Don SP 153 Notes

Physics 153 2007 by Don Witt
Thermodynamics
Thermometric Property: is a physical

property that changes with temperature Different ways of measure temperature 1) Expansion of a fluid. 2) Electrical 3) Mechanical expansion of solid. 4) Expansion of a gas.
There are many others not listed.
Thermodynamics
Thermal Contact
1) A B C
2)
B C
3)
Thermodynamics
Thermal Contact Which are in thermal contact?

1) A B C
None are in thermo contact 2) A B C
A&B are in thermo contact not C C 3) A B

A&C and C&B
What can we say about the temperature of the the three objects? Thermal Equilibrium: when the cooling stops. The zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two objects are in thermal equilibrium with a third, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Two objects are defined to have the same temperature if they are in thermal equilibrium with each other. How to measure temperature: Simple start is to pick at thermometric property which linear.
Mercury Thermometer example
Example: Mercury Thermometer (Celsius temperature scale)
L 100
L 100 is the height at boiling point of water
L0
L 0 is the height at freezing point of water
(Mercury Thermometer contd) Lt - L0
tc =
X 100 C
L 100 - L 0
Fahrenheit: t for ice if 32 F and t for boiling is 212 F
Constant volume gas thermometer
Example: Constant volume gas thermometer
tc =
Pt
- P0
X 100 C P
P100 - P0
Kelvin scale
The thermometer will go to P = 0 at some temperature which is -273.15C. Experiment give us this number along with PV T = constant
We can also define a new temperature so that 0K (kelvin) is -273.15C and take 1K to be 1C.
Triple point of water as a standard
Still a problem with temperature how do we calibrate the Thermometer? Namely, how do we decide when we at Freezing or boiling? The triple point of water is for pressure at 4.58mm Hg and temperature 0.01C.
Errors in gas thermometer 273.16K Ptriple P O2 air N2
T= T 446C
444C
H2 P
Graph of temperature as a function pressure for constant volume gas thermometer with different gases.
Thermal Expansion
As the temperature changes the length of a material changes. L = L0 T is a constant for the material, L is the change in length, L0 the length, and T is the change in temperature. Not all material expand with increase in temperature.
Linear Expansion
L = L0 T
The equation can be written in the following form
If T is small L should be small and so L0 L, then one can take the limit of our above equation, namely,
L = L0 L T
Thus, if T 0, the expansion equation becomes

dL = L dT
Expansion coefficients
The constant is determined by the material be considered, it can be positive or negative.
Examples of values are Al Brass Cu Glass Quartz Invar Steel
2.4X10-5 K-1 2.0X10-5 K-1 1.7X10-5 K-1 0.4-0.9X10-5 K-1 0.04X10-5 K-1 0.09X10-5 K-1 1.2X10-5 K-1
Area and Volume Expansion
The expansion formula given thus far is for linear materials, however, the area and volume also change and those changes can be obtained from the linear equation. Example: In order to see, this take a square of metal of area A, at temperature T, and expansion coefficient .
L W
If the temperature changes by T, find the

change in area A.
A=LW (initial area) A+ A = (L+ L T) (W+ W T)
A+ A = (L+ L T) (W+ W T) A+ A = LW+ 2 LW T + 2 W L (T)2

If T is small, then A+ A = A+ 2 A T . Finally, A = 2 A T. For volume, V = 3 V T.
Physics 153 2007 by Don Witt L = L T A = 2 A T V = 3 V T
Basic Expansion Formulae and Stress Stress and strain: (read Chap 11-4 & 11-5) Hookes Law: (Stress)/(Strain) = (Elastic modulus)
Linear Stress and Strain: (F/ A ) = Y (L/L) Y is the Youngs modulus,
Bulk stress and strain: (F/ A ) = p = -B (V/V)

