2NiO(OH)] and iron (Fe) are used in Ni-Fe battery and the dinickel-hydroxide [2NiO(OH)] and cadmium (Cd) are used in Ni-Cd battery as the anode (+) plate and the cathode (-) plate, respectively. The potassium hydroxide (KOH) is used for the electrolyte. The electrolyte is only used for moving the electrons and not used in the chemical reaction for charging and discharging, so the specific gravity shall not be changed almost. The case is made of the steel sheet coated with nickel or the plastic. The rated voltage is about 1.2V per cell, and the voltage in the charging state is about 1.35V per cell. The voltage will be decreased down to the 1.1V at discharging operation, however, it will be increased up to the 1.4~1.7V at charging operation. The advantages and disadvantages of the alkali battery are like the followings. (1) The advantages of the alkali battery It can endure under the hard working conditions such as over charging, over discharging and leaving for long times. It has good high rate discharging
performances. It has large output density. It has long lifetime (10~20 years). It has short charging time.
(2) The disadvantages of the alkali battery It has low energy density, about
25~35Wh/kgf. The cost of the metal used for the electrode is so expensive. It is hard to supply for mass product.
1.4 The structure of the lead-acid battery and the charging and discharging operation
1.4.1 The structure of the lead-acid battery The basic compositions of the lead-acid battery are the two kinds of metal electrode having the different ionization characteristics each other and the electrolyte in the case. There is an electric voltage difference between the anode (+) and cathode (-). As shown in Fig 1-3, when an electrical load is connected between these electrodes, the sequential electrical currents will flow from the (+) electrode having the higher electrical voltage value
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to the (-) electrode having the lower electrical voltage by occurring the chemical reaction between the electrodes and the electrolyte.
Fig 1-4. The structure of the storage battery (1) Electrode Plate Fig. 1-3. The basic schematic diagram of the lead-acid battery In the lead-acid battery used for the vehicles, the lead peroxide (PbO2) is used for the anode, the discharge lead (Pb) is used for the cathode and the dilute sulfuric acid (H2SO4) solution is used for the electrolyte. Actually, in order to get larger electrical energy from smaller volume as possible, the area of the electrode plates contacting with the electrolyte should be as large as possible. To do so, the electrode plate should be a plate group consisted of the multiple thin metal plates in parallel. These plate groups of anode and cathode electrodes are installed facing each other. The electrode consists of an anode plate and a cathode plate. They are made of lead peroxide and discharge lead at the anode and cathode plate, respectively after a paste of lead powder or lead oxide powder with dilute sulfuric acid solution is spread on a metal-alloyed grid plate, dried and metamorphosed.
Fig. 1-5. Electrode Plate The grid should be easy to treat, have a good electrical conductivity and mechanical strength, be compatible with the reacting materials and have high resistance against the acid. Generally, the grid is made of the alloy of lead (Pb) and antimony (Sb). The lead peroxide, dark brown colored, is easily
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percolated by the electrolyte because it is porous, however, it can be easily torn off from the plate because it has weak bonding energy of the molecules. The discharge lead, gray colored porous, is not torn off from the grid because it has strong bonding energy and reactivity, however, the particle of the powder shall be grew up as the battery is used so the porosity is reduced.
As the crystallized particles of the lead peroxide are torn off from the plate or the porosity of the negative plate is reduced, the capacity of the battery is reduced; at last its lifetime will be terminated. The anode plate is more activated so that the cathode plate consists of one more plate in order to enhance the capacity and protect the negative plate. (2) Separator The separators are inserted among the multiple of the anode plates and the cathode plates to protect the short of them. If the electrode plates are shorted each other by damaged separator, then the electrical energy charged in the battery will be leaked out. (3) Plate Group The plate group is made by assembling the multiple of electrodes and separators alternatively, welding the electrode with connecting piece and connecting to the terminal pole, the (+) terminal pole for the anode plate and the (-) terminal pole for the cathode plate. The one plate group made by this method is called the one cell. For the 12V storage battery, there are six cells in one case connected by connector in serial. Each cell can generate electromotive force of 2.1~2.3V. As increasing the number of cell, the surface area contacting with the electrolyte is also increased, so the capacity of the battery will be increased. (4) Battery Case The case is generally made of plastic resin. For the 12V battery, the case is divided into 6 sectors for containing the six cells. At the bottom of the each cell, there is an element rest to protect from being shortage resulted from the slugs or deposits of the reacting materials torn off from the plates. Using a sodium carbonate and water or It should not emit any harmful material against the electrodes. ammonia water performs the cleaning for the case and cover of the battery.
The material of the separator is the reinforced fiber made of resin, or the rubber or plastic having tiny percolates. The grooved face of the separator is facing to the anode electrode to protect the corrosion by the lead peroxide and to accelerate the diffusion of the electrolyte. The requirements of the separator are like the followings. It should be a nonconductor. It should be porous to accelerate the diffusion of the electrolyte. It has good mechanical strength and should not be corroded by the electrolyte easily.
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Fig. 1-6. Plate group (5) Cover & Vent plug The cover is also made of plastic resin and adhered to the case to secure from penetrating of air or moisture. At the center of the cover, there are a hole for injecting the electrolyte or distilled water and inserting the spoid for measuring the specific gravity or the thermometer, and a vent plug for closing this hole. There is also a small hole near the vent plug to emit the oxygen or hydrogen gases generated from the inside of the battery. In the case of MF battery recently used, there is no vent plug. The electrolyte is a dilute sulfuric acid solution having the high degree of purity by mixing the distilled water with sulfuric acid. The electrolyte stores the electrical energy when the battery is charged in which the electrolyte contacts with the electrode plates, and it emits the electrical energy when the battery is discharged. It also conducts the electrical current in the cell. The specific gravity of the electrolyte is bout 1.280 when the battery is fully charged at 20, and it is treated as the standard value. At the standard specific gravity, the conductivity of the sulfur is the highest value. When the battery is fully discharged, the specific gravity is about 1.050. Actually, the electrolyte of battery has a lot higher specific gravity than the standard value to increase the electromotive force and to reduce the internal resistance when the battery is discharged. The manufacturing process of the electrolyte is like that. Fig. 1-7. The structure of the vent plug (6) Electrolyte The vessel should be insulator (such as ebonite or plastic) when the electrolyte is mixed. The sulfuric acid is mixed into the distilled
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water slowly. The mixing ratio of distilled water and sulfuric acid (1.400) is 60% and 40%. The mixing should be performed slowly by stirring with glass stick and then cooling. Control the specific gravity of the battery by connecting the direct current source such as recharges or alternator is the charge. When the battery is charged or discharged, the anode (+) and the cathode (-) plates and the electrolyte react chemically. That is, the charge and discharge operation of the battery is performed by the lead peroxide of the anode plate, the discharge lead of the cathode plate and the sulfuric acid solution of the electrolyte. The chemical reaction of the charge and discharge operation of the battery is like the followings.
electrolyte as the 1.280 at 20. 1.4.2 The charge and discharge operation of the lead-acid battery To connect an electric load between (+) and (-) terminal poles of the battery to flow the current is the discharge. Reversely, to supply a current to the * The chemical reaction at the charge operation Anode PbO2 Lead peroxide * + Electrolyte 2H2SO4 Dilute sulfuric acid + Cathode Pb Discharge lead
Anode PbSO4 Lead sulfate
Electrolyte 2H2O Water
Cathode PbSO4 Lead sulfate
The chemical reaction at the discharge operation Anode PbSO4 Lead peroxide + Electrolyte 2H2O Water + Cathode PbSO4 Lead sulfate Anode PbO2 Lead peroxide + Electrolyte 2H2SO4 Dilute sulfuric acid + Cathode Pb Discharge lead
(1) Discharge of the Lead-Acid Battery
Fig. 1-8 The chemical reaction of the discharge operation
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The lead peroxide of the anode plate is converted into water by which the oxygen in the lead peroxide is combining with the hydrogen of the sulfuric acid of the electrolyte. The lead in the lead peroxide is combined with the sulfuric acid to form the lead sulfate. The discharge lead of the cathode is converted into the lead sulfate as the anode. As the discharge is progressing, the anode and the cathode are converted into the lead sulfate and the electrolyte is diluted more and more by the increasing water. Therefore, the specific gravity of the electrolyte will be lowered and the internal resistance of the battery will be increased, so the current can not flow as time goes. A. Specific Gravity of Electrolyte and If the battery is left not using for a long time, then the electrodes may be the lead sulfate permanently or various defects can be occurred, so the battery will not work any more. If the specific gravity is 1.200 (20), the battery should be recharged. If a battery is stored for a long time, the battery should be recharged at least one time for 15 days. The formula for acquiring the amount of discharge from the specific gravity is like following. Fig. 1-9 The specific gravity of electrolyte and the discharged amount of the battery
Discharge status The specific gravity of the electrolyte is decreased proportional to the amount of the discharge. The figure 1-9 shows the changes of the specific gravity according to the discharged amount from the 1.280, the value at the full charged status, to the 1.080, the value at the full discharged status. By measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte, it is possible to detect how much the battery is discharged.
Discharge Rate (%)=
X 100 Specific Gravity at full charged - Specific Gravity at full discharged
Specific Gravity at full charged - Specific Gravity at measured
B.
Temperature conversion of the specific gravity of electrolyte The specific gravity of the electrolyte is
volume of the sulfuric acid is shrunk or expanded by the temperature, so the weight per unit volume is changed. That is, if the temperature is increased, the specific gravity of electrolyte will be decreased,
changed by the temperature. The reason is that the
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and if the temperature is decreased, the specific gravity of electrolyte will be increased. The variation is 0.0007 per 1. Therefore, when the charge and discharge status is determined, the specific gravity should be converted into the specific gravity at the standard temperature (20). The specific gravity of the standard temperature is acquired from the following formula. Fig. 1-10 The variations of the specific gravity according to the temperature of electrolyte
S20 = St + 0.0007x(t-20) Here, S20: Specific gravity converted at the standard temperature (20), St: Specific gravity measured at the temperature of t 0.0007: Temperature coefficient t: Temperature of electrolyte at measuring the specific gravity
C.
Method for measuring the specific gravity of electrolyte The charging status of the battery can be
electrolyte surface contacting with the float is convex by the surface tension of the electrolyte, so the scale pointed by the convex portion should be read.
determined from the measuring the specific gravity of electrolyte (because the specific gravity will be lowered as the dilute sulfuric acid solution will be changed into water). The kinds of devices for measuring the specific gravity are suction type gravimeter shown in the Fig. 1-11 and optical refraction gravimeter shown in the Fig. 1-12. The suction type gravimeter comprises of the rubber bulb, the glass tube having a float and the suction tube. To measure the specific gravity, open the vent plug at the cover of battery, insert the suction tube into the hole to suck the electrolyte, and read the scale at the stopping position of the float. The
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Rubber bulb Suction tube
Scale
Fig. 1-11 The suction type gravimeter
Float Lens (for magnifying the measuring scale)
Measuring window
Electrolyte
Antifreeze
Fig. 1-12 The Optical refraction gravimeter
For the optical refraction gravimeter, open the light refraction cover, take some of electrolyte using the measuring rod, paste it on the measuring glass, close the refraction cover, turn the cover toward the light side, see through the lens with leveling the gravimeter, and read the scale pointing the boundary between the dark side and the bright side. (2) Charging in lead-acid battery By flowing charging current to the discharged battery from the external direct current source (charger or alternator), the reaction material of the anode and cathode dissolved into the lead sulfate during the discharge operation will be changed into
the lead and sulfuric radicals. The distilled water is dissolved into the oxygen and hydrogen. The sulfuric radical dissolved from the lead sulfate is combined with the hydrogen to make the sulfuric acid finally it will resolve into the sulfuric acid. Therefore, the density of the sulfuric acid is increased and the specific gravity will be increased, too. Then the anode plate is converted into the lead peroxide and the cathode plate is converted into the discharge lead. The figure 1-14 represents the curve showing the relationship between the voltage and specific gravity of electrolyte according to the charging time.
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Fig. 1-13 Chemical changes during the charge operation
Fig. 1-14 Charging Characteristic Curve
A. Changes of terminal voltage To charge the battery with constant current, the voltage applied to the terminal shall be increased as shown in Fig. 1-14. At the beginning of the charge
operation, the increasing curve of the voltage is slack; however, at the end of the charge operation, the curve will be increased sharply, so when the voltage is reached at about 2.7V per cell and the
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terminal voltage of the 12V battery is reached at about 16V, the voltage has the constant values. At the end of the charge operation, the anode will generate plentiful of oxygen and the cathode will generate plentiful of hydrogen. These gases cover the plates and then the internal resistance will be increased. Therefore, in order to flow constant current, the terminal voltage should be increased. After the charge operation is completed, only the distilled water is dissolved by electrolysis, so that the amount of gases will be saturated and the voltage is stabilized. The terminal voltage during charge operation is like the following equation. that the charge current will be reduced, as the temperature is low, when the battery is charged with constant current using a charger or alternator. B. Charge the battery installed at the vehicle The electric source for the battery installed at the vehicle is an alternator controlled its output voltage uniformly by the voltage regulator to charge with uniform voltage. However, there are some electro devices such as illuminators, wiper motor and heater, so the alternator shall supply the electric power to these devices and battery at the same time when the vehicle is running. If the engine is in the idling state, then the output of the alternator will be reduced. Furthermore, if the electrical load is higher than the output of the alternator, then the Voltage applied to the battery will start to discharge for supplying an extra electric power to the electric devices. Electromotive Force Discharged current In this case, the amount of the charge and discharge current will be decided by the discharging state (remained electric capacity) and the other conditions such as setting voltage, kinds of load, As we know from the upper equation, when the charge operation is performed at the lower temperature in which the internal resistance is high, the terminal voltage will be increased. This means running status and ambient temperature. When the recharging device operates normally and the load is not overloaded, if the vehicle is continued to drive, then the battery will be charged and the average recharging current will be reduced.
Et = Eo + Ic x r Here, terminal, Eo : Ic : Et :
r : Internal Resistance
1.5 Various characteristics of the leadacid battery

