Amalgam Excessive contraction can lead to microleakage and secondary caries Excessive expansioncan produce pressure on the pulp

and post-operative sensitivity, or protrusion of restoration

SILVER Increases Strength Increases Expansion Decreases Flow Decreases Setting time Increases Corrosion resistance COPPER Increases Strength Increases Expansion Decreases Flow Decreases Setting time Increases Corrosion resistance Decreases Plasticity Increases Hardness Increases Brittleness ZINC Increases Strength Increases Expansion Increases Flow Increases Setting time Decreases Corrosion resistance Increases Plasticity Decreases Hardness Decreases Brittleness INDIUM Increases Strength Increases Expansion Increases Flow Increases Setting time Amalgamation more difficult Deoxidiser MERCURY Decreases setting time Decreases delayed expansion GOLD Increases Strength Increases Corrosion resistance TIN Decreases Strength Decreases Expansion Increases Flow Decreases Setting time Decreases Corrosion resistance Increases Plasticity

Setting Reaction
This is a process by which liquid Hg reacts with dental amalgam alloy particles to produce a matrix of intermetallic compounds of Hg with metals of the alloy.
Low Copper alloys

Ag3Sn Excess phase

Hg

Ag2Hg3 1 Phase

Sn7Hg8 2 Phase

Ag3Sn Unreacted Phase

Unreacted phase is bound by a matrix of 1 and 2 phases. Phase: Highest strength (32-35% volume of set amalgam)

1 phase: Moschellandsbegite phase. Highest resistance to corrosion. (5456%) 2 phase: Least strength and resistance to corrosion (11-13%)

Factors affecting strength of Dental Amalgam 1. Particle size: Decreased size results in increased strength (due to increased surface area / unit volume) 2. Particle shape: Regular uniform shape result increased strength (due to more wettability, more coherent mass, less interrupted coherent interphases) 3. Microstructure of amalgam: o Increased and 1 phases there is increased strength o presence of phase there is increased strength (due to prevention of grain boundary sliding) o Increased 2 phase, there is decreased strength 4. Porosities and voids in amalgam: Decreased strength. Formed due to: o Decreased trituration o Decreased condensation pressure o Irregularly shaped particles o Insertion of too large increments o Delayed insertion after trituration o Too less Hg (amalgam non-plastic) o Miscalculation of powder particle diameter to occupy available spaces 5. Hg/Alloy ratio: Increased Hg/Alloy ratio, decreased strength, because increased Hg results in o Decreased unreacted phase o Increased 2 phase o Increased residual Hg (weakest phase) within amalgam 6. Trituration o Increased trituration within limits increases strength (due to increased coherence of matrix crystals). o Increased trituration beyond limits decreases strength ( due to cracking of formed crystals decreasing coherence). 7. Condensation pressure Increased pressure results in increased strength (due to removal of excess Hg within amalgam resulting in less residual Hg) 8. Temperature Amalgam loses 15% of its strength when its temperature is increased from room temperature to mouth temperature. It loses 50% of its strength when temperature is elevated beyond 60C (as in overjealous polishing). 9. Corrosion activity: Decreased corrosion activity results in increased adhesive integrity and therefore increased strength.

Creep
Creep occurs because of grain boundary sliding. crystals on 1 grains prevent grain boundary sliding and therefore are responsible for decreased creep values of high

copper alloys. Higher creep is associated with flow of amalgam over cavity margins which is thin and easily fractures under occlusal stress ("ditched amalgam"). Factors affecting Creep 1. Microstructure of amalgam o Increased 1 fraction, increased creep o Increased 2 fraction, increased creep o Increased grain size of 1, decreased creep o Presence of phase, decreased creep 2. Hg/Alloy ratio Increased Hg/Alloy ratio, increased creep (due to more residual Hg) 3. Trituration o Overtrituration, increased creep o Undertrituration Increased creep Decreased creep in lathe-cut amalgam 4. Condensation pressure Increased pressure, decreased creep (due to less residual Hg) 5. Delay between trituration and condensation Increased creep

Resistance to corrosion
Passive layer of chlorides, sulphides, and /or oxides seen on amalgam surface in unhygienic mouths. Electrolytic corrosion of dissimilar portions of the filling. Corrosion products that form at the margins over a period serve to seal the marginal gaps. Therefore marginal integrity of amalgam restorations improves with time. Corrosion resistance of various phases in descending order are as follows:

phase (maximum resistance to corrosion) 1 phase silver-copper eutectic phase phase phase 2 phase (least resistance to corrosion)

Clinical considerations
1. Ditched

Amalgam

Fracture of amalgam at the margins Causes are:

Inadequate extension of the cavity walls. Giving cavosurface bevel to to the cavity. High creep value of the amalgam

Larger volume fraction of 1 Presence of 2 phase (as in low Cu alloys) Overtrituration Undertrituration (in spherical alloys) Delay between trituration and condensation High Hg:Alloy ratio Failure to squeeze out exess Hg after trituration Inadequate condensation pressure (excess residual Hg) Delayed expansion due to moisture contamination (flow over the cavity margins) Mercuroscopic expansion (Excess residual Hg Using high Hg:Alloy ratio Failure to squeeze out excess Hg after trituration Inadequate condensation pressure Corrosion of 2 phase Overfilling Excessive (overjealous) burnishing and polishing (flow over the cavity margins) Shallow cavity Thick cement base/cavity liner

2. Marginal leakage: Gap formed between the wall of the cavity and the restored amalgam because of the contraction of the filling material. The gap formed is a potential area for food impaction and plaque accumulation, which in turn result in secondary (recurrent) caries. As the restoration ages, deposition of corrosion products in the gap aid in sealing the margins. 3. Corrosion: If the amalgam surface is not well polished, the rough surface not only attracts plaque but may also undergo crevicular corrosion.