where B is the bulk modulus.
Example
You are told to design a steel bridge is 600m long. How Much allowance must be made for the linear expansion in A temperature range -40C to +40C? L = L T Use steel = 1.05x10-5 K-1.
L = (1.05x10-5 K-1) (600m) (80K) L = 50 cm Standard expansion joints allow this much expansion.
Example
Design a gasoline tank to store gasoline in a temperature range -20C to 40C. Must be able to ll it any time of year and not lose more than 0.1% of gasoline to overow. Use gasoline = 9.5 x 10-4 K-1. If you never spill any gasoline you need =1/3 gasoline V V V V = -0.001 gas
tank
The maximum is obtain by lling the tank at the high temperature. 3 max T- gas T= -0.001
Physics 153 Solve for max. 2007 by Don Witt max = -0.001+ gas T = -0.001+9.5X10-4 K-1(-20-40)K 3 (-20-40)K 3 T max = 3.2 X10-4 K-1 Similarly, min is found by lling the tank at low temperature. V V V V = 0.001 tank
gas
min = 0.001- gas T = 0.001+9.5X10-4 K-1(40-(-20))K -3 (40-(-20))K -3 T min= 3.1 X10-4 K-1 so 3.1 X10-4 K-1 < < 3.2 X10-4 K-1
Example:
The gure on the right below shows a simple model of a pendulum for a grandfathers clock. It consists of a steel bar steel = 11 x 10-6 K-1 of length Lsteel, an aluminum bar Al = 24 x 10-6 K-1 of length LAl and the pendulum bob. Both bars are of negligible weight and are connectedat their bottom ends. The bob is attached to the top end of the aluminum bar.
Build a grandfathers clock using the pendulum in the sketchthat Pivot with L = 24.82 cm such that the period does not change due to point temperature changes. In other words, pick Lsteel and Lal such that L doesnt change because the period depends L
on L.
0 = L = Lsteel - LAl
Lsteel
0 = Lsteel - LAl = steel Lsteel T - Al LAl T
LAl
Physics 153 2007 by Don Witt 0 = steel Lsteel T - Al LAl T So steel Lsteel = Al LAl this tells us that Lsteel / LAl = Al / steel = 24/11 24.82 cm = L = Lsteel - LAl (1) (2)
Equation (1) gives Lsteel = 24/11 LAl . Plug this into equation (2) yields 24.82 cm = Lsteel - LAl = 24/11 LAl - LAl .
Solving, 24.82 cm = (24/11 - 11/11) LAl =13/11 LAl, thus LAl = 21.00 cm and Lsteel = 24.82 cm + LAl = 45.82cm
Physics 153 Example 2007 by Don Witt A 300cm3 glass is lled with 100g of ice at -5C and 200g of water at 25C. What is the content of the glass at equilibrium and the temperature? (Assume the system is isolated) Start Ice and water The equations needed are Q = mc T and Q = m L
The total heat change for the system is zero. Qsystem = Qice + Qwater = 0 The ice term is tricky. It includes the heat to raise the ice from -5C to 0C plus the heat to melt the ice plus the plus raise that water to its nal temperature.
Thus the change in heat of the ice is
Qice = Qice to melting point + Qmelt ice + Qwater from ice Qice = mice cice Tice + mice Lice + mice cwater Twater from ice cice = 2100 J/kg K Lice = 334 x 103 J/kg cwater = 4190 J/kg K Qice = (0.100kg) (2100 J/kg K)(0C-(-5C))+ (0.100kg)(334 x 103 J/kg)+ (0.100kg) (4190 J/kg K)(T-0C)) Qice= 34,450 J + 419 J/K T Qwater = ((0.200kg) (4190 J/kg C)(T-25C)) = (838 J/C)(T-25C)
Physics 153 2007 by Don Witt Qice + Qwater = 0 so 34,450 J + 419 J/C T + (838 J/C)(T-25C) = 0 Solve for T: 34,450 J - 20,950 J + (1257 J/C)T = 0 T= -11C answer This answer is just totally wrong note the temperature is lower than the start temperature! The only explanation is the ice never melted! So there is not enough energy to melt all of the ice. To understand this Qice= 34,450 J + 419 J/K T when T = 0C gives 34,450 J which means you need, however, Qwater = (838 J/C)(T-25C) gives -20,950 J at T = 0C.
Physics 153 2007 by Don Witt There is not enough heat to freeze the water because to freeze 200g of water it would take Q=(.200kg)(334 x 103 J/kg ) which is 66800J. Final temperature must be 0C and have an ice water mixture. Try your self, nd how much ice melts in last example.

Heat: When two objects are in contact and and the energy transfer is due solely to temperature difference the energy transferred is called heat. The transfer is called heat flow. The letter Q is used to denote heat. Units for heat 1 cal = 4.186 J 1 kcal = 1000 cal 1 Btu = 778 ft lb = 1055 J
Heat
Physics 153 2007 by Don Witt Specific Heat Capacity: Q = mc T