1.5.1 Electromotive of the lead-acid battery The electromotive of the lead-acid battery is about 2.1~2.3V per cell and this varies according to the specific gravity and temperature of the electrolyte and the discharging status. The electromotive will be
reduced when the temperature of electrolyte is lowered. The reason is that, at that time, the chemical reaction in the battery will go slowly and the resistance of the electrolyte will be increased.
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will be too low to be used and the battery performances will be degraded. This limitation value is called the final voltage or the test end voltage. Fig. 1-15 Relationship between the electromotive and the specific gravity of the electrolyte The voltage drop-down of the battery, at the starting of the discharge operation, is occurred by the lead sulfate on the surface of the electrode plate, which hinders the electrolyte from reacting with the electrode plate. As the discharge is continued, the lead sulfate will block the contacting of the electrolyte to the electrode materials. At last, the discharge is not performed. Therefore, the voltage is dropped down abruptly. The final voltage is different according to the kind of the battery. Generally, it is 1.7 ~ 1.8(1.75) V per cell and 10.5V (1.75 x 6) for the 12V battery. Fig. 1-16 Relationship between the electromotive and the temperature of the lectrolyte
1.5.2 Final voltage The terminal voltage of the lead-acid battery will decrease according to the progression of the discharge because the internal resistance is increased. At the limitation value, the terminal voltage will be drop abruptly. If the discharge operation is continued over this limitation value, then the voltage Fig. 1-17 Discharging Curve of the lead-acid battery
which can be discharged until the terminal voltage reaches to the nominal final voltage when the fully charged battery is continuously discharged with the 1.5.3 Capacity of the lead-acid battery The battery capacity is the electrical capacity, uniform current. The elements for deciding the capacity are the size (or area), thickness and
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(Ampere Hour rate) represented by the following equation. continuously with 5A until reaching to the final voltage.
Ampere Hour rate (AH) = Discharging current (A) X Continuous Discharging time till Final voltage (H)
(1)
Relationship between the discharging rate and the capacity The discharging rate of battery is the amount of
discharging which influence to the battery capacity directly. As the battery capacity is represented by the discharging current X discharging time, the discharging rate may be represented by the amount of the discharged current (this is called as the current rate), or the discharging time (this is called as the time rate). Other methods for representing the battery capacity are the 20-Hour rate capacity, 25-Ampere rate and Cold discharge rate.
Fig. 1-18 Discharge rate and battery capacity The battery capacity will be reduced as easily as it discharges with large current. The reason is that the chemical reaction progresses faster than the diffusion of the electrolyte so the required sulfuric acid is not supplied enough to the electrode when the battery is discharging with large current (for example, at starting the engine). That is, when the discharge operation performed with large current, the amount of electrode material on the surface is used for chemical reaction only, so the capacity will be reduced. In this status, if the discharge operation is stopped temporary, the electrolyte can diffuse into the electrode, the discharge operation can be recovered. This capacity is called the surplus capacity. That the using time for battery at starting engine is limited within 10~15 seconds is respected to these characteristics of chemical reaction of battery.
A. 20-Hour rate (or 10-hour rate) capacity The 20-hour rate capacity is the total amount of current, which can be discharged during 20 hours (for 10-Hour rate, during 10 hours) when the uniform current is discharged continuously until the final voltage of a cell reaches to 1.75V. This is used as the typical discharging rate. For example, the 20-Hour rate 100AH capacity means that it needs 20 hours to discharge
Table The discharge rate and the discharged current rate Discharge Rate Capacity (AH) 20 Hours 100 10 Hours 92 5 Hours 80 3 Hours 75 1 Hour 68
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Amount of Discharged Current (A) Discharged current Rate 5 1.0 9.2 1.84 16.0 3.2 25.0 5.0 68.0 13.6
B. 25-Ampere Rate The 25-Ampere rate is the time until a cell reaches to the 1.75V when the battery is discharged with uniform current (25A) at 26.6.This represents the performance of battery for supplying current to the electro device when the alternator is malfunction. C. Cold discharge rate The cold discharge rate is the time that is required until the voltage of a cell is dropdown to 1V when the battery is discharged with 300A at -17.7. (2) Relationship between the temperature and the capacity in the electrolyte The battery capacity is mainly decided by the temperature of electrolyte. That is, when the discharge operation is performed with constant discharging rate, if the temperature is high, then the capacity is large however if the temperature is low, then the capacity is small. Therefore, when the capacity is represented the temperature should be mentioned. At standard, the temperature is 25 (here, the standard temperature of electrolyte specific gravity is 20). This relationship influences to the engine starting in the winter season. The battery performance is also regulated by this relationship. If the electrolyte temperature is high, then the chemical reaction will be progressing actively so the battery capacity will be increased. (3) The specific gravity of electrolyte and the capacity It is theoretically clear that the amount of sulfur in the electrolyte is directly related to the capacity. Furthermore, the capacity is varied by the amount of the electrode material, amount of using rate and the area, thickness and number of the electrode plate. However, if the conditions of the electrode material are the same, the capacity is decided by the specific gravity of the electrolyte. (4) Variations of capacity and voltage according to the connection type of battery A. For the serial connection The serial connection is to connect the (+) terminal of one battery to the (-) terminal of another battery when two or more batteries having the same capacity are connected each other. The voltage will be increased as the number of connected batteries; however the capacity is the same with one battery. B. For the parallel connection The parallel connection is to connect the (+) terminals of two batteries and the (-) terminals of two batteries, respectively each other. The capacity is increased as the number of connected batteries; however the voltage is the same with one battery. At the start of the engine, if the starting is impossible from the battery discharging operation, the extra battery shall be connected for starting. At this time, the extra battery should be connected parallel to the
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origin battery of vehicle.
[Example] if three batteries of 12V-100AH are connected in serial then they will be a battery of 36V-100AH; if they are connected in parallel then they will be a battery of 12V-300AH.
Fig. 1-19 The connecting type for batteries
1.5.4 Self-discharge of the lead-acid battery The self-discharge is a phenomenon of which the battery capacity is gradually reduced in nature when the battery is left being not used. The reasons for the self-discharge are like followings. The material (discharge lead) of cathode plate reacts with the sulfur and then it converted into the lead sulfate and the hydrogen gases are generated. - It is necessitated by its structure. The foreign materials (lead (Pb), nickel (Ni) or copper (Cu)) are flown into the electrolyte so a localized cell is formed with the cathode plate that the self-discharge will be progressed. Additionally, another localized cell can be formed between the grid and the anode material (lead peroxide). The torn off materials from the plate are stacked at the bottom and side of the case, or the separator would be damaged, so the electrode plates may be shorted that the self
discharge will be progressed. The current leakage through the electrolyte or dust adhered on the cover of the battery is also one reason of self-discharge.
To take a care especially of the self-discharge is the over discharge resulted from the selfdischarge by being left for a long time. If the battery is over discharged, then the electrodes may be turn into the lead sulfate permanently so the battery will not be recovered.
The
amount
of
the
self-discharge
is
represented by the percentage (%) about the battery capacity Generally, it is 0.3~1.5% about the actual capacity for 24 hours. The amount of selfdischarge is related to the followings. The amount of the self-discharge will be increased, as the temperature and specific gravity of electrolyte and the battery capacity are
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high. The figure 1-20 shows that the selfdischarge amount is varying to 1.6 at 1.280, and to 0.6 at 1.200, in accordance that the amount is 1 at 1.240 (20) of specific gravity. Fig. 1-20 Specific Gravity and Self-discharge
The amount of self-discharge is increased as the time is gone, but the rate is lowered, as the time is gone after the charge operation is performed.
The relationship between the temperature and the self-discharge is like following table.
Table
Electrolyte temperature, Self-discharging rate for 24-Hour and Reduced amount of the specific gravity
Temperature() 30 20 5
Self-discharging amount (% per 24 hour) 1.0 0.5 0.25
Reduced amount of the specific gravity (per 24hour) 0.002 0.001 0.0005
1.6
Life time of lead-acid battery

As the time is passing away, the battery
degraded so it will be a cause of reducing the life time. Furthermore, the temperature increasing during charging and the carelessness of treatment are also the reasons of reducing life time. The reasons can be listed to the bellow. The permanent transformation into the lead sulfate of the electrode by the over discharge or insufficient charge. The increased temperature of electrolyte by the over discharge. The deterioration of the separators and electrodes and the crack of the grid.
performance will be degraded, the battery capacity will be reduced and the amount of discharge will be increased so, at last, the battery will not be used any more. The main factor for deciding the life time of battery is the tearing off of materials from electrodes. As the volume of these materials will enlarged or reduced according to the progressing of charge and discharge, the lead peroxide having the weak bonding force will be torn off form the electrode easily. The porosity of lead of the cathode is
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The exposure of the electrode by the lack of electrolyte. The specific gravity of electrolyte, which is being too high or low. The foreign materials flown into the electrolyte. The short or the tear off of electrodes in the case. Fig. 1-20 The basic diagram of a charger The connecting method for battery is to
1.7 Charge of lead-acid battery

1.7.1 Method for charging the lead-acid battery The discharged battery should be charged with the direct current (DC) so the charger rectifying the alternating current should be used. Generally, the charger is the silicon charger using the silicon (Si) as a rectifier. The figure 1-20 is the basic diagram of a charger comprising of the transformer, the rectifier and the voltage selection switch. In this figure, the AC is a connector to the alternating current. There are transformer and voltage selection switch for output required DC voltage according to the amount of the electric load connected to the DC terminal. The transformed AC current is transferred to the rectifier through the selection switch and then rectified by the rectifying circuit consisting of 4 diodes to form into a single phase current. At (+) and (-) terminal, a direct current for charging is output.
connect the (+) terminal of the battery to the (+) terminal of the charger and the (-) terminal of the battery to the (-) terminal of the charger, and to control the output voltage using the selection switch according to the regulated current for the battery. To charge the multiple of batteries using one charger at the same time, there are the serial charging and the parallel charging as shown in the Fig. 1-21.
Fig. 1-21 Method for connecting batteries at charge operation
(1) Serial charging The batteries having the same capacity are connected as shown in the Fig. 1-21 (a) to charge at the same time. In this case, the charging may
perform with the output current the same current for one cell. However, as the same current is applied to each battery, it is impossible to control the charge current according to the discharged status of each
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battery. For this method, the connectable battery number is decided by the rated voltage of the charger. When the number of battery connectable to the charger is decided, as the 2.7V is needed for one cell of battery, for the 12V battery, the minimum rated voltage of charger should be 16V. That is, for the charger having the 75V of the maximum rated voltage, in order to charge the 12V battery in serial connection, the number of connectable battery is 4. (2) Parallel charging The plurality of batteries of which capacity or discharged status is different is connected as shown in Fig. 1-21 (b) to charge. At this time, the same charging voltage is applied to the each individual battery, so variable resistor should be attached to supply different voltage according to the discharged status. In this method, the charging may performed with the output voltage having the same voltage of one cell; however, the charging current is the summation of the currents for each battery. Therefore, the number of connectable battery is decided by the rated current of the charger. In this method, if there is no variable resistor, the charge in parallel connection prefers not to be performed as possible. Because the required current for charging may be so large that the life time of battery will be reduced quickly. There are many methods for charging the battery using the charger. The all currents for charge operation are not used only for the charging. There are some amounts of losing in current such as the heat generated during charging process and the gas generated by the electrolysis of distilled water. Here, it is important problem how to reduce the current loss. There are various methods for charging operation such as the initial charge, the maintenance charge, the recovery charge, and the equalizing charge. 1.7.2 Initial charge The initial charge is performed at first after the battery is manufactured and the electrolyte is supplied before it is used. The purpose of the initial charge is to activate the cathode plate by resolving the lead oxide or the lead carbide formed from the reaction of the lead cathode with oxide or carbon in the atmosphere, into the discharge lead again. Recently, there is newly developed battery, which can be used just after the electrolyte is supplied. 1.7.3 Maintenance charge The maintenance charge is the charging operation for supplement the consumed capacity by the normal usage or the self-discharge. The battery for vehicles can be supplemented the consumed capacity at starting of the engine by the alternator and regulator of alternator during running of the vehicle. Furthermore, in the following conditions, the discharged current is larger than the charged amount, so the maintenance charge is also needed. When the running time is too short to perform the supplement enough. When the charging amount by the running of vehicle is not sufficient by the over discharge or leakage current in the electric circuit. When the charge operation is not
performed by the malfunction of the alternator or regulator of the alternator, or by the defects on the control. There are two methods in the maintenance
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Engine Electrical
charge, the normal charge in which the charging time is relatively long, and the quick charge in which the charging time is relatively short by using large current. Furthermore, the normal charge is classified into the constant current charge, the (1) Constant current charge This charging method is to charge with the constant current from the starting to end of the charge operation. The range of current is roughly like that; The standard charge current: 10% of the battery capacity The minimum charge current: 5% of the battery capacity The maximum charge current: 20% of the battery capacity And the charge characteristic in the constant current charge is like that; a. The terminal voltage during the charge d. the anode (+) plate, the oxygen is generated and the hydrogen is generated at the cathode (-) plate. The status of gas generation during charge operation is also used as the means for deciding operation. the completion the of the charge gas is Here, hydrogen constant voltage charge and the variable current charge according to the charging condition.
dangerous because it is explosive gas, so it should be careful not to contact with any flame. When the charge operation is completed, if the specific gravity of electrolyte conversed to 20 is over 1.280, then more distilled water should be supplied to control the specific gravity to the 1.280.
operation is increased sharply at the beginning and it is increased slowly after that. And then, at the near of 2.4V, it is increased sharply again, and at the 2.6~2.7V, it is maintained with the constant value. b. The specific gravity of electrolyte is slowly increased because it is not moved until the gas is generated. When the gas is generated, it will be increased sharply and then it maintained with constant value at about 1.280. c. If the voltage of a cell reaches at 2.3~2.4V after the charge operation is started, a plentiful of gas is generated. The reason is that the current supplied after the full charging is completed is used for the electrolysis of the distilled water. At Fig. 1-22 Characteristics of charge current and voltage in the constant current charge (2) Constant voltage charge This method is to charge with constant voltage
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Engine Electrical
over all charging process. The charge characteristic is shown in Fig. 1-23; at the beginning of charge, large current is applied. As charging time is gone, the current will be decreased. At last, the current will not be flown at the end of the charging. Therefore, there is no gas generation, so the charge performance is superior, however, the large current may influence to reduce the life time.
Fig. 1-23 Characteristics of charge current and voltage in the constant voltage charge.
(3) Variable current charge This charge method is to charge with variable current as the charge is progressed. In this method, the charge efficiency is very high and the electrolyte temperature is slowly increased. At the end of the charge process, the current will be decreased, so it is possible to reduce the current loss and to protect damages from the gas generation. (4) Quick charge This method is generally used with a quick charger when the charging time is not enough. As the quick charge does not make chemical reactions with deep portion of electrode material, the maintenance charge should be performed after the quick charge is completed.
Fig. 1-24 Quick charger
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Engine Electrical
electrode plate surface, which is sulfated by the When the quick charge is performed, the followings should be considered. a. If user wants to perform quick charge in which the battery is not removed from vehicle, the all cable should be separated from the terminal poles of (+) and (-). And then the clip of charger is installed thereat (this is for protecting the diode of alternator). b. The charge current should be 50% of the capacity even it is decided by the discharging status of battery and charge time. c. The quick charge should be performed within a short time as possible. d. If the electrolyte temperature is over 45, the charge current should be reduced or the charge operation should be delayed and continued after the temperature is lowered 1.7.4 Recovery charge The recovery charge is for recovering the continued discharge operation. This is performed by the constant current charge and with small current for 40~50 hours. And then, this charged amount should be re-discharged and re-charged it again with the same manner. This process is performed some times. 1.7.5 Equalizing charge The equalizing charge is performed when the specific gravity of each cells electrolyte is not same. This is for equalizing the specific gravity of electrolyte in each cell by increasing the current up to 20~25% of normal current and performing the overcharging. This uses the constant current charge.
1.7.6 Cautions for charging battery The place in which the charge operation is performed should have ventilation system. The discharged battery should not be left without use but be performed by the maintenance charge. The electrolyte temperature should not be over 45. The battery, which is processing the charge operation, should not be closed to any flame.
The battery should not be over charged because the anode (+) plate of the overcharged battery will be oxide.
When two more batteries are charged at the same time, they should be charged in serial connection.
The charger and the battery should not be connected reversibly.
counteractive
material
such
as
ammonia water or sodium carbonate should be prepared. All vent plug of each cell should be
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Engine Electrical
opened. lead-calcium alloy, then the reducing electrolyte and self-discharge will be prevented. The manufacturing method for the grid is to make iron grid plate by a mechanical process such as punching a steel sheet, so the quality and productivity are enhanced. By adopting a catalyst plug for resolving the oxygen and hydrogen gases to the distilled water again, it is not necessary to supplement the distilled water.
1.8 MF battery
The MF (Maintenance Free) battery is also lead-acid battery developed normal battery to protect the electrolyte from being reduced by the gas generated at self-discharge or chemical reaction, and to reduce the check and maintenance process. The main features are like that; It is not necessary to check or replace the distilled water. The self-discharge rate is very low. It can be stored for a long time. The typical differences between the MF battery and normal battery are the material, manufacturing method and shape of the grid. The material of the grid is the alloy of lead-antimony having less antimony (Sb) or the alloy of lead-calcium. The antimony, used for the grid of normal battery, is for enhancing the mechanical strength of grid and making the manufacturing process to be easy. It can be extracted from the electrode surface so that a localized battery is formed. And then, the selfdischarge may be accelerated and the charge voltage shall be reduced. When the constant voltage charge is used in vehicles, the charge current will be increased gradually so that the electrolysis of the distilled water will be more activated. To prevent these phenomena, if the MF battery is made of alloy including less antimony or
Fig. 1-25 Structure of catalyst plug
2. Starting System
The vehicle engine operates with the four strokes including intake stroke, compression stroke,
explosion stroke and exhaust stroke. Among them, the energy for moving is generated at the explosion stroke only, and this energy is transformed to the
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Engine Electrical
flywheel and output through the continuous As shown in Fig. 2-2, after a conductor (armature) which can be freely rotate in the magnetic field is installed, a commutator for supplying the current source is installed, a brush contacting to the commutator to supply the current to the conductor is attached and then the current is applied, a force is generated to a direction according to the Fleming's left hand law. At that time, the current is flowing from the conductor A to the conductor B (Refer to Fig. 2-3). Therefore, the conductor A near the N pole has the force to downward direction, and the conductor B near the S pole has the force to upward direction. So, it will rotate in left turn. This generated rotational force is proportional to the multiplication of the strength of the magnetic field and current flowing through the conductor. Considering the situation after the conductor rotates 180 degree, the conductor A and Fig. 2-1 Starting Circuit Diagram B are located in the reversed position. Therefore, the rotation direction will be reversed, so it can not rotate continuously. In order to prevent this conflict, the supplying direction of the current should be
rotational movement by the inertia force of the flywheel. At the starting of the engine, the force needed for the initial intake and compression strokes should be supplied externally to rotate the crankshaft. At this time, the battery, the starting motor, the ignition switch and the wiring are needed.
2.1
The Principles and Kinds of the DC Motor
maintained in the one direction about the magnetic field so that the rotation direction is not reversed.
2.1.1 The principles of the DC motor
Fig. 2-2 The principle of motor
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Fig. 2-3 The force activated to the armature The electromagnetic force applied to the armature located in the magnetic field, when a DC current is applied to the armature thorugh the brush and commutator, will be described using the Figs. 23 (a), (b) and (c). Case of figure (a): As the current is flown from the coil B of armature to the coil A, the electromagnetic force at the coil A is applied to upward and that of coil B is applied to downward. Therefore, the armature will rotate in left (counterclockwise) direction. Case of figure (b): When the armature turns 90 degrees to the center of coil, the current is not flown through the armature. However, the armature continues to rotate by the inertia of its moving. Case of figure (c): As the armature is rotating, the coil A and coil B are located in reversed position about the figure (a). However, the direction of current is not changed by the brush, so the direction of electromagnetic force is the same with the figure (a) even while the current is flown from the coil A to the coil B. Therefore, the armature will be rotating in left (counter-clockwise) direction continuously. (1) Series winding type motor This type is that the armature coil and the field (yoke) coil are connected in serial. The constant current flows through each coil. The feature of this type is that it can make large rotational force but not make over current at high load because the rotation speed can be controlled automatically according to the variation of the load. However, without load, the rotation speed will be very high so that the motor should be treated no to be damaged. Due to that, this type is used for the starting motor. The characteristic of this type is like that; 2.1.2 The Kinds of Direct Current motor According to the connecting method between the armature coil and the field (yoke) coil, the series winding type, the shunt winding type, and the compound winding type are used for the direct current motor comprising of armature coil, field (yoke) coil, commutator and brush. Recently, the permanent magnetic type is also used.
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Engine Electrical
the series winding dc motor A. Characteristic of relationship between the armature current and rotation force The rotation force of the motor is proportional to the multiplying of the armature current and the strength of the magnetic field. The strength of the magnetic field is decided by the yoke current and the armature current. The character graph is shown in figure 2-5. As the armature current is high, the Fig. 2-4 Electric diagram of rotation force will be increased.
B.
Characteristic of relationship between the armature current and speed The armature current is reversely proportional
to the reverse electromotive force made by the motor. The reverse electromotive force is proportional to the speed of the motor. Therefore, the armature current is reversely proportional to the speed. The character graph is shown in figure 2-5. As shown in the graph, when the speed is low, that is, the load is high, the rotation force is high because of the increased armature current, and so the series winding dc motor is generally used for starting motor.
Fig. 2-5 Characteristic graph of each type of dc motor (2) Shunt winding type motor This type is that the armature coil and the field coil are connected in parallel. The source voltage is applied at each coil. According to the current flown through the field coil, the rotation speed can be controlled with the wide range easily. It can be used
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Engine Electrical
for the motor of constant speed operation in which the rotation speed is not changed when the load is varied, or for the motor of acceleration or deceleration in which the rotation speed is varied by the yoke current. This motor is used for the window washer, cooling fan, power window, and so on. is proportional to the multiplying of the armature current and the yoke field strength. However, the strength of the magnetic field can not be changed in this type, so the characteristic graph will be as shown in Fig 2-5. That is, as the armature current is large (the load is high), the rotation force is increased, but the increased ratio is less than that of series winding type. B. Characteristic of relationship between the armature current and speed The rotation speed of the motor is proportional to the voltage and reversely proportional to the field yoke strength. Therefore, when the power source is the battery, the voltage is constant and the yoke field is not changed. Consequently, when the Fig 2-6 Electric diagram of the shunt winding dc motor A. Characteristic of relationship between the armature current and rotation force Like the series winding type, the rotation force armature current is increased, the voltage is lowered little but the rotation speed is almost constant, as shown in figure 2-5.
(3) Compound winding type motor This type is that the armature coil and one field coil are connected in serial and these are connected another field coil in parallel. The pole directions of these two field coils are the same. This type shows the neutral characteristic of the series winding type and the shunt winding type. That is, when the motor is starting, it has large rotating force like the series winding type. After it is started, it has constant rotation speed like the shunt winding type. So, it has more complicated structure than series winding type. This type is used for windshield wiper motor. (4) Fig. 2-7 Electric diagram of the compound winding dc motor Permanent magnetic motor The ferrite magnet is the permanent magnet
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Engine Electrical
made by pressing an oxide powder including barium and iron and sintering at high temperature. The main feature of it is light and to have a strong magnetic force. This magnet is served as the field york coil and pole core. In this case, the current is only supplied to the armature coil, so if the direction of current is changed then the rotation direction is also changed. The reason is that the pole direction of the ferrite magnet is not changed; however, pole direction of the armature, the electromagnet, can be changed according to the direction of the current. This type is used for wind shield wiper motor, servo motor for controlling the idling speed of the ECU engine, step motor, fuel pump and so on. Fig. 2-8 Electric diagram of the permanent magnetic motor
2.2
Start motor
Nowadays, the most vehicle engine uses the
start motor should generate the rotation force, which can be against the compressing force of the engine cylinder and the frictional force of all parts, so the rotation force should be large. The most suitable type for these requirements is the series winding type motor, therefore the required condition is like that;
series winding type motor of which source is battery, for the start motor. The series winding type motor generates the low speed and large force with a load. When the load is reduced, the rotating force is decreased but the rotation speed is increased. That is, the rotation speed will be remarkably varied. The
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Engine Electrical
The rotational force for starting should be large. It should be small and light as possible and have large output. It should be operated with small current capacity. It should endure against vibrations. It should endure against mechanical shocks. 2.2.1 Rotation force for starting The required rotation force and speed of the start motor for starting of the engine depends on the kind of engine (cylinder volume, compression ratio, and ignition type) or temperature (ambient temperature or lubricant oil temperature). The starting performance is mainly affected by the status of battery, the electrical source. Therefore, when the starting performance is concerned, the requirement for engine, characteristic of the start motor and performance of battery should be included. The rotational resistance of the engine is decided by the forces needed for compressing the air and fuel mixture in the cylinder and the frictional forces of the cylinder, the piston ring, each bearing and gear. (to about 10~15:1). This ratio can be acquired by following equation. This starting rotation force will be large as the cylinder volume or the compression ratio is large as well as it shall be affected by the ambient temperature. 2.2.2 Initial rpm for engine starting To start engine, the rotation speed and force should be larger than those for rotating the crankshaft. If the rotation speed is too low, then the compressed gas between the cylinder and piston will be leaked, so the compression pressure for starting can not be acquired. For gasoline engine, if the voltage supplied to the ignition coil is too low, then the ignition shall be failed. For diesel engine, if the adiabatic compression is not sufficiently performed, then the temperature for igniting the fuel shall not be acquired. The lowest limitation value of speed of rotation for engine starting is called the minimum starting rotation speed. This rotation speed of diesel engine is little larger than that of gasoline engine. Generally, the minimum rotation speed will be large as the temperature is high. It is also varied according to the cylinder number, cycle number, shape of combustion chamber, ignition type and so on. For the 2-cylce engine, the minimum starting When the engine is starting, the rotation force needed that the start motor rotates the crank shaft against the rotational resistance is called as the starting rotation force. The starting rotation force of start motor can be increased by enlarging the ratio between the flywheel ring gear and the pinion gear (Rotation Resistance of engine) x (Tooth number of pinion gear) Rotating force = rotation speed is about 150~200 rpm at -15. For the 4-cycle engine, it is more than 100rpm for the gasoline engine, or 180 rpm for the diesel engine.
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Engine Electrical
(Tooth number of flywheel ring gear)
2.2.3 Starting performance of the engine The output of the start motor is varied by the capacity of the battery and the difference of the temperature. The figure 2-9 shows one example of the characteristic variations according to the various batteries having different capacity for operating the start motor.
between the rotation speeds of the engine started by the start motor and the rotation force operating the engine through the pinion gear and flywheel ring gear. When the temperature is lowered, the viscosity of the lubricant oil is increased, so the rotational resistance of the engine is increased. However, the driving rotation force will be reduced by the dropdown of the battery capacity.
Fig. 2-9 Variations of Characteristics of start motor according to the variations of the battery capacity When the battery capacity is small, the terminal voltage will be greatly drop down and the rotation speed will be slow at the engine starting, so the output will be decreased. Furthermore, as shown in Fig. 2-10, the actual capacity is also lowered as the temperature is lowed, so the output of the start motor is also reduced. Therefore, at any case, the starting performance will be degraded. The figure 2-11 shows the relationship Fig. 2-10 Variations of Characteristics of start motor according to the variations of the temperature
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Engine Electrical
Fig. 2-11 Characteristics for the engine starting
2.3
Structure and operation of start motor

According to the source voltage or the output, these three main parts are different in size and the number of poles and brushes. However, the structure and operation are similar.
The start motor comprises of three main parts in accordance with the operation. The part for generating rotational force The part for transmitting the rotational force to the engine fly-wheel ring gear The part for contacting the pinion to the flywheel ring gear using sliding motion.
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Fig. 2-12 Structure of the start motor
2.3.1 Electromotor part The electromotor part is comprised of the rotating part (armature, commutator, etc) and the fixed part (field coil, pole core, brush, etc.). (1) Rotating Part A. Armature The armature is consisting of a shaft and an
iron core, a plurality of armature coil wound in isolated state around them, and commutator. The both ends of shaft are supported by bearing and rotating within the yoke iron core. The shaft of the armature is made of special steel to prevent from being broken, deformed or bent because it is affected under large forces. The shaft has a spline on which the pinion is sliding. The shaft should be
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Engine Electrical
annealed to prevent from being worn. The iron core of armature comprises of multiple of thin steel sheet isolated and stacked in order to flow the magnetic flux well and to reduce the eddy current. The material is iron, nickel, or cobalt having large magnetic permeability. At the outer circumference, slot for armature coil is formed for preventing the iron core from overheating. The iron core of armature will be a magnetic circuit for the magnetic field generated form the pole core and converts the electromagnetic force generated between the magnetic force of the pole core and the armature coil to the rotational force. Therefore, the larger is the armature coil, the larger is the rotation force. Fig. 2-14 Structure of armature coil The armature coil should have large current so that it should be made of the rectangular conductor with wave winding method. The coil is inserted into the slot with being isolated in which the one end of the coil is connected to the N pole and the other end is connected to the S pole. The both ends of the coil are soldered to the commutator. Therefore, the rotational forces generated from each coil, when the current is flown at the same time, are rotating the armature. The shapes of iron core are shown in figure 2-15. Generally, two coils are inserted into one slot, so the cross sectional shapes are like as shown in figure 2-15 (a), (b) and (c). For isolating the armature coil, the mica paper, the fiber or the plastic is used.
Overrunning Clutch Armature
Pinion Reduction Gear
Fig. 2-13 Structure of armature
Fig. 2-15 Slot shape of the armature iron core
B. Commutator As shown in figure 2-16, multiple of copper
commutator plates are arranged in cylindrical shape with insulator (mica) between them. The armature
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Engine Electrical
coil is soldered with each commutator plate. It makes the current from brush flow in one direction to the armature coil. a yoke generating the magnetic field for rotating the armature, a pole core, a field coil, a brush sending the current from the field coil to the armature coil through the commutator, a brush holder, and front and rear end frames supporting the armature shaft.
Fig. 2-16 Commutator and Undercut The inner part of the commutator is thinner than the outer part of it. To prevent from seceding, it is joined with V-shaped mica or V-shaped clamp ring. The each piece of commutator plate is isolated by the mica of which thickness is about 1mm and of which diameter is 0.5~0.8mm (max 0.2mm) smaller than the outer diameter of commutator. This small amount is called the under cut having a vital role of protect the commutator from discontenting, inferior in rectifying, or being damaged by vibration. The pieces of commutator are always connected with the brush during rotation, so there are large current or sparks between the brush and commutator. Therefore it can have high temperature so it can be easily damaged. It is important part for determining the life time of the start motor. A. Yoke & Pole core The yoke is the path of the magnetic field as well as the frame of the start motor. Inside surface of it, the pole core, which has a role of magnetic pole supporting the field coil, is fixed with screws. As the field coil is wound around the pole core, the pole core will be an electromagnet when the current is flow in the field coil. The number of electromagnet is decided by the number of pole core. If the number of pole core is 4 then the electromagnet has 4 poles. B. Field coil This is the coil being wound around the pole core to generate magnetic field. As a large current should be flown through it, it should be made of (2) Fixed part The fixed part of the start motor is comprised of rectangular copper wire.
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Engine Electrical
Fig. 2-17 Pole core and Field coil
time, the bushing type bearing is used for the start C. Brush & brush holder The four brushes transmitting the current to the armature coil through the commutator are installed. Two of them are supported by the insulated holder and connected to the commutator (these are called (+) brushes), and the other two are supported by the grounded holder and connected to the commutator (these are called (-) brushes). The brush is made of carbon, graphitic carbon, electrical graphitic carbon, or metallic graphitic carbon having good lubricating and applying electric current abilities. The start motor has large current and is operated within a short time period, so the metallic graphitic carbon for low voltage and large current is generally used for start motor. The metallic graphitic carbon brush is made of powder of copper and graphite in which the ratio of copper is about 50~90%. The resistivity and contact resistance are very low. In order that the brush supplies the current to the armature coil through the commutator, the brush should contact to the commutator using spring tension to slide within the holder in up and down. The spring tension of the brush is about 0.5~1.0 kgf/ . If the brush is worn over 1/3 of the standard length, then it should be replaced. D. Bearing As the start motor is heavy and used within a short Fig 2-18 Installation of brush and commutator (3) Solenoid switch This is also called as a magnetic switch. It does a role of the switch doing ON-OFF operation for the large current flown from the battery to the start motor and of the joint connecting the pinion of the start motor and engine flywheel ring gear. The solenoid switch, as shown in 2-20, comprises of a hollow core, a plunger, a contact disk, two contacting terminals [one is for connecting to the (+) terminal of battery when the contact disk is closed, the other is for supplying current to the start motor] and two excite coils wound on the hollow core. The two excite coils are comprised of a pull-in coil and a hold-in coil. The start part of the winding of each coil is connected to the switch terminal of the start motor (S terminal or St terminal). The pull-in coil is grounded to the start motor terminal (M terminal) and the hold-in coil is grounded to the housing. motor. There are slots at the bearing for lubrication. Preferably, the oil-less bearing is used.
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In order that it is easy for the pinion of starting motor and engine fly wheel ring gear to joint each other and it is smooth for the operation for rotating the start motor and operation of plunger to work, the pull-in coil has thick coil wound around itself, and it is connected to the battery in serial. The hold-in coil has thinner coil than that the pull-in coil, so less current is flown through it. However, it is connected to the battery in parallel so that it makes magnetic field regardless of open/close state of the two contact points.
Fig 2-19 Brush and brush holder
Fig. 2-20 Structure of the solenoid switch The operation of excite coil is to generate the magnetic force by flowing the battery current according to the closing of the start switch (or ignition switch; key) at the driving seat, and to pull up the plunger. By the movement of the plunger, the contact disk is operated to contact the two contact points, at the same time; the shift lever is pulled to slide the pinion so that the pinion joints to the engine fly wheel ring gear. The working of the solenoid is like that; When the starting switch is closed, the current flows from the starting switch to pull-in coil so that the plunger is suddenly pulled and then the contact disk is closed to the two contact points. At the same time, by pulling the plunger, the pinion is pushed to the flywheel ring gear. At that time, a big current flows from the (+) terminal of the battery to the start motor terminal (M terminal) via the battery terminal (B terminal) of the solenoid switch. The current from the start motor terminal flows through the ways of field coil (+) brush commutator armature coil commutator (-) brush ground to rotate the armature and then the engine is cranked. As the plunger is pulled and the two contact
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Engine Electrical
points are connected to the contact disk, the pull in coil is opened by the contact disk so that the current does not flow through the pull in coil and the pulling force of the pull-in coil becomes to zero. Therefore, the plunger will be back to the original position by the tension of the return spring so that the joint of the pinion and ring gear will be released. At this time, the hold-in coil will hinder the plunger from being return to the original position by the return spring and the pinion from being separated from ring gear by the vibration generated during cranking of the engine. After the engine is started, if the ignition switch is released, then the contact disk is closed at that moment, therefore, the current of pull-in coil is reversely flowing from the start motor terminal (M terminal). So, the direction of the pull-in coil's magnetic field is also reversed and then the magnetic forces of the hold-in coil and pull-in coil are Fig. 2-21 Structure of solenoid switch cancelled each other. Therefore, the plunger is return by the tension of the return spring, the pinion is separated from the ring gear and the contact disk is opened. As the pull-in coil is connected in serial with the battery and the start motor, it is called serial soil or current coil. As the hold-in coil is connected in parallel, it is called shunt coil or voltage coil.
(4) Overrunning clutch When the engine is started, the pinion of the start motor and the flywheel ring gear are jointed each other so that the start motor is driven in high speed by the flywheel. Therefore, the armature, bearing, commutator and brush can be damaged. To protect these parts, this clutch makes pinion rotate in idle state after engine starting to prevent the start motor form being driven by the engine. There are the roller type, the multi-plate type and the Sprag type. A. Roller type overrunning clutch This type comprises of sleeve (spline tube)
installed on the spline of the armature shaft and outer race having wedge shaped groove, which are combined each other. In side of the outer race, there is an inner race composing the one body with the pinion. The wedge shaped groove at the outer race includes rollers and springs, in which the rollers are pushed to narrow side by the springs.
Outer race Inner race
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Engine Electrical
that of the outer race, so the rotation direction of the rollers is reversed. Therefore, the rollers will be move to the wide side of the groove, and the gap
Roller
between the inner race and outer race will be