Molar heat capacity: Q = nC T n is the number of moles. Phase changes also involve heat: Q=mL M is the mass and L is the heat to change phase.
Heat Transfer by Conduction
100C
0C Steel Bar
H = dQ = A (TH - TC) dt L H = dQ = -A dT dt dx
Thermal Resistance
V=IR for electric circuits. Recall I = dq/dt H = dQ = A (TH - TC) dt L = A T/R
where R = L/ . R is called the thermal resistance Also called R value.
Heat Transfer by Thermal Radiation
Black body radiation Power radiate = eA T4 T = temperature, A =surface area, e = 1 for black body, and = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2 K4.
Heat Transfer by Convection
Read section in book.
Kinetic Theory Gas in box at temperature T. The average velocity of the gas molecules is 0, because it is equally likely to move left and right or up and down.
In order to relate energy and temperature let us take the rms value of v denoted vrms, i.e. root mean square. The kinetic energy is K=1/2 mv2 and the average value of K with v = vrms
Pressure from Kinetic Theory vxt # of molecules hitting one wall of box = 1/2( N/V vxt)A Momentum for one molecule is px= 2m vx
Total momentum transfer = 2m vx 1/2( N/V vxt)A Pressure = F/A = m vx ( N/V vxt)A /A t because F=dp/dt. Pressure = F/A = (N/V) m(vx)2average
Pressure = P = (N/V) m(vx)2average one show that 1/2 m(vx2)av = 1/2 kT So PV= NkT , the expression is true if we consider the motion as 3-dimensional because v2 = vx2 + vy2 + vz2 so Kav = 3/2 kT
Ideal Gas law
PV = NkT
where k= 1.38 x 10-23J/K , N = number of molecules. Using basic chemistry N = NAn where NA = 6.0221367x1023 molecules/mole. So the ideal gas law can Be written as
PV = nRT
where k = R/NA .
Phases of Matter
P Fusion curve Solid Sublimation curve Vapor Liquid Critical point
Vaporization curve Triple point T
Work Energy theorem
Let Fx be the x-component of all the forces acting on an object of mass m, then Fx= m ax The work done the force Fx is W = Plug in F=ma to obtain (ignore the limits of integration first) W=
Fx dx
Fx dx = W =
m ax dx = m ax vx dt
= m vx (dvx /dt )dt = m vx dvx = (1/2)m(vx)2
Physics 153 2007 by Don Witt W = (1/2)m(vx)2 If moving in 3-dimensions, then W = Fx dx + Fy dy + Fz dz = F dr by definition. W = (1/2)m(vx)2 + (1/2)m(vy)2 + (1/2)m(vz)2 = (1/2)mv2
(Once limits of integration are put back in, one obtain the changes in K.)
Work Energy Theorem: W = K where K = (1/2)m(vfinal)2 - (1/2)m(vinitial)2
The first law of thermodynamics

dW = Fdx = pA dx
First Law:
dQ = dW + dU dQ = heat added to the system
dW = work done by the system dU = internal energy of the system
Work and Internal Energy
The work to go from state 1 to state 2 is the

W12 =
path!
V2
1
P dV , this dependents on the
The integral is the area under the curve. The internal energy of the system is U = (# of degrees of freedom)/2 N k T or U = (# of degrees of freedom)/2 nR T
The change in internal energy never dependents on the path on the initial and final temperature.
Types of thermal processes
Isothermal: temperature is constant during process,

T = constant.
Adiabatic: no heat transfer during the process, Q=0. Isochoric: constant volume process, V = constant. Isobaric: constant pressure process, P = constant.
Heat Capacities
dQ = dW + dU if the volume is constant during a process, then dW=0 for this process dQ = dU = n CV dT so CV = f R/2
where f = # of degrees of freedom.
Heat capacity for ideal gas
dQ = dW + dU if the pressure is constant during a process, then dW = pdV = nRdT dQ = dW + dU = nRdT + n CV dT = n CP dT thus R + CV = CP assuming ideal gas law.
The adiabatic index is = Cp/ CV = Cp/ CV = (R + CV )/Cv = 1+ R/ f R/2
= 1 + 2/f = (f+2)/f
where f = ( # of degrees of freedom)
Adiabatic Process
Recall an adiabatic process is when Q=0. Two facts dU = nCVdT and dW = pdV. Since there is no heat gain, nCVdT = - dW = pdV. Next use the ideal gas law to obtain nCVdT = -(nRT/V)dV
Adiabatic contd
nCVdT = -(nRT/V)dV so dT/T + R/CV dV/V = 0 Recall = Cp/ CV so R/CV = -1 Thus dT/T + R/CV dV/V = dT/T + ( -1) dV/V = 0 TV -1= constant Or pV = constant
Heat Engines
Q=QH+ QC
where QH is the heat transferred from the hot reservoir and QC is the heat transferred from the cold reservoir.
Hot Work Cold
Efficiency
e=W/ QH and W= QH +Qc = |QH | - |Qc| for a cycle.
Example of Stirling Engine 2
1 3 4 V Paths 2 and 4 are isothermal
Physics 153 2007 by Don Witt First, the work done for one cycle is W = W1+ W2+ W3+ W4
Example contd
no work is done along 1 or 3 because volume is constant. Process 2 and 4 are isothermal so the work done is given by W= nRT ln(Vf/ Vi)
P 2 1 3 Tc 4 V TH
W=nR TH ln(Vf/ Vi) + nR Tc ln(Vi/ Vf) W=nR (TH - Tc) ln(Vf/ Vi)
Finally, find the heat with Q>0. Q1= nCv(TH- Tc) Q3= nCv(Tc- TH) Q2=nR TH ln(Vf/ Vi) Q4=nR Tc ln(Vi/ Vf)
p 1 Tc
TH 3
4 V
e= nR (TH - Tc) ln(Vf/ Vi)/ (nR TH ln(Vf/ Vi)+ nCv(TH- Tc))
Carnot Cycle a 2
b 3 d 4 c V Ta= Tb Td = Tc
1 and 3 are adiabatic 2 and 4 are isothermal
Carnot Engine
QH= nR Ta ln( Vf/ Vi ) W= W1 + W2+ W3+ W4 Note that W1=- W3 this is because W1 = -nCV(Ta- Td) and W3 = -nCV(Tc- Tb) Ta= Tb and Td = Tc Thus W= W2+ W4
e= nR (Ta - Td) ln(Vf/ Vi)/ nR Ta ln( Vf/ Vi )