Spring
enlarged so that they are sliding each other and the rotation force of the fly wheel transmitted to the pinion will not be transmitted any more, The roller type uses about 4~5 roller. As this type has lightweight and small size, the inertia generated when the both gears are joined is small so that the pinion or ring gear is less damaged. However, as the contact surface of the roller for
Fig 2-22 Overrunning clutch The operation of the roller type is like that; according to the rotation of the armature shaft, the outer race is rotate along the direction of arrow shown in Fig 2-22, however, the inner race is not moving so that the roller is moving along the outer circumference of the outer race. At this time, according to the difference of the rotational speed between of the outer race and of the inner race, the rollers are pushed to the narrow side in the groove so that the inner race and outer race is fixed. Therefore, the rotation force of the armature shaft will be transmitted to the pinion to crank the engine. After the engine is started, as the pinion ring is jointed with the ring gear during the operation of the solenoid, the pinion is rotated by the fly wheel. At this time, the speed of the inner race is faster than
transmitting the driving force is small, partial wear will be often generated so that this type can make a fault when big driving force shall be transmitted. B. Multi-plate type overrunning clutch This type is used for the armature movable type start motor, and the structure is shown in Fig 223. The spline is formed at the armature shaft to combine with the spline formed inside of the advance sleeve and then they can make a sliding movement. The driving clutch plate is combined to the groove of the advance sleeve. Pinion is formed as one boy with the outer case including a driven clutch plate at the groove formed inside of the case.
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Fig 2-23 Structure of the multi-plate type The operation of the multi-plate type clutch is like that; the pinion of the start motor is jointed to the fly wheel ring gear by pushing of the shift lever. In this state, if the pinion is stopped, the rotation of the armature shaft is transmitted to the advance sleeve so that the advance sleeve is pushed to the pinion through the spline. This pushing force is transmitted from the advance sleeve to the driving spring via the clutch plate so the driving spring is bent. The bending of the driving spring generates a pressure on the surfaces of both clutches and transmits the rotation force by the friction force there-between. After the engine is started, the rotation force of the pinion is faster than that of the armature shaft, so the advance sleeve will be rotating. Therefore, due to the operation of spline, the advance sleeve will rotate in reverse direction with the pinion and the both clutch plates are sliding so that the rotation force of the engine can not be transmitted to the armature shaft. C. Sprag type overrunning clutch This type is generally used for heavy weight engines, and its operation is like that; the outer race is driven by the start motor. When the engine is started, the outer race and the inner race are joined to be one body. As the fly wheel drives the pinion by the starting of the engine, the inner race is rotating faster than outer race, so that the jointing between the inner and outer races will be released to prevent the engine from driving the start motor.
Fig 2-24 Structure of Sprag type
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Engine Electrical
2.3.2 Power Train The power train is a method for joining the pinion of the start motor to the fly wheel ring gear and divided in to following types. 1. 2. Bendix type Pinion perturbation type a. Manual type 3. b. Electric type
moving toward the fly wheel ring gear to joint with it.
Armature perturbation type
(1) Bendix type This type is a method using the character that the inertia of pinion and the series start motor are rotating in high speed with no load. As the pinion reaches at the end part of the spline and joints with the ring gear, the rotation force of the armature is transmitted to the pinion via the driving spring and spline so that the pinion will drive the fly wheel with a large driving force. Because the rotation force of the armature is transmitted to the pinion via the driving spring, the shock form the joining of both gears will be reduced sot that the damages of armature and gear are also prevented. The teeth of pinion and ring gear have some chamber to ensure the fixing of them. After the engine is started, the pinion is rotated by the ring gear.
Fig 2-25 Structure and circuit diagram of Bandix type The operation is like that; as current is flowing, the start motor will rotate in high speed. However, due to the inertia force, the pinion is not rotating with the armature shaft but rotating on the spline and
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Engine Electrical
engine is started, the overrunning clutch is not needed.
Therefore, it slides on the spline in opposite direction so that the fixed gear joint is released and returned back to original position. As the start motor is not rotated by the fly wheel ring gear after the
Fig 2-26 Jointing between the pinion and ring gear
(2) Pinion perturbation type
Figure 2-26 Structure of pinion perturbation type In this type, there are the manual type and the electrical type. Nowadays, only the electrical type is used, so we will explain about this type only. The electrical type is the method using a solenoid switch, and the operation likes followings. A. When the start motor is rotating; a. Turn on the ignition switch. c. b. The current flows from the start motor switch terminal (S terminal) of the solenoid switch to the pull-in coil and the hold-in coil. The current into the pull-in coil flows to the field coil, brush, commutator and armature coil of the start motor via the start motor terminal (M terminal) of the solenoid switch and the
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Engine Electrical
armature starts to rotate. d. The plunger of solenoid switch is pulled in so that it pulls the shift lever, and then the pinion of the start motor is pushed by the shift lever to joint with the fly wheel ring gear. e. By the pulling of the plunger, the contact plate of the solenoid switch closes to the two contact points. f. As a current flows from the battery to the field coil and armature coil via the cable, the start motor start to rotate with a big power to crank the engine. c. B. When the engine is cranked; a. As the contact plate closes to the two contact points, the current flowing in the pull-in coil is shored so that the magnetic force applied to the plunger will be reduced. b. At this time, the magnetic force generated by the hold-in coil hinders the pinion from returning to the original position by the return spring to b. prevent the joint between the pinion and ring gear from being released. C. After the engine is cranked; a. When the pinion of the start motor is rotated by the fly wheel ring gear, the armature is protected by the overrunning clutch. At the moment of ignition switch off, the contact plate is still closed so that the current from battery is flowing from the start motor terminal of the solenoid switch to the pull-in coli in opposite direction and then flows into the hold-in coil. The magnetic force generated by the pull-in coil is reversed to set off the magnetic force of hold-in coil, so that the pulling force is reduced. Therefore, by the tension of the return spring, the plunger and the pinion return and separate from the ring gear, and the contact plate is opened. The current flowing to the start motor will be broken and then the start motor is stopped.
(3) Armature perturbation type
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Engine Electrical
Fig 2-27 Structure and circuit diagram of the armature perturbation type
This type has been used in diesel engine. As shown in Fig 2-27, the pinion is installed at the front end of the armature and the center of the armature core and the center of the pole (yoke) core are off set each other. The solenoid switch is installed over the body of the start motor and driven by the start switch and the movement of the armature. The field coil comprises of the primary field coil for generating the rotation force and the auxiliary field coil for moving the armature. a. When the start switch is closed (ON), the solenoid switch is driven and the upper contact point of movable contact plate is closed. b. At the upper contact point, as current flows to the auxiliary field coil so the pole core is magnetized, the armature core is pulled to the center of the pole core by this magnetic force. c. At this time, as current also flows in the armature coil, the armature starts to rotate and move to joint the pinion and the ring gear. d. By completing the movement of the armature,
the lower contact point of the solenoid switch and the movable contact plate are closed. e. In the circuit formed by the closing the movable contact plate, current from battery flows to the primary field coil and armature coil to crank the engine. f. After the engine is cranked, the pinion is rotated by the fly wheel ring gear. At this time, the transmission of the engine rotation force to the armature is broken by the multi-plate type overrunning clutch. g. As the load on the start motor is lightened by the breaking down of the rotation force of the engine, the field current is also reduced and the force is also weakened so that the armature returns back to the original position by the return spring and the pinion and the ring gear are separated each other. In this type start motor, as the pinion and armature are moved as the one body, so the shock applied to the fly wheel ring gear is very large.
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Engine Electrical
Therefore, the both gear are easy to be broken. To prevent these damages, the pinion should be made of soft material to protect the ring gear and it could be replaced.
(4) Reduction gear type
Fig. 2-28 Electric indentation reduction gear type start motor There are the electrical indentation type and the oil gear reduction type. The oil gear reduction type is generally used for the 2-wheel vehicle. We will explain about the electrical indentation type generally used for the small size and lightweight requirements. The Fig 2-28(a) shows the structure of the electric indentation type, in which the start motor part is the same as the pinion perturbation type, however, the power transmission comprises of solenoid switch pulling the reduction gear and the pinion and intermitting the main current. At the front end of the armature shaft, a driving pinion is b. installed on the spline so the driving pinion and idling gear, the idle gear and the clutch gear are always jointed. Due to these gears, the rpm of the armature is reduced to 1/3 and transmitted to the pinion. In other words, the rotational force is enhanced up to 3 times and transmitted to the pinion by these gears. a. As the ignition switch is on, current flows in the pull-in coil and hold-in coil of the solenoid switch so that the armature starts to rotate and the plunger is pulled. By the moving of the plunger, the plunger shaft is pushed and the pinion is jointed to the ring
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Engine Electrical
gear. c. At this time, the overrunning clutch is joined with the clutch gear. Therefore, only the pinion moves through the spline on the pinion shaft. d. As the pinion and the ring gear is jointed, the contact plate of the solenoid switch is closed and the main current flows into the start motor. Then the engine is cranked by the strong rotation force of the start motor. e. As the contact plate of the solenoid switch is closed, current dose not flow into the pull-in coil so that the plunger will be maintained by the magnetic force generated by the hold-in coil. f. After the engine is cranked, the pinion is rotated g. by the ring gear; however, the rotation force into the armature is blocked by the overrunning clutch. When the start switch is opened, the operation of the solenoid switch is the same in the case of pinion perturbation type. However, as this type is for high speed motor, it can be stopped by small rotational resistance. So, it can be stopped by the friction force between the brush and the commutator without any additional brake system.
2.4
Starting-system trouble diagnosis
motor terminal indicates trouble in the starting motor. Trouble is indicated in the relay or solenoid if it has battery voltage but the starting motor terminal does not. 2.4.3 No cranking, Lights dim heavily Recharge or replace a discharged battery. The battery is less efficient at low temperatures and engine oil gets thicker. The starting motor cannot always crank the engine with a low battery. These symptoms may also indicate advancing spark timing, excessive starter draw, and loose or dirty connections. 2.4.4 No cranking, Lights dim slightly The drive pinion may not be engaging with the ring gear. If the starting-motor armature spins, then the overrunning clutch is slipping. Also, there may be high resistance or an open circuit in the starting motor.
2.4.1 Starting-system Troubles Three basic starting-system complaints are: a. b. c. The engine does not crank. The engine cranks slowly but does not start. The engine cranks normally but does not start. This condition is not caused by the starting system. It indicates a problem in the fuel or ignition system, or in the engine. The chart in Fig. 2-29 shows various possible causes of these and other starting-system troubles, and the checks or corrections to make. 2.4.2 No cranking, Lights stay bright Current is not getting to the starting motor. Use a voltmeter to check for voltage at the ignition switch and starting motor terminals with the ignition key turned to START. Battery voltage up to the starting
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Engine Electrical
2.4.5 No cranking, Lights go out There is a poor connection, probably at the battery. Wiggle the cable connections at the battery. If they are tight, make a voltage-drop test. If the meter shows voltage, the connection has excessive resistance. Clean the cable clamp and battery terminal. Install and tighten the clamp. 2.4.6 No cranking, No lights Either the battery is dead or there is an open in the battery insulated circuit or ground circuit. Possibilities include a loose connection at the battery, relay, or solenoid. An open fusible link indicates a short circuit. 2.4.7 Engine cranks slowly but does not start The battery may be run down or the temperature is very low. A defective starting motor crank the engine too slowly to start it. Trouble in the engine may prevent normal cranking. Also, the driver may have run the battery down trying to start. 2.4.8 Engine cranks at normal speed but does not start When the engine cranks at normal speed, the starting system is okay. The trouble is elsewhere. Item 7 in Fig. 2-29 lists possible causes. 2.4.9 Relay or solenoid chatters If this happens when the key is turned to start, the battery is probably low. Charge the battery. The contacts in the relay or solenoid switch may be burned. Replace the relay or the contact plate. Another cause is a defective solenoid hold in winding. Replace the solenoid. 2.4.10 Pinion disengages slowly after starting Item 9 in Fig. 2-29 lists four possible causes. Also listed are the checks and corrections to make. 2.4.11 Unusual Noise A high-pitched whine can result if there is too much or too little clearance between the overrunning-clutch pinion and the ring gear. The procedure for adjusting the clearance is in the manufacturer's service manual.
Condition 1. No cranking, lights stay bright
Possible Cause a. Open circuit in ignition switch b. Open circuit in starting motor c. Open in control circuit d. Open fusible link a. Trouble in engine b. Battery low c. Very low temperature d. Frozen armature bearings, short in starting motor a. Faulty or slipping drive b. Excessive resistance or open circuit in starting motor. Poor connection, probably at battery
Check or Correction Check switch contacts and connections Check commutator, brushes, and connections Check solenoid, or relay, switch, and connections Correct condition causing link to blow; replace link Check engine to find trouble Check, recharge, or replace battery Battery must be fully charge, with engine, wiring circuit, and starting motor in good condition Repair staring motor Replace parts Clean commutator, replace brushes; repair poor connections Clean cable clamp and terminal; tighten clamp
2. No cranking, lights dim heavily
3. No cranking, lights dim slightly 4. No cranking, lights go
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Condition out 5. No cranking, no lights 6. Engine cranks slowly but does not start Possible Cause a. Battery dead b. Open circuit a. Battery run down b. Very low temperature c. Starting motor defective d. Undersized battery cables or battery e. Mechanical trouble in engine f. Driver has run battery down trying to start. a. Ignition system defective b. Fuel system defective c. Air leaks in intake manifold or carburetor d. Engine defective a. Hold-in winding open b. Low battery c. Burned contacts a. Sticky solenoid plunger b. Overrunning clutch sticks on armature shaft c. Overrunning clutch defective d. Shift-lever return spring weak a. High-pitched whine during cranking (before engine fires) b. High-pitched whine after engine firs as key is released c. Loud whoop, buzzing, or siren sound after engine fires but while starter is engaged-sounds like a siren if engine is revved. d. Rumble, growl, or knock as starter is coasting to a stop after engine starts Check or Correction Recharge or replace battery Clean and tighten connections; replace wiring Check, recharge, or replace battery Battery must be fully charged, with engine, wiring circuit, and starting motor in good condition Test starting motor Install cables or battery of adequate size Check engine See item 7 Make spark test; check timing and ignition system Check fuel pump, line, carburetor or fuel injection system Tighten mounting; replace gaskets as needed Check compression, valve timing, etc. Replace solenoid Charge battery Replace Clean and free plunger Clean armature shaft and clutch sleeve Replace clutch Install new spring Too much clearance between pinion and ring gear Too little clearance between pinion and ring gear Defective overrunning clutch
7. engine cranks at normal speed but does not start
8. Relay or solenoid chatters 9. Pinion disengages slowly after starting
10. Unusual noises
Bent or unbalanced armature
Fig. 2-29 Starting-system trouble-diagnosis chart. MEMO
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3. Charging System
3.1 Purpose of the charging system
There are two kinds of alternator used for vehicle, the direct current (DC) alternator and the alternating current (AC) alternator. In any case, the charging system for vehicle should output the electric signal in serial for charging the battery. That is, the DC alternator makes the output by rectifying the alternating current made in armature coil using the commutator and brush, whereas the AC alternator gets the alternating current output from the stator coil and this alternating current is converted into the direct current by rectifying through silicon diodes.
and the frequency As shown in Fig 3-2, the one cycle is the change of electromotive force from a to a' and the frequency is the repetition number of this change for one second. In the Fig 3-1, when the magnet rotates one turn during one second, the frequency is one cycle. In the Fig 3-2, if 4-pole magnet is used, then the same change is repeated in every 1/2 turn, so 2-cycle is occurred at every one turn of magnet. As the number of magnetic pole is increased or the rotation speed is increased, the frequency is also increased. This relationship is represented by the following equation.
3.2 Single phase AC AND 3- phase AC

3.2.1 Single phase Alternating Current (1) Generating single phase alternating current As shown in Fig 3-1, the DC alternator makes the current by rotating a conducting wire in a magnetic field, whereas, the AC alternator makes the current by rotating the magnetic field with fixing the conducting wire.
p N N P f = 2 = 60 120
Fig 3-2 The electromotive force of the single phase AC Fig 3-1 Generation of the single phase AC. (2) Relationship between the rotation number 3.2.2 3-phase Alternating Current (1) Purpose of the 3-phase AC
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The alternator for vehicle, at first, was the single-phase AC alternator and made the DC by rectifying the AC using commnutaor and brush. Nowadays, due to the development of the high performance silicon diode, 3-phase AC alternator is used. (2) Generation of the 3-phase AC As shown in Fig 3-3, after the 3 groups of coil having the same windings, A-A', B-B' and C-C', are wound in 120 arraying, when a magnet is rotating within the coil array, then the 3-phase AC voltage is generated as shown in 3-4. The coil B generates the voltage in 120 lag behind the voltage generation at coil A, and the coil C generates the voltage in 120 lag behind the voltage generation at coil C. These AC waveforms generated at the A, B and C groups are called 3-phase AC.
Fig 3-3 Arraying diagram of 3-phase coil Fig 3-4 The 3-phase AC voltage
Fig. 3-5 Connecting method of 3-phase coil (3) Connecting method of 3-phase coil In the commercial 3-phase AC alternator, the 3 pairs of coil are connected as shown in Fig 3-5. The figure (a) shows the Y-connection (or star connection) in which each one end of A, B and C coil is each outer terminal and the each other end is connected at one point, while, the figure (b) shows the tri angle connection (or delta connection) in
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Engine Electrical
which one start point of each coil is connected to other end point of each coil and each connected point is three outer terminals. Here, the voltage and current generated at each coil are called the phase voltage and the phase current, respectively. The voltage between the outer terminals and the current flowing at the outer terminal are called the line voltage and the line current, respectively. There are some relationships between Y-connection and the tri angle connection as followings.
l p In the case of Y-connection E = 3 E , Il Ip
In the case of tri angle connection El = Ep , Il = 3 Ip here, El: Line voltage Ep: Phase voltage Ip: Phase current
Il: Line current
Fig 3-6 Line voltage In the case of the Y-connection, the line voltage is 3 times of the phase voltage, and in the case of tri angle connection, the line current is 3 times of phase current. Therefore, if the coil winding is the same with the alternator having same capacity, then the Y-connection can make higher electromotive force than the tri angle connection. So, AC alternator for vehicle can get high voltage in low speed and generally uses the Y-connection, which can utilize middle voltage point. However, for large output, the tri angle connection is used. 3.2.3 Rectifier The current made form the rotary type alternator rotated by mechanical force is alternating current so it should be converted into direct current to use as the vehicle power source. To convert the alternating current into the direct current is the "rectify" and the device for rectifying is the "rectifier." The rectifier is made of various material such as mineral, metal, semiconductor, and vacuum tube for the purpose. In the rectifier for vehicle, there are the silicon
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diode for the AC alternator, the germanium diode for the voltage regulator, and the tungar bulb rectifier, selenium rectifier and the silicon rectifier for the battery charger. (1) Tungar bulb rectifier This rectifier has the structure as shown in Fig 3-7. When AC current is supplied between the two electrodes, the filament is heated and current flows from the anode (+) to the cathode (-), however, it can not flow in opposite direction. As a result, the half rectifier is performed. When 2 bulbs are used, the full rectifier is possible. The tungar bulb rectifier is usually used for battery charger. It is easy to be utilized and not expensive, however, it has small capacity and low efficiency, so nowadays, it is rarely used. (2) Selenium rectifier Forming the metallic film by melting selenium on the iron or nickel plate, as shown in Fig 3-8, the current can flow from the iron plate to selenium film but it can not flow in opposite direction. Using this character, the selenium rectifier is made by deciding the number and size of the selenium film according to the voltage and current.
Fig 3-7 Tungar bulb rectifier
Fig 3-8 Selenium rectifier
(3) Silicon diode In the current direction, the silicon diode can flow current with a small voltage of under 1V, however, it cannot flow current in reverse direction. As shown in 3-9, there are two kinds of silicon diode according to the current direction; therefore, it is careful when wiring or test is performed. Fig 3-9 Current direction of silicon diode
3.3 Direct Current Alternator

3.3.1 Principle of the direct current alternator
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As shown in Fig 3-10, installing and rotating a conducting wire (armature coil) in the magnetic field (Pole core) of the fixed N and S poles, an electromotive force is induced at the conducting wire by the electromagnetic induction law. At this time, the direction of electromotive force is the same with the arrow in figure according to the Fleming right hand law. The direction of the voltage generated at the rotating armature coil is changed at every 1/2 (180) turn. When the armature turns in one turn, then the 1 cycle of AC voltage is generated. Therefore, the DC alternator is formed by connecting a commutator comprising of half cylindrical pieces of commutator to the terminal of the armature coil in order to be rotated with the armature coil and connecting brushes on the commutator pieces. Fig 3-11 Waveform of rectified output 3.3.2 Types of Direct Current Alternators There are a number of different types of alternators. Several of these alternator types will be discussed briefly. Study their similarities as well as their differences. Alternators can be distinguished by their method of excitation. Self-excited alternators can be separated further into the categories of shunt, series, and compound. One feature that separates alternators is the excitation method, the method that is used to start the alternator running. Some alternators require a Fig. 3-10 Principle of the direct current alternator At the load connected to the brush, the direct current, as shown in Fig 3-11, will flow. In the actual DC alternator, the armature coil is wound by overlapped somewhat with neighbored coil, so the electromotive force of each coil is overlapped, therefore, the output has less microseism. separate power source during the starting of the alternator. These are called separately excited field alternators. Other alternators use the alternators own leftover magnetism in place of that power source. These are self-excited alternators. (1) Separately Excited Field Alternator Alternator output is determined by the strength of the magnetic field and the speed of rotation. Field strength is measured in ampere-turns. So, an increase in current in the field windings will increase the times the speed of rotation. Therefore, most output regulating devices depend on varying the current in the field.
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The field windings can be connected to a separate, or independent, source of dc voltage, Figure 3-12. This is the separately excited field alternator. With the speed constant, the output may be varied by controlling the exciting voltage of the dc source. This is done by inserting resistance in series with the source and field windings.
small voltage produced will, in turn, cause the current to increase through the field poles. An increase in field pole magnetism will cause a further increase in output voltage. The relationship of the current produced by the armature directly increasing the amount of magnetism in the field poles is how the self-excited alternator works. The magnetism produced by the armature voltage will increase until the field poles reach saturation, the point where the poles cannot contain any more magnetic lines of force.
Figure 3-12. A separately excited field alternator (2) Self Excited Alternator A self-excited alternator uses no separate source of voltage to excite the alternator field winding. The self-excited alternator produces a small voltage when the armature windings cut across a weak magnetic field. This weak magnetic field is caused by magnetism left over in the pole shoes or field coil cores after the voltage and current have ceased to flow. The magnetism left in a magnet after the magnetizing force has been removed is called residual magnetism. Look ahead to the diagram of the shunt alternator shown in figure 3-13. A residual magnetic field will cause a small voltage to be produced as the armature conductors rotate past the field poles. The Figure 3-13. A shunt alternator A. Shunt alternator The shunt alternator derives its name from the way the field pole coils are connected in parallel to the armature, Figure 3-13. Another way of saying parallel is the term shunt. The field windings consist of many turns of small wire. They use only a small part of the generated current produce the magnetic field in the pole's windings. The total current delivered to the load. Thus, the output current can be thought of as varying according to the applied load. The field flux does not vary to a great extent. Therefore, the terminal voltage remains constant under varying load conditions. This type of
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alternator is considered a constant voltage machine. All machines are designed to do a certain amount of work. If overloaded their lives are shortened. As with any machine, the life of a alternator can be shortened by an overload condition. When overloaded, the shunt alternator terminal voltage drops rapidly. Excessive current causes the armature windings to heat up. The heat can cause the alternator to fail by destroying the thin coat of insulation covering the armature wires. B. Series alternator The series alternator is so named because its field windings are wired in series with the armature and the load. Such a alternator is sketched in Figure 3-14. A series winding by itself will provide a fluctuating voltage to the alternator load.
As the current increases or decreases through the load, the voltage at the alternator output terminals will greatly increase or decrease. Because of the wide difference in output voltage, it is not a very practical alternator to use if the load varies.
add to the field strength of the alternator field poles. If both act in the same direction or polarity, an increase in load causes an increase of current in the series coils. This increase in current would increase the magnetic field and the terminal voltage of the output. The field are said to be additive. The resulting field would be the sum of both coils. However, the current through the series winding can produce magnetic saturation of the core. This saturation results in a decrease of voltage as the load increases. The way terminal voltage behaves depends on the degree of compounding. A compound alternator, which maintains the same voltage either at no-load or full-load conditions, is said to be a flatcompounded alternator. An over compounded alternator will have a decreased voltage at full-load current. A variable load may be placed in parallel with the series winding to adjust the degree of compounding. Figure 3-15 shows schematic diagrams of the shunt, the series, and the compound alternator.
Figure 3-14. A series wound alternator C. Compound alternator The compound alternator uses both series and shunt windings in the field. The series windings are often a few turns of large wire. The wire size of the series windings is usually the same size as the armature conductors. These windings must carry the same amount of current as the armature since they are in series with each other. The series windings are mounted on the same poles with the shunt windings. Both windings
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Figure 3-15 Compare these wiring diagrams of the shunt, series, and compound alternator
3.3.3 Structure of Direct Current alternator (1) Armature The armature is the device for generating a current by rotating in the field. As shown in 3-16, it comprises of armature core, armature coil, and commutator shaft. The armature core is made of multiple of thin silicon steel and wound by coil having insulating cover at the slit of the outer
circumference. The
winding
methods
of
the
armature coil are the wave winding type and the lap winding type. The lap winding type is most used.
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Fig 3-16 Structure of Armature
Fig 3-17 Unfold diagram of armature coil
Fig 3-18 Connection between brush and armature coil By comparing with the armature of the start motor, that of alternator has less current, so the coil is made of thinner wire. However, to get large electromotive force, the coil includes a lot of winding number and multiple of wire is inserted in one slit. The both ends of the armature are soldered on the commutator. The alternating current generated at the armature coil is rectified to convert into a direct current by the commutator and the brush sliding on the commutator. As the armature of the DC alternator is continuously rotating during the operation of the engine, the both ends should be supported at the end frame by the ball bearing, and at one end, there is a screw for fixing a pulley. (2) Pole core & Field coil The pole core supporting the field coil in the yoke is installed by screws. The pole core becomes an electromagnet to form N and S pole when a current flows into the field coil. The field coil is the coil wound around the pole core and magnetizes the pole core when a current flow therein. The DC alternator has little residual magnetism at pole core even the current does not flow in the field coil so that the electric generation is started basis on this residual magnetism. The field coil and the armature coil are connected in serial (shunt winding type).
According to the grounding method of the end of these coils, there are internal grounding type and external grounding type.
For the internal grounding type, the start of the coil winding is connected to the voltage regulator of the alternator regulator and the end of the coil is
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connected to the internal space of the pole core. For the external grounding type, the start of the coil is connected to the armature terminal and the end of coil is grounded via alternator voltage regulator. alternator and it can get the direct current output using rectifying silicon diode. It has good endurance at high speed and charging performance in low speed so that it is widely used for charging system for vehicle's battery. This alternator is driven by the driving belt connected with the engine crankshaft pulley and comprises of voltage regulator, charging relay, and yoke relay. The characteristics are like that; Fig 3-19 Wiring of the direct current alternator (3) Brush The brush of DC alternator rectifies the alternating current generated at the armature by connecting with the commutator and sends to out. As the brush is always working with the engine operation and has wide range of rotation speed, it should be made of carbon material having good rectifying performance and less wearing character. Despite that the brush of start motor is contacted to the commutator in perpendicular, the brush of alternator is contact is contacted to the commutator with some angle. 3.4.2 It has small size and lightweight, it makes output voltage chargeable in low speed. Having not commutator in the rotation part, the limit of the permeable rotating speed is very high. As it rectifies with silicon diode, it has large electric capacity. The lifetime of brush is long. Structure and operation of the AC alternator The AC alternator comprises of stator the fixed part, rotor the rotating part, and end frame supporting the both ends of rotor. The stator coil fixed by the stator generates output current of the alternator. The rotor and the rotor coil rotate in the stator to induce the electromotive force at the stator coil.
3.4
Alternating current alternator
3.4.1 Purpose for AC alternator The alternating current alternator is 3-phase AC
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Fig 3-20 Structure of the AC alternator The alternating current generated in stator coil is rectified by the rectifier (silicon diode) installed at the end frame into direct current and supplied out. The brush is not to get output current but to excite the rotor coil by supplying current to rotor coil from battery. The silicon diode not only rectifies the alternating current generated from the stator coil but also prevents the reverse current from battery to alternator. Therefore, it does not need any cut out relay unlike the DC alternator. If the generated voltage from the alternator is higher than the terminal voltage of battery, then the battery charging will be automatically started. (1) Stator The stator acts as the armature of the DC alternator. As shown in Fig 3-21, separated three coils are individually wound around the steel core consisting of multiple layers. The 3-phase AC will be induced in these coils. the hysteresis loss and the loss of eddy current are occurred because of a lot of changes of magnitude of flux around the steel core), the stator steel core comprises of the lagged thin silicon steel plates, and inside of it there are some slits for installing the stator coil. During operation, it becomes the pathway for the magnetic flux generated from the pole of the rotor. The one group of stator coil is made by winding the copper wire covered with insulating material into the slit as shown in Fig 3-22. The coil pitch matches to the gap of the pole (pole pitch). The three groups of this coil are arrayed in 120 (2/3 of pole pitch) and formed into 3-phase connection. For the coil connection method, there are the Y-connection and the tri angle connection, as mentioned in former chapter.
Fig 3-22 Appearance of the stator coil
(2) Rotor Fig 3-21 Structure stator To reduce the core loss (phenomena in which The rotor, like the field coil and the pole core of the DC alternator, makes the magnetic flux. It
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comprises of rotor core, rotor coil, shaft, and slip ring. For the type of rotor, there are the Randle type and the pole type. The pole type has small outer diameter, however, winding method is complicated. This type is used for large capacity alternator. For the vehicle AC alternator, the Randle type having simple structure and good strength is widely used. As shown in Fig 3-24, the Randle type comprises of combined 4~6 steel cores inserted on shaft from the both ends of cylindrical rotor coil. The winding start and the end of rotor coil are connected to the two slip rings installed on the shaft with being insulated.
Fig 3-23 Structure of rotor
Fig 3-24 Types of rotor The operation of the rotor is like that; when the current flows in the rotor coil through the brush contacting to the slip ring, a magnetic flux is formed in the direction of shaft so that one side of core is magnetized into N pole and the other side is magnetized into S pole. Therefore, each pole pieces facing each other is also magnetized and the 8~12 of N poles and S poles are arrayed. The material of rotor core is made by forging or imprinting the low carbon steel. The slip is made of good conducting
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material such as copper or stainless steel. (3) Brush The two brushes are inserted into a brush holder fixed on a bracket and contacts to the slip ring by a spring. One brush is connected to the insulated outer terminal, and the other brush is grounded through the brush holder. As the rotor is rotating, the brush sequentially slides and contacts to the slip ring, therefore, it should be made of metal carbon material for good wear resistance and low contact resistance. (4) Rectifier The rectifier comprises of diode. As shown in Fig 3-25, 6 diodes are installed at the rear part of the end frame to rectify the 3-phase AC generated at the stator coil to convert into the direct current. When current flows to the diodes, the
temperature of diodes is increased, so that they are installed with heat sink (cooling plate). Generally, three diodes of negative side are indented to the back end frame and three diodes of positive side are indented to the heat sink with being insulated. Otherwise, each three diodes of (+) and (-) side are soldered to heat sink, respectively. In other hand, six diodes are installed on the printed board having a heat sink.
Fig 3-25 Connection of diodes 3.4.3 Operation of AC alternator Using the Fig 3-27, this type will be explained. At first, when the ignition switch is on, current of about 2~3A flows through the path of terminal F (+) brush slip ring rotor coil slip ring (-) brush terminal E (ground). Due to this current, the rotor coil is magnetized to make a magnetic flux. The AC alternator works as a separate excited alternator at the beginning of operation. After the engine is cranked, the rotor is rotated by the driving belt, and the stator shut down the magnetic flux of rotor, so that the 3-phase alternating current is generated at the stator coil. This AC voltage is rectified into direct current by the 6 silicon diodes and output via the B terminal. When the rotation speed of the rotor is 1,000rpm, the voltage of this AC current is higher than the battery terminal voltage. Therefore, the
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output current is supplied form the B terminal to the each electro device and to the battery as a charging current. Additionally, some amounts of the output current from the B terminal are supplied to the rotor coil. The DC alternator works as the self excited alternator at the beginning of the operation. However, in AC alternator, as the current does not flow when the voltage supplied to the silicon diodes is less than 0.5V, if the AC alternator works as the self excited alternator at the beginning of the operation, than the time for making output voltage is delayed, so that it should work as the separate excited alternator at first. The N terminal output half voltage of the B terminal output. This voltage is used for working the voltage regulator.
Fig 3-26 Operation of AC alternator
3.5
Alternator regulator
The output of the alternator is decided by the
3.5.1 Direct current alternator regulator The DC alternator regulator comprises of the cut out relay, the voltage regulator and the current limiter.
winding number of armature (or stator) coil, the strength of field and the number of intermitting the magnetic flux per time (rotation speed). Therefore, as the rpm of engine is increased, the voltage and current made at alternator are also increased. Therefore, the generated voltage and current should be controlled to protect the all elector devices and alternator. The alternator regulator works this role. It can control the generated current by regulating the magnitude of the current flown the field coil using any method.
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Fig 3-27 Direct current alternator regulator (1) Cut out relay This is one of switch using electromagnetic force. It protects the reverse current from battery to alternator when the alternator is stopped or the generated voltage is lower than battery voltage. When the current flows to the battery, the contact point should be closed. This action is cut-in and the voltage for this action is cut-in voltage. Generally, the cut-in voltage for 12V battery is 13.8~14.8V. Fig 3-28 Structure of the cut-out relay B. Operation of the cut-out relay If the current generated by rotation of the alternator meets to the cut-in voltage (charging A. Structure of the cut-out relay As shown in Fig 3-28, the cut-out relay comprises of the electromagnet having two coils, one is wound with thin wire and the other is wound with thick wire, and the contact point. The thin wire coil is called the voltage coil, and the thick wire coil is called current coil. They are wound in the same direction. The contact point is opened by the armature adjusting spring. When the magnetic force of the electromagnet is stronger than tension of this spring, the contact point is closed. voltage), then the core will be magnetized by the magnetic force formed by the voltage coil, and then the contact point will be closed. At this time, the current coil has current, so that the contact point can be completely closed by the magnetic force generated by the two coils. Therefore, the charging current will flow into the battery. So, the contact point will not be separated by any vibration but maintain the contacting condition during driving. In comparison, when the rotation speed of alternator is to be slowed and the voltage of alternator is to be lowed, the current will flow through the current coil in opposite direction.
As a result, the magnetic force of the core will be weakened suddenly. At that time, by the tension of the spring, the contact point will be opened and then the charging circuit is also opened. So, the reverse current from the battery to the alternator can
be protected. (2) Voltage regulator The voltage regulator is to ensure that the generated voltage maintains a constant value. If the generated voltage is higher than regulated value,
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the exciting current will be reduced by connecting an additional resistor to the field coil in serial in order to cut down the generated voltage. If the voltage is lower than the regulated value, then some resistor will be disconnected from the field coil to recover the generated voltage. In the voltage regulator, there are the vibration contacting type, the carbon pile type, the transistor type and the IC type. Nowadays, the IC type is only used. It will be explained in the section of AC alternator regulator with the transistor type. the regulated value from being applied to the alternator. A. Structure of the current limiter Like the voltage regulator, the current limiter comprises of armature, the armature adjusting spring, and the contact point. Only that the electromagnet coil (or current coil) is excited by the charging current is the different thing.
Fig 3-30 The current limiter B. Operation of the current limiter As shown in Fig 3-30, before the output current Fig 3-29 Structure of the voltage regulator of the alternator meets to the regulated current, the contact point is closed. As the output current of the alternator is increasing, if it reaches to the limitation value at last, then the contact point will be opened by the magnetic force of the electromagnet. When the contact point is opened, the serial resistor is connected to the field circuit so that the generated (3) Current limiter (Current regulator) The current limiter plays role of protecting the alternator from the over current by controlling the current made by the DC alternator. That is, the current limiter prevents an electric load higher than voltage will be decreased. Therefore, the load current is reduced. As the load current is reduced, the pulling force of the electromagnet is reduced so that the contact point will be closed again by the spring.
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3.5.2 Alternating current alternator regulator As the AC alternator uses silicon diodes as the rectifier, it is not possible for any reverse current to occur. Additionally, it has the current limiting function so there are no worries about over current. Therefore, the AC alternator regulator does not need any cut-out relay and current limiter unlike the DC alternator. That is, the voltage regulator is the only thing to be required. The charging alert lamp relay shall be connected to the voltage regulator in order to operate the charging alter lamp. (1) Transistor type voltage regulator Using a transistor as a switch instead of the contact point in the contacting type regulator, the transistor type voltage regulator changes the average value of the field current to control the generating voltage. In this type, there are the semitransistor type in which transistors and relays are combined and the full transistor type in which all mechanical parts are removed. Furthermore, the IC regulator includes the full transistor type into the alternator body using IC circuit. In the Fig 3-31, the Tr2 is the transistor for intermitting the field current, and the base current of the Tr2 is controlled by the transistor Tr1 and the Zener diode Dz. The alternator terminal voltage Et is divided by resistor R1 and R2. To the Zener diode Dz, the voltage E1 represented by following equation is applied in reverse direction.
the Tr1 is OFF and the Tr2 is ON so that the current flow to the yoke. When the E1 is higher than the Zener voltage as the generated voltage is increasing, the current flows through the Zener diode so that Tr1 is ON and the Tr2 is OFF. Therefore, the yoke current will be blocked. That is, the yoke current can be controlled using the operation in which the Tr2 is OFF when the Et is high, and the Tr2 is ON when the Et is low, rapidly.
Fig 3-31 The basic circuit of the full transistor type regulator As the transistor regulator has not contact point, there is no spark, which can be a reason of EMI or EMC. As it has not mechanical parts, it has long lifetime and good resistance against vibrations. However, it is weak in high voltage and heat so it should be carefully treated. (2) IC voltage regulator A. Purpose of IC voltage regulator The charging circuit of the IC voltage regulator comprises of the semiconductor circuits to intermit the rotor coil current and then it can regulate the voltage generated at the AC alternator. Basically, its operating principle is same with that of transistor
R1 E1 = Et R1 + R 2
Here, Et = E1 + E2. As the Dz has no current when the Et is low,
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type. However, it can be made in tiny size so that it can be embodied into the alternator. Therefore, the charging circuit of this type can be made simply and this type many merits like those; The wiring will be simple. The voltage is not varied by vibration and this type has good endurance. The accuracy for controlling the voltage is very high. It has high heat resistance and high output. It can be minimized in size easily so that it can be installed into the alternator. The charging performance can be
enhanced, and the electric power can be distributed to each electric load properly.
B. Operation of the IC voltage regulator
Fig 3-32 Circuit diagram of IC voltage regulator
a. When the ignition switch is ON during stop state of the engine When the ignition switch is ON, the current flows from the L terminal of the AC alternator to the base of transistor Tr1 through the IG terminal of the AC alternator, the charging alert lamp relay IG
terminal and terminal A, and then the Tr1 is ON. When the Tr1 is ON, as the battery current (field current) flows from the rotor coil to the Tr1 through the L terminal and the IG terminal of the AC alternator, the rotor will be excited. At this time, the current flows to the coil of the charging alert lamp
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relay to close the contact point by the magnetic force generated at the coil, so that the alter lamp turns ON. As the initial exciting resistor (R4) has high resistance (about 100), the discharge of battery can be protected by controlling the current which flows to the rotor coil when the ignition switch is not OFF. b. When the AC alternator starts to work after the engine is starting If the generated voltage of the AC alternator is higher than battery terminal voltage (13.8~14.8V), then battery charge will be started from B terminal. At this time, the voltage at the L terminal of the AC alternator is increased, and at last it is not different from that of the IG terminal of the charging alter lamp relay. Then current at the charging alter lamp relay coil is cut off so that the contact point is opened. And then the alert lamp is OFF. Due to the diode (D2) for hindering the reverse current, the current flowed through the exciting diode by the voltage of the stator coil flows not to the battery or electric load but to the rotor coil and the L terminal of the regulator. c. When the generated voltage at the AC alternator is over the regulated value by high rotation of the engine. At that time, as the current flow from the S terminal of the voltage regulator via the resistor R2 and the Zener diode (ZD) to the base of the transistor Tr2, the Tr2 is ON. Here, the voltage at point P is to maintain the voltage for supplying the base current of the transistor Tr1. However, when the Tr2 is ON, the voltage is drop down suddenly and then the base current of the Tr1 is cut off and the Tr1 is OFF. Therefore, as the exciting current of the rotor coil is cut off, the voltage from the AC alternator is lowered.
When the voltage from the AC alternator is lower than the regulated voltage, the current does not flow to the Zener diode, so that the Tr2 is OFF and the Tr1 is ON again. The voltage generating is restarted. Like this, by repeating the ON and OFF operation of the transistors Tr1 and Tr2 due to the operation of the Zener diode, the exciting current which flow the rotor coil can be intermitted and the voltage from alternator can be maintained constantly.
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4. Ignition System
4.1 Purpose of ignition system
This system is a set of devices for combusting the mixture of fuel compressed in the combustion chamber of gasoline engine using an electrical spark generated from a high voltage. In the ignition system, there are the battery ignition type (uses direct current electric power) using the battery as the electric power and the high voltage magnet ignition type (uses alternating current electric power) using the high voltage alternator as the electric power. In automobile, the battery ignition type is generally used. In recent, due to the development of semiconductor, there are the full transistor ignition type, the high-energy ignition (HEI), and the distributor less ignition (DLI). coil
The transistor ignition type uses the method in which the current flown in the first coil of the ignition is interrupted (intermitted) by switching operation of the transistor to induce high voltage at the second coil. In the interrupt contacting type, as the first current of the ignition coil is directly intermitted by opening/closing the contact point, the arc can be made when the contact point is opened. To prevent these arcs, the interrupter contact point and battery are connected in serial. However, at the low speed, as the speed for opening the contact point is slow, it is easy to make an arc. Therefore the second voltage generating will be not stable and the misfiring will be occurred easily. In comparison, for the transistor ignition type, the first current is electrically intermitted by a transistor so that the interruption of current is stable at low speed and the second coil can make the high voltage in stable.
4.1.1
The interrupter contacting type and the transistor ignition type
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Recently, as a countermeasure to the emission gases, it is required to increase the flame energy of ignition plug in order to make an accurate ignition without any misfire at low speed even at high speed. To do so, the first current should be increased. In the interruption contact type, it is hard to increase the first current, but in the transistor type, it is possible. Additionally, in order to enhance the ignition performance at high speed, the winding number of the first ignition coil should be reduced so that the inductance and resistance of the first coil can be lowered. As the result, the first current needs to be increased as quickly as possible. That is, in order that the energy supplied to the first ignition circuit reduces the inductance but the flame energy is not reduced, the first current should be enlarged.
Interrupter contacting type Due to the chattering of the interrupter contact point at high speed, the engine has incongruity in ignition. As the interrupter contact point has sparks, the contact point should be checked and replaced periodically. Due to the abnormal operation of the vacuum and centrifugal timing control device, the engine has incongruity in ignition.
Full transistor type The performances at low and high speed are safe.
Computer control type The performances at low and high speed are very safe.
Not having interrupt contact point, the checking and controlling are not needed. There are similar phenomena with the interrupter contacting type.
Not having interrupt contact point, the checking and controlling are not needed. As the ignition timing is controlled by computer, it is the most efficiency.
In the interrupter contact type, due to the limitation by the arc at the contact point, the magnitude of the first current has a limit; however, in the transistor type, it is possible to enlarge the first current enormously. Therefore, the ignition coil can comprise of the first coil having low inductance and large winding number ratio so that it can get better performance at high speed than in the case of external resistor ignition coil. The characteristics of the transistor type are like followings. The performance at low speed is stable. The performance at high speed is enhanced. The ignition performance is enhanced by increasing the flame energy. The reliability of ignition system is enhanced.
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The various electric control units for improving the engine performance (ignition timing and cam angle control) can be attached. It is possible to reduce the winding number ratio of ignition coil.
Fig 4-1 The intermitted waveform of the first current and the waveform of the second voltage
Fig 4-2 Speed characteristic of the second voltage
4.2
Computer control type ignition system