e = 1- Td/ Ta
Hot Work Cold
Td is the temperature of the hot source and Ta is the cold source temperature.
Otto Cycle
p a 1 d e 2
b 3
4 c Start & Finish V
Curves are adiabatic
Piston positions
Piston position start and finish
Otto Cycle
p a 1 d e 2
b 3
4 c Start & Finish V
Curves are adiabatic
Otto Engine
Q2= 0 and Q4= 0 because each process is adiabatic Q1 = Qh and Q3 = Qc because the heat is proportional to the change in temperature for these. Namely, Q1 = nCV(Ta - Td) and Q3 = nCV(Tc - Tb) W = W2 + W4 = -nCV(Tb - Ta) -nCV(Td - Tc)
e = W/Qh = (-nCV(Tb - Ta) -nCV(Td - Tc))/ nCV(Ta - Td) e = (- (Tb - Ta) - (Td - Tc))/ (Ta - Td) e = (- Tb + Ta - Td + Tc))/ (Ta - Td)
e = 1- (Tb - Tc )/ (Ta - Td)
e = 1- (Tb - Tc )/ (Ta - Td) For an adiabatic process TV -1= constant .

So Ta Va -1 = Tb Vb -1 and Tc Vc -1 = Td Vd -1 From our cycle Va = Vd and Vb = Vc
Ta (Va/ Vb ) -1 = Tb , Tc = Td (Vd/ Vc ) -1 = Td (Va/ Vb ) -1
e = 1- (Tb - Tc )/ (Ta - Td) = 1- (Va/ Vb ) -1 = 1 - 1/(Vb/ Va ) -1 e = 1 - 1/r -1 where r is the compression ratio.
Car Example
A 6 cylinder car engine has a displacement of 3.00L. Operates at 4000rpm with a compression ratio of r = 9.50. Fuel enters with atmospheric pressure at a temperature of 27oC. During combustion the fuel reaches a temperature of 1350oC. Use = 1.4 and cV= 0.718kJ/ kg K and R = cp - cv. Find the power delivered.
Vb/ Va = r = 9.5 The displacement is for all 6 cyclinders. So Vb - Va = 3.00L/6 = 0.500 x 10-3 m3 Vb = 0.559 x 10-3 m3 and Va = 0.588 x 10-4 m3 n = PcVc/RTc = 2.24 x 10-2 moles or mass = 6.49 x 10-4 kg Pc Vc = Pd Vd so Pd = 2.34 x 103 kPa ( R=8.31451 J/ mol K or 0.287 kJ/kg K)
Physics 153 2007 by Don Witt Td = PdVd/nR Td = 739 K using ideal gas law. Ta = 1623 K by ideal gas law. Pa = 5.14 x 103 kPa again ideal gas law.
e = 1 - 1/r -1 = 1- 1/(9.5)1.4 -1 so e = 0.59 W = e Qh= e mcV(Ta - Td) = 0.244 kJ

Power = 6(1/2 rev)(4000 rev/min)(1 min/60s)(0.244kJ) Power = 49 kW = 66 hp
Heat Pumps Refrigerators
Hot Work Cold COP (heating mode) = coefficient of performance = Qh/W COP (cooling mode) = Qc / W
Entropy
The mathematical definition of entropy is dS = dQ/T Second law of thermodynamics: The total entropy of an isolated system never decreases. Thus, the change in entropy must never decrease it and it must zero for a reversible process.
Periodic Motion
Periodic Motion is motion that repeats itself.