Purpose of the computer control type ignition system This type uses the method in which by
input to computer (ECU), the computer calculates the ignition timing and sends the intermittent signal for the first current to the power transistor to induce the high voltage at the second ignition coil.
4.2.1
detecting the status of engine using sensors and
The mold type ignition coil is used. There are
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the high-energy ignition (HEI) type and the distributor-less ignition (DLI) type. The merits of these types are like that; The ignition flame is very stable at low and high speed. When knocking is occurred, the ignition timing is automatically delayed to suppress the Table Comparing the structure of each ignition system Interrupter contacting type The first current is intermitted by the interrupter contact point. Battery is needed. The open magnetic circuit type ignition coil is used. The opening/closing the interrupter contact point is performed by the cam fixed on the distributor shaft. Full transistor type The first current is intermitted by the switching of the transistor. Battery is not needed. The open magnetic circuit type ignition coil is used. The intermittence of the first current is performed by the rotation of the signal rotor fixed on the distributor shaft. Computer control type The first current of the power transistor is intermitted by computer. Battery is not needed. Mold type ignition coil is used. The signal is generated by intermitting the light by rotating of a disk installed on the distributor shaft between the LED and photo diode. knocking. Sensing the operating status of the engine, the engine is controlled by optimized ignition timing. As it uses the high output ignition coil, the complete combustion is possible.
4.2.2 HEI (High Energy Ignition) type
Fig 4-3 Structural diagram of HEI