Period is defined to be the time over which the motion repeats. Frequency is the number of cycles per time. Amplitude is the maximum displacement from equilibrium.
Hookes Law F = -kx where k is the spring constant, x is how much from equilibrium.
Simple Harmonic Motion
Consider the motion of mass with a spring force actting on it
-kx = max
where F = ma was used. First note this is not a constant acceleration problem Because ax depends on x.
SHM contd
One also see the motion should repeat itself because of the way ax changes. A good guess of a solution is x = A cos(t + ) A is the amplitude that is maximum displacement from equilibrium. is the phase constant or phase shift. (All angles are measured in
radians. )
Now, lets check that the above expression is a solution. If x = A cos(t + ), then vx = -A sin(t + ), and ax = -A 2 cos(t + ). Plug into the force equation, next.
-kx = -k A cos(t + ) = max -k A cos(t + ) = max = m(-A 2 cos(t + )) -k A cos(t + ) = m(-A 2 cos(t + )) Canceling like terms yields x = A cos(t + ) is solution if and only if 2 = k/m
Definition of simple harmonic motion
Motion is simple harmonic if and only if it satisfies the following equation
2 x = ax The solution is x = A cos(t + ). In case of a spring 2 = k/m. is the angular frequency measured in units of radians/time. Period is defined to be the time over which the motion repeats. Frequency is the number of cycles per time.
Example Vertical Spring The forces acting on the mass are gravity and the spring forces.
k M
F = ma -ky -mg = may
Now, as written the equation doesnt look like simple harmonic motion. Note y measures how much the spring is stretched.
k M
To make it easy to solve this problem, find where the net force zero in other words where the system is in equilibrium
F = -ky -mg = 0.
This is where y= -mg/k .
Now,measure everything from this equilibrium position. So pick a new coordinate, namely, ynew = y + mg/k
Plug ynew = y + mg/k into -ky -mg = may yields -ky -mg = -k(ynew - mg/k) -mg = may -kynew = may. Finally, since mg/k is constant ay=aynew . -kynew = maynew
Finally, this means a vertical spring is simple harmonic motion but the displacement must be measure from the equilibrium position. The angular frequency is given by 2 = k/m
Work Energy theorem
Let Fx be the x-component of all the forces acting on an object of mass m, then Fx= m ax The work done the force Fx is W = Plug in F=ma to obtain (ignore the limits of integration first) W=
Fx dx
Fx dx = W =
m ax dx = m ax vx dt
= m vx (dvx /dt )dt = m vx dvx = (1/2)m(vx)2
Physics 153 2007 by Don Witt W = (1/2)m(vx)2 If moving in 3-dimensions, then W = Fx dx + Fy dy + Fz dz = F dr by definition. W = (1/2)m(vx)2 + (1/2)m(vy)2 + (1/2)m(vz)2 = (1/2)mv2
(Once limits of integration are put back in, one obtain the changes in K.)
Work Energy Theorem: W = K where K = (1/2)m(vfinal)2 - (1/2)m(vinitial)2
Conservation of Energy
The work energy theorem states W = K. Forces can be divided into conservative and non-conserved forces. A force is conserved if the work done is zero when return to its initial state. Thus, the work can be divided into work done by conserved and non-conservative. The work energy theorem can be rewritten as K = Wcon + Wnon
Finally, the above can be written as K + U = Wnon

where U = -Wcon .
Potential Energy K + U = Wnon
E = Wnon where E = K + U is the total energy. U is the potential energy and the change in U is defined by
U = -Wcon
Physics 153 Common Potential Energies 2007 by Don Witt To common potential energies are for a spring and gravity For a spring Uspring =1/2 kx2 and for gravity Ugravity = mgy . The energy for a horizontal spring is
E=1/2 mv2 + 1/2 kx2
Comment on Vertical Springs
If a vertical spring is written in terms of a coordinate measured from the equilibrium position, i.e. y=0 is where the spring is has no force, then
-ky=may
and the energy is just
E=1/2 mv2 + 1/2 ky2 . However, if y = 0 is were the spring is unstretched, then -ky -mg =may and the energy must include Gravity, namely, E=1/2 mv2 + 1/2 ky2 + mgy.
Simple Pendulum
Simple pendulum means wire is massless And the mass is a point mass.
The pendulum is length l and the mass is Is m. Drawing a free body diagram y T
W W x
One write the forces to obtain
Simple Pendulum contd