Ignition coil The ignition coil is the boosting transformer
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generating the current of the high voltage (about 20,000 ~ 25,000V) used for making an arc at ignition plug. The ignition coil makes the magnetic flux flow through the mold type core to prevent the magnetic flux generated by the magnetic induction effect from being radiated out. E: Battery voltage E2: Second voltage E1: First voltage
E2 =
N2 E1 N1
N1: winding number of the first coil N2: winding number of the second coil
Fig 4-4 Principle of ignition coil (1) Principal of the ignition coil The ignition coil uses the magnetic induction effect and the mutual induction effect. The Fig 4-4 shows this principle. Of the two coils wound around the core, the input side is called the first coil, and the output side is called the second coil. The first coil is magnetized by flowing of low current from battery; however, this current is direct current so that the induced voltage is not generated. When this low current is interrupted by the power transistor, at the first coil, the voltage E1 higher than battery voltage is generated by the magnetic induction effect. The induced voltage E1 at the first coil is determined by the winding number of the first coil, the magnitude of the current, the speed of current changing and the core material. At the second coil, the voltage E2 proportional to the winding number ratio is generated by the mutual induction effect. By thickening the diameter of the first coil wire, the resistance can be reduced and the larger magnetic flux can be generated so that the high voltage can be made. The structure is simple and the heat resistance is very high. (3) Performance of the ignition coil The important things for the performance of the ignition coil are the speed characteristic, the temperature characteristic. a. Speed characteristic: The discharging characteristic and the insulation
gap should be larger than 6mm, when the distributor shaft is rotating with 1,800rpm at the test of ignition coil flame.
b.
Temperature
characteristic:
During
working of the engine, the temperature will be increased by the heat by the current.
(2) Structure of the ignition coil
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Fig.4-5 The structure of mold type ignition coil
As the temperature is increased, the resistance of the first coil becomes larger so the first intermitted current will be reduced. c. Consequently, the discharging gap of the second side will be reduced so the performance at 80 should be regulated. c. Insulation reduced 10 50 characteristic: according to the The insulation of d.
shorting-grounding signals repeatedly to the power transistor. The ignition signal repeats the shoringgrounding operation of the current which flow the ignition primary coil through the power transistor by interrupting the power transistor. The ignition timing is calculated by the computer. When the current on the base of the power transistor is interrupted, the ignition first current is also interrupted. Therefore, the high voltage is induced at the ignition second coil and this high voltage is applied to the ignition plug by the rotor of the distributor. Waveform of the ignition voltage As the time flows, the voltage applied to the first and the second circuit of the ignition system will be often varied. To indicate this varying voltage on the engine scope screen continuously with the time in plane is the voltage waveform of the ignition system. By observing this voltage waveform, it is possible to check the engine performance as well as the function and the malfunction status of each part of the ignition system. So, the engine scope is widely used for investigating the malfunction when the engine performance is checked and serviced.
resistance and the withstanding voltage are increasing temperature, however, it should be more than at 80, and it should be more than at room temperature (20).
Power Transistor The power transistor plays role of intermitting the first current, which flow in the ignition coil according to the signal from the computer. The structure of the power TR is the NPN type comprising of the base controlled by computer, the collector connected to the (-) terminal of the ignition first coil and the emitter connected to the ground. The operation of the power transistor is like that; a. When the ignition switch is ON, the battery voltage is applied to the ignition primary coil. b. According to the rotation of the disk in the distributor, the ignition signal of the crank shift angle sensor from the computer makes the
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2(Ground)
1(ECU)
3(Ignition coil)
Fig 4-6 Appearance and circuit diagram of the power transistor
The waveform of the ignition voltage of the ignition system includes the first voltage waveform and the second voltage waveform. The Fig 4-7 shows the basic waveform of the second voltage at the normal state. The voltage waveform is divided into the firing section, the intermediate section, and the Dwell section. The firing section is the section for observing the output of the ignition coil, the capacitor discharging voltage, the induced discharging voltage and the duration time. The intermediate section shows the waveform from after the discharging flame is extinguished to until the voltage is ON at the ignition first coil. Just after the discharging flame is extinguished, the 4~5 turn of oscillating waveform is occurred. Then until the voltage of the ignition first coil is ON, the stabilized waveform is shown. The Dwell section shows the waveform from when the voltage is ON at the ignition first coil to when the voltage is OFF. In this section, the Dwell angle %, the variations of the Dwell angle according to the speed variation and so on can be observed. The detail explanation for the second waveform is like the followings. (1) Firing section: A D section This section shows the firing status at the ignition plug. It comprises of the firing line and the spark Fig 4-7 The second waveform
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line. Firing line: The fire is the flame generated at the ignition plug when the first current is interrupted. The fire line is the vertical line indicating the voltage needed for discharging over the rotor gap of the distributor and the plug gap by inducing the high voltage at the ignition coil. Spark line: The spark line is the horizontal line indicating the voltage needed for inducing the flame. Point A: This is the point for forming the high voltage at the ignition coil when the voltage of the ignition first coil is interrupted. Point B: The point at which the ignition plug makes fire by inducing the high voltage at the ignition coil (the height of this point is the ignition voltage). Point C: After the spark is generated, the high voltage is down to this point. During the ignition, it maintains a constant value. Point D: This is the point for terminating the flame at the ignition plug. (2) Intermediate section: D E section This section is continuously showing in the ignition section. The residual voltage inside the ignition coil is reduced gradually in this section. (3) Dwell section: E A' section This section indicates the time interval in which the ignition first coil is ON, that is, the electric current flows to the power transistor during the interval.
a.
Point E: The point on which the voltage at the ignition first coil is ON. As a magnetic field is formed at the ignition coil, a waveform is occurred. The waveform is shown under the zero line by the vibration from the reverse electromotive force induced ignition coil when the voltage of ignition first coil is ON.
Distributor (1) Distributor cap and rotor The distributor cap and the rotor distribute the high voltage induced from the ignition coil to each ignition plug according to the ignition order.
b.
Point A': The point on which the voltage of the ignition first coil is OFF.
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Distributor for 4-cylinder engine The distributor for 4-cylinder engine comprises of the crank shift angle sensor, the first cylinder top dead center (TDC) sensor, the disk rotating with the distributor shaft, and the rotor distributing the high voltage induced from the ignition coil according to the ignition order.
Fig 4-8 Distributor cap and rotor Distributor cap At the distributor cap, there is central terminal connected to the ignition coil, and ignition plug terminals of the same number with the engine cylinder number are arrayed around the ignition coil. In the central terminal, a carbon piece connecting to the rotor head is installed with a spring. The distributor cap is made of resin material, its withstanding voltage should be more than 25,000V and it has good heat and magnetic resistance and high mechanical strength. * Rotor The rotor is installed at the top of the distributor shaft. It distributes the high voltage received from the central terminal of the distributor cap to each ignition plug terminal. The rotor is inserted from one side of the distributor shaft. There is a gap of 0.3~0.4mm between the front end of the rotor and the ignition plug terminal in the cap. (2) Type of distributor A. Optical type In the unit assembly, there are two set of the LED and photo diode to detect the two kind slits, to make pulse signals and to send to the computer. The crank shift angle sensor and the first cylinder TDC sensor comprise of the disk and unit assembly. The disk made of metal includes 4 slits for passing the light arrayed around the circumference of the disk with 90 and used for crank shift angle sensor, and inside of these 4 slits, there is one slit used for the first cylinder TDC sensor.
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can be detected by input to the comparator with 5V, and then 5V is applied to the computer from the terminal shown in Fig 4-9. In this state, if the disk rotates more and the light to the photo diode is interrupted, then the voltage applied to the terminal will be 0V. By repeating this operation, the pulse signal from the unit assembly is transmitted to the computer. The signal acquired from the 4 slits for sensing the crank angle is the standard signal for calculating the Fig 4-9 Structure of the unit assembly Between the LED and the photo diode, as the disk rotates, the light from the LED is transmitted to the photo diode through the slits on the disk or interrupted. At this time, if the photo diode receives the light, then the current flow in opposite direction and this current engine speed. By detecting whether the piston of each cylinder is upper point of the compression stroke, according to the signal acquired from the slit for the first cylinder TDC sensor, the standard signal for the first cylinder is distinguished so that the computer can decide the distribution order using these signals.
Fig 4-10 Operation of the crank shift angle sensor and the No.1 cylinder TDC sensor
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Fig 4-11 Structure of TDC and crank shift angle sensor in the 6-cylinder engine
For 6-cylinder engine The TDC sensor of the distributor for 6-cylinder engine detects not only the TDC of the first cylinder but also the TDC of the first, third and fifth cylinder and converts into pulse signal and transmits to the computer so that the order for fuel injecting is decided according these signals. There are two kinds of disk, one includes the 360 slits for detecting the 1 of TDC sensor at the circumference of the disk and 6 slits for crank shift angle sensor inside of the disk, the other includes 6 slits for crank shift angle sensor at the circumference of the disk and 4 slits for TDC sensor inside of the disk. The operation is the same in the 4-cylinder engine as the photo diode detects the emitted light from the LED according to the rotation of the distributor shaft. Basis on the signal detected from
the crank shift angle sensor, the engine speed can be calculated and the fuel injecting timing and the ignition timing can be controlled. B. Induction type The induction type uses the ton wheel and the permanent magnet. In this type, the ton wheel of the first cylinder TDC sensor and the crank shift angle sensor is installed at the back of the crank shaft pulley or the fly wheel side, and the engine rotation speed and the first cylinder TDC are detected according to the rotation of the crank shaft. By receiving these signals, the computer distinguishes the basic signal of the first cylinder and decides the order for fuel injection. As the structure of the first cylinder and crank shift angle sensor is like that a coil is wound around a permanent magnet, when the ton wheel is rotating, pulse signals are induced
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according to the variations of the air gap. Input these signals into the computer, the first cylinder TDC and engine speed are detected.
Fig 4-12 Structure of the induction type
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Fig 4-13 Pulse generated by the rotation of the crank shaft
C. Hall sensor type In this type, a Hall sensor is installed at the distributor and the voltage variation occurred by the Hall effect is input to the computer. By converting this pulse to digital waveform using an analog-digital converter the computer detects the crank angle. The Hall device is a semiconductor device comprising of thin film of germanium (Ge), potassium (K) and arsenic (As), as shown in Fig 4-14. As shown in figure, if a Hall device is installed between two permanent magnetic poles and current (Iv) is supplied, then the electrons in the Hall device are refracted in perpendicular direction with the current and magnetic flux direction. As the result, to the cross sectional surface A1, the electrons are plentiful and to the cross sectional surface A2, the electrons are rare. Therefore, a voltage difference is occurred between A1 and A2 and voltage (UH) is generated. When the current (Iv) is constant, the
voltage (UH) is proportional to the magnetic flux density. As the output voltage is very small, it should be amplified by the OP AMP, as shown in Fig 4-15, in order to be used as a signal.
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Fig 4-14 Hall effect
Fig 4-15 Structure of the Hall sensor
4.2.3 Spark plug cable (Hi-tension cord) This cable is an insulated high voltage wire connecting the second terminal of the ignition coil to the central terminal of distributor cap, and the ignition plug terminal of the distributor to the ignition plug. One end of the spark plug cable is jointed with the ignition plug terminal by the brass tag and the other end is jointed with the ignition plug terminal of the distributor cap, and then they are secured by rubber cap. The structure is, as shown in Fig 4-16, like that the central conductor is insulated by rubber and its surface is covered by plastic material. The cable in which the central conductor is made by multiple of copper wire or carbon implanted fiber to have constant resistance is called the TVRS (Television Radio Suppression) cable. This has about 10 unit resistance over the all cable to prevent noises according to the high frequency at the ignition circuit.
(1) Carbon wire As shown in Fig 4-18, the resistance conductor is the glass fiber made by implanting carbon into the glass fiber to get constant resistance. The external cover is the ethylene propylene rubber (EPDM), which has good heat and cold resistances. (2) Double wire wound type resistance cable As shown in Fig 4-19, the resistance cable comprises of the thin metallic core wire which is wound around tetron core with tetron separator in certain gap. The thickened wire core is surrounded by insulator. Additionally, a special heat resistant vinyl is used for the external cover considering the state of the engine room. The resistance of the wire is about 16 /m.
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Fig 4-16 Spark plug cable
Fig 4-18 Carbon line
Fig 4-19 Double wire wound type cable
4.2.4 Spark (Ignition) plug The spark plug, as shown in Fig 4-20, is installed at the combustion chamber of the cylinder head and ignites the fuel mixture in the cylinder by generating an electric spark between the central electrode and ground electrode using the high voltage generated at the ignition second coil. Fig 4-20 Installation position of the spark plug (1) Structure of the spark plug The spark plug, as shown in Fig 4-21, comprises of the three major parts including the electrode, the insulator, and the shell.
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performance and heat resistance, and mechanical strength and it should be stable in chemical. The insulator is made of ceramic having good insulation performance and has a rib for prevent the flashover of high voltage current. * Shell The shell is the metal part surrounding the Fig 4-21 Structure of the spark plug * Electrode The electrode comprises of the central insulator and has a screw part for installing itself at the cylinder head. The ground electrode is soldered at the end of the screw. According to the diameter of the screw, there are 4 kinds of the screw, 10mm, 12mm, 14mm and 18mm. The length (reach) of the screw is decided by the diameter. For the screw of length 14mm, there are 3 kind screws, 9.5mm, 12.7mm and 19mm. The gap between the insulator and the core wire or the shell is caulked by filling a special sealant, using a glass seal (after the glass and copper powder are filled in the joint part of the central electrode and core and melted to attach the insulator and the metal) or melting them with spark. (2) Requirement for the spark plug The spark plug has the simple structure in which two electrodes of ignition circuit are facing each other to make a spark. However, the ambient condition for working is very tough so it should have performances satisfying the following conditions. * It should have good heat resistance The spark plug is exposed in combustion gas having temperature of 2,000 and is cooled suddenly at the intake stroke by the injected gas. Therefore, it should endure the sudden change of temperature.
electrode and the ground electrode. As the high voltage induced from the ignition coil is applied to the central electrodes via the central shaft, a spark will be generated at the gap with the ground electrode. Between the central and ground electrodes, the gap is 0.7~1.1mm. The material of electrodes should have good endurance against the damage and good heat resistance and corrosion resistance so it is made of nickel alloy or platinum alloy. In some cases, considering the heat radiation performance, the central electrode can comprises of copper. The diameter of central electrode is generally 2.5mm. Recently, in order to prevent the spark voltage from being lowered and to enhance the ignition performance, some central electrodes shall have the thin central diameter down to 1mm or the ground electrode shall have U-shaped groove. * Insulator The insulator works in hindering the leakage of voltage by surrounding the core or central electrode, so it plays an important role in deciding the performance. Therefore, it should have good electrical insulation performance, heat conduction
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* It should have good mechanical strength The spark plug is influenced by a large vibration according to the change of pressure of the vacuum pressure at the intake stroke and of about 35~45kgf/ at the expansion stroke. It should have mechanical strength enough to endure this change of pressure. * It should have good corrosion resistance The electrodes of the spark plug are exposed in the combustion gas so they can be chemically attacked by the carbon and so on. Therefore, it is needed to endure the corrosion. Generally, they are made of Ni-Cr alloy. * It should have good airtight-ness The spark plug should have the airtight-ness enough to endure the pressure applied from the compression and expansion strokes. Especially, there is no gas leakage at the high temperature. * It should keep the self-cleaning temperature If the temperature of the electrode is extremely increased, then it will be a reason of the advancing spark, otherwise if it is too low then carbon slug will be stacked and current leakage will be occurred. These are the main reason of misfire. Therefore, during the engine operation, the temperature of the electrode should be maintained in 500~600. * It should have good electric insulation performance. The spark plug should endure against the high voltage of 15,000~20,000V during engine operation and maintain good insulation property under sudden change of temperature. It generally is made of alumina (AlO3) or other magnetic insulating
materials. * The spark should have strong energy As the end part of the electrode is sharp as possible, the spark will be easily made. If the end part of the electrode is too sharp, then it has short lift time. Therefore, it should have proper shape to make the spark smoothly. * It should have good ignition performance Even the electrode makes a spark, if the energy is not sufficient, then the firing is not accomplished. Therefore, the shape of electrode should be considered to make sufficient energy in the lean mixture of fuel gas. * It should have good heat conduction If the heat from the combusted gas is not radiated, the electrode could have short life time from the melting or corrosion. Therefore, it has heat conduction enough to maintain the temperature being under 950. Especially, at the high temperature, it has high heat conduction efficiency. (3) The self cleaning temperature and the heat value of the spark plug During engine operation, as the spark plug is exposed in the high temperature by the combustion of the fuel mixture, the electrode should maintain proper temperature. If the operating temperature of the electrode of the spark plug is lower than 400, then the carbon made from the combustion will attach to the electrode so that the insulation property will be degraded and the spark will be weakened, finally the misfiring is occurred. If its temperature is over 800~950, then the firing time will be advanced so that the engine output will be
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lowered. Therefore, the most proper temperature of the electrode is 500~600. This temperature is called the self-cleaning temperature of spark plug. The self-cleaning temperature is decided by the applied heat capacity and the radiated heat capacity. The applied heat capacity is varied by the type of engine and driving status, and the radiated heat capacity is varied by the structure of spark plug. As the spark plug has different radiated heat capacity property contrast in its structure, it should be carefully selected for the engine. The numerical expression of the radiation heat capacity is the heat value. The heat value is decided by the length from the part just below of the insulator to the lower seal. The used heat value of spark plug is very important and varied by the style of combustion chamber of engine, the position of intake-exhaust valve, the compression ratio, and the rotation speed. With the same material, when the area exposed to the combustion gas is large and the radiation path (length of the all part of insulator) of the heat is long, the radiation property is inferior and it is easy for the temperature to increase. This type is called hot type.
The characteristic of the hot type spark plug is large resistance against the damage but low resistance for the advancing ignition. Therefore, it is proper to the low speed and low load engine. The cold type has high heat radiation property and low temperature increasing. The characteristic of the cold type is that this type has high resistance against the advancing ignition but it has low damage resistance. Therefore, it is proper to the high speed and high load engine. Fig 4-22 Heat value of the spark plug
Recently, the wide range spark plug which can maintain the self cleaning temperature in wide range of driving condition is used. Generally, the
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heat value is shown by number in the marks indicating the type and size of the spark plug. The number indicating the heat value is varied by the manufacturer. The large number means the cold type, and the low number means the heat type.
4.3 DLI (Distributor less Ignition)