-mg sin = max
Using radians the acceleration can be written as
ax = l d2/dt2. So the equation is -mg sin = ml d2/dt2 The mass cancels and one is left with -g/ l sin = d2/dt2
Small angle motion for a pendulum
So the motion of a pendulum is periodic but not simple Harmonic in general. However, if the angle is small
sin -g/ l d2/dt2 and the motion is simple harmonic for small with 2 = g/ l .
Example
A massless spring with a spring constant k=19 N/m is hung vertically. A mass of 0.20 kg is attached and then released. Assume the spring was unstreched before the mass was released. Find how far below the initial point the mass descends. Find the frequency and amplitude of the resulting motion. v=0 Initial position Equilibrium Solution: M y yf
E= 1/2 mv2 + 1/2 ky2 measure y from the equilibrium position. Now, E is conserved so E = 1/2 kA2 . Plug in v=0 which means y = A. Also, v=0 at yf . So yf = 2y. yf = 2mg/k= 0.2063 m and y = A = 0.1032 m. 2 = k/m and = 2f so f = (1/2)(k/m)1/2 f = 0.01633 Hz .
Example
A 3.0 kg block moving at a speed of 1.8 m/s strikes a horizontal spring as shown in the gure. If the spring constant is 100 N/m and the maximum compression of the spring is 21 cm, what is the coefcient of friction between the block and the surface?
k
Solution E = 1/2 mv2 + 1/2 kx2 E = Wnon
Wnon= F r = -fx= -Nx= -mgx Efinal = 1/2 kx2 and Einitial = 1/2 mv2 So E = 1/2 kx2 - 1/2 mv2 = -mgx = Wnon m = 3.0 kg , v= 1.8 m/s, k= 100 N/m, and x= 0.21 m = (1/2 kx2 + 1/2 mv2 )/mgx = 0.4300
Example
A spring of negligible mass is hung vertically by attaching its upper end to a xed point. A small basket with a 0.40-kg copper block inside is placed on the lower end of the spring. The system is set into vertical simple harmonic oscillation. The oscillation period is found to be 0.90 s. When the copper block is removed, the oscillation period changes to 0.60 s.What is the mass of the basket? What is the spring constant of the spring?
Solution Tinitial = 0.90 s
Solution:
Tfinal = 0.60 s M mCu = 0.40-kg
Tinitial = 2/ = 2 ((mbasket+mCu)/k)1/2 Tfinal = 2/ = 2 ((mbasket)/k)1/2 (Tinitial )2 = 2/ = 42 (mbasket+mCu)/k (Tfinal )2 = 2/ = 42 mbasket/k
(Tinitial )2 = 2/ = 42 (mbasket+mCu)/k (Tfinal )2 = 2/ = 42 mbasket/k Combining the equations (Tfinal )2/ mbasket = 42 /k = (Tinitial )2 / (mbasket+mCu) Solve for mbasket which gives mbasket = mCu / ((Tinitial )2/ (Tfinal )2 -1) mbasket = (0.40 kg)/((0.9s)2/ (0.6)2 -1) = 0.8 kg
(Tfinal )2/ mbasket = 42 /k So k = 42 mbasket /(Tfinal )2 = 42 (0.8 kg)/ (0.6s)2 k = 87.7 N/m
Damped Simple Harmonic Motion
A damping force is a non-conservative force which causes the simple harmonic motion to loose energy. A good model of the force is
Fdamp = -b v
where b is constant depending on the system. If the above damping force is added to spring system
-b vx - kx = max
Small b motion
If the damping constant b is small the motion should be approximately simple harmonic motion with loss of energy. The energy for the system is E=1/2 mv2 + 1/2 kx2 If the average is taken over one period The average energy is Eaverage = mv2 . P = dEaverage /dt = -bv2. (Using the fact that P = F v ) dEaverage /dt = -bv2 = -b/m Eaverage
dEaverage /dt = -b/m Eaverage Solving for Eaverage, E(t) = E0 e-t/ where
= m/b . For small b, the energy is near constant and E=1/2 k A2 . Hence, A(t) = A0 e-t/2 Thus, the solution is x = A0 e-t/2 cos(t + )
General Solution
One can check by plugging in that x = A0 e-t/2 cos(t + ) is general solution of the equation -b vx - kx = max if and only if = 0 (1 - (b/2m 0 )2)1/2 where 0 = (k/m)1/2 is the natural angular frequency.
Quality Factor and Types of Damping
Q = 2 E/|| || is the energy loss in one period and E is the total energy. Critically Damped is when bc= 2m 0 and
Over damping is b > bc .
Plot of damping
x Over damping
t Critical damping
Driven Periodic Motion
In order to keep an oscillating system running one can adding energy by applying a periodic driving force.
-b vx - kx + F0 cos t = max The solution to this equation is solution of damped plus x = cos(t - ) where t is angular frequency of the driving force.
Resonance
The amplitude is given by A = F0 / (m2(02 2)2 +b2 2 )1/2 and phase constant is given by tan = b / m(02 2) The amplitude is largest for 0
Waves
Waves are disturbances which transmit energy and momentum but not matter. Waves are described by an equation y = f(x,t).
Waves have two basic types transverse and longitudinal waves.
Types of waves
Transverse waves are waves which the disturbance is perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Longitudinal waves are waves which the disturbance is parallel to the direction of propagation.
Parameters that describe waves
Amplitude - maximum displacement from equilibrium. Velocity a) wave velocity b) velocity medium displacement
Waveform - shape of wave
Wave function
y = f( x, t) is called the wave function. Traveling waves can be written as y = f( x v t) in this case the waveform is given by the function f. y = f( x - v t) represents a wave moving left to right and y = f( x + v t) represents a wave moving right to left.
Wave speed
s R 2Fsin (/2) = ma F = ma = (s)v2/R F = (R)v2/R = mass per length v2 = F/