4.3.1 Purpose of the DLI In all ignition type including transistor ignition type, the high voltage is induced using one ignition coil and supplied to the spark plug through the rotor installed on the distributor shaft and the spark plug cable. However, because this high voltage is distributed by mechanical method, the voltage drop down or current leakage may be occurred. As the voltage should go through the air gap (0.3~0.4 mm) between the rotor of distributor and segment of cap, energy will be loss or this is the reason of noise of the electromagnetic wave. The ignition method for overcoming these problems is the DLI (Distributor Fig 4-23 Radiation of the spark plug Less Ignition). 4.3.2 Kind and characteristic of DLI Classifying the DLI according to the electric control method, there are the ignition coil distribution type and the diode distribution type. The ignition coil distribution type is that the high voltage is directly distributed from the ignition coil to the spark plug, and there are two kinds, the synchronous spark type and the individual spark type. The synchronous type distributes the high voltage to two cylinders with one ignition coil. That is, when the first and fourth cylinders are ignited at the same time, the first spark plug is discharged when the first cylinder is at the upper position, while
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Engine Electrical
the fourth spark plug makes invalid discharging because the fourth cylinder is exhausting the gas. radio wave noise. There is no limitation in advancing angle range of the ignition Even if the output of high voltage is reduced, the discharge effective energy is not reduced. It has good endurance. As it has no electromagnetic wave interruption, it doesn't make influence to other electro devices. The individual spark type uses the method in which the each cylinder has individual ignition coil and spark plug to make the spark directly. The diode distribution type is one of synchronous type in which the direction of the high voltage is controlled by the diode. DLI has many merits such as followings. The distributor doesn't make any current leakage. There is no energy loss of high voltage between the rotor and the cap of distributor. The cap of distributor doesn't have any
Fig 4-24 Various DLI types
4.3.3 Parts of DLI and operation The DLI comprises of the power transistor operated by the signal from the ECU controlling the ignition timing and the ignition coil inducing the high
voltage according to the intermitting operation of the power transistor. The induced high voltage from the ignition coil is sent to the spark plug through each spark plug cable to make spark and the
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compressed fuel mixture will be fired in the combustion chamber. (1) Ignition coil and power transistor The ignition coil is attached at the cylinder head after the two mold types are combined to the one coil. This ignition coil has separated terminal to supply the high voltage from one ignition coil to two cylinders. The first current of the ignition coil is controlled by the power transistor. This power transistor performs the intermittence operation by the computer signal.
Capacitor (Condenser)
Fig 4-25 Structure of the ignition coil
No.3
No.2
No.1
No.4
Fig 4-26 Basic circuit of power transistor (2)CAS (Crank Shift Angle Sensor) The CAS is installed at the body of the sensor with the TDC sensor and driven by the camshaft at the cylinder head. The body of the sensor comprises of unit assembly and disk. The operation of sensor is like followings. The CAS is used for detecting the crank shift angle of each cylinder using the 4 slits arrayed at the outer circumference of the disk. When this signal is sent to the computer, the computer calculates the rotation speed of the engine, the air amount injected per stroke and the ignition timing and sends the signal for intermitting the first current of the ignition coil to the power transistor. The TDC sensor is used for detecting the upper point at the compression stroke of the first and fourth cylinder using the two slit arrayed at the inner side of the disk and send these data to the computer. The computer decides, basis on these signals, the fuel injecting signal and the cylinder for making ignition.
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Fig.4-27 Crankshaft angle sensor
Fig 4-28 Operation of the CAS and TDC sensor
4.3.4 Control for the ignition timing of DLI To control the ignition timing at DLI, the computer receiving the signals from various sensors detecting the operating status of the engine compares with the predetermined data in the computer and calculates the best ignition timing. After that, the computer sends the results to the two
power transistor. By the switching operation of the power transistors, the first current which flows to the two ignition coils is intermitted. The induced high voltage to the second coil from this intermitting operation is distributed with the ignition order of 1(4) - 3(2) - 4(1) - 2(3) to fire the mixture in cylinder (here, the number in parenthesis indicates the cylinder ignited synchronously).
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Fig 4-29 Circuit for DLI ignition
In the Fig 4-29, as the power transistor is ON, the current flow to the first coil of the ignition coil and when the power transistor is OFF, high voltages of (+) and (-) are induced at the second coil of the ignition coil . At this time, the induced high voltage is sent to the first and fourth cylinder through the two terminals, the (-) high voltage is induced to the first cylinder and the (+) high voltage is induced to the fourth cylinder. When the first cylinder is in the compression stroke, the fourth cylinder is in the exhaust stroke, inversely, when the fourth cylinder is in the compression cylinder, the first cylinder is in the exhaust stroke. Therefore, the valid spark is made at the compression stroke of any one cylinder between the two cylinders. As the air density is very high in the compression stroke, the voltage needed for engine should be high. As the current is discharged with almost no load in the exhaust stroke, most high voltages of (+) and (-) is applied to the spark plug in the compression stroke. Therefore, by comparing with the case of discharge with one spark plug in the conventional ignition system, the discharged voltage of the dual high voltages is similar with the conventional system. (1) Spark distribution control The computer decides the cylinder which will be fired basis on the TDC (No.1 and No.4 cylinder TDC) signal, calculates the ignition timing basis on the
CAS signal and sends the first current intermitting signal of the ignition coil to the power transistor. When the High signal (Logic 1) of the crank shift angle sensor and the TDC sensor are input to the computer, the computer decides that the first cylinder is in the compression stroke, interrupts the current to the power transistor and then the high voltage will be sent to the first and fourth cylinder. When the High signal of the CAS and the Low (logic 0) signal of the TDC sensor are input, the computer decides that the third cylinder is compressed stroke (at that time, the second cylinder is in the exhaust stroke) and interrupts the current of the power transistor and then the high voltage is sent to the third and second cylinder. Like these, as the computer selects the power transistors and alternately according to the CAS and TDC sensor, the computer can interrupt the electric current to distribute the spark. (2) Ignition timing control The computer measures the frequency T of CAS signal and calculates the time (t) for one turn of crank shaft about the T.
t=
T 180
When the signal frequency T of the CAS is acquired, the ignition timing T1 is calculated basis on the 75 signal before the upper point and the
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interruption signal of the first current is sent to the power transistor. T1 = t x (75 - ) Here, : Ignition advancing angle
calculated by the computer
Fig. 4-30 Spark distribution of each cylinder
(3) Ignition advancing angle The computer stores the standard ignition advancing angle optimized in accordance with the air amount per one cycle of one cylinder and the engine speed. By the input signal from each sensor, this standard ignition advancing angle is compensated additionally. When the engine is start, the ignition timing is controlled with the stored value. a. Ignition advancing angle in the normal operation Standard ignition advancing angle: The map value predetermined according to the intake air amount per one cycle at one cylinder and the engine speed is the standard ignition advancing angle. Here, the map value is the value stored in ROM (Read Only Memory) in the computer. Engine temperature compensation:
According to the signal of the water sensor, when the cooling water is low, the ignition timing should be advanced to enhance the driving performance. Atmospheric pressure compensation:
According to the signal of the atmospheric pressure sensor, when the pressure is low, the ignition timing should be advanced to enhance the driving performance in the high land area. b. Ignition advancing angle when the engine is cranking During the cranking of engine, by synchronizing with the CAS signal, the fixed ignition timing (5 before upper point) is made. c. Control when the ignition timing is regulated At this time, as the terminal for control the crank shift angle sensor, the ignition timing synchronized to the signal of the crank shift angle sensor (5
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before TDC) is formed. If it is need to control the ignition timing, release the fixing nut of the crank shift angle sensor and control by turning to left or right in order that the CAS signal is controlled to meet the standard ignition timing.
Fig 4-31 Ignition advancing angle control
4.4
Performance of the ignition system

The purpose of the ignition system is to form
energy from the spark plug should be large. Here, we will explain about conditions influencing to the ignition performance basis on the operation of the high voltage circuit in the ignition system. 4.4.1 Ignition spark voltage As the voltage generated at the second ignition coil is increased, when it reaches to the spark voltage (discharging start voltage), the spark is generated at the electrode gap of spark plug. This spark voltage is low in the easy condition for making the spark; otherwise, the spark voltage is high in the
the spherical flame kernel in the mixture gas by making the spark from a spark plug at the most proper time. Especially, adopting the emission purification system, it is necessary for the performance to combust completely without any misfire under all driving conditions. Therefore, the second voltage of the ignition system should maintain high voltage value from low speed to the high speed of the engine. Furthermore, the flame
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Engine Electrical
hard condition for making the spark. As the voltage acquired from the ignition coil has a limitation, in order to get perfect ignition without misfire under all driving condition, the spark voltage should be rater low than high. The elements influencing to the magnitude of the spark voltage are the shape of the spark plug electrode, the polarity, the gap of the electrode, the pressure of the fuel mixture around the electrode, the temperature of the electrode and fuel mixture, the mixing ratio, moisture, movement of gas. Among them, the gap of electrode and the pressure and temperature of the fuel mixture are the most important. A. The influence from the shape and the gap of the electrode of the spark plug The Fig 4-32 shows the relation between the electrode gap and spark voltage in the atmosphere pressure. It shows that the spark voltage is increasing proportional to the gap of the electrode. In the same gap value, when the end portion of the electrode has rounded shape as , it is hard to discharge, and when the end of the electrode has sharpened shape as , it is easy to discharge. Therefore, in the actual cases, the brand new spark plug having a sharpened shape electrode has a good discharging performance at first. After time is passed, as the electrode wears more and more, at last, the shape of the electrode will be rounded so that it is hard to discharge. The spark voltage will be increased. Fig 4-32 Spark voltage and gap of electrode B. Influence from the pressure and temperature of the fuel mixture The Fig 4-33 shows the relation between the pressure of fuel mixture around the electrode and the spark voltage. As the pressure of the mixture is increasing, the spark voltage is also increased. With the same pressure, when the temperature of the mixture is high, the spark voltage will be lowered. The Fig 4-34 shows the relation between the temperature of the electrode and the spark voltage. As the electrode temperature is increasing, the spark voltage will suddenly be lowered because the electrode will be easy to discharge from the surface of the electrode. The electrode gap of the spark plug is generally about 0.7~0.9mm. In the atmosphere pressure, the spark is discharged with 2~3kV. When it is attached at the cylinder head, the spark voltage will be higher than 10kV because the pressure of the mixture around the electrode is about 10kgf/ during the compression stroke.
When the mixture injected into the cylinder at room temperature is compressed, its temperature
will be higher than 200. Furthermore, in the engine driving state, the temperature of the spark
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plug is higher than 500, so the spark voltage will be lowered as the increased temperature. The spark can be discharged at about 10kV. Contrarily, when the engine is started in the cold weather, the spark voltage will be increased. Additionally, when the engine is accelerated, the intake efficiency is enhanced temporarily. and the compression pressure is increased so that the spark voltage will be increased is high, the electrode temperature of the spark plug is lowered so that the spark voltage will be high somewhat. With the different shape of the electrode, according to the polarity that is, which electrode is connected to the (+), there is a difference in the spark voltage. This is called the polarity effect. If the central electrode has cylindrical shape and the ground electrode has flat shape, as shown in Fig 435, when the electrode gap is in small range, then the central electrode is applied with (-) and the ground electrode is applied with (+) to make spark easily.
Fig 4-33 Spark voltage and the pressure of the mixture Fig 4-35 Spark voltage and polarity In actual spark plug, there is no extremely different shape in the electrode shapes like needle electrode and flat electrode. As shown in Fig 4-35, the central electrode is corresponding to the needle electrode and the ground electrode is corresponding to the flat electrode. In the aspect of temperature of electrode, the central electrode has Fig 4-34 Spark voltage and the temperature of electrode C. Other influences Even the spark voltage is lower in the air than in the mixture, the spark voltage tends to be increased as the mixture is lean. When the moisture high temperature. 4.4.2 Spark energy and ignition performance The purpose of the ignition system is to ignite the mixture in the combustion chamber completely. When the ignition is failed, it is called the misfire. This includes the cases in which there is no spark
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between the electrodes of the spark plug (it is called miss spark) and in which the mixture is not fired even the spark is made (it is called miss fire). Recently, as the countermeasure of the emission gas, the ignition system is required high performance in which even the lean fuel mixture can be fired.
Therefore, various spark plugs which can meet this requirement are developed. That the mixture is combusted within a short time period by the spark of the spark plug is called the explosion and this is processing as the following procedure. As shown in Fig 4-36, when the spark is generated at the electrode gap of the spark plug in the compressed mixture, then a small sphere flame kernel is formed at first. This flame kernel can be cooled by the ambient mixture and electrode. However, if the heat capacity of this flame kernel is enough large, then the combustion reaction will be accelerated and grown and then the flame surface will be spread into the mixture even after the flame kernel is extinguished. The main role of the ignition system is to generate a sphere flame kernel which can spread into the mixture. However, the combustion followed from this kernel is mainly decided by the status of the mixture and the flame does not govern the spread of the combustion. Fig 4-36 Formation of flame kernel by the spark When the heat capacity of the flame kernel is low and the flame kernel is easy to be cooled by the electrode of the spark plug, the flame can not spread so that the ignition can not be completed. Extinguish effect of the electrode is lessen as the electrode is thinner and the gap electrode is larger. Therefore, recently, the spark plug has larger electrode gap and thinner central electrode or a groove on the ground electrode in order to enhance the ignition performance.
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Fig 5-1 Micro 570 analyzer Caution: Because of the possibility of personal injury, always use extreme caution and appropriate eye protection when working with batteries.
5.1 Key pad The Micro 570 button on the key pad provide the following functions:
Use the arrow buttons to scroll to main menu. Press the ENTER button to make selection
5. The Micro 570 analyzer

The Micro 570 analyzer provides the ability to test the charging and starting systems, including the battery, starter and alternator.
Press the CODE button to generate a warranty code Press the MENU button to print and view the last test result, set the time, use the voltmeter, and export data to a PC.
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press ENTER button.
Fig 5-2 Micro 570 analyzer switch
5.2 Battery Test procedures 1) Connect the tester to the battery
3) Choose either CCA or CCP and press the ENTER button.
Caution: Connect clamps securely. If CHECK CONNECTON message is displayed on the screen, reconnect clamps securely. * CCA: Cold cranking amps, is an SAE specification for cranking batteried at 18 . 2) The tester will ask if the battery is connected IN A VEHICLE or OUT OF VEHICLE. Make your selection by pressing the arrow buttons: then * CCP: Cold cranking amps, is an SAE specification for Korean manufacturers for cranking batteried at 18 .
4) Set the CCA value displayed on the screen to the CCA value marked on the battery label by pressing up and down buttons and press ENTER button. The battery ratings (CCA) displayed on the tester must be identical to the ratings marked on battery label.
5) The tester displays battery test results including voltage and battery ratings. A relevant action must be given according to the test results by referring to the battery test results as shown in the table below. 6) To conduct starter test, continuously, press ENTER button.
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Result on printer Good battery Good recharge No action is required. Battery is in a good state. Recharge the battery and use. Charge & Retest Battery is not charged properly.
Remedy
Charge and test the battery again (Failure to charge the battery fully may read incorrect measurement value) Replace battery Replace battery and recheck the charging system.(Improper connection between battery and vehicle cables may cause REPLACE BATTERY, retest the battery after removing cable and connecting the tester to the battery terminal directly prior to replacing the battery) Charge and retest the battery. And than, test results may cause REPLACE BATTERY, replace battery and recheck the charging system.
Bad cell-replace
5.3 Starter test procedure 1) After the battery test, press the Enter button immediately for the starter test.
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displayed on the screen. Take a relevant action according to the test results by referring to the starter test results as given below.
2) After pressing ENTER button, start the engine. 4) To continue charging system test, press ENTER button.
3) Cranking voltage and starter test results will be
Result on printer Cranking voltage normal Cranking voltage low System shows a normal starter draw.
Remedy
Cranking voltage is lower than normal level. Check the battery and retest.
Charge battery
The state of battery charge is too low to test. Check the battery and retest.
Replace battery
Replace battery. If the vehicle is not started though the battery condition of Good and fully charged is displayed. Check wiring for open circuit, battery cable connection, starter and repair or replace as necessary.
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If the engine does crank, check fuel system.
5.4 Charging system test procedure 1) Press ENTER button to begin charging system test.
4) Press ENTER button.
2) If ENTER button is pressed, the tester displays the actual voltage of alternator. Press, ENTER button to test the charging system.
5) The Micro 570 analyzer charging system output at idle for comparison to other readings.
3) Turn off all electrical load and rev engine for 5seconds with pressing the accelerator pedal.
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6) Take a relevant action according to the test results by referring to the table below after shutting off the engine and disconnect the tester clamps from the battery.
Result on printer Charging system normal / Diode ripple normal No charging voltage Charging system is normal
Remedy
Alternator does not supply charging current to battery. Check belts, connection between alternator and battery. Replace belts or cable or alternator as necessary.
Low charging voltage
Alternator does not supply charging current to battery and electrical load to system fully. Check belts and alternator and replace as necessary.
High charging voltage
The voltage from alternator to battery is higher than normal limit during voltage regulating. Check connection, ground and replace regulator as necessary. Check electrolyte level in the battery.
Excess ripple detected
One or more diodes in the alternator are not functioning properly. Check alternator mounting, belts and replace as necessary.
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Engine Electrical

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

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Fig. 1-1. The Principle of the Primary cell

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1.2. Purpose of Battery

1.3 The Kinds of the Battery

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Anode PbSO4 Lead sulfate

Electrolyte 2H2O Water

Cathode PbSO4 Lead sulfate

(1) Discharge of the Lead-Acid Battery

Fig. 1-8 The chemical reaction of the discharge operation

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Discharge Rate (%)=

X 100 Specific Gravity at full charged - Specific Gravity at full discharged

Specific Gravity at full charged - Specific Gravity at measured

changed by the temperature. The reason is that the

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Rubber bulb Suction tube

Fig. 1-11 The suction type gravimeter

Float Lens (for magnifying the measuring scale)

Fig. 1-12 The Optical refraction gravimeter

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Fig. 1-13 Chemical changes during the charge operation

Fig. 1-14 Charging Characteristic Curve

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1.5 Various characteristics of the leadacid battery

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Fig. 1-19 The connecting type for batteries

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Self-discharging amount (% per 24 hour) 1.0 0.5 0.25

Life time of lead-acid battery

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1.7 Charge of lead-acid battery

Fig. 1-21 Method for connecting batteries at charge operation

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Fig. 1-24 Quick charger

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The charger and the battery should not be connected reversibly.

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Fig. 1-25 Structure of catalyst plug

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The Principles and Kinds of the DC Motor

2.1.1 The principles of the DC motor

Fig. 2-2 The principle of motor

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