(v = wave speed)
Harmonic Waves
Waves which have a waveform which is a sine function are called harmonic waves. Since the sine is periodic the wave will be periodic in time and spatially. The period used for simple harmonic motion applies in addition the wavelength, , is defined to be the distance over which the wave repeats spatially. v = / T = f
Most general harmonic wave
y = A sin(kx t + )
where k is the wave number k= 2/. Again as before the + sign indicates right to left motion and the - sign indicates a wave moving left to right.
Energy
Eaverage = 1/2 (m)22 = 1/2 22 x = 1/2 22 vt
Paverage = dE/dt = 1/2 22 v
Superposition
Two waves can be added to obtain a new wave y = y1 + y 2 Example y1 = A sin(kx - t) and y2 = A sin(kx - t + ) If =0, then y1+y2 = 2 A sin(kx - t) This is called constructive interference.
Interference
Example y1 = A sin(kx - t) and y2 = A sin(kx - t + ) If = , then y1+y2 = 0 This is called destructive interference.
Standing Waves
y1 = A sin(kx - t) and y2 = A sin(kx + t) sin(1) + sin(2) = 2cos((1-2)/2)sin((1+2)/2) Let 1= kx - t and 2= kx + t, then 1 - 2 = kx - t - kx - t = - 2t and 1 + 2 = 2kx So y = 2cos(t)sin(kx)
Harmonics 1st harmonic fundamental frequency L = /2 2nd harmonic
L= In general, L = n /2 n =1, 2,3, . Using f = v f = n (v/2L) = n f1
Example of Singing Bar
Take a long steel bar balancing in the middle and hit (as shown) it so it generates a sound.
What is the frequency relation to length? Both ends are the same, i.e. unfixed, so a standing wave looks like
Example of singing bar contd
This is the fundamental frequency. L = /2
2nd So just as in the string example harmonic
f = n (v/2L) = n f1 where n = 1, 2, 3, .
What happens when the bar is hit as shown? f = n (v/2L) = n f1 where n = 1, 2, 3, . Why does it produce different frequencies for the two different hammer positions?
Transverse and Longitudinal speed
v2 = F/ (transverse wave speed on string) where F is the tension and the mass per length. v2 = B/ (logitudinal wave speed in fluid) where B is the bulk modulus and is the density.
v2 = Y/ (logitudinal wave speed in solid rod) where Y is the tension and the mass per volume. v2 = P/ (sound wave in an ideal gas) where is the adiabatic index, the density, and P the pressure.
Intensity
The intensity of a wave is
I = Paverage / A
where Paverage is average power and A is
the area.
Intensity in terms of elastic properties
I = 1/2 ( B)1/222 I = 1/2 ( Y)1/222
Average Human hearing
The intensity range for average human hearing is 10-12 W/m2 to 1 W/m2
Is the telephone ad truthful?
Our phone lines are so clear you can hear a pin drop!
Sprint Wholesale enable a Switched outbound service allows your customers to use existing business and residential lines for exceptional reliability and pin-drop quality on all long-distance calls .
dB level
Sound level or sound level intensity level is measured in dB (decibels)
= 10dB log10(I/I0)
where I is the intensity and I0 the intensity for threshold of hearing.
Threshold of hearing 0dB threshold of pain is 120dB
Example of pin drop
When a pin of mass 0.1g is dropped from a height of 1m , 0.05% of its energy is converted into a sound pulse with duration of 0.1s. Estimate the range at which the pin can be heard. First, assume sound is at threshold of hearing. If you assume the intensity level must be at least 40dB for the sound to be heard, estimate the range at which the pin can be heard.
Solution to Pin Example
I = Paverage / 4r2 Paverage = (mgy/t) x 0.05%. m=0.1g, y=1m, g=9.8m/s2, t=0.1s In order to hear, must have I =10-12 W/m2 So r2 = Paverage / 4 I pluging in numbers yields r = 624 m !
Solution at 40dB
First, convert 40dB to intensity. 40dB=10dB log (I/I0) where I0 =10-12 W/m2. Solving I= 10-8 W/m2. Now, Paverage / 4 = constant so I1r21= I2r22 . (10-12 W/m2)(624m)2 = (10-8 W/m2) r22
solving r2= 6.24m.
Beats
f1= 440Hz and f2= 443Hz added together
fbeat = f1 - f2 Maximum difference you hear is about 10Hz. After this tones merge.
Interference
y1+ y2 = Asin(kx1-t+1) + Asin(kx2-t+ 2)
S1
x1
Listener or detector
S2
x2
Interference
Two special cases to add waves, added to 1) maximum value constructive interference (kx1-t+1) - ( kx2-t+ 2) = 2n where n=0, 1, 2, 3, 2) minimum value destructive interference (kx1-t+1) - ( kx2-t+ 2) = n where n=1, 3, 5, Note: can also have negative values.
Dons Interference Equations
(kx1-t+1) - ( kx2-t+ 2) = (kx1- kx2)+1 - 2 = 2n
1) kx + = 2n where n=0, 1, 2, 3, 2) kx + = n where n= 1, 3, 5,
Interference in terms of wavelength
1) 2x/ + = 2n where n=0, 1, 2, 3, 2) 2x/ + = n where n= 1, 3, 5,
Rewriting the equations 1) x + /2 = n where n=0, 1, 2, 3, 2) x + /2 = n where n= 1, 3, 5,
Standing Waves in Pipes Half open pipes
Open Pipes
Closed Pipes
f = n (v/4L) = n f1 where n = 1, 3, 5,
f = n (v/2L) = n f1 where n = 1, 2, 3, .
The above waves are the displacement waves.
Pressure Waves Half open pipes
Open Pipes
Closed Pipes
f = n (v/4L) = n f1 where n = 1, 3, 5,
f = n (v/2L) = n f1 where n = 1, 2, 3, .
Moving source u
The green dot is a sound source with waves moving in all directions, speed of source is 0.
The same source moving at velocity u to right.
In the moving case, the wavelength is shorter in the direction of motion and longer as it moves away.
Moving source doppler
For the stationary source the distance between crests is the wavelength 0. In the moving case The wavelength has changed and is . The new wavelength is related the old by the following
= 0 - uT
where T is the period of the wave this the time between crests. Next, divide both sides by the wave speed, v.
/v = 0 /v - uT /v
1/f = 1/f0 - u/f0v
Moving source formula
1/f = 1/f0 - u/f0v

Finally, group like terms together
1/f = 1/f0 - u/f0v = (1/f0 )(1 - u/v ) f = f0 /(1 - u/v )

A similar calculation gives the formula for the Moving detector.
Doppler Effect
f = f0 (1 + ud/v)/(1 + us/v)
where v is the speed of the wave, f0 is the frequency emitted, us is the speed of the source, ud is the speed of the detector. Rules: 1) As objects approach, f > f0 2) As objects recede, f < f0
Example
A hungry bat, using ultrasonic beeps, finds a doomed moth sitting on a plant. The sound emitted by the bat is 40,000Hz. If the doomed moth detects a frequency of 41,000Hz when the bat swoops at it, what is the speed of the bat? What frequency does the bat detect reflected off the doomed moth?
Example
The string A on a street musician's violin is too tight. Comparing it to 440Hz, 3 beats are heard. What is the frequency of the violin string? Passengers travelling on a bus along the street hear the frequency at exactly 440Hz. What is the velocity of the bus?

Don SP 153 Notes

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Physics 153 2007 by Don Witt

Thermometric Property: is a physical

Physics 153 2007 by Don Witt

Physics 153 2007 by Don Witt

Thermal Contact Which are in thermal contact?

None are in thermo contact 2) A B C

A&B are in thermo contact not C C 3) A B

Physics 153 2007 by Don Witt

Physics 153 2007 by Don Witt

Physics 153 2007 by Don Witt

Mercury Thermometer example

Example: Mercury Thermometer (Celsius temperature scale)

L 100 is the height at boiling point of water

L 0 is the height at freezing point of water

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(Mercury Thermometer contd) Lt - L0

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Constant volume gas thermometer

Example: Constant volume gas thermometer

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Triple point of water as a standard

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Errors in gas thermometer 273.16K Ptriple P O2 air N2

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The equation can be written in the following form

Thus, if T 0, the expansion equation becomes

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The constant is determined by the material be considered, it can be positive or negative.

Examples of values are Al Brass Cu Glass Quartz Invar Steel

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Area and Volume Expansion

If the temperature changes by T, find the

A=LW (initial area) A+ A = (L+ L T) (W+ W T)

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A+ A = (L+ L T) (W+ W T) A+ A = LW+ 2 LW T + 2 W L (T)2

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Linear Stress and Strain: (F/ A ) = Y (L/L) Y is the Youngs modulus,

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Bulk stress and strain: (F/ A ) = p = -B (V/V)

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0 = Lsteel - LAl = steel Lsteel T - Al LAl T

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Thus the change in heat of the ice is

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Heat Transfer by Convection

Read section in book.